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JoHM C Kelly
(7a<^ 9^^^^^ /^2,^^^^
THE NEW
SCHAFF-HERZOG ENCYCLOPEDIA
or
RELIGIOUS KNOWLEDGE
COmCD BY
SAMUEL MAOAULEY JACKSON, D.D., LL.D.
iEdUar-inrChief)
WITN TMC ASSISTANCB Of
CHARLES COLEBROOK SHERMAN
AND
GEORGE WILLIAM GILMORE, M.A*
(Aaaociate EdUara)
AND TNC rOLLOWINQ DCPARTMBNT BDITOIIS
CLARENCE AUGUSTINE BECKWITH, DJ).
{Department of SyitemaHc Tliealogy)
HENRY KING CARROLL, LL.D.
{Department of Jfinor DenominaiiofnM)
JAMES FRANCIS DRISCOLL, D.D.
{J>epartnieni of lAiwrgict and RdxQvoui Orden)
JAKES FREDERIC McCURDT, PH.D., LLD.
{Department of the Old Tettament)
HENRT STLYESTER NASH, DJ).
(Department of the New Teitameni)
ALBERT HENRT NEWMAN, D.D., LLJ).
{Department of Chiwreh Hittory)
FRANK HORACE YIZETELLT, F.S.A.
(PqHxrtment of Jiwwmciatum and ^^fpoffraphy)
VOLUME IV
DRAESEKE — GOA
FUNK AND WAGNALLS COMPANY
NEW YORK AND LONDON
THE VVfi YOBK
PUBLIC LIBRARY
329782B
/.cnUK, LENOX AND
TILOLN FOI.'NDATIONS
B 1946 L
COFTRIGHT, 1909, BY
FUNK & WAGNALL8 COMPANY
Begifltered at Statlonera* Hall, London, England
[Printed in Uie United StaUi of Ameriea]
Ptibliiaied August, 1909
EDITORS
SAKUEL KAOATJIiEY JACKSON, D.D., LL.D.
(Editor-in-Chief. )
ProfeMor of Church Hlftory, New York UnlTeraity.
ASSOCIATE EDITORS
OHASLBS OOLSBBOOK 8HEBMAK
Editor in Blblkal Criticiim and Theology on ^'Tbe New Inter-
national Bncydopedla,*^ New York.
GBOBGE WILLIAM GILMO&E, M.A.
New York, Formerly Profenor of Biblical History and Lecturer
on Comparative Religion, Bangor Theological Seminary.
DEPARTMENT EDITORS, VOLUME IV
GLABEKOE ATTGTT8TIKE BEOKWITH, D.D.
{Department of Systematic T%eologu.)
Profenor of Systematic Theology, Chicago Theological
Seminary.
HENBY KING OABBOLL, LL.D.
iDepartmtfU of Minor Denominationa.)
Formerly Corresponding Secretary of the Board of Foreign
Missions of the Methodist Kpisoopal Church, New York.
JAKES FBANOIS DBISOOLL, D.D.
{Department of LUurgics and ReJigiotu Orders.)
President of St. Joeeph^s Seminary, Yonkers, N. Y.
JAKES FBEDEBIOK McOUBDY, Ph.D.,
LL.D.
{Department of the Old Testament.)
Professor of Oriental Languages, University College, Toronto.
HENBY SYLVESTEB NASH, D.D.
{Department of the New Testament,)
Professor of the Literature and Interpretation of the New Tes-
tament, Episcopal Theological School, Cambridge, Mass.
ALBEBT HENBY NEWMAN, D.D., LL.D.
{Department of Church History.)
Professor of Church History, Baylor Theological Seminary
(Baylor University), Waco, Tex.
FBANB HOBAOE VIZETELLY, F.S.A.
{Department of Pronunciation and Typography,)
Managing Editor of the Standard Dictionabt, etc.
New York City.
CONTEIBUTOES AND COLLABOEATOES, VOLUME IV
i
EBNST OHBISTIAN AOHELIS, Th.D.,
Professor of Practical Theology, University of Marburg.
HANS ACHELIS, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Theology, University of Halle.
WILLIAM ADAMSON, D.D.,
Pastor of the Carver Memorial Church, Windermere, England.
WILHELM ALTMANN, Ph.D.,
Director of the Deutsche Musiksammlung, Berlin.
SAMUEL JAMES ANDBEWS (f), D.D.,
Late Pastor of the Catholic Apostolic Church, Hartford, Conn.
FEBENOZ BALOGH,
Professor of Church History, Reformed Theological Academy,
Debrecaln, Hungary.
EDOUABD BABDE (f).
Late Professor of New Testament Exegesis, School of Theology,
Geneva.
GEOBGE JAMES BAYLES, Ph.D.,
Writer on Civil Church Law.
OLABENOE AUGUSTINE BEOKWITH,
DJ>.,
Profenor of Systematic Theology, Chicago Theological
Seminary.
JOHANNES BELSHEIM,
Pastor Emeritus, Christlania, Norway.
KABL BENBATH, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Theology, University of KGnlgsberg.
IMMANX7EL GUSTAV ADOLF BEN-
ZINGEB, Ph.D., Th.Lic.,
German Orientalist and Vioe<k>nsul for Holland in Jerusalem.
OABL BEBTHEAU, Th.D.,
Pastor of St. Mlchael^s, Hamburg.
BEBNHABD BESS, Th.Lic.,
Librarian of the University of Halle.
EMIL BLOESOH (f), Th.D.,
Late Professor of Theology, Bern.
HEINBICH BOEHMEB, Ph.D., Th.Lic.,
Professor of Church History, University of Bonn.
AMY GASTON CHABLES AUGUSTE
BONET-MAUBY, D.D., LL.D.,
Professor of Church History, Independent School of
Divinity, Paris.
GOTTLIEB NATHANAEL BONWETSCH,
Th.D.,
Professor of Church History, University of GGttlngen.
GUSTAV BOSSEBT, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Retired Pastor, Stuttgart.
VI
CONTRIBUTORS AND COLLABORATORS, VOLUME IV
FSANT8 PEDEB WILLIAK BX7HL,
Ph.D., Th.D.,
ProfeMor of Ortental Languages, UDlveraity of Oopenliagen.
KARL BX7BGEB (f), TI1.D.,
Late Supreme Gonalstorial Couxusllor, Munich.
HENBY KLNQ OABBOLL, LL.D.,
Fonnerly Corresponding Secretary of the Methodist Missionary
Society.
WALTER OASPAEI, Ph.D., Th. JAc,
UniTersity Preacher and Professor of Practical Theology,
UniTenlty of Brlangen.
JOHAK ANTEBS OEDEBBEBG, TI1.D.,
Provost in St. Michel, Finland.
JAOaXTES EUGfiNE OHOISY, Th.D.,
Pastor in Geneva.
PEBOrVALE OHUBB,
Director and Teacher in the Ethical Culture School,
New York.
JOSEPH B0X7BNE OLABKE, D.D.,
Editorial Secretary of the Congregational Home Missionary So-
ciety, New York.
JOHN CLIFFOBD, D.D., LLJ>.,
Minister of Praed Street and Westboume Park Church, London.
FEBDINAND OOHBS, Th.Iiic,
Conslstorlal Councilor, Ilfeld, Germany.
HEKBY COWAN, D.D.,
Professor of Church History, University of Aberdeen,
Scotland.
AXTGXTST HEBMANN OBEMEB (f), Th.D.,
Late Professor of Systematic Theology, University of
Greifswald.
FBIEDBIOH WIIiHEIiH OTJNO (t), Th.Lic.,
Late Pastor at Eddigehausen, Hanover.
GUSTAP -mei^iffATff BALKAN, Ph.D.,
Tlx.D.,
Profevor of Old Testament Exegesis, University of Lelpsic,
and President of the German Evangelical Archeological
Institute, Jerusalem.
SAMUEL MABTIN DEX7T8CH, Th.D.,
Professor of Chureh History, University of Berlin.
PBANZ WILHELM DIBELinS, Ph.D.,
Th.D.,
Supreme Consistortal Councilor, City Superintendent, and
Pastor of the Kreuzklrche, Dresden.
EBNST VON DOBSOHUETZ, Th.D.,
Professor of New Testament Exegesis, University of Strasburg.
PAUL GOTTFBIED DBEW8, TI1.D.,
Professor of Practical Theology, University of Halle.
JAKES 7BAN0I8 DBI800LL, D.D.,
President of St. Joseph^s Seminary, Yonkers, N. Y.
EMIL EGLI, TI1.D.,
Professor of Church History, University of Zurich.
JAOaXTES EHNI (f),
Late Pastor in Geneva.
EPHBAIK EMEBTON, Ph.D.,
Professor of Ecclesiastical History, Harvard University.
XABL ENBEBS, Th.D.,
Pastor at Frankfort^n-the-Main.
0HBI8TLAN FBIEDBIOH DAVID EBD-
MANN (t), Ph.D., Th.D.,
Late Honorary Professor of Church History, University of
BresUuL
THEODOB FOEBSTEB (f), Th.D.,
Late Professor of Church History, University of Halle.
FBANK HUGH FOSTEB, Ph.D., D.D.,
Professor of History, Olivet College, Mich.
EMIL ALBEBT FBIEDBEBG, Th.D.,
Dr.Jur.,
Professor of Ecclesiastical, Public, and German Law, Univerrity
of LeipsJc
OTTO FBIDOLIN. FBITZ80HE (f), Ph.D.,
Th.D.,
Late Professor of Theology, University of Zurich.
WILHELM GA88 (f), Ph.D., Th.D.,
Late Professor of Theology, University of Heidelberg.
XABL GELZEB,
Pastor in Basel.
WILHELM GEBMANN (f), Th.D.,
Late Superintendent in Schleusingen, Prussian Saxony.
OHABLES BTPLEY GILLETT, D.D., L.H.D.,
Registrar, Union Theological Seminary, New York.
JOHN LEWIS GHXIN, Ph.D.,
President of Ashland College, Ashland, Ohio.
GEOBGE WILLIAM GILMOBE, MJL,
Former Professor of Biblical History and Lecturer on Com-
parative Beliglon, Bangor Theological Seminary.
WALTEB GOETZ, Ph.D.,
Professor of History, University of TQbingen.
WILHELM GOETZ, Ph.D.,
Honorary Professor of Geography, Technical High School, and
Professor, Military Academy, Munich.
HEBMANN FBEIHEBB VON DEB
GOLTZ (t), Th.D.,
Late Professor of Dogmatics, University of Berlin.
GEOBG GBUETZMACHEB, Ph.D., Th.Lic.,
Extraordinary Professor of Church History, University of
Heidelberg.
HEBMANN GUTHE, Th.D.,
Professor of Old Testament Exegesis, Univerrity of Lelpsic
HEINBICH HAHN, Ph.D.,
Formerly Professor of History and German in the Lulsenstadt
Realgymnasium, Berlin.
ADOLF HABNACK, M.D., Ph.D., Th.D.,
Dr.Jur.,
General Director of the Royal Library, Berlin.
ALBEBT HAUCK, Ph.D., Th.D., Dr.Jur.,
Professor of Church History, University of Lelpsic, Editor-in-
Chief of the Hauck-Herzog RecUencyKlopildie,
HEBMAN HAUPT, Ph.D.,
Professor and Director of the University Library, Giessen.
AUGUST WILHELM HEGLEB (f), Ph.D.,
Th.D.,
Late Professor of Church History, University of TQbingen.
OABL FBIEDBIOH GEOBG HEINBICI,
Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of New Testament Exegesis, University of Lelpsic.
MAX HEINZE, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Philosophy, University of Lelpsic.
EBNST HENKE (f), Ph.D., Th.D.,
Late Professor of Theology, University of Marburg.
LUDWIG THEODOB EDGAB HENNEOKE,
Ph.D., Th.Lic,
Pastor in Betheln, Hanover.
CONTRIBUTORS AND COLLABORATORS, VOLUME IV
Vll
JOHANN JAKOB HEKZOO (f), Fh.D.,Th J>.,
lAte Profeaaor of Reformed Theology, Uniyeralty of SiiangeD.
PAUL HINSCHinS (f), TI1.D., Dr.Jur.,
UitePrafeaK>r of EodedMdcal Law, UnlTeraity of Berlin.
XABL HOLL, PI1.D., TI1.D.,
ProfeHor of Chnrcti History, University of Berlin.
WUiHELM HOIiLENBEBQ (f), PI1.D.,
Late Gymnaalal Rector, Bonn.
PAUL IBION,
Paitor Betbel Evangelical Church, Freedom Township, Mich.
FEBBnrANB FBIEDBIOH WILHELM
KATTENBXTSOH, Ph.D., TI1.D.,
Profeswr of Dogmatics, University of Halle.
PETSB OTTSTAV KAWSBAU, Th.D.,
CoBiktorial Oooncilor, Provost at St. Peter*s, and Honorary
Professor, University of Berlin.
DIETBIOH yiTBTiKB (f), Pli.yD.y
Late Head Librarian, WQrxborg.
OTTO KIBN, Ph.D., TI1.D.,
Frofesnr of Dogmatics, University of Leipslc.
BUDOLF JLlTTEL, Ph.D., Th.D.y
Fnfeaor of Old Testament Exegesis, University of Leipslc
HUGO WILHELM PAX7L KLEIHEBT,
PI1.D., Th.D.,
Profewir of Old Testament Exegesis and Practical Theology,
University of Berlin.
EEIHBICH AXTGXT8T KL08TEBMANN,
TI1.D.,
Profeswr of Old Testament Exegesis, University of Kiel.
XAEL AUGUST KLX7EPFEL (f), Ph.D.,
Late Head Librarian, University of TUbingen.
BXJBOLF KOEGEL (f), Ph.D., Th.D.,
lAte Court Preacher, Berlin.
FBIEBBICH EDUABB KOENIG, PI1.D.,
Th.D.,
Profeanr of Old Testament Exegesis, University of Bonn.
OHBISTOPH FBIEDBIOH ADOLF KOLB,
Th.D.,
Prelate and Court Preacher, Ludwigsburg.
THEODOB FBIEDBIOH HEBMANK
KOLDE, Ph. D., Th.D.,
ProfeaBorof Church History, University of Erlangen.
BICHABD KBAETZSOHKAB (f), Th.D.,
Ute ProfesBor of Old Testament Exegesis, University of Mar-
burg.
HEBILUTN GUST AV EDUABB KBUEGEB,
Ph.D., ThJ>.y
PrafesKxr of Church History, University of Giessen.
EOBEBT KUEBEL (f), Ph.D., Th.D.,
late Profeaorof New Testament Exegesis and Pastoral The-
ology, University of Tflblngen.
JOEAKKES WILHELM XX7NZE, Ph.D.,
Th.D.,
Pnfbnor of Systematic and Practical Theology, University of
GrelfSwald.
EABL LX7DWIG LEIMBAOH (f), Ph.D.,
Th.Lic.,
late Provincial Councilor for Schools, Hanover.
LUDWIG LEMHE, Th.D.,
Prefeswrof Systematic Theology, 'Jniversltyof Heidelberg.
BBUKO LINDNEB, Ph.D.,
Professor of Aryan Languages, University of Leipslc
THOKAS MABTIN LINDSAY, M.A., D.D.,
Principal United Free Church College, Glasgow.
GEOBG LOESOHE, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Church History, Evangelical Theological Faculty,
Vienna.
FBIEDBIOH ABMIN LOOPS, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Church History, University of Halle.
WILHELM PHILIPP FBIEDBIOH FEB-
DINAND LOTZ, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Old Testament Exegesis, Unlvenity of Erlangen.
ATLMEB KAUDE,
Author and Lecturer, Great Baddow, Chehnsford, England.
EDWIN DOAK MEAD,
Author and Lecturer, Boston, Mass.
OTTO MEJEB (f), Ph.D., Th.D.,
Late President of the Consistory, Hanover.
PHILIPP METEB, ThJ>.,
Supreme Consistorlal Councilor, Hanover.
GEBOLD MEYEB VON KNONAU, Ph.D.,
Professor of History, University of Zurich.
OABL THEODOB MTBBT, Th.D.,
Professor of Church History, University of Marburg.
JAOOB ISIDOB MOMBEBT, D.D.,
Author, Patterson, N. J.
JOHN HENBY MOOBE,
Elder and Bishop of the Dunker Church, Editor of The Gospel
MeMenger, Elgin, 111.
HEBMANN MOSAPP, Ph.D.,
Councilor for Schools, Stuttgart.
EBNST FBIEDBIOH KABL MUELLEB,
Th.D.,
Professor of Reformed Theology, University of Erlangen.
GEOBG MUELLEB, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Inspector of Schools, Leipslc
JOSEPH THEODOB MX7ELLEB, Th.D.,
Keeper of the Archives in Hermhut
HENBY SYLVESTEB NASH, D.D.,
Professor of the Literature and Interpretation of the New
Testament, Episcopal Theological School, Cambridge,
Massachusetts.
GHBISTOF EBEBHABD NESTLE, Ph.D.,
Th.D.,
Professor in the Theological Seminary, Maulbronn,
WOrttemberg.
KABL JOHANNES NEUMANN, Ph.D.,
Professor of Ancient History, University of Strasburg.
ALBEBT HENBY NEWMAN, D.D., LL.D.,
Professor of Church History, Baylor Theological Seminary,
Waco, Texas.
THEODOB JULIUS NEY, Th.D.,
Supreme Consistorlal Councilor, Speyer, Bavaria.
FBEDEBIGK CHBISTIAN NIELSEN (f),
D.D.,
Late Bishop of Aarhus, Denmark.
FBIEDBIOH AUGUST NITZSCH (f), Ph.D.,
Late Professor of Theology, University of Kiel.
CONBAD VON OBELLI, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Old Testament Exegesis and History of Religion,
University of Basel.
CONTRIBUTORS AND COLLABORATORS, VOLUME IV
EDWABB8 AMASA PABK (f), D.D.,
Late Profenor In AndoTer Theological Seminary.
EMILY PATEBSON,
Secretary of the Egypt Exploration Fund, London.
GAEL PFENDEE,
Pastor of St Panrs Erangelioal Lutheran Church, Pails.
JOHANNES PF0TENHAT7EB,
Pastor in Bruchnaohtersen.
EBWIN PEEUSOHEN, PI1.D., Th.D.,
Pastor at Hlrschhom-on-the-Neckar, Germany.
HEBMANN EAHLENBEOK,
Pastor in Cologne.
BT7D0LP BOOHOLL (f), Th.D.,
Late Ecclesiastical Councilor, Dilsseldorf .
BOBEBT WILLIAM BOGEBS, M.A., Ph.D.,
LL.D.,
Professor of Hebrew and Old Testament Exegesis, Drew
Theological Seminary, Madison, N. J.
HENDBIX 00BNELI8 BOGGE (f), Ph.D.,
Late Professor of History, Untyendty of Harlem.
HENBY EALLOOH BOWE,
Professor of Church History in Newton Theological Seminary,
Newton, Mass.
OABL VIOTOB BY88EL (f), Ph.D., Th.D.,
Late Professor of Theology, UniTersity of Zurich.
EUGEN 8A0HSSE, Th.D.,
Professor of Practical Theology, UniTersity of Bonn.
THEODOB 80HAEFEB, Th.D.,
Head oC the Deaconess Institute, Altona.
DAVID 80HLEY 80HAFF, D.D.,
Professor of Church History, Western Theological Seminary,
Allegheny, Pa.
PHILIP 80HAFF (f), D.D., LL.D.,
Late Professor of Church History, Union Theological Seminary,
New York.
0HBI8T0PH T.GOTTLOB VON SOHEUBL(t),
PI1.D., Th.D.,
Late Professor in Nuremberg.
BEINHOLD 80HMID, Th.Lic.y
Pastor in Oberholsshelm, Wurttemberg.
OABL SOHMIDT (f), TI1.D.,
Late Professor of Theology, University of Strasbui^g.
XABL 80HMIDT, TI1.D.,
Pastor at Goldberg, Mecklenburg.
WILHELM 80HMIDT, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Systematic Theology, University of Breslau.
JOHANNES 80HNEIDEB,
Emeritus Pastor, Darmstadt.
OABL WILHELM 8CH0ELL (f), Ph.D.,
D.D.,
Late Pastor of the Savoy Church, London.
THEODOB FBIEDBICH SOHOTT (f),
Ph.D., Th.D.,
Late Librarian and Professor of Theology, University of
Stuttgart.
JOHANN FBIEDBIOH BITTEB VON
8CHX7LTE, Dr.Jur.,
Professor of Law, University of Bonn.
LXJDWIG THEODOB SOHULZE, Ph.D.,
Th.D.,
Professor of Systenuitic Theology, University of Rostock.
OTTO 8EEBAS8, Ph.D.,
Educator, Leipslc, Germany.
BEINHOLD 8EEBEBG, Th.D.,
Professor of Systematic Theology University of Berlin.
EMIL 8EHLING, Dr.jTir.,
Professor of Ecclesiastical and Commercial Law, University of
Erlangen.
0HBI8TIAAN 8EPP (f), Th.D.,
Late Mennonite Preacher, Leyden.
ISAAC 8HABPLESS, LL.D.,
President of Haverford College, Haverford, Pa.
FBIEDBIOH ANTON EMIL 8IEFFEBT,
Ph.D.,Th.D.,
Professor of Dogmatics and New Testament Exegesis, University
of Bonn.
ALBEBT 800IN (f), Ph.D.,
Late Professor of Oriental Languages, University of Leipslc.
JOHANN LEONHABD 80MMEB (f),
Th.Lic.,
Late Dean at Neustadt-an-der-Alsch, Bavaria.
SAMUEL PETEB SPBENG, D.D.,
Editor of The Evangeiiedl Messenger, Cleveland, O.
BX7D0LF 8TAEHELIN (f), Th.D.,
Late Professor of Church History, University of Basel.
ANTHONY ANA8TA8I0U STAM0X7LI,
Formerly Member of the Editorial Staff of Atlantis^ New York.
GEOBG EDXTABD STEITZ (f), Th.D.,
Late Pastor, Frankfort-on-the-Main.
BOBEBT WALTEB STEWABT, B.Sc, B.D.,
Glasgow, Scotland.
PHILIPP 8TBAUCH, Ph.D.,
Professor of Germanic Languages, University of Halle.
KABL THIEME, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Dogmatics, University of Leipslc.
FBIEDBICH AUGUST THEODOB THO-
LUCK (t), Th.D.,
Late Professor of Theology, University of Halle.
EBNST PETEB WILHELM TBOELTSCH,
Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Systematic Theology. University of Heidelberg.
PAX7L TSOHACKEBT, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Church History, University of Gottlngen.
JOHANN GEBHABD WILHELM UHL-
HOBN (t), Th.D.,
Late Abbot of Lokkimi, Germany.
WILHELM VOLOK (f), Ph.D., Th.D.,
Late Professor of Old Testament Exegesis, University of
Rostock.
JX7LIUS AUGUST WAGENMANN (f).
Late Consistorlal Councilor, 65ttlngen.
WILHELM MABKU8 WALTHEB, Th.D.,
Professor of Church History. University of Rostock.
JOHANNES WEISS, Th.D.,
Professor of New Testament Exegesis, University of Heidelberg.
AUGUST WILHELM WEBNEB, Th.D.,
Pastor Prlmarius, Guben, Prussia.
BX7D0LF ZEHNPFUND, Ph.D.,
Minister In Oranlenbaum.
OTTO ZOECKLEB (f), Ph.D., Th.D.,
Late Professor of Church History and Apologetics, University
of Greifliwald.
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL APPENDIX- VOLS. I-IV
The following list of books is supplementary to the bibliographies given at the end of the articles
contained in volumes I.-IV., and brings the literature down to June, 1909. In this list each vocabulary
entry is printed in capital letters.
Altar: J. Wright, Some Notable Altars in the
Ckwrch of England and the American Epiaco-
pd Churchj Ix)ndon, 1909.
Anselm, Saint, op Canterbury: G. C. Foley,
Anselm*8 Theory of the Atonement, London,
1908.
Aphkaates: P. Schwen, Untersuchungen aber den
persischen Weisen, Leipsic, 1906.
Afocbypha: Wisdom of Solomon in R, V.; with
Introdiution and Notes, by J. A. F. Gregg,
Cambridge, 1909.
Arabia: G. R. Lees, The Witness of the Wilderness,
The Bedawin of the Desert: Their Origin,
History, Home Life, Strife, Religion and Stir-
perstition, in Their Raation to the Bible,
London, 1909.
Archeology, Christian: A. L. Frothingham.
Monuments of Christian Rome, London ana
New York, 1909.
Ark of the Covenant: M. Dibelius, Die Lade
Jakves. Eine religionsgeschichtliche Unter-
suchung, Tubingen, 1908.
Assyria: H. Winckler, The History of Babylonia
and Assyria. Eng. transl. by J. A. Greig,
London, 1908. See also Babylonia, below.
Atonement: J. Riviere, The Doctrine of Atone-
ment, vol. i., London, 1909. Also see An-
selm, above.
.\tterbury, F.: H. C. Beeching, Francis Atter-
bury, Bishop of Rochester (1662-1732), Lon-
don, 1909.
Babcock, M. D.: T. J. Stone, Footsteps in a Parish,
New York, 1909.
Babtlonia: See Assyrla, above; also: E. Combe,
Histoire du cuUe de Sin, en Babylonie et en
Assyrie, London, 1909.
S. Langdon, Early Sumerian Psalms (Trans-
literation, Translation, Critical Commentary
and Introduction), Leipsic, 1908.
H. de Genouillac, TabUtts sumiriennes ar-
chaiques. Matiriaux pour servir d. I'histoire
de la sociitc sunUrienne, avec transcriptions,
traduction et notes, Paris, 1909.
P. Toscanne, Les Idiogrammes cunHformes,
Signes archatques, Paris, 1909.
Baptism: H. Windisch, Taufe und Silnde im dltes-
ien Christentum bis auf Orwenes. Ein Bei^
traq zwr altchristlichen Dogmengeschichte,
Tubingen, 1908.
Baptbtb: J. R. Wood and S. Chick, A Manual of
the Order and Administration of the Baptist
Church, London, 1909.
Bauh, F. C: G. Fraedrich, F. C. Baur, der Begrunr
der der TUbinger Schule, Gotha, 1909.
Bible Text: F. J. Bonnasieux, Les 6vanqiles sy-
noptiques de S. HUaire de Poitiers, Paris, 1908.
W. Streitberg, Die gotische Bibel. Part 1, Der
gotische Text und seine griechische Vorlage
mil Einleitunq Lesarten und QueUenachweisen
sofwie den kleineren Denkmdlem als Anhang,
Heidelbeig, 1908.
Biblical Criticism: J. R. Harris, Sidelights on
New Testament Research, London, 1909.
W. G. Jordan, Biblical Criticism and Modem
Thought; or, the Place of the O. T. Docu-
ments in the Life of To-day, Edinburgh, 1909.
Biblical Introduction : J. Beet, The New Testa-
ment. Its Authorship, Date and Worth, Lon-
don, 1909.
A. S. Geden, Outlines of Introduction to the
Hebrew Bible, Edinburgh and New York,
1909.
A. Hamack, Beitr&ge zur Einleitung in das
Neue Testament, leipsic, 1908.
BiGQ, C: The Spirit of Christ in Common Life:
Addresses and Sermons, London and New
York, 1909.
Blaurer, a.: Briefwechsel der Bruder Ambrosius
und Thomas Blaurer 1609-4S, ed. T. Schiess,
vol. i., 1509-June, 1538, Freiburg, 1909.
BoNAR. H.: MemorialsofDr. HoratiusBonar, Eklin-
burgh, 1909.
Brahmanism: L. de La Vallde Poussin, Le Vidisme,
Paris, 1909.
Buddhism: A. J. Edmunds, Buddhist and Chris-
tian Gospels . . . Gospel Parallels from Pali
Text, London, 1909.
D. Gogerly, Ceylon Buddhism, ed. A. S. Bishop,
London, 1909.
Sayinas of Buddha, the Hi Vuttaka; a Pali
rvork of the Buddhist Canon; Translation
with Introduction and Notes, by J. H. Moore,
New York 1909.
V. G. Smith, The Edicts of Asoka, privately
printed, London, 1909.
BuGENHAGEN, J.: G. Geisenhof, Bibliotheca Bu-
genhagiana. Biblioaraphie der Druckschrif-
tendes D. J. Bugenhagen, Leipsic, 1908.
Bush, G.: Statement of Reasons for Embracing the
Doctrines and Disclosures of Emanuel Swe-
denborg. With biographical Sketch, New
York, 1898.
Calvin, J.: W. Wileman, John Calvin: his Life,
his Teaching, and his Influence, London, 1908.
A. Bossert, Johann Calvin, Giessen, 1908.
P. Vollmer and others, John Calvin, Theolo-
gian, Preacher, Educator, Statesman, Phila-
delphia, Pa., 1909.
A German translation of the first ed. of Cal-
vin's " Institutes " was made by B. Speiss,
Wiesbaden, 1887.
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL APPENDIX— VOLUMES I-IV
Cabas, B. de Lab: F. A. MacNutt, Bartholomew de
las Casas: his Life^ his Apostolate and his
Writings, New York and London, 1909.
Catharine, Saint, of Genoa: F. von HUgel, The
Mystical Element of Religion, as Studied in
Catharine of Genoa and her Friends, 2 vols.,
London, 1909.
Cemeteries: Florence E. Blake-Hedges, The Story
of the Catacombs, Cincinnati, 1909.
M. Besnier, Les Catacombes de Rome, Paris, 1909.
Censorship and Prohibition of Books: F. S.
Betten, The Roman Index of Forbidden
Books, St. Louis, 1909.
Chapman, J. W. : Another Mile; and other Addresses,
New York, 1908.
China: A. R. Kelly, The Great Chinese Awakening,
Glimpses of China and Us People, London,
1909.
CoLET, J.: J. H. Lupton, A Life of John Coletf
D,D., Dean of St. Paul's and Founder of St.
Paul's School, 2d ed., London and New York,
1909.
Coligny: C. Merki, L'Amiral de Coligny, 1519-72,
Paris, 1909.
Comparative Religion: T. R. Glover, The Con-
flict of Religions in the Early Roman Em-
pire, London, 1909.
L. Frobenius, The Childhood of Man, London,
1909 (on primitive religion).
J. G. Frazer, Totemism and Exogamy, 3 vols.,
London, 1909.
Conversion: N. H. Marshall, Conversion or the
New Birth, London, 1909.
Dietrich of Nieheim: W. J. M. Mulder, Dietrich
von Nieheim. Zijne opvaUin^ van het con-
dlie en ziine krornek, vols, i.-ii., Amsterdam,
1907.
Diseases and the Healing Art: Expository
Times, April. 1909, pp. 332-333 (on the bu-
bonic plague).
Divination: M. C. Baillod, L'Art de la divination,
Paris, 1909.
Dogma, Dogmatics: B. P. Bowne, Studies in
Christianity, Boston, 1909.
J. Orr, Siddights on Christian Doctrine, New
York, 1909.
Dream: A. LOwinger, Der Traum in der jodischen
Literatur, Leipsic, 1908.
Du BosE, W. P.: High Priesthood and Sacrifice;
an Exposition cf . . . Hebrews, New York,
1908.
Duns Scotus: P. Minges, Der angebliche exzessive
Realismus des Duns Scotus, Mttnster, 1908.
DuNSTAN, Saint: F. A. and E. Gasquet, The Bos-
worth Psalter, New York, 1909 (contains an
appendix on the birth date of St. Dunstan).
DUPUY, B.: H. Dupuy, The Huguenot Bartholomew
Dupuy and his Descendants, Beverly, W. Va.,
DuRiE, J.: K. Brauer, Die Unionstdtigkeit John
Duries unter dem Protektorat CromweUs.
Ein Beitrag zur Kirchengeschichte des 17.
Jahrhunderts, Marburg, 1907.
Easter: J. Schmid, Die Osterfestberechnung in der
abendldndischen Kirche vom 1, aU^emeinen
komU zu Nic&a bis zum Ende vixi. Jahr-
hunderU, St. Louis, 1908.
Eastern (Church: W. F. Adeney, The Greek and
Eastern Churches, New York, 1908.
Eddy, M. B. G.: Mrs. S. W. O'Brien, The Life of
Mary Baker G. Eddy, New York, 1908.
Edom: G. Dalman, Petra und seine Felsheiligtumer,
Leipsic, 1908.
Edwards, Jonathan, the Elder: (in) W. Walker,
Greatest Men of the Christian Church, Chicago,
1908.
Egypt: E. Am^lineau, ProUgomknes h Vetude de la
religion ^gyptienne. Essai sur la mythologie
de VEgypte, Paris, 1908.
E. A. W. Budge, The Book of the Kings of
Egy^, 2 vols., London. 1908-09.
J. G. Duncan, The Exploration of Egypt and
the Old Testament, New York, 1909.
W. M. F. Petrie, Personal Religion in Egypt
before Christianity, London, 1909.
Elagabalus: O. F. Butler, Studies in the Life of
Heliogabalus, New York, 1908.
Elizabeth of Thuringia: A. Huyskens, QueUen-
studien zur Geschichte der heUiaen Elisabeth,
Landgrdfin von Thuringen, Marourg, 1908.
England: F. C. Kempson, The Church in Modem
England: a Study of the Place in Christen-
dom and the distinctive Mission to the World
of the Anglican Communion, New York, 1908.
Dom. F. (Jabrol, L'Angleterre chritienne avani
les Normands, Paris, 1909.
England, Church of: G. R. Balleine, A History
of the Evangelical Party in the Church of
England, London, 1908.
W. H. Hutton, The Age of Revolution. Being
an Outline of the History of the Church 1648-
1815, London, 1908.
W. M. Kennedy, The ** Interpretations " of the
Bishops and their Influence on Elizabethan
Episcopal Policy, New York, 1908.
W. H. Mullock, Doctrine and Doctrinal Disrup-
tion; being an Examination of the intellectual
Position of the Church of England, London,
1909.
M. W. Patterson, History of the Church of Eng-
land, London, 1909.
Enlightenment: C. Kolb, Die Aufkldrung in der
Wiirttembergischen Kirche, Stuttgart, 1908.
Ephbsus, Council of: G. Ficker, Die Phundagia-
giien. Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte des ephe-
sinischen Konzils vom Jahre 431, Leipsic,
1908.
Erasmus: P. S. Allen, Erasmus Selections. Prinr-
cipally from his Epistles; with Life of Eras-
mus, Oxford, 1908.
Altera colloquia Latino, Adapted from Erasmus,
New York, 1908.
Esther: The Book of Esther; Critical Edition of
the Hebrew Text, with Notes, by P. Haupt,
Chicago, 1908.
L. B. raton, A Critical and Exegetical Com-
mentary on the Book of Esther, New York,
1908.
Ethics: E. Westermarck, The Origin and Develop-
ment of the Moral Ideas, London, 1908.
T. von Haering, The Ethics of the Christian
Life, New York, 1909.
M. (jronin, The Science of Ethics, vol. i., Dub-
lin, 1909.
J. Dewey and J. H. Tufts, Ethics, London, 1909.
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL APPENDIX— VOLUMES WV
zi
Euchabist: T. E. Bridgett, A History of the Holy
Ewharia in Great BrUain, London, 1908.
G. Bauschen, Eucharistie und BiusaakramerU
in dm enten seche Jahrhunderten der Kirche,
Freiburg, 1908.
D. Stone, A Htetary of the Doctrine of the Holy
Ewharist, 2 vols., London, 1909.
Evolution: Fifty Years of Darwinism, New York,
1909.
Ezekiel: J. Hermann, Etdcielstudien, Leipsic, 1908.
Ezra-Nehemiah: G. Klameth, Ezras Ltben und
TFtrfcen, Vienna, 1908.
G. Jahn, Die Bueher Ezra (A und B) und Ne-
hernia textkriHsch und histarisch und hista-
risdMtisch untersucht mil Erkldrung der
Eint(Mu88, Leyden, 1909.
Feasts and Fbstivais: H. Grimme, Das israelii
tisAe Pfingstfest und der PlejadenkuU, Pader-
bom, 1907.
K. A. H. Kellner, Heoriology. A History of the
Christian Festivals from their Origin to the
Preserd Day, London, 1909.
France: A. Debidour, V6glise catholique et VHat
sous la troisihne ripvblique (1870-1906), vol.
u.(im-1906), Paris, 1909.
G. Desdevifies du Desert, L*6glise et Vitat en
France depuis le concordat jusqu'd nos jours
(1801-1906), 2 vols., Paris, 1909.
Francis, Saint, of Assisi, and thb Franciscan
Order: The LitUe Flowers of St. Francis of
Assisi, New York, 1908.
F. Kiinz, Der heilige Franz von Assisi, Munich,
1908.
W. M. Bryce, The Scottish Grey Friars, 2 vols.,
Edinburgh, 1909.
Freemasons: W. Begemann, Vorgeschichte und
Anf&nge der Freimaurerei in Enaland, 1,
Buch: Die alten englischen Werklogen und
ihre SprdsUinge, Berlin, 1909.
French Revolution, Religious Effects of:
E. Lafond, La Politique religieuse de la revo-
lution franfgise, Paris, 1908.
P. Pisani, L*£glise de Paris et la r&vohttion, vol.
i., 1789-9e,FATiB, 1908.
Friends: A. J. Edmunds, Quaker Literature in the
Libraries of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, 1908.
Friendship: H. C. King^ The Laws of Friendship
— Human and Divine, New York, 1909.
Fundamental Doctrines: R. Seeberg, The Fun-
damental Truths of the Christian Religion,
New York, 1908.
Gibson, Aones: Marian H. Fishe, My Father's
Business; or a brief Sketch of the Life and
Works of Agnes Gibson, London, 1909.
GiFFORD Lectures: H. Driesch, The Science and
Philosophy of the Organism: the Gifford Lec-
tures for 1907, New York, 1909.
Gildas the Wise: J. Briel, Saint Gildas, abb^ de
Bhuys, Vannes, 1908.
ADDENDA ET CORRIGENDA
Abbott, Edward: d. at Boston, Mass., Apr. 5,
1908.
Allen, Alexander Viets Griswold: d. at Cam-
bridge, Mass., July 1, 1908.
Ajibrose, Saint: Should be " d. 397 " for " 379."
Andebson, Willlam Franklin: Elected bishop
1908.
Andrews, Edward Gater: d. at Brooklyn, N. Y.,
Dec 31, 1907.
Appel, Theodore: d. at Lancaster, Pa., Sept. 28,
1907.
AiiKiNS, James: Elected bishop 1906.
Baentsch, Bruno Johannes Leopold: d. at
Jena Oct. 27, 1908.
Bail£T, Henry: d. at Canterbury Dec. 29, 1906.
Basrowb, Samuel June: d. at New York City Apr.
21, 1909.
BiGELMAiER, Andreas: Became professor of church
history at Dillingen 1906.
Bonnet, Alfred Maximilien: b. Nov. 3, 1841.
BoRNHAEUSBR, Karl Bernhard: Became pro-
fessor of systematic and practical theology at
Marburg 1907.
Brown, Francis: Became president of Union
Theological Seminary 1908.
BuNBURT, Thomas: d. at Shandrum Jan. 19, 1907.
Vol. i., p. 17, col. 1, line 26: Read " Kraus " for
" Kmg."
Vol. i., p. 332, col. 1, line 9: Read *' Sennacherib's "
for " Sargon's."
Vol. ii., p. 150, col. 1, Une 27: Read " 1816 " for
" 1886."
Vol. ii., p. 330, col. 1, line 9 from bottom: Read
" Methodist " for '' Congregational."
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
AbbreTiations in common use or self-evident are not included here. For additional information con-
cerning the works listed, see vol. i., pp. Yiii.~xx., and the appropriate articles in the body of the work.
ADB
\ AUoemtim- ideuiaehB Biograpkie, Leipsio,
Adv .
AJP.
AJT.
of Phiiolooy, BalU-
. advenuB, ^^ ajKamst
( American Journal
] more, 1880 sqq.
( American Journal oj Theolooy, Chicago,
) 1897 sqq.
.gri> } Archiv fUr koAoliediee KirchenredU,
^'^^ 1 Innsbruck, 1857-61, Maini, 1872 aqq.
( Ardiiv far lAXttratvur- uni Kirehenoe-
ALKG \ eckidUe dee MiUelaltert, Fraibuzs, 1885
Am Amencan
. w^ . j Abhandhingen der MUnehener Akademie,
^^'^ 1 Munich. 1763 sqq.
{Ante-Nicene Fathera, American edition
by A. Cleveland Coze, 8 vols, and in-
dex, Buffalo, 1887: vol. ix.. ed. Allan
Mensiee, New York. 1897
Apoe. Apocrypha, apocryphal
Apol ApoloQva, Apology
Arab Arabic
Aram Aramaic
art article
Art. Schmal Schmalkald Articles
Ada eanctorum, ed. J. Holland and others,
Antwerp, 1643 sqq.
Acta eanctorum orainie S. BenedicH, ed.
J. Mabillon, 9 vols.. Paris, 1668-1701
.Assyrian
ASB..
ASM.
I
Assyr .
A. T Altee Teetament, " Old Testament
Ausa. Con Augsbw^ Confession
A. V Authorised Version (of the English Bible)
AZ Allgemeine Zeitutur Augsbunr, Tabiniten,
Stutteart. and Tubingen, 1798 sqq.
J. M. Baldwin, Dictionarjf of Phuoeophy
and Peyehology, 3 vols, m 4, New York,
1901-05
Baldwin, ....
Dictionary.
\:
Beoxinger. t L Bensin^er, Hebr&iache ArehOologie, 2d
Ardtdologie. ..) ed.. Freiburg. 1907
" Bertholdt, Hiatoriech-KriHedie Bin-
Blni^ham, .
Originea.
Bouquet, Recueil
Bower. Popee. . .
BQR
^eSSS:-- \ ^^^^ . . , dee AUen und Neuen Tee-
iSxnieituno. . . . j tamente, 6 vols., Erlangen, 1812-19
BFBS British and Foreign Bible Society
J. Bingham, Onginee eccleeiaeticce, 10
vols., London, 1708-22; new ed., Ox-
ford. 1855
M. Bouquet, Recueil dee hietorienB dee
GtnUee et de la France^ continued by
various hands, 23 vols., Paris, 1738-76
Archibald Bower, Hietary of the Popee
... to 1768, continued by S. H. Cox,
3 vols.. PhUadelphia, 1845-17
Bap^Mt Quarterly Review, Philadelphia,
1867 sqq.
BRO See Jaff«
Cant Canticles, Song of Solomon
cop caput, ** chapter "
n»illUi- AttijnMrm^^ CcilHer, Hietoire dee auteure eacrSe et
ili^I; ^''^^'i eccUeiaetiquee, 16 vols, in 17, Paris,
*^^' I 1858-69
Chron Chronicon, " Chronicle "
I Chron. I Chronicles
II Chron II Chronicles
^jQ \Corpu9 ineeriptionum Oracarum, Berlin,
j 1825 sqq.
^^^ \Cormie ineeriptionum Latinarum, Berlin,
^jg i Corpue ineeriptionum Semiticarum, Paris,
1 1881 sqq.
cod codex
end. D codex Beace
cod. Theod codex Theodoeianue
Col Epistie to the Colossians
ool.. cols column, columns
Conf Confeeeionee, " Confessions "
I Cor First Epistle to the Corinthians
II Cor Second Epistie to the Corinthians
COT See Sehrader
The Church Quarterly Review, London,
1875 sqq.
Corpue reformatorum, hetpm at Halle,
1834, vol. Ixxxix., Berhn and Leipsic,
1906 saq.
M. Creignton, A Hietory of the Papacy
from the Great Sehiem to the Sack of
Rome, new ed., 6 vols., New York and
London, 1897
Corpue Mcriptorum eceleeiaeticorum Lati-
norum, Vienna, 1867 sqq.
Corpue acriptorum hietoria Bywantinat, 49
vols., Bonn, 1828-78
C. W. Currier, Hietory of Religioue Ordere,
New Yori^ 1896.
CQR,.
CR...
Creighton,
Papacy
CSEL
CSHB
Currier, Religioue
Ordere
D Deuteronomist
rkAnr i^- Cabrol, DicOonnaire d'archSologie chrS-
"^^^ \ tienne et de liturgie, Paris, 1903 sqq.
Dan Daniel
DB..
DC A.
DCB .
DCQ.
i
De Wette-
Schrader, Bin-
l4situng
id
J. Hastings. Dictionary of the Bible, 4
vols, and extra vol., Edinburgh and
New York. 1898-1904
W. Smith and S. Cheetham. Dictionary
of Christian Antiquitiee, 2 vols., London,
1875-80
W. Smith and H. Wace, Dictionary of
Chrietian Biography, 4 vols., Boston,
1877-87
J. Hastings, J. A. Selbie, and J. C. Lambert.
A Dictionary of Chriet and the Ooepela, 2
vols., Edinburgh and New York, 1906-
. 1906.
Deut Deuteronomy
De vir. ill De virie iUuetnbue
( W. M. L. de Wette. Lehrhueh der hia-
loriedi^4critiaehen Einieitung in die
Bibel, vol. i. A.T„ ed. E. Sehrader, Ber-
^ lin. 1869
DOQ See Wattenbach
( L. Stephen and S. Lee. Dictionary
DNB ■> .\-iL"'fitii Hiinjmphu. ^ vols, nml
I nuppji»m(?nt 3 voIk., London, 1885-1901
Dnyer, Introduce) „_, f^^ f^^ rratan»en(, 5fh ed.. No*-
'*^'» I York, 1S94
E EtohJBt
iT. K. Cheyne and J. B, Blaek, Encydft-
padia S^ica, 4 vcilSe, London and
New York 1890-1903
Eccl Ecriemia, '* dbttnfa *'; ecdeeiaetieue, " ec-
cleaiAstieal "
Eceles EcclAtiastdP
Ecclus Eccleaiastioufl
ed ftlitioo; edidU, ** edited by '*
Eph KpiAtle to tbe Ephftsianfl
Epiet EpUtola, EpieUilfp, " Epistte/' *' Epiiitle>B "
Ench and Gru- ( /. 8. Emch and J. G. Gruber. AUgerfuifte
ber. Encyklo- { Enet/kfoj^die rf*r W istcnachaften und
pdaia ( K'^Jrwte, Lciipsic. 1818 eqa.
E. V ETigliah irefiaioiiB (of the BiSl#)
Ex "EsXOtXUA
Esek EiQkiH
fa^ Taecicuiue
j; Friedricb, KiF^hengtachichte Beuleeh-
lamia,2 voL*„ Bamberg. 1867-fi9
O, F. FriiA&che mid U L. W. GriiiiBi»
^iim^i^^'m u^^yt i K ursgffontea ex^tftiiachf* Hamihurh tu
o^MhseHand- ^^ Upocruphfn dta AlH^n T^fauwfiK
^^*^ 6 parts. Leifjiic, lSfil-60
Epbtlc to the GalatL&nj^
B, Gam ft, tSfrifs tpiar'OporuTn EccUaim
Cathotictr, HeeeUflburg, 1873. and sup-
plement. 1886
n-« .nri n^,Axr \ "" C«« •'^^ W. J. Hardy. Documenta
Uee and Hardy. ^ lUuatraHve of Engliah Church Hietory,
London, 1896
Gen Genesis
Friedrich. KD..
Fritssohe. Exe-
■ }Hand-
Gal
Gams, Seriee
epiecoporum
i
XIV
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS.
Germ
QQA,
Gibbon, Decline,
Gk-
Gross, [SourceM
Hab
. . . . uree
(C. G
•1 S
Haddan and
Stubbs, Coun-
dU
Hctr.
Hag
Harduin, Corir-
cilia
Hamack, Litt^a^ J
Hauok, KD
Hauck-HersoK,
RE.
German
OdtHngitche OdehrU Ameigen, Gdttingen,
1824 sqq.
E. Gibbon, Hiatory of the Decline and
Fall of the Roman Empire, ed. J. B.
Bmy, 7 vols.. London, 1896-1000
Greek, Gredsed
Gross. The Sourcea and Literature of
EngUah Hiatory . . . to 1486, London,
Habakkuk
[A. W. Haddan and W. Stubbs, CouncHa
and Eccleaiaatical Documenta RekUing
to Great Britain and Ireland, 3 vols.,
. Oxford, 1869-78
Refers to patristic works on heresies or
heretics, Tertullian's De nraaeriptione,
the Proa haireaeia of irenaeus, the
, Panarion of Epiphanius, etc.
. .Hanai
ij. Harduin, ConcUiorum coUedio regia
maxima, 12 vols., Paris, 1715
A. Hamack, Hiatory of Dogma . . . from
the Sd German edition, 7 vols., Boston,
1895-1900
A. Hamack, Geadiichte der altchriatlichen
lAtteratur hia Euaebiua, 2 vols, in 3
Leipt^it), 1S93-I9(M
A. Hauck, KirchtTii^exJiiehte Deutaeh^
tanda, vol, i, Lf^jpsic, l&M; vol. ii.,
1»00; vol. iii„ imM; vol. iv., 1903
Rmltneykhpi]dip fiir pn^testantiaehe THe-
ologtie und Kirche^ Founded by J. J.
Heriop. M ed, by A. Hauck, Leipaic»
I 1S9(J^1900
Heb Epiiitle to the H^bT^wa
Hebr Hebrew
cifAiA r'/>«»W7.,M. \^- ''' ^^^^ Hi?felc. €on€Uiengea(^ich^. eoti-
aSckiSu ] ^"^^ ^y ^ HergenrBther, vols, i.-vi..
***^*^'* ' viii -ix.. FreibuTff. 1883-93
M. Heimbucber. Die Ordtn und Kongrt^
oatiimen tier kathotitchen Kirche, 2cl wl,
3 vola,. PftderbTirn, 1907
P. UelyoC. Hittairg dvs tfrdretr mt^nat-
iiques, rdigi^n^r et militairc*, g vola.,
Pttrifl, 171 4-19; newod,, 1839-42
E. F. Henderson. StUct HittorictU Docu-
menu of the Afiddle Aifea, I^ndon, IS92
Hist Hiatorjr, histoire, hUtiirm
Ttimt M^i i Hist*Ttna eocfenoafiaa, ecdeeia?, " Church
a\ai,ecei -j History"
Hmn Homilia, homiliai, " homily, homilies ''
Hos Hosea
Isa Isaiah
Ital Italian
J Jahvist (Yahwist)
JA Journal Aaiatiaue, Paris, 1822 sqa.
P. JafTd, Bibliotheca rerum Oermani-
earum, 6 vols., Berlin. 1864-73
P. Jaff^, Regeata pontifleum Romanorum
. . . ad annum 1198, Berlin, 1851;
2d ed., Leipsic, 1881-88
Journal^ the American Oriental Society,
, New Haven. 1849 sqq.
Journal of Biblical Literature and Exege-
aia, first appeared as Journal of the
Society of Biblical Literature and Exe-
geaia, Middletown, 1882-88, then Bos-
ton, 1890 sqq.
The Jewiah Encyclopedia, 12 vols.. New
York, 1901-06
The combined narrative of the Jahvist
(Yahwist) and Elohist
Jeremiah
Heimbucher, Or-
den und Kon-'
gregationen. . .
Helyot, Ordrea
monaatiquea. . .
Henderson, Doc-
umenta
Jaff^, BRG.
Jaff^, Regeata. . .
JAOS
JBL.
JE.
JE
Jer.
Joflephus,An<..]^^Jj;^„J««P^"»' " Antiquities of the
Josephus, Avion . Flavius Josephus, " Agamst Apion "
Josephus, Life. . . Life of FlaviuuB Josephus
Josephus, War. . . Flavius Josephus, " The Jewish War "
Josh Joshua
roT SJahrbneher far proteatantiache Theologie,
•'^^ 1 Leipsic 1875 sqq.
j The Jewiah Quarterly Review, London,
' 1 1888 sqq.
SJourruU of Theological Studiea, London,
' 1 1899 sqq.
j J. Julian, A Dictionary of Hymnology,
revised edition, London. 1907.
JQR
JTS
Julian, //ym-
nology '<
ruTT SJaarboeken voor Wetenachappelijke Theo-
^'^^ 1 logie. Utrecht. 1845 sqq.
KAT See Schrader
KB See Schrader
KD See Friedrich. Hauck, Rettberg
iWetzer und Welte'a Kirchen&xikon, 2d
KL •< ed., by J. HergenrOther and F. Kaulen,
/ 12 vols., Freiburg, 1882-1903
1. Krtkger, Hiatory of Early Chriatian
lAterature intheri' - - .
New York. 1897
KrOger, Hiatory
{ 1
i ^
Firal Three Ceniuriea,
Krumbacher,
Geaehichte. . . .
Labbe, Concilia
Lam . . .
Lanigan,
Hut .
Ecd.
, . .ijam
(J. Li
< laf
- I lin
Lichtenberger ,
ESR
Lorens, DGQ .
Mann, Popea .
K. Krumbacher, Geaehichte der byaan-
Hniachen Litteratur, 2d ed., Munich,
1897
P. Labbe, Saerorum coneiliorum nova et
ampliaaima coUectio, 31 vols., Florence
and Venice, 1759-98
. Lamentations
Lanigan. Ecdeaiaatical Hiatory of Ire-
land to the ISth Century, 4 vols., Dub-
. lin, 1829
Lat Latin, Latinised
Leg Legea^ Legum
Lev Leviticus
F. Lichtenberger, EncydopSdie dea ad-
encea religieuaea, 13 vols., Paris, 1877-
1882
O. Lorens, Deutaehlanda GeachidUaquel"
1 ten im Mittelalter, 3d ed., Berlin. 1887
LXX The Septuagint
I Maco I Maccabees
II Mace II Maccabees
Mai, Nova oo2-IA. Mai, Scriptorum velerum nova col-
lectio 1 lectio. 10 vols., Rome, 1825-38
Mai Malachi
I R. C. Mann, Livea of the Popea in the
Early Middle Agea, London, 1902 sqq.
I G. D. Mansi, Sanctorum coneiliorum
Mansi, Cottcilia.-i coUectio nova, 31 vols., Florence and
( Venice, 1728
Matt Matthew
Monumenta Germania hiatorica, ed. G. H.
Perts and others, Hanover and Ber-
lin, 1826 sqq. The following abbrevia-
tions are used for the sections and
subsections of this work: AtU., AfiUaui-
tatea, " Antiquities "; Auet. ant., Aue-
torea antiquiaaimi, " Oldest Writers ";
Chron. min.. Chronica minora, " Lesser
Chronicles "; Dip., Diplomata, *' Di-
plomas, Documents ''; Epiat., Epia-
tolm, " Letters "; Geat. ponL Rom.,
Geata pontifleum Romanorum, '* Deeds
of the Popes of Rome "; Leg., Legea,
*' Laws "; Lib. de lite, LibeUi de lite
inter re^um et aaoerdotium acBculorum
xi et xit conacripti, " Books concerning
the Strife between the Civil and Eccle-
siastical Authorities in the Eleventii
and Twelfth Centuries": Nee., Ne-
erologia Germania, " Necrology of
Germany "; Poet. Lat. cevi Car.,
PoetcB Latini cevi Carolini, " Latin
Poets of the Caroline Time "; Poet
Lat. med. em. Poetas Latini medii tevi,
" Latin Poets of the Middle Ages ";
Script., Scriptorea, '* Writers "; script,
rer. Germ., Scriptorea rerum Germani-
carum. " Writers on German Sub-
jects ''; Script, rer. Langob., Scriptorea
rerum LangMardiearum et Italicarum,
" Writers on Lombard and Italian
Subjects "; Script, rer. Merov.^crip-
torea rerum Aferovingicarum, "Writers
on Merovingian Subjects "
Mic Micah
H. H. Milman, Hiatory of Latin Chrie-
tianity, Includinq that of the Popea to
. . . Nicholaa V., 8 vols., London.
1860-61
I C. Mu>bt, Quellen eur Geadiichte dea Papal-
tuma und dea rOmiachen Katholiciemua,
TObingen, 1901
W. Moeller, Hiatory of the Chriatian
Church, 3 vols.. London, 1892-1900
MGH.
Milman, Latin
Chriatianity . . ]
Mu>bt, Quellen..
Moeller, Chria-
tian Church . .
TUT>n i J* P* Migne, Patrologiee curaua completua,
^^^ 1 aerieaGrctca, 162 vols., Paris, 1857-66
xgT>T j J. p. Migne, Patrologiee curaua completua.
^^^ 1 aerieaLoHnte, 221 vols., Paris, 1844-64
MS., MSS Manuscript, Manuscripts
Muratori, Scrip- j L. A. Muratori, Rerum Italicarum acrip-
torea 1 torea, 28 vols., 1723-51
( Neuea Archiv der GeaeUachaft far dUere
NA < deutache Geaehichtakunde, Hanover,
( 1876 sqq.
Nah Nahum
n.d no date of publication
Niian/iA.. rh^m- \ ^ Ncandcr. General Hiatory of the Chria-
«?«%.S3^i ««» Religion and Church, 6 vols., and
ttan Church. . ] -^^^^^ Boston, 1872-81
Neh Nehemiah
Niceron, Mi- I R. P. Niceron, Mhnoirea pour aervir h
moirea < Vhiatoire dea hommea Uliutrea . . . , 43
( vols.. Paris. 1729-45
j^]^2 ]Neue kirchUche Zeitachrift, Leipsic, 1890
Nowack, ArcAd-]w. Nowack, LArbuch der fid>r&iachen
ologie | Archdologie, 2 vols., Freiburg. 1894
n.p no plaoe of publication
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
( Tha Nietne and Po9UNioenB Faikert, Ist
NPNF < series, 14 vols.. New York, 1887-92; 2d
( series, 14 vols.. New York. 1890-1900
]^ T jNew Testament, Novum Tutamenbim,
'^' * { Nouveau TettamerU, Neue» Tutameni
Num Numbers
Ob Obadiah
o a -n \Ordo mtu^
"♦ ^ ^ 1 Benedict '
BenedicH, "Order of St.
O. T Old Testament
OTJC See Smith
F Priestly document
^L. Pastor. The History of the Popea from
the Cloee of the MlidU Agee, 8 vols.,
London. 1891-1908
PF ^ J PairtM eodesioB Anglieana, ed. J. A. Giles,
*^^^ 1 34 vols., Ix)ndon, 1838-46
PEF Palestine Exploration Fimd
I Pet First Emstle of Peter
II Pet Second Epistle of Peter
Ptiny. HiH. not. . .PUnVf HUtoria naturalis
v>^«.*k..* w-«_ \ A. Potthast, Bibliotheca hiatorica medii
,!i5ft' ^S <^' WeffweUer dutch die Oeediieht*-
^•^•**^ I werke, BerUn, 1896
Prov Proverbs
Fb Psalms
now* A SProceedinge of the Society of Biblioal
'^^^-* * Ardteoloqv, London, 1880 saq.
q.v.. oq.v quod (quie) vide, *' which see ^'
R Redactor
i>»..v. i>.«.wi. JL. von Ranke, Hiaiory of Ihe Popea,
RAnke, Popes. . . { 3 ^^^ London. 1906
RDM Revue dea deux mondea, Paris, 1831 sqq.
RE See Hauck-Hersog
Rei^i, Doc*!^ \ E. Reich, Sded Documenta lUuatratino Me-
mente ( diceval and Modem Hiatory, London. 1906
RBJ Revue dea itudea Juivea, ParisL 1880 sqq.
Bctttxcs. KU. . . -j j^^ 2 vols., GSttingen. 1846-48
'Ebev Book of Revelation
wfzro \ Revue de Vhiatoire dea rdigiona, Paris.
'^^ 1 1880 S9q.
T»:^K*^ r.-*«jk^ ^A. L. Richter. LehHmch dea kaUioliachen
Kjebttf.A>reA«n-J ^^ evangdiaehen Kirchenre<hta, 8th
redU.
Rolniiflon*
ed. by W. K&hL Leipaic. 1886
Re-i'E. Robinson, Biblieal Reaearchea
and) PaleaUne, Boston. 1841. and Later
Later Re-] Biblieal Reaearchea in Paleatine, 3d ed.
wearthea I of the whole. 3 vols.. 1867
Robiiison, Euro- \ J. H. Robinson, Readinga in European
peon Hiatory. . 1 Hiaiory, 2 vols.. Boston, 1904-06
Ri^neon and ( J. H. Robinson and C. A. Beard. Develop-
B«ard. Modem \ ment of Modem Europe, 2 vols. . Boston,
Europe ( 1907
Botn Epistle to the Romans
nav i^^nff^4ff *cU^*caa eod^aiaatiquea. Arras,
1860-74, Amiens, 1875 sqq.
RTP..
\ Revue de thMogie
' 1 Lausanne. 1873
ei de phUoaophie^
R. V Revised Version (of the English Bible)
ame aeaculum, " century "
I Sam I Samuel
II Sam II Samuel
an A \ SUzungAerichla der Berliner Akademie^
^^^ 1 Berlin. 1882 sqq.
F. Max MQller and others. The Sacred
8BB < Booka of the Baat, Oxford, 1879 sqq.,
vol. xlviu.. 1904
Sacred Booka of the Old Testament (" Rain-
bow Bible '), Leipaic. London, and
SBOT.
Schaff. ChriaHan
Ckureh
Scfaaif, Creeda. . .
8<iindeT,COT..'
Sehnder, KAT .
Sefaxader. KB. . .
Schfirer.
Geackickte.
Baltimore. 1894 sqq.
, P. SchafF. History of the Chriatian Church,
vols. i.-iv., vi.. vii.. New York,1882-92,
vol. v.. part 1. by D. S. Schaff. 1907
P. Schaff, The Creeda of Chriatendom,
3 vols. New York, 1877-84
E. Schrader, Cuneiform Inacriptiona and
the Old Teaiament^ 2 vols., London,
1885-88
I E. Schrsder, Die Krilinachriften und das
A^e Tentamtnt 2 vole,, Berlin. 1902-03
E. Schrader, KeiiinaehrifUithe Biblioth^,
6vwU, lieTYm. i889-l&01
E. 8chrin*r, OeMrhirhte d« j&dijtchen^
Volkwi im ZeitalterJe^^uChriati, 'tth ed.,
3 vo\a,^ Lejpi^ic, 1902 Mjq,; Eng, transl,, &
. voh.. New York. 1S91
Script ScnpkfTEtt, " writers "
Scriveaer. ( F. H. A. Scrivener, Introduction to New Tea-
introdudum . . \ lament CriHciam, 4th ed., London, 1894
Semi SentenHtB, *' Sentences "
8. J Societaa Jeau, " Society of Jesus "
8MA j SitsungaberidUe der MUnchener Aka-
1 denne^ Munich, 1860 sqq.
jW. R Smith. Kinahip and Marriage in
' 1 Early iiroMa, London. 1903
Smith, Kinship. .
Smith, OTJC. . .
Smith, PropheU..
Smith. Rel. of
Sen
S. P. C. K
8. P. G. .
■q., oqq.
Strom...
S.V
Swete. Inirodtu>
tion
8j
T&".
Thatcher and
McNeal.iSotiree-
Book
I Thess
II Thess
ThT
Tillemont.
moirea..
I Tim
II Tim....
TJB.
Af#-
I W. R. Smith. The Old Teatament in the
) Jewiah Church, London. 1892
( W. R. Smith, PropheU of Israel . . . to
\ the Eighth Centwy, London. 1895
tW. R. Smith. Rdigion of the Semitea,
\ London. 1894
t Society for the Promotion of Christian
) Knowledge
i Society for the Propagation of the Gospel
] in Forei^ Parts
.and following
.Stromata, " Miscellanies "
. sub voce, or sub verbo
I H. B. Swete. Introduction to the Old Tes-
\ lament in Greek, London. 1900
.Syriac
.Trinitarian Bible Society
(O. J. Thatcher and £. H. McNeal. A
I Source Book for Mediceval Hiatory^
{ New York, 1905
.First Epistle to the Thessalonians
. Second Epistle to the Thessalonians
t Theologiache Tijdachrift, Amsterdam and
) Leyden, 1867 sqq.
iL. S. le Nain de Tillemont, MSnunrea
. . . ecdiaiaatiquea dea six premisra
aiidea, 16 vols.. Paris, 1693-1712
. First Emstle to Timothy
.Second Epistle to Timothy
( Theologiacher Jahreaberuht, Leipsic. 1882-
( 1887. Freiburg. 1888. Brunswick, 1889-
TLB...
TLZ. . .
Tob. . . .
TQ
TS
TSBA.
TSK...
1897. BerUn. 1898 sqq.
Theologiachea Litieraturblatt,
Litieratuneitung, Leipeio,
TU
TZT
Ugolini. Thesaur-
rua
V. T
Bonn. 1866
1876 sqq.
Tobit
Theologiache Quartala(hrift, Tabingen.
1819 sqq. ^ ^ ^.
J. A. Robinson. Texta and Studtea,
Cambridge. 1891 sqq.
Tranaactiona of the Sociei
iety of BH>lical
Wattenbach.
DOQ
Wellhausen,
Heidentum. . .
Wellhausen,
Prolegomena. .
ZA
Zahn, Einlei-
tung
Zahn. Kanon.
ZATW
ZDAL
ZDMO.
ZDP...
ZDPV.
Zech..
Zeph.
ZHT.,
ZKO...
ZKR,..
ZKT....
ZKW. . .
ZNTW.
ZPK....
ZWT...
Archaeology, London. 1872 sqq.
Theologiache Studien und Kritiken, Ham-
burg. 1826 sqq.
Texta und Unterauchungen xur OeachidUe
der altchriatlichen Litteratur, ed. O. von
Gebhardt and A. Hamack. Leipsic,
1882 sqq.
TUlnnger Zeitachrift fUr Theohgie, TO-
bingen, 1838-40
B. UgolinuuB, Theaaurua anOquitaium
aacrarum, 34 vols., Venice, 1744-69
Vetua Teatamentum, Vieux Teatament, "Old
Testament "
W . \\ H u t N I .ivi i i . Deu tteh landM Oeaehiehts-
qurikfi, oth p(L, 2 vuLs., Berlin. 1885;
J. Wellhaui^Ei, Heate arabUcJten Heiden-
tumn. a#r!in, XMl
J. WeUKaujseitt Proitgiym/ena turQe»hitkta
f*raeia, 6lh ed., Bprlm, 1905, Ekig.
tmnfllnt Edinbui'irh, 1SS5
Zeilachrift ffir Attayrinlogie, Leipeic,
ISSe-SSLtJeriin. IHSfi sqq.
T Zahn, Einleit^no in das Neue Testa-
rtwni, 3d ed.. Leipstic. 1007
T. Z&hd, GeacMihte dea nrutestamenl-
lichen KanotMt, 2 vol?., Leipaic, 1888-92
Zeitachrift far dii alli^9t^fni?nai4he Wis-
aenach^ifl. Gieasn^n* 1881 nqq.
ZHUfhriftfUr drvt^cket A Ittrihumunddeuir-
nche L^teratur Berlin . IS7ti(«aq.
Ztitschnft dtr deut^ichen morgenUXndisdlfSn
Gr»Hhchaft, Leip^ie^ lS-i7 wiq.
ZeitMrhrift fur deut^chf. t^hiUil^)gia, "HaAla,
1869 sqq.
Zeitachrift dea deutachen PalAatina-Ver-
eina, Leipsic, 1878 sqq.
Zechariah
Zephaniah
Zeitachrift fUr die hiatoriache Theologie,
publisned successively at Leipaic,
Hamburg, and Gotha, 1832-75
Zeitachrift fUr Kirchengeachichte, Gotha.
1876 sqq.
Zeitachrift JfUr Kirchenrecht, Berlin, TQ-
bingen, Freibuiv, 1861 sqq.
Zeitadhrift far katholiache Theologie, Inns-
bruck, 1877 sqq.
Zeitachrift fUr kvrcMiche Wiaaenachaft und
kirchlichea Leben, Leipsic. 1880-89
Zeitachrift fUr die neuteetamentliche Wia-
aenachaft, Giessen, 1900 sqq.
Zeitachrift fQrProteatantismusundKireha,
Erlangen, 1838-76
Zeitachrxft fikr wiaaenachafUiche Theologie,
Jena, 1858-60, HaUe, 1861-67, Leipsic,
1868 sqq.
SYSTEM OF TRANSLITERATION
The following system of transliteratdon has been used for Hebrew :
K = ' or omitted at the
beginning of a word.
3 = b
3 = bh or b
l = S
i = gh or g
^ = d
T = dh or d
n = h
^ = w
T = z
i = y
3 = k
3 = kh or k
D = m
D = 8
B = p
B = ph or p
p = ¥
n = r
b=8
fi^=:8h
jn = t
n = th or t
The vowels are transcribed by a, e, i, o» u, without attempt to indicate quantity or quality. Arabic
and other Semitic languages are transliterated according to the same system as Hebrew. Greek is
written with Roman characters, the common equivalents behig used.
KEY TO PRONUNCIATION
When the pronunciation is self-evident the titles are not respelled ; when by mere division and accen-
tuation it can be shown sufficiently clearly the titles have been divided into syllables, and the accented
syllables indicated.
a aa in sofa
a
a
&
e
i
i
o
0
' " arm
' " at
' " fare
' " pen'
' " fate
' " tin
** machine
* " obey
' no
0
as
m
not
d
tt
tt
nor
u
ft
tt
full'
Q
<<
tt
rule
u
it
tt
but
0
it
tt
bum
oi
tt
tt
pine
au
tt
ti
out
ei
It
tt
oil
iQ
1*
tt
f€W
iu as in duration
c = k " " cat
ch " " cAurch
cw = qu as in gueen
dh (th) " " the
I " " /ancy
g (hard) '* " go
H " " loch (Scotch)
hw (wh) '* " why
}
" ;aw
1 In aooented syllables only ; In unaccented syllables it approximates the sound of e In over. The letter n, with a dot
beneath it« Indicates tbe sound of n ss In ink. Nasal n (as In French words) Is rendered n.
9 In German and French names tl approximates the sound of u In dune.
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF RELIGIOUS KNOWLEDGE
DRAESEKE, dre-since. JOHAOTT HEINRICH
BERlfHARD: German preacher; b. at Bruns-
wick Jan. 18, 1774; d. at Potsdam Dec. 8, 1849.
He studied at the University of Helmstiidt, where
he was influenced by humanitarianism rather than
by rationalism, and during this period wrote a
drama which was produced at Dresden, while in
his Das Heilige auf der Buhne (1817) he defended
the representation of sacred subjects on the stage.
At the age of twenty-one he was called as deacon
to Molln, being made preacher three years later,
and being appointed pastor of Ratzeburg in 1804.
There he published his Predigten fur denkende
Verehrer Je^u (5 vols., LOneburg, 1804-12) and
his catechetical Glaube, lAebe und Hoffnung (1813),
while his patriotic sermons caused such excite-
ment that he narrowly escaped arrest by French
troops. In 1814 he was called to Bremen, and to
this period belong his Predigten fiber DeiUschlands
Wie€lergeburt (3 vols., LOneburg, 1814); Predigt-
Eniwurfe uber freie Texte (2 vols., Bremen, 1815);
Ueber die letzten Schicksale unseres Herm (2 vols.,
Luneburg, 1816); Ueber frei gewahUe Abschnitte
der heiligen Schrift (4 vols., 1817-18); Christus an
das GeschUchi dieser Zeit (1819); OemOlde aua der
heiligen Schnft (4 vols., 1821-28); and Vam Reich
Gottes, Betrachtungen nach der heiligen Schrift
(3 vols., Bremen, 1830). The political tone of his
sermons, however, caused many of them to be
suppressed by the authorities. His addresses on
the kingdom of God, on the other hand, attracted
the attention of Frederick William III., and when
Westermaier, bishop of Saxony, died in 1832,
Draseke was appointed to fill the vacancy. As
bishop he gained wide popularity by his elo-
quence, impartiality, and geniality. Avoiding the
extremes of rationalism, on the one hand, and Piet-
ism, on the other, he was welcomed as a true Evan-
gelical. The year 1840, however, brought an event-
ful change, when the assertion of a rationalistic
pastor named Sintenis that prayer should not be
offered to Christ forced Drftseke to take a decided
stand. The government checked the episcopal
protest, but the rationalistic attacks were pushed
so far that Draseke felt that his usefulness was at
an end. In 1843 the king permitted him to resign,
and he spent the remainder of his life in Potsdam.
The only occasion on which he came again before
the public was in 1845, when he signed the protest
of Sydow, Jonas, and others against the EvangeUr
$ehe Kirchemeitung, His Nachgelassene Schriften
IV^l
were edited by T. H. T. Draseke (2 vols., Magde-
burg, 1850-51).
The earliest theological position of Dr&seke was
the humanism of Herder on a Pelagian basis, where
Christianity was merely the highest product of
the human race; but gradually he attained a more
positive attitude, and a deeper insight into the
deptlis of the soul. As a preacher he must be
reckoned among the foremost of German pulpit-
orators, rising from restriction to the higher cul-
tivated classes to a more popular and intelligible
style which attracted all types of men.
(August THOLUCKf.)
Bibliography: His life is ia ADB, v. 373 sqq.
DRAGON: A mythical creature, belief in the
existence of which is attested by the folk-lore and
lit<eratiu« of nearly all nations, ancient and modem.
The creature is usually, but not always, pictured as
a modified serpent, with legs and feet terminating
in talon-like claws, and it is generally regarded as
hostile to gods and the human species. Its habitat
is variously described: in the heaven, where it often
is regarded as causing the eclif>se of the sun and
the moon; on the earth, where it inhabits deserts,
mountain recesses, and places nearly or quite in-
accessible to man; and the sea, whence it issues to
work evil or to receive an ofTering which alone averts
its anger and the destruction consequent upon this
(cf. the Greek story of Perseus). As an agent of
evil it is sometimes assigned in m3rths to the guard-
ianship of things precious or under the care of
wizards, witches, or wonder-workers (cf. the Greek
story of Medea and the Golden Fleece). By a trans-
formation not usual in the development of religion,
it sometimes attains to a position of honor in the
religion of the people and becomes beneficent (as
in China), and indeed receives worship and honor
(cf . Bel and the Dragon, which, though unliistorical,
yet attests the possibility of existence of such a cult;
see Apocrypha, A, IV., 3). Tiamat, the repre-
sentative of chaos in Babylonian mythology, is
perhaps the earliest form in wliich this belief lias
gained mention in extant literature; the dragon-
character of Tiamat hardly admits of question, in
spite of the doubts of Baudissin (Hauck-IIerzog,
REf V. 4 sqq.), based largely on the fact that serpen-
tine form was not given to this creature in the
monuments — the character of hostility to the gods
is well marked. The existence of belief in dragons
in other Semitic realms is easily susceptible of
2>rmgon
X>r6i|s and Ornament, Hebrew
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOQ
proof (cf. Baudissiii, ut Bup.» ofid the references
Uiere given)* A similar beliei' entened the folk-
and church4ore of Chiiatiajis^ and just aa tbe heroes
and demigods of classic or Teutonic atory (Perseus,
Siegfried, Beowulf) were credited with combat
against, and mastery over dragons, bo were heroes
of Christian etory (St. George, St. Sylvester).
In the Old Testament the Authorized Veraon
transtales four Hebrew words by this term, and in
the New Testament dmgon is the rendering of tbe
Gk. drakdn in Rev\ %li., xiii. 2, 4, 11, xv't, 13, xx, 2,
The four Hebrew words are^ (1) the masculine
plural tannim (from an assumed singular ton),
** howlers/' occurring in Job xxx. 29' Ps. xliv. 10;
Isa. xiii. 22, modv. 13, xxxv. 7, xliii. 20; Jer. ix, 1 1 ,
X. 22, xiv, 6, xlix. 33, li, 37; Mic. i, S, in the A, V,
uniformly translated " dragon/' but rendered in
the E.V. " jackala "; (2) the feminine plural ian-
noth (Mai. i. 3), from the same singular or an as-
sumed tannaht translated " dragons '' in the A.V.
and " jackals " in the R, V.; (3) the eingular tannim
(regarded as a mistake for tannin , see bejow^ w^hich
is found in some manuscripts), occurring only in
Ezek. xxiiE. 3, A. V. and R. V, " dragon,'- and xxadi.
2, A. V. " wliale/' margin and R, V. " dragon *'
(possibly meaning the crocodile); (4) the singular
tannin f plural tanninmif occurring Deut. xxxii, 33;
Neh, ii. 13; Ps. Ixxiv. 13, xcl 13, xclviii. 7; Isa.
xxvii. 1; Jer. U. 34 The R. V. foUows the A. V. in
rendering ^* dragtm," except in Ps. Ixxiv. 13 and
cxlyui. 7f margin, where it baa " sea monsters/^
and Ps. xd, 13, where it has ** serpent/' This same
word is in Gen, i. 21 and Job vii. 12 rendered by
A. V. " whale. ^^ by R, V. " sea monster "; in Ex.
vii, 9, 10, 12 both A, V, and R, V, have " serpent ";
In K-mi. iv. 3 A. V. has "' sea monsters " and R. V.
" jackals." Tbe nearly uniform rendering in the
A, V. follows closely that of I be Septuagint, which
translates all cases by drakdn except Gen. i. 21,
where kUos, *' whale," is found. This rendering
doubtless originated in confusion between words
from two roots, one of which meant " to bowl/'
and the other probably '* to be extended/' Mod-
em investigation lias revealed this diatinctioo,
which is probably accurately reflected in tbe R, V.
There Is some question whether '* wolf " would not
In some passages l>e more accurate than " jackal/^
The word is employed metaphorically (e.g., Isa. li.
9), and also with mythological reference (Isa, xx^'-ii.
1, and the passages m the New Testament). Nei-
ther of these usages is present in the apocryphal
story of Bel and the Dragon, which is simply a
Ilaggadic story. Job xxvi. 13 is probably a remi-
niscence of belief in the dragon as an inhabitant of
tbe heavens, while Amoa ix. 3 exhibits the belief
in the creature as existing in the sen.
Geo. W, CiLUORE.
Bibi^toghafht: For • review of the IpRCnds! conteripsg About
%hv drttson notlitn^ in b^tt«r th&n E. 8. ti art land. Legtnd
of P&^em. 3 vol*., London, 1S94-06. CoDBith further:
P. Lurch, ill Ch-ienl und Otirid^nl^ i. 4. pp. 751-764. Gdi-
tmgeu. 1862^ W. W. von Liaudisiflm. SemittKhe R^itfficnt-
OrwehvJiUi, I 2&^W2, UipfliPn 1876; G. A. Burton, in
JAOS, XV, 1 (1891), 23-24; H. Guaktl, SchopfvaQ und
ChaoM. pp. 09 iqq.. 320-323. Gfittingen. IS&B: South. Rei.
of Sem„ p. 176: DB. t 620-621, ii. 526; EB, i. Hai-
ti 34, ii. 230E^0e; JE. iv. 647-648: &ud the Uter oom*
ixi«Dtime« ou tli« puua««fl dl«d la tb« bb%t.
DRAGOIf ADES. See Huon^Nots; NlinsSp Edict
OF.
DRAKE, AUGUSTA THEODOSIA (Sister Francis
Raphael): English Dominican; b. at Bromley
St. Leonard's (a suburb of London), Middlesex,
Dec. 28, 1S23; d. at Stone (7 m. n.n.w. of Stafford),
Staffordshire, Apr. 29, 1894» She was educated
privately r and until the age of twenty-seven wan
a meml^r of tbe Church of England. Carried be^
yond the Tractarian movement, however^ she be-
came a convert to the Roman Catholic Church m
1850, aud after a residence of six months at Rome,
1851-52, flhe waii received as a postulant in the
Dominican convent at Clifton Oct, 4, 1852. She
became a professed at Btone, where the convent
had meantime been transferred^ in 1856, and from
1872 to 1881 was prioress of the convent. From
1881 uptU within three weeks of her death she waj
mother provincial of the Order. Slie was the
author of a large number of books (many of them
published anonjrmously), including The Moralily
of Trat^rianism (London, 1850); Catholic Legends
and Stories (1855)^ The Life of Si Dominic, wOh
a Sketch of the Dominican Order (1857); Tha
Knights of SL John, mih the BoUk cf Lepanlo and
the Siege of Vienna (1858); Memoir of Sister Mary
Fhihmena Berkekyt Reliffious of the Third Or-
der of SL Dominic (I860); Christian Schools and
Scholars, or Sketches of EdtAcation fram the Chri^
Han Era io the CouticU of Trent (1867); Life of
Mother Margaret HaUahan (1869); The History of
St. Caiherine of Siena and her Companions (lS$0)f
The History of SL Dominie, Founder of the Friar
pTeachera (1891); Cathoiie Readers (5 vols., 1891);
and The Spirit of the Dominican Orders iUuMtrated
from the Lives of iU Sainte (1896). She translated
P, Chocarne's Le R^^end Pkre H. D. Lacardair^
de Vordre dee Frh-es pricheurs, sa w intime tt re-
ligietise (London, 1868), and edited The Aulobir'
ography of ArcJibiahop Ultathome (1891) and LH*
ters of Archhwhop Ullath&me (1892).
DREAMS: Dreams are commonly considered
in all religions a means of revelation. The strange ,
wonderful, but often lively phenomena of dream
life, sundered at the time from conscious knowl-
edge and thought, are accepted as prophetic rev-
elations of divinity to the slt^per. Consequently
men endeavor to induce prophetic dreams by sleep-
ing in places supposed to be favorable or by tai^
king potions. Such practises were followed by
Egyptians, Babylonians, Aflsyrians, Persians, Chi*
nese, Greeks, Romans, Germans, and many other
peoples. But, since the dream pictures were often
obscure, there grew up the art of interpreting
dreams, while still there was often the acknowledge
ment that these moans were delusive. In the
Bible dreams appear as a means by which God
speaks to man, warns him of danger, imparts
knowledge, gives counsel, and directs for the
future. Such dreams of instruction have b^n
known in all times as in the present, for why should
not God cb(JO»e this method of eotnmunicatioQ
with mankind? In the dream the inner life ia
often more strongly impressed than is possible
under ordinary conditions, the consciousness la
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Dravon
Dress and Ornament^ Hebrew
more easfly reached than when the press of thoughts
interrupts communication. In Biblical cases the
suspicion of deception is excluded partly by the
extraordinary divine force of the impression, partly
by its appeal to the conscience; on the other hand,
the dream is often represented as a vain and empty
thing (Job. XX, 8; Ps. Ixxiii. 20). Symbolic dreams
are also known to the Bible, the meaning of which
'is not attainable to the worldly-wise, but only to
those to whom God has granted the gift of inter-
pretation. Such dreams came to a Joseph and a
Daniel. While many examples confirm the use of
the dream as a means of revelation, it is not for
the people of God the only means, and it is, be-
sides, used as a medium by which God comes into
contact with other than his own people. There
were other means of self-revelation of God, how-
e>-er, especially in the word of the prophets who
often received their oracles while in possession of
full consciousness. A species of revelation stand-
ing midway between these two was the dream-
▼i^on (Job iv. 13-21). To this class belong the
experiences of Solomon (I Kings iii. 5) and Daniel
(Ihui. viL 1). The prophets generally do not
speak of dreams as the source of their inspiration,
and the Arabs distinguish between prophetic in-
sight and the dream. Zechariah's vision (Zech.
L 8 sqq.) was not a dream (cf. iv. 1). Jeremiah
speaks of the misuse of dreams and disparages
them (Jer. xxiii. 26 sqq.) on the ground that they
are often the product of the wish of the heart.
Deut, xiii. 2 sqq. gives a criterion for the testing of
prophetic dreams. The later Jews paid much at-
tention to these phenomena, and the E^ssenes seem
to have done the same (Josephus, Ant, XVII.
xiiL 3). See Divination. (C. von Orelli.)
Bxbuogiapht: A. Knobel, Proj^tUmut der HebrOer, i.
174 sqq., Breslau. 1837; F. Delituch, Bibli»che Pty-
AaloQH, pp. 233 sqq.. Leipeie, 1861, Eng. transl., Edin-
burgh, 1867; W. B. Carpenter, Mental Phytiolon, Lon-
don, 1876; F. E. K5nig. Offenbaruno9beoriff des A, T.,
a. 9 iqq., eS aqq.. Leipsic. 1882; G. F. Oehler, Theologis
dt$A.T.,pp. 216 sqq.. 743 sqq., Stuttgart, 1882, Eng.
traasL. .New York, 1883; C. von OrelU, AltteatamenUUM
Weutoffunaen, pp. 17-18, Vienna, 1882, Eng. traoBl.,
on Tatament Prophecy, Edinburgh. 1885; E. Clodd,
MyAt and Dreama, London, 1885; H. Schulti. AlUeeta^
nenflt<A« TheoloffU, Gi^ttingen, 1888, Eng. transl., London,
1892. J. W. Reynolds. Natural Hiei. of Immortality, pp.
124-139, ib. 1891; DB, L 622-623; EB, i. 1118-19.
DRELmCOURT, dr^''lan"cQr', CHARLES : French
Reformed pastor; b. at S6dan July 10, 1595;
d. in Paris Nov. 3, 1669. He was educated at
S^dan and Saumur, and was pastor of the Re-
formed Church of Charenton, near Paris, from 1620
to his death. He was a prolific writer, and two of
his works achieved extraordinary success: Cou"
iolatms de Vdme fidtle contre lea frayeurs de la mart,
reprinted, in more than forty editions, as late as
Nimes, 1819. Eng. transl., The Christian's Defence
agmntt the Fears of Death (4th ed., London, 1701;
27th ed., Liverpool, 1810; the sale of the translation
is said to have been promoted by Defoe's True
R^lotum of the Apparition of one Mrs, Veal the Next
Day after her Deiuh to one Mrs. Bargrave at Canter-
^ ^ 8th of September, 1705, London, 1706,
in which the dead lady recommended Drelincourt's
book Defoe's work is included in many editions
of the translation). Drelincourt's other important
work was Visiles charitables ou consolations chr^
tiennes pour toutes les personnes afflig^es (5 vols.,
Charenton, 1669, and often, translated into six
languages). In English the work appeared in five
small volumes, each devoted to a visit upon a par-
ticular class of afliicted persons (London, 1785).
Bxblioorapht: A Memoir is affixed to the ninth and tubae-
quent editions of The ChrUtian't Defence, London. 1719.
Consult E. and E. Haag. L>a France proteeiante, ed. H.
L. Bordier, Paris, 1877-86 (contains imperfect list of hit
writings); Lichtenberger, ESR, iv. 81-84.
DRESS AND ORNAMENT, HEBREW.
The Apron or Girdle (J 1). Charms (J 7).
The Coat or Cloak ({ 2). Earrings and No8»>rings ({ 8).
Women's Attire ({ 3). Ornaments for Head and Neok
The Head-dress ({ 4). ({ 9).
Foot-wear (J 6). The Hair (J 10).
SigneU and Seals ({ 6). The Beard (ill).
In the Old Testament there is no description of
clothing and articles of adornment. The archeol-
ogisty therefore, has to rely upon ancient Egyptian
and Babylonian-Ass3rrian portraiture and observa-
tion of present customs. The most ancient article
of dress was the apron or girdle {ezor, fyigor, sal^),
a simple piece of cloth (Jer. xiii. 1) or leather (II
Kings i. 8) thrown about the loins.
I. The In all periods it was the most usual
Apron or garment in Egypt, though of course
Girdle. its form was often modified. In
Egyptian pictures it appears also aa
the dress of the Bedouin; and it has been preserved
in the ihr&m worn by pilgrims in Mecca. The Old
Testament mentions the girdle as worn by Assyrian
warriors (Isa. v. 27; Ezek. xxiii. 15). Among the
Israelites the girdle survived as the dress of those
consecrated to God (II Kings i. 8; Isa. xx. 2; Jer.
xiii. 1 sqq.) and as the vestment of the high priest.
As saH it was worn for mourning (see Mourn inq
Customs, Hebrew), either alone or under another
garment (II Kings vi. 30). Otherwise the kuttonelh,
or shirt, took the place of the girdle. In Assyrian art
this appears as a tight-fitting undergarment, some-
times reaching only to the knee, sometimes to the
ankle. It corresponded to the undergarment of
the fellah of to-day: a rough cotton tunic of a
faded blue color, open at the breast, with loose
sleeves and a girdle around the hips to hold the
garment out of the way in walking or working.
Such must have been the Hebrew kuttoneth, though
it reached only to the knees. The longer coat,
with long sleeves, was especially for women, being
unusual for men (Gen. xxxvii. 3; II Sam. xiii. 18).
A still finer garment was the sadin, a linen shirt
that the well-to-do wore under the kuttoneth
(Judges xiv. 12; Prov. xxxi. 24; Isa. iii. 23). It
was of Canaanitic origin and is mentioned in the
Amama tablets.
The Simla, or overdress, had various forms.
Egyptian representations of Bedouins show it as a
loose wrap that leaves one shoulder and both arms
free. It was a heavy shawl, such as is still found
among Bedouins. The ancient Babylonians wore
a similar garment. Among the Hebrews this was
probably the mantle of the common people; later
it developed into the present abaye, the mantle of
the fellahs and Bedouin. This is a large quadran-
Dr^mu »nd Orxuuoient, Hebrew
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
gular piece of rough, heavy woolen material, crudely
sewed together so that holes are left for the arms.
Like the abaye^ the simla was not
2. The worn at work (Matt. xxiv. 18); but it
Coat or was similarly useful. All kinds of ar-
Cloak. tides could be carried in it, e.g. barley,
wood, grass, etc. (Ex. xii. 34; Judges
viii 25; II Kings iv. 39). By day it was a protec-
tion against rain and cold, by night it served as bed
and cover (Ex. xxii. 26; Deut. xxiv. 12 sqq.).
No respectable man went without this overdress
(Amos ii. 16; Isa. xx. 2-3). From this simple
garment was developed the richly ornamented
mantle of well-to-do Assyrians and Babylonians,
which reached from the neck to the knees and had
short sleeves. Canaanites of the better classes
wore a strip of heavy fancy-colored cloth wrapped
around the body several times. This was em-
broidered in colors and finished with fringe. The
Israelites, who had a taste for gorgeous colors (Josh,
vii. 21; Judges v. 30; II Sam. i. 24), probably
adopted from the Canaanites certain overgarments
called me'U and addereth. The first was a costly
wrap (I Sam. ii. 19, xviii 4, xxiv. 5. 11), and, ac-
cording to the description of the priest's me'tl, was
similar to the sleeveless abaye (Ex. xxviii. 31 sqq.;
Josephus, Ant., III. vii. 4). The addereth was an
extra robe worn over the simla (Mic. ii. 8), similar
to the gorgeous Babylonian robe for which the same
name was employed (Josh. vii. 21; Jonah iii. 6).
The leather garment worn by the prophets was
called by the same name because of its width.
A woman's dress evidently differed from that
of a man (Deut. xxii. 5), but consisted likewise of
simln and kiUtoneth, Presumably these garments
had sleeves and were longer than those worn by
men, were also of finer material, of brighter colors,
and more richly ornamented. The sodin, the fioner
linen underdress, was also worn by women (Isa. iii.
23; Prov. xxxi. 24). Further, mention is made of
the mifpahafh, a kind of veil or shawl
3. Women's (Ruth iii. 15); and the ma'atapha, a
Attire. wrap of unknown form (Isa. iii. 22).
A very important article of female
attire was the veil. The use of the veil by the bride
(Gen. xxiv. 65) and in other cases (Gen. xxxviii. 14 ;
Ruth iii. 3) is traceable to the influence of the
Ishtar myth. The veil was the symbol of Ishtar,
who, on coming from the underworld, walked out
veiled to meet Tammuz, her bridegroom. Other-
wise it was not customary for women to go veiled
(Gen. xii. 14, xxiv. 15 sqq.), contrary to present
custom in the Orient due to the influence of Islam.
The veil of the ordinary woman's wardrobe was
a neckcloth. According to ancient statuary, it
reached from the forehead down across the back of
the head to the hips or still lower, and was not
unlike the neckerchief of the peasant woman in
modem Palestine. It is not known how the vari-
ous kinds of veils mentioned in the Old Testament
differed from one another (Gen. xxiv. 65; Cant. iv.
3; Isa. iii. 19 sqq., xlvii. 2). The increasing luxury
of women in the matter of dress is shown by the
enumeration of the articles of a woman's toilet in
Isa. iii. 18-23.
As regards head-dress, some representations
show Jews and S3rrians bareheaded, others show
them wearing merely a band to hold the hair to-
gether. This last is still occasionally seen in Arabia.
The usual head-covering of the Bedouin of to-day
is the keffiye, a large square piece of woolen cloth
folded diagonally, then thrown over
4. The the head in such a way that the loose
Head-dress, comers of the triangle protect the
back of the head and neck, while the
other two comers are tied imder the cliin and then
thrown across the shoulders. A strong wool cord
holds the cloth securely on the head. Hebrew
peasants undoubtedly wore a similar head-dress.
The better classes, both men and women, wore a
kind of turban, i.e., a cloth woimd about the head.
The shape of this varied greatly, depending upon
the way it was adjusted, just as the head-dress of
to-day varies in different localities. The turban of
the high priest, the miznepfieth, had a special form
(Ex. xxviii. 40), as did that of the priest, the miff'
ba*a or pe'er (Ex. xxviii. 40, xxxix. 28). The pe*er
was afterward wom by men and women of the
better classes (Isa. iii. 20; Ezek. xxiv. 17); for in-
stance, by the bridegroom on the wedding day
(Isa. Ixi. 10). The high conical turbans seen in
pictures of Assyrian kings and priests may be re-
garded as good examples of this variety of head-
covering.
The use of sandals among the Egyptians became
common in the middle kingdom, universal in the
new kingdom. On Babylonian and Assyrian mon-
uments even kings appear barefooted. Other rep-
resentations show sandals with a strap stretched
across the foot from the side, and often with a
leather strap between the toes and drawn across the
foot longitudinally. Later Assyrian soldiers wore a
kind of leather boot, made of pieces of leather tied
about the foot and reaching above the
5. Foot- ankle. By soldiers of to-day pointed
wear. shoes are wom over the sandals, afford-
ing protection to the toes in mountain-
ous districts. Among the Israelites the common
man usually went barefooted, as does the fellah of
to-day, though he sometimes had sandals (Amos
ii. 6, viii. 6). These were of leather or wood, with
leather straps ((Jen. xiv. 23; Isa. v. 27). They
were not wom in the house nor in the sanctuary
(Ex. iii. 5, xii. 11; Josh. v. 15). The priests per-
formed their duties barefooted. In mourning, also,
it was customary to go barefooted (II Sam. xv. 30;
Ezek. xxiv. 17, 23). Jewelry was much wom in
the ancient Orient, as it is to-day. A cane and a
signet-ring belonged to the equipment of a Baby-
lonian, and were usual articles of personal adorn-
ment (cf. Herodotus, i. 195, and Strabo, xvi. 746).
The cane was often a necessity, as in the case of the
shepherd; otherwise it was a valuable weapon.
In modem times it is not used as a support in
walking — it being too short for that purpose — but
is carried throt^n across the shoulder.
The signet-ring (hotham) is quite ancient and is
supposed to have be«n wom even by the patrinrohs.
The impression of such a ring serves in place of the
written signature, hence its importance and the
universality of its use. At first these rings were
not wom on the finger, but were carried on a cord
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Dress and Ornament, Hebrew
tiedaround the neck (Gen. xxxviii. 18), as still is often
the case. The Egyptians wore the signet on the
finger (Gen. xli. 42), and later the Is-
6. Signets raelites wore it on a finger of the right
nndS^ff|i« hand(Jer.xxii.24). Besides the signet-
ring set with a cut stone, the signet took
the form of a cylinder. This kind of seal was com-
mon in Babylon, and, as excavations have shown,
was in use in Palestine. From remotest antiquity
Babylonia was distinguished for gem-cutting, an
art which reached there a high degree of excellence
shown by the exquisitely carved cylinders that have
been preserved. This art was introduced into
Syria. A seal-cylinder found at Taanach shows
EEibylonian and Egyptian characters, thus betray-
ing itfl Western origin. It is not known to what
extent such things were made in Israel, or whether
they were not bought through the Phenicians. At
all events, in decorative art and in the manner of
execution Babylonian influence was always dom-
inant. The handsomest seal extant by a Hebrew
hand is one that was discovered in Megiddo by the
excavations of the Deutscher Palastina-Vereia It
is the seal of Shemai, the minister of state (ebed)
of Jeroboam II., made of jasper, oval in form, 3.7 by
2.7 centimeters, and with a splendidly carved lion,
resembling closely the lion figures of Babylonian-
Assyrian art (cf . Mittheilungen und Nachrichten des
deuUchm Paldstina-Vereins, 1904, pp. 1 sqq.).
A jewel was at the same time an amulet. Ac-
cording to the ancient Oriental view, metals and
precious stones belonged to certain gods of the min-
eral worid, and possessed, therefore, a mysterious
magic power. Aside from this, any
7* Charms, trinket that diverts attention from the
wearer to itself still serves as a pro-
tection against the evil eye. For this reason every
one m the Orient wears an abundance of jeweliy.
Incea of this superstition are found in the Old
Testament. In Isa. iii. 20 a piece of woman's jew-
elry is designated as an amulet (cf. Gen. xxxv. 4);
and it is evident that the ornaments on the
eameis of the Midianites were charms (Judges
m. 21). In design and execution the various arti-
cles of jewelry resemble Babylonian and Egyptian
models.
Earrings were the principal article of jewelry for
women (Gen. xxxv. 4), and were sometimes worn
by children (Ex. xxxii. 2). They were also worn
by men, e.g., by the Midianites (Judges viii. 24 sqq.),
and Pliny claims that they were worn by all Orien-
tals (Pliny, xi. 136). It is impossible
8. Ear- to distinguish the various kinds of
rings and earrings mentioned; still, the excava-
Hose-ringB. tions at Gezer, Megiddo, and Taanach
have brought to light several charac-
teristic forms (cf. PEF, Quarterly Statement, 1903,
p. 202). Nose-rings were also quite popular (Gen.
mv. 22, 47; Isa. iii. 21), finger-rings were less
usual. Finally, the toes were also ornamented
with rings.
The forehead and hair were beautified by bands
of gold or silver ornaments (Isa. iii. 18); and neck-
laces of various kinds were worn, also strings of
rings, pearls, small glass cylinders, bone buttons,
metal pendants, etc., were worn around the neck.
Excavations have revealed a great variety of
such articles. Particularly popular as amulet and
bangle were the scarabs, imitations of
g. Oma- the sacred dor-beetle which originated
ments for in Egypt. They spread all over the
Head and Orient; and excavations in the South
Neck. (e.g., at Gezer) have brought num-
bers of them to light. Bracelets were
simply pieces of wire bent around the arms, and
the ends were not fastened together (Gen. xxiv. 22;
Ezek. xvi. 13, xxiii. 42). There were also anklets
of corresponding form, to which were sometimes
attached small chains (Isa. iii. 18). This kind of
jewelry for women is peculiar to the Orient, both
ancient and modem.
As to the care of the hair, the custom of shaving
the head, wide-spread in ancient Egypt and still
common, was prohibited in Israel (Lev. xix. 27;
Deut. xiv. 1) because it often had a religious signifi-
cance. However, as a sign of moum-
zo. The ing this custom, perhaps universal
Hair. in the oldest period, was preserved
despite the prohibition (Ezek. vii. 18;
Amos viii. 10; Mic. i. 16). Priests were commanded
to keep their hair cut properly, and not to allow it
to grow unrestrained (Ezek. xliv. 20); but no shears
were to touch the head of the Nazirite (Num. vi. 18;
Judges xiii. 5; I Sam. i. 11). The Egyptian way
of dressing the hair with wigs and other artificial
accessories was never imitated in anterior Asia.
According to ancient Egyptian representations, the
Syrian wore his hair rather long. The front hair
was brushed down over the forehead; otherwise
the hair was caught up in tufts behind, which stood
out from the head. Assyrian monuments show
long hair worn in plaits hanging about the neck
as the prevailing style, and suggest that the better
classes paid much attention to the dressing of the
hair and beard. For a woman long hair was es-
sential to beauty (Cant. iv. 1, and often); and a
bald head was the greatest affliction (Isa. iii. 24).
To let the hair down and allow it to hang in disorder
denoted extreme humility (Num. v. 18; cf. Luke
vii. 38). The arts employed by women to beautify
the hair are derided by Isaiah (Isa. iii. 24).
For the Egyptians a beard was something too
repulsive to be allowed, accordingly they kept them-
selves shaved; but the " barbarians " allowed their
beards to grow. In Egyptian pictures the Syrians
have round beards, the Bedouins
II. The pointed beards. Assyrian representa-
Beard. tions testify to the custom of wearing
a mustache. To cut o(T any one's
beard was a grave insult (II Sam. x. 4), a humilia-
tion to which prisoners of war were subjected (Isa.
vii. 20); and often, in deep mourning, this mutila-
tion was self-inflicted (Isa. xv. 2). To cut out the
comers of the beard was forbidden in Israel, as
being the custom of a strange cult.
I. Benzinger.
Bibliograprt: H. Weiss. KottUmkunds, part i., Die Vfilker
dcM Osten», Stuttgart, I860: B. Ugolini. Themurtu anti-
quUatum »acrarum, vol. xxix., 34 vols., Venice, 1744-69;
A, T. Hartmana, Die HebrOerin am PuUtisch und alt
Braut, Amsterdam. 1809; W. M. Thompson, The Land
and the Book, 3 vols.. New York, 1880-86; I. Benzioffer,
HebrAi»dt4 ArchOologie, { { 16-17, TQbingen, 1907; W.
Drews, P»ul Oottfrled
Droste-Yisoherinff
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
Novmck, H^aitchs Archikoioffie, H 20-21, Fmiberg. i^94;
H. B, Triitram, Ea*im-n Cu*t&mM in BiM* Lamif, pp.
155-I7fl. Loiidati. 1804: DB, i. 623-1129: BB, I 1135 sqq.
DREWS, PAUL GOTTFRIED: German Prot-
estant; b. at Eibenstock {&) m. B.e. of Leipisic)
May 8, 1858. He studied at Ijeipsic and G6t*
tingeo 1S78-81* and after being a private tutor
became a member of the clergy staff of St, Paul!
in Leipsie in 1SS3. He was pastor at Burkau
1883-89, and at Dresden l8Sfl-94. In 1394 he
became profeaBor extraordinaiy of hoxniletles and
catechetics at Jena, m 1901 profeaaor of practical
theology at Giessen, and in 1908 he accepted
a call to the University of Halle. He has
written Wiilihald Pirkheimers Siellung Ftir Refar-
matum (Leipiic, 1887); Humanismus uttff Refor-
mation (1SS7); ChrMus, unset Leben (2 vols.,
Gattingen, 1894-1901); IHsputaiiomn Dr. Mariin
Luthers in den Jahren IS3S biM 15^ an der Uni-
versitdt Wiitenberg gehuUen (1895); Do^ kirchliche
Leben der evangelisdi'tutherijicken Ltindesklrche des
KUnigreichs Sachsen (vol. i. of his Evangeliache
Kirchenkunde ; Tubingen, 1902); Bi^ien mr Gc-
wchichU dtA GoUtsdien&t^ und des gotlesdienst'
lichen Lcbens (3 parts, 1902-06); Die Ordinatian,
Lehrverpflichtung und Pri}fnng der Ordinanden in
Witienherg 1SS5 (GJesaeti, 1904); Der eimngelische
GeisUiche in der deut^cken Vergangenheii (Jena,
1905); and Der Einfium der geseUschaftlichen Zu~
aidnde auf das kirchliehe Leben (Ttlbingen, 1906).
He has Itkewige been a joint editor of the Mmmi^-
achrift fur die kirchliche Fraxm since 1901,
DRBY, JOHAlOf SEBASTUIT VOH: Roman
Catholic; b. at Killingen (near EUwangcn, 45 ni.
e.n.e. of Stuttgart) Oct. 16, 1777; d. at TQbingen
Feb. 19j 1S53. Ho studied theology at Augsburg,
was ordained prieat in 1801, and in 1812 was ap-
pointed professor of theology at Ellwangen, When
this institution waa disbanded in 1817 he became
professor at Tubingen, holding this position till
1846, when he retired. With his colleagues Gratz,
Herbst, and Hirscher he founded the Theohgische
Quartakchrift in 1319. His principal work was
on Christian apologetics (2 vok,, Maiai, 1838-43;
2d ed. enlarge, 3 vols., 1847).
DRISCOLL, JAMES FRAliCIS: Roman Cath-
olic; b. at East Poultncy, Vt., Sept. 30, 1859.
He studied at Montreal College (B.A., Laval Uni-
versity, 1881), the Grand S^minaire, Montreal
ClSSl-84), the S^minairc St, Sulpice, Paris (1884-
1886; bachelor of theology and canon law, Institut
Catholique, Paris, 1886), Minerva University,
Rome (1886-88), Univeniitl^ Eeale, Rome C18S6-
1888), New York University (1S97-1DOO), Johns
Hopkins University (1901-02), and the Catholic
Univeraity of America, Washington, D, C. (1901-
1902), He was professor of dogmatic theology and
Hebrew in the Theological Seminary of Montreal
(1889-96), proferaor of the same subjects in St,
Joseph's Seminary, Dunwoodie, N. Y, (1896-99),
and of Holy Scripture and Hebrew in the same
institution (1S99-1901), professor of Scripture in
St, Mary's Seminary, Baltimore, Md. (1901-02),
ftnd at the same time professor of Semitic languages
la St. Austin's Colkg€» Waahiiigtoni B* C, Since
1902 he has been president and professor of moral
theology in St. Joseph *8 Seminary, He was chair*
man of the Seminary Board in the annual confei^
enee lor the promotion of Catholic edueation in
1905-06. in theological position be is ** Ronum
Catholic, but of liberal progressive viewa^fnuitly^
welcoming all the reasonably established claims of
modem scholarship in the field of science, philos^
phy, historical and Biblical criticism, et«/* He
has been editor of The New York Remew since 1905,
DRIVER, SAMUEL ROLLES: Church of Eng-
land; b. at Southampton Oct. 2, 1846, He stud-
ied at Winchester College and New College, Ox-
ford (B.A,, 1869), where he was fellow 1870-^
and tutor 1875-82. Since 1832 he haa been re-
gius professor of Hebrew and eanon of Christ
Church, Oxford. He waa a member of the Old
Testament Revision Company 1876-84, and exam-
ining chaplain to the bishop of Southwell ISS4-1904*
He has written A Treatise on the Use of the TemeM
in Hebrew (London, 1874); Imiah : Life^ TimeSj and
Writings which bear hia Name (1888); Notes on the
Hebrew Text of the Books of Samuel (Oxford, 1890);
IntToducii'On to the Literature of the Old Te^larneni
(Edinburgh. 1391); Sermons on Suhje^ connect^
with the Old Testament (London, 1S92); DetUer-
onomy (1895); and Authority and Archwalogyf
Sacred and Profane (in collaboration with D, G.
Hogarth; 1899), He also edited the conamentary
of Moses ben Sheshetb on Jeremiali and Exekiel
(London, 1371); The Holy Bible j with various
Renderings and Readings from ike best Authorities
(1876); Th^ Fiftitthird Chapter of Isaiah according
to the Jewish Interpreters (in coHaboralion with A.
D, Neubauer; 1877): The Book of Prm^erbi otinb*
uted la Abraham ibn Eua (1880); Lex^iticus, in The
Pohjchrmne Bible (2 vols,, 1894-97); The Parallel
Psalter (1898); Daniel, Joel, and Amos, in Tha
Cambridge Bible for Schools (Cambridge, 1900-01);
Genesris, in The Wesiminster Commentariea (Lon-
don* 1904); Deuteronomy &nd Joshua, in R. Kittera
BUilia Hebraica (Leipsie, 1905); The Mijwr Prophets,
m The Century Bible (London, 1906); The Book of Job
(1906); and Th^ Book of the Prophet Jeremiah (1906)-
He likewise collaborated with F. Brown and C, A.
Briggs in ^4 Hebrew ofui English Lexicon of the Old
Tedament (12 parts, Oxford, 1892''1903), and was &
member of the editorial board of J* Hastings's
Dictionary of the Bible (5 vols,, Edinburgh, 1898-
1904) and of the Stadia Biblica (0.xJord, 1885 sqq.),
DROSTE-VISCHERmGp drxjs'tfi-fish'er-ing.
Activity ftt MUnster (fi 1).
Mijced Ala.magr« (I 2).
ArcfabisKDp of Culuts^e^ C( 3).
Th* UniVflsraity of Bonn H 4)>
DrcN!ito-Vid43bering'« Downfall {I &%
Clemens August, Freiherr von Drogte-Vischcr-
ing, archbishop of Cologne, was bom at Munster
Jan, 21, 177a; d. there OcL 19, 1345. Descended
from a strict Roman Catholic family, he was or-
dained priest in 1798, and in ISIO became coad-
jutor to the acting bii^hop of MQnster, who w*as ill
and died Sept, 16. Droste-Vischering was elected
bis successor, but when Miinster came under French
rule in. the same year the existing diocesan ad-
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
X>r«ws, Paul Oottfriad
Broste-Yisoherinff
mmistTation was abolished by Napoleon, Droste-
Viachering was thrust aside, and the dean of the
cathedral, Count Spiegel, was appointed
X. Activity bishop and commissioned to admin-
it ister the diocese as vicar of the chap-
Muenster. ter until he should be canonically
instituted. As Droste-Vischering al-
ready occupied this office, and as after the resto-
ntioo of Prussian rule in Milnster the Napoleonic
changes were rescinded, Spiegel ultimately had to
yield and in 1815 Droste-Vischering undertook
once more, as vicar of the chapter, the manage-
ment of the diocese.
Even thus early he stood for principles concern-
ing the relations of Church and State which were
quite impracticable in a land where the confessions
lived side by side. He was not satisfied with pro-
posing in his publication Ueber die ReHgionsfrei-
keit der Katholiken (Mtinster, 1817) an impossible
platform for church politics, but endeavored to
put it in practise, and thus came into conflict with
the Prussian government, at first on the question
of mixed marriages, then by an attempt to cripple
the theological faculty in Boim. In 1819 he in-
structed the priests to refuse to perform mixed
marriages unless the parties shoiUd promise to
educate their children in the Roman Catholic
faith; and he forbade students of theology to
follow Geoi^ Hermes (q.v.) from MQnster to Bonn,
and declared he would ordain no one who attended
lectures anywhere without his permission. Soon
afterward he laid down his office and lived for the
next fifteen years (1820-35) in strict retirement,
devoting himself in the main to the guidance of an
organization of Sisters of Charity. Even his con-
secration as suffragan bishop of Milnster in 1827
did not allure him from the manner of life which
had grown dear to him. But he forsook it later
under remarkable circumstances; he was elected
archbishop of Cologne Dec. 1, 1835, and enthroned
May 29, 1836. What this promotion signified and
what later brought about his fall can be under-
itood only by knowing the situation in church
politics when he took office, especially as regards
the treatment of mixed marriages.
In 1741 Benedict XIV. had waived the require-
ment that the Tridentine form for solenmizing
matrimony be absolutely necessary (cf. Mirbt,
QveUen, pp. 311-315). The Prussian General Law
of 1794 (Mirbt, Quellen, pp. 329-330) had ordered
that, when the parents belonged to different
confessions, imtil the completion of
2. Mixed the fourteenth year sons should be
llarriages. brought up in the religion of the
father and daughters in the confes-
sion of the mother. This paragraph was then
suspended for the eastern provinces of the monarchy
by a Royal Declaration of 1803 (Mirbt, QueUen,
P* 339), because dangerous dissensions had been
pnxiuoed in the families affected; and it was pro-
yided that legitimate children should always be
imtructed in the religion of the father, and that
neither husband nor wife should have the right to
Wnd his or her helpmate by agreement to any de-
viation from this rule. By a Royal Cabinet Order
of 1825 (Mirbt, QwUen, p. 350) this law was ex-
tended to the Rhine provinces and Westphalia.
At the same time it was forbidden that clergymen
should demand from engaged couples of mixed
confession a promise about the religious training
of their future children. These laws, which af-
fected Protestants as well as Roman Catholics,
were, however, evaded by Catholic clergymen
who, to be sure, did not demand the aforesaid
promise, but, if it was not voluntarily given, re-
fused to perform the ceremony. The complaints
which the government received caused it to enter
upon negotiations with the archbishop of Cologne
(Count Spiegel), and the bishops of Treves (Joseph
von Hommer), Paderbom (Friedrich von Ledebur),
and Milnster (Caspar von Droste), who showed an
obliging spirit but declared that they could take
no steps without the permission of the pope. With
the consent of the government they therefore
applied to Rome. The result of the negotiations
carried on there between the Prussian Ambassa-
dor Bunsen and Cardinal Capellari was a brief of
Pius VIII. dated Mar. 25, 1830 (Mirbt, QuelUn,
pp. 350-353), in which the regulation of Benedict
XIV. was extended to the four bishoprics above
mentioned, and mixed marriages which had not
been performed in the presence of a Catholic priest
were recognized as valid; but on the real point in
controversy, i.e., the promise about the education
of the children, no decision was reached. As this
brief, moreover, ordered that Catholic women should
be warned against entering upon mixed marriages,
and that Catholic priests should be forbidden to
give the ecclesiastical benediction to such mar-
riages, the Prussian government was not satisfied
with the result. It attempted further direct ne-
gotiations with the bishops, and an agreement
was closed in Berlin on June 19, 1834, between
Bunsen and Count Spiegel, in accordance with
which the brief of Pius VIII. should be trans-
mitted to all priests; at the same time there was
contemplated a similar set of directions for the
general vicariates, concerning the practical treat-
ment of mixed marriages. This instruction (Mirbt,
QueUerif pp. 355-356) provided that all which had
not expressly been prohibited in the brief should
be held to be permitted, that the promise to edu-
cate the children in the religion of the one or the
other of the parents should not be insisted on in
practise, and that a mixed marriage should be
entered upon in the usual solemn form; that is, by
benediction, whereas the mere assistentia pasaiva
of the clergyman was limited to special and excep-
tional cases. This agreement, to which the other
bishops consented, was weak in that it had been
reached without any cooperation by the Curia,
and it had, moreover, merely the value of a per-
sonal arrangement; that is, it would be called in
question as soon as one of these bishops died.
The case arose the very next year; Count Spiegel
passed away Aug. 2, 1835.
It was in fulfilment of an express wish of the
Prussian government that Droste-Vischering be-
came Spiegel's successor. It was expected that
his mature age, his piety, and his inclination to-
ward charitable work would hold his hierarchal tend-
encies in equilibrium, and it was hoped to produce
Droste-Yisoherixiir
Druid
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
a favorable sentiment among the Catholic nobility
by the appointment of one of its members. Before
the election Droste-Vischering was
3. Arch- confidentially asked whether as bishop
bishop of he would maintain the agreement of
Cologne. June, 1834, and would be willing to
apply this in a conciliatory way; and
not until he expressly assured the government of
this in a letter (Mirbt, QueUen, p. 356) did the
cathedral chapter receive the communication that
the king desired his election. At first he held to
the agreement; but in a few months his views
underwent a complete transformation. The news
of the government's arrangement with Spiegel had
penetrated to Rome in spite of all secrecy and had
caused the Curia to make energetic protests, which
the Prussian ambassador unsuccessfully sought to
refute by means of a denial of the agreement, more
bold than skilful. Moreover, at that very time
Ultramontanism began to enter the Rhine prov-
inces by way of Belgium and at once employed its
skill in arousing dissatisfaction. Droste-Vischer-
ing now all at once began to maintain that he had
not known of the agreement of 1834 when he made
his promise, and that he had given his consent
because the minister assured him that it was in
harmony with the brief of Pius VIII. The increas-
ing complaints about the procedure of the arch-
bishop at last compelled the minister. Von Alten-
stein (q.v.), to interfere. The president of the
administration at Dusseldorf, Count Stolberg, ap-
peared in Cologne in company with Bunsen, to
treat personally with Droste-Vischering; but the
conferences led to no understanding; the arch-
bishop refused absolutely to acknowledge the ar-
rangement of 1834 and declared that he wished to
follow it only in so far as it was in accord with
the brief.
There now arose a second contest with the gov-
ernment over its procedure against the supporters
of Georg Hermes (q.v.). When Droste-Vischer-
ing entered upon his office the works of this theo-
logian had already been condemned by Gregory
XVL (Mirbt, QueUen, pp. 357-358). Although
the brief in question bad not been laid before the
Prussian government and therefore had not re-
ceived the royal placet, the government never-
theless respected the verdict of the pope, and
endeavored to forestall possible diffi-
4. The culties by having the professors of the
University Roman Catholic faculties notified
of Bonn, that it expected that they would
avoid everything which might be con-
trary to the pope's decision. That did not satisfy
the archbishop, however, and, since the theological
faculty of Bonn was the chief supporter of this
tendency, he took measures against this educa-
tional institution. He began by exercising against
the publications of its professors a criticism and
censorship which was beyond his competence.
He. moreover, sent a circular to the priests of the
city of Bonn who heard confession, ordering them
to use their influence so that no one should read
the writings of Hermes and that no student should
attend lectures disseminating such ideas. He
allowed himself to use expressions which threw
suspicion on the professors of theology at Bonn,
and he cast doubt upon their orthodoxy. When
they offered to prove their soundness he rejected
their proposals and he refused to substantiate his
charges, but did not withdraw them. The dormi-
tory (KonvUct), which was partly supported by the
city, suffered so much from the archbishop's in-
terference that sixty of the seventy inmates left
the house; he himself caused the priests' seminary
in Cologne to be closed. Finally he went so far
as to lay eighteen propositions before the newly
consecrated priests for signature, containing among
other things the promise to appeal from the deci-
sions of the archbishop to nobody except to the
pope. This was a direct attack on the right of
the State to take cognizance of appeals concern-
ing the misuse of ecclesiastical power. The above
mentioned mission of Count Stolberg was intended
to change the mind of the archbishop on this sub-
ject also, and an understanding was actually
reached in this controversy; but it was not of
practical significance, since the negotiations about
the more important matter of mixed marriages
were a failure.
The government recognized the necessity of de-
cisive action. On receipt of the news that the
archbishop was exciting the population of Cologne,
there was held in Berlin a coimcil of ministers
under the presidency of the king, and on Nov.
20, 1837, Archbishop Droste-Vischering was ar-
rested and taken to the fortification of Minden.
The impression of this event was ex-
5. Droste- traordinary. On Dec. 10 Gregory
Vischering's XVI. pronounced a fulminant allocu-
DownfalL tion in the presence of the cardinals,
in which he took the side of the de-
posed archbishop without waiting for reports from
Berlin, and declared that the freedom of the Church
was violated, the episcopal dignity derided, the
rights of the Church trodden under foot. Bunsen,
the Prussian ambassador at the Curia, had to be
recalled. The Prussian government tried to jus-
tify its procedure in the eyes of the public by
means of a memorial, and when an answer to this
was published in Rome it endeavored to refute it
by a second account of the condition of things.
The government was also supported by the cathe-
dral chapter of Cologne in so far forth that the
latter declared itself ready to continue to conduct
affairs; and it succeeded in keeping in check the
nobility and clergy who took delight in being in
the opposition; at the same time it showed a per-
sonal courtesy to the archbishop by permitting
him to retire to his ancestral castle of Darfeld.
But it was not successful in quieting the excited
Catholic population. Whether it would have had
the power to maintain the position which it had
taken is hard to say; but, as a matter of fact, after
King Frederick William IV. succeeded Frederick
William III. in 1840 the government at once
changed its course and began a retreat which must
be designated as the utter defeat of the State.
Although Droste-Vischering was not allowed to
return to Cologne, Bishop Von Geissel from Speyer
undertaking to administer the archdiocese as co-
adjutor with the right of succession, he neverthe-
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Droste-Visoherinff
I>ruld
lesB received from the king in reparation of his
honor the declaration that the king had never en-
tertained the thought that he had taken a part in
machinations of political and revolutionary char-
leter. Moreover, the requirements previously made
about mixed marriages were allowed to drop,
the placet was waived, and in 1841 there was
founded in the Prussian KtUtusministerium a spe-
cial Roman Catholic department which lasted
down to 1871. Droste-Vischering spent the rest
of his days in Miinster far from public life. In no
respect was he an important man, but he possessed
great energy and perseverance. Since he aided
his Church in winning a great triumph he was
praised by Gdrres as an Athanasius, but his blus-
tering manner reminds one rather of Epiphanius.
Carl Mirbt.
Bduooiapht: For the life consult: J. tod Gdrres, Atharui-
rai, RcKensburg, 1837 (a Catholic eulogy; cf. J. G.
Sefalemmo', Gi^rrea in aeinem AthanaaiuM aU Vertiieidiger
ia ErAiadujfa xxm DrotU zu Viaehering, Nuremberg.
188S); C. A. Hase, Die beiden Erdnsckfife, Leipsic, 1839;
P. C. Marheineke, Der Erzbiaehof C. A. von Droate tu
VUtktrwg ala Friedenatifier, Berlin. 1843; F. A. Muth,
is DevllaManda Epiacopat in Lebenabildem^ WQrsburh,
1873. On the Cologne controTersy, of fundamental im-
portance for the relations of the Prussian state to the
Cktholie Church, consult: G. F. H. Rheinwald, AUge-
MMi Rajurtorium fQr die theoloffiacha Literatur, vols,
nii.-xxxvii., 1838-42 (lists of contemporary literature):
C. C. J. Ton Bunsen, Aua aeinen Brief en^ Leipsic, 18G8,
Ei^ tnnsl., London. 1869; £. Friedberg, Grenzen zvn-
»An Siaat und Kirdie, Tubingen, 1872; idem. Orund-
^m der preuaaiachen Kirchenpoliiik unter Friedrich Wil-
hdm IV., Uipsic. 1882; H. Schmid, Geachichte der k€Uho-
UtAen Kirche Deutachlanda, Munich. 1874; H. von Sybel,
KlmeaU PoliHk im 19. Jahrhundert, Bonn. 1874; C.
Mirbt, Die preuaaiadte Geaandtachaft am Hofe dea Papataa,
Ldpaic 1899; H. BrQck. GeachichU der katholiachen KvrcKa
im 19. Jakrhundert, vol. ii., MQnster, 1903.
DROZ, dro, FRANCOIS XAVIER JOSEPH:
French moralist and historian; b. at Besan^on
Oct. 31, 1773; d. at Paris Nov. 5, 1850. In 1792
he went to Paris to study law, but on the declara-
tbn of war joined the volunteer battalion of Doubs,
and sen'ed in the army of the Rhine for the next
three years. Obliged by ill health to abandon his
military career, he obtained the chair of eloquence
in the Ecole Cent rale in his native town. In 1803
he removed to Paris, where for a time he held a
position in the pension ofhce; but after 1814 he
devoted himself exclusively to his favorite pursuit
of literature. In 1824 he became a member of the
French Academy, and in 1838 president of the
Academy of Moral and Political Sciences. At first
an epicurean and a sensualist, be became more re-
ligious as he grew older. His last work was Pcn-
««t sur le Christianisme (Paris, 1844), to which he
added Aveux d'un philosophe Chretien in 1848.
Other works were: De la philosophie morale (Paris,
1823); (Eurre* morales (2 vols., 1826); and His-
toiredu rkgne de Louis XV I , (3 vols., 1839-42).
BiBLXKuurar: J. P. Damiron, Eaaai aur rhiatoire de la
V^HatophU en France au dix-neuvieme aiccle, ii. 79 sqq.,
P^ 1834; Uchtenberger. ESR, iv. 104-105.
DRUID: A member of an order in Celtic Gaul
and Britain, or of a class in Ireland, which in pre-
Roman and pre-Christian times had charge of re-
iJgMws rites. The subject is most obscure. The
eariy disappearance of the druids in Gaul and
Britain before the advance of Roman civilization,
and in Ireland before Christianity, so obliterated
traces of them that ail information is ultimately
derived from the classical writers and from early
Irish hagiological works. The name
Name and has been falsely connected with the
Sources of Greek drys, " an oak," to which the
Knowledge, worship in the oak groves gave fac-
titious verisimilitude; it is really de-
rived from a Celtic root which bears the idea of
magical dealing. The sources of information are
on the classical side: Csesar, De hello Gallico, vi.
13-20; Tacitus, AnnaleSf xiv. 30, and Historia, iv.
54; Pliny, Hist not., xxx. 4, 13, xxxi. 1; Cicero,
De divinatione ; Ammianus Marcellinus, Hist^ XV.
ix. 8, and scattered notices in Suetonius {Claudius,
XXV.), Diogenes Laertius, and Diodorus Siculus;
from the Irish side the Tripartite Life of Patrick,
Adamnan's life of Columba, and a large number
of scattered notices mainly, legendary.
Csesar's account, which is much the fullest of all
which can claim historical value, states that above
the mass of the people in Gaul (who were slaves)
were two classes, the nobles and the druids. The
latter officiated at public and private sacrifices,
expoimded religious duties and observances, trained
the youth, decided public questions concerning
succession, inheritance, crimes, boundaries, and
the like. To their decisions submission was re-
quired under penalty of interdiction from partici-
pation in sacred rites, the severest punishment
conceivable to the people. A yearly
Csesar's meeting of chief druids was held, at
Account, which an archdruid was selected by
vote. The members of the order
were exempt from taxation and from military duty.
Because of this they had many students, some of
whom remained with them for twenty years, dur-
ing which they learned a *' great number of verses,"
which were transmitted orally, since sacred things
were not committed to writing. They taught the
transmigration of souls, the end of the world by
fire and water, discussed natural science, astron-
omy, and the nature of the gods. They officiated
at human and other sacrifices and at all religious
rites. The human sacrifices were offered some-
times in holocausts, the victims being prisoners of
war, criminals, or even voluntary sufferers, and
they were burned after being enclosed in huge
wicker images. Csesar equates the chief deity with
Mercury as the god of culture, and other deities
with Apollo, Mars, Jupiter, and Minerva. He
guesses at a British origin for the institution.
Pliny, assigning a Gallic origin, tells of the cere-
mony of the cutting of the mistletoe (associated
by the druids with immortality) and narrates a
curious story of the ** serpents' egg," an accretion
formed by a mass of writhing ser-
Other Clas- pcnts and cast out of their midst, and
sical and then caught by a druid before it
Irish touched the ground and used for
Accounts, magical purposes. Tacitus asserts
that they deduced auguries from hu-
man entrails, and that the groves, particularly of
the Isle of Anglesey, were the sites of bloody sac-
rifices. Ammianus Marcellinus makes three classes
Drnid
Druaes
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
10
of literati among the Gauls, bards, evbages (stu-
dents of nature), and druids — an order like the
Pythagoreans. Suetonius asserts that Claudius
extinguished the religion in Gaul, and Pliny that
Tiberius suppressed the order. Diogenes Laertius
(preface to the PhUoaophoi bioi) makes the druids
the originators of philosophy among the Celts, and
ascribes to them as the sum of their teaching the
triple maxim, '* Honor the gods, do no evil, be
brave." The Irish hagiology ascribes to the druids
great influence, makes their decision precede even
that of kings, and, in its later forms, makes them
appear as powerful magicians whom Patrick could
vanquish only with difficulty, as soothsayers, di-
viners, protectors of sacred springs, as imposers of
sacred duties and taboos, and as cherishing the
oak, yew, blackthorn, and mountain ash, with the
ivy as a magical herb. The druids appear to have
had a tonsure in Ireland which Christians adopted,
the form of which was different from the Roman
by which it was superseded. The Irish druids were
not organized, but were a learned class.
The impression left by these early accounts is
that the Gallic and British druids were an order
wielding political power, since they influenced the
choice of magistrates; social power,
Present since they decided civil and criminal
Knowledge, causes; and religious power, since they
controlled sacred rites. They were
rich, masterful, and despotic. The reports of hu-
man sacrifices are circumstantial and supported
by the detail of the means of obtaining auguries.
A connection with Greek learning is suggested by
Csesar's mention of the use of Greek characters
for record of matters not religious, though no ar-
cheological evidence in support of this is known.
That a part of their knowledge was esoteric is sup-
ported by the fact that they were not a numerous
class as compared with the number of their pupils.
The difference between the druidism of Britain
and that of Ireland argues no close, or at least no
continuous connection between the two. The
popular association of the druids with dolmens,
menhirs, and cromlechs has at its basis only that
the druids used these places, with no probability
that they erected the monuments.
Geo. W. Gilmore.
Bibliographt: J. R. Green, Hutory of the English Peo-
pU, vol. L, London. 1892; D. W. Nash, Talieain, or the
Bardt and Druid* of Britain, chap, iii., London, 1858;
J. Rhys. CeUic Heathendom, ib. 1888; idem, CeUic Brit-
ain, pp. 70-73. ib. 1904; T. Olden, Church of Ireland,
ohap. i., ib. 1892; J. von Pflug-Harttung, Tranaactione
of the RoytU Hietorical Society, 1893, pp. 55-75; Adamnan,
Vita S. ColumbcB, pp. xviii.-xxiii. et passim, Oxford,
1894; J. V. Montbarlet, Lee Pierre* et Vhietoire. Le
Druidieme, Paris, 1896; A. Bertrand, La Religion det
Oaxdoie; leeDruidee et le Druidieme, pp. 268 sqq., lb. 1897;
G. Dottin, La Bretagne et lee pay* celtiquee, iv. 268-295,
ib. 1906; P. D. Chantepie de la Saussaye, Religione-Oe-
ediiehte, ii. 672-574. TQbingen, 1905; C. Reuel, Lea Re-
Ugione de la OatUe avant le Chrietianieme, Paris, 1907.
DRUMMOND, HENRY: 1. Apostle of the Cath-
olic Apostolic Church; b. at the Grange, Hamp-
shire (s.w. of London), 1786; d. at Albuiy (25 m.
B.w. of London), Surrey, Feb. 20, 1860. He was
educated at Harrow, and studied two years in Christ
Church, Oxford, but did not take a degree. From
1810 to 1813 he was in Parliament, but failing
health compelled him to retire. In 1817 he met
Robert Haldane (q.v.) in Geneva and was led by
him to support the evangelical Genevan clergy
against the Socinian majority, and in 1819 to found
the Continental Society, of which he was the main-
stay for many years. In 1826 he gathered in his
house at Albury a number of clergymen and lay-
men for a conference upon the prophetic Scriptures.
These conferences were continued annually for five
years. Out of them came the organization of the
Catholic Apostolic Church (q.v.), to the apostolate
of which Drummond was called in 1832. The
apostles' chapel and chapter-house at Albuiy were
erected by him. From 1847 till his death he was
member of Parliament from West Surrey; he was,
generally speaking, a Tory of the old school, but was
remarkable for the independence of his political
position, while at the same time he always supported
the budget, as a matter of principle, whatever
party might be in power. His son-in-law Lord
Lovaine after his death brought out a collection of
his Speeches in Parliament and Some Miscellaneoua
Pamphlets (2 vols., London, 1860); his lectures in the
churches have also been published, and Abttrctet
Principles of Revealed Religion (London, 1845).
Samuel J. Andrews.
Bibliography: A memoir is contained in Lord Lovaine'a
ed. of his Speeches, ut sup.; Margaret Oliphant, Life cf
Edtoard Irving, London, 1865; DNB, xvi. 28-29.
2. Free Church of Scotland; b. at Stirling Aug.
17, 1851; d. at Tunbridge Wells, Kent, Mar. 11,
1897. He studied at Edinburgh University, but
left before receiving a degree. In 1870 he began
the divinity course of the Free Church at New
College, Ec&nburgh, and also attended the Univer-
sity of Ttlbingen for a semester in 1873. In 1874-75
he took an active part in the revival work of Moody
and Sankey, but in 1875 returned to New College,
and two years later was appointed lecturer in
natural science at the Free (Church College,* Glas-
gow. He was appointed full professor of theology
in 1884, and seven months later was ordained to
the ministry of the Free Church. He made a visit
to the United States in 1879, and in 1882 again as-
sisted Moody in Great Britain. In 1883 he went to
Africa for a scientific exploration of Lakes Nyasa
and Tanganyika for the African Lakes Corporation,
returning to Scotland in 1884. He visited the
American colleges in 1887, and the Australian in 1890,
in the interest of student missions, and in 1893
delivered the Lowell lectures in Boston. Being him-
self a highly educated man and a winning person-
ality and fired by missionary zeal, he had a great in-
fluence upon educated people, and especially upon
students. He was a true Students* Apostle, and
won many of them to a reUgious life. His writings
had an enormous sale. Of them may be mentioned:
Natural Law in the Spiritual World (London, 1883);
Tropical Africa (1888); The Greatest Thing in the
World and other Addresses (1894); The Ascent of
Man (Lowell Lectures; 1894); The Ideal Life and
other unpublished Addresses (1897); and The New
Evangelism and other Papers (1899).
Bibliography: G. A. Smith, Life of Henry Drummond^
London, 1890; H. M. Cecil, Peeudo-Philoeophy at th* End
11
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Drnid
Drusea
if Ai NinttmnA Cmiarv. vol. i.. ib. 1587; IL A. WAtson.
G^it al Y&tfrdau, ib. iSMi T. Hunter Boyd, fimrji
Uirmmond; Stmu BecoiiAtU&na^ ib. 1907.
BRIWMOZfB, JAMES: Unitarian; b. at Dub-
lb Uay 14, 1835. He etudbd at Trinity CoUc^,
Dubiifl(B.A., IS55), and Manchester New College^
LcjodrA (lSS6-^d)^ and after tieing assistant minister
wfth Willkm Gaskell at Cross Strceft Chapel, Man-
etetef, 1S5&-69. was appointed professor of New
TfflliineDt divinity in Manchester New College^
witkh was i^moved to Oxford in 1889 and eaUed
HsDcheater College in 1893, From 18^5 to 1906
k WM also princtpal of the eoUege, but retired
fr^iD both positiooi ia 1906. He deacribee himself
n a " bl«ral Christian/* He haa written Spiritual
M^ (sermonsj London, 1870); The Jetmsh
Mmuih (1877); Introduction to ih/B Study of The-
dsg^ (1S84); Philo Jtuti^uSf €fr the Jewish* Aiexan^
^im PkitoMoph^ in {t» Detmhpment and Completion
[2 vtk., 1888); The Epigile of SL Paul to the Gala-
tiaJuEr^ined and lUu^traied (1893); Via, Veritas,
Ilk (Hibbert Lectures for 1894; 1894); The
Epistia */ Paul to the ThessahnianSf C&rinlhianSf
GdsHsns^ Bamarm^ and Phtlippians (1899); Life
and Ltttera of Jameji Martineau (in collaboration
litli C. B. Upton; 1902); and The Character and
AvUm^ip of ike Fourth Gospel (1904).
DRURY, AUGUSTUS WALDO: United Breth-
m; b. at Pendleton, Ind., Mar. 2, 185L He
studied at Western College (now Leander Clark
Cdleip), Toledo, la, (B.A., 1872), Union BibUc^l
SemiDuy^ DaytOD, O,, from which he was graduated
h 18T7, uid the Univeraity of Berlin (1886). After
liemg professor of dassics in Western College 1872-
1S73 and holding various pastorates in bis denomina-
tkm lS7S-30f he was professor of church history in
l^jiioa Biblieai Seminaiy 1880-92. Since 1892 he
has been professor of iystematic theology in the
mmt institution. Be has been secretary of the
Tnited Brethren Hifltorical Society since ISSS, and
was & meoober of the Tri-chureb Council (Congre-
ptbnal, United Brethren, and Methodist Protea-
tint) m 1906^7. In 1891-92 he was editor of The
United Br^ren Quarterly Review, and has written
The Life of Philip WUliam OUethein (Dayton, 1884);
ffc Uft of Biehop J. J. Gtassbrenner (X8S9); Dis-
cipfuwi 0/ tl^ United Br^ren in Chrixt (1895);
Mmvim of Annual and General Conferencee (1S97);
iBd BapHtm (1902),
MUIT, JOHN BEHJAJON; Reformed (Dutch);
h. at Khinebeek, N. Y,, Aug. 15, 1838; d. at New
Bmnsiick, N. J,, Mar, 21, 1909, He studied at Rut-
^s Co\k^ (B,A„ 1858), and the New Brunswick
ThwJogical Seminary (1861), euppUed the Reformed
Chumbat Davenport, la,, 1861^2, was pastor of the
Firel Reformed Cbuxch at Ghent, N, Y., 1864-^87.
After 1S87 he was editor of the Christian Inldligen-
ar. He was president of the General Synod of
i^ Ref onaed Church in America in 1886. In 1883
he wAg Vedder lecturer in Rutgers (Allege and
•Ve* Bnmswick Theological Seminary. In the-
^^ he was a liberal CSalvinist, He wrote Hi^
*«^cai Sketch af the First Reformed Church of
^keii (Cktham, N. Y., 1876); HiMoriml Skeich of
tt« M^misd iDuteh) Church of Rhineiteek, N, Y.
(1881); and Truths and Unindhs of Evoltdion
(Vedder Lectures; Now York, 1884),
DRURY, BiAJtION RICHARDSON: United
Brethren; b, at Pendleton, Ind., Dec 27, 1849,
He studied at Western College (now Leaoder Clark
College), Toledo, la. (B.A,, 1872), and was graduated
from Uuion Biblical Seminary, Dayton, 0., in 1875.
He held pastorates at Toledo, la. (1875-87), and
Cedar Rapids, la. (1878-81), and from 1881 to 1897
was associate editor of the Religioue Telescope (Day-
ton, O.), Since 1S98 he has been pastor of the
First United Brethren Church, Toledo, la. In
theology he is an orthodox member of his denomi'
nation. He has written Pastor^ s Pocket Record
(Dayton, O., 1SS3); The OUerhein BiHhdau Book
(1887); Handbook for Workers (1888); Pasi^'s
Companion (1894); At Hand (1895); Our Catechism
(1897); and Life and Career of Bishop James W.
HoU, D,D. (1902).
DRUSES,
Origin (I 1). Doctrine of God (f 4),
Moh&tam«dAti ForerunBen of The "AdmiaiAtrfi.ton " (f 5),
the DniMW (I 2). NatiiK of the Bou] (| aj,
OtMcutity of the l>ruAe Rellg- Knowledgje (ft 7).
ion (I 3). Ethioi »Jid Cyjitom* Cf 8)
Druses are- the adherents of a composite aect
which still exists in Syria, especially in the Lebanon,
From tbeir use of the Arabic language the Druses,
who term themselves '* Confcsaor^ of the Unity (of
God)," seem to be a mixture of Syrians and Arabs,
Their type, on the other hand, would indicate that
they are descendants of the p re-Mohammedan
Aramaic population. The steady resistance of
this liberty-loving community to the State has
aided in the preservation of their religion through
the centuries, while they feel, on the other band,
that they form a distinct nation simply because of
their religious isotation. By their tenacity, cun-
ning, and valor they have succeeded in resisting all
attempts at subjugation, and still form a Btate
within a State. They now number about 100,000,
although in recent years political circumstances
have led many families to emigrate from Lebanon
to the Hauran, where they have settled among
the peaaaots and Bedouins of that region. It is
worth noting that there are two Druse villages
on Mt. Carmeli and they have a sanctuary there at
which they perform a yearly sacrifice.
The origin of the religion is closely connected with
the Egyptian Fatimlte calif al-Hakim bi'amri-llah
(996-1021), His chief object was the propagation
of the tenets of the sect of the Ismalliyyah, the
main source of the doctrines of the Druses, in
Egypt, where the people were adherents of ortho-
dox Sunnite MohammedaDism. In
I. Origin* 1017 a Turk named Darazi, a member
of the Ismailiyyah, who had come
from the East and had been made a confidant of
aI*Hakim, published a work asserting that the soul
of Adam had passed to Ah, the cousin and son-in-
law of Mohammed, whence it had descended to the
Fatimites, and thus had come to al-Hakuru The
heretic barely eacaped with hia life from the fuiy
of the people, but the calif aided him to flee to Syria,
where at Wadi al-Taim, in the southam Lebanon.
Drusea
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
18
be founded the sect which received its name from
him, duruz being the plural of darazi. Three years
later the Persian sectary Hamzah again sought to
propagate kindred doctrines in Egypt, but was
forced to take refuge in flight with Darazi, whoso
theological authority he became. A few years
later the calif al-Hakim mysteriously disappeared,
and the Druses believe that he is concealed some-
where as the incarnation of the divinity and will
appear at the end of time as theMahdi.
In origin the Druses were both political and re-
ligious, since they were closely connected with the
Shiites, the strict legitimists who upheld the claims
of Ali and the first three califs, but rejected the
Ommiads and the Abbassids. These Shiites, es-
pecially in Persia, regarded Ali and his descendants,
the Imams, as incarnations of the Deity, and held
that the soul of an Imam passed immediately at
his death into the body of his successor. Since
it was politically dangerous to appear
2. Moham- as an Imam, the theory of a hidden
medan Imam wajs developed, of whom the
Forerunners Mahdi is to be the last. The mis-
of the sionary activity of the various Shiite
Druses. sects included northern Africa, and
was accepted by the Fatimite califs.
Of these sects the Ismailiyyah and the Karmathians
were the most important for the development of the
Druses. The Ismailiyyah rose about 765. After
the death of the Imam Jaafar a schism was caused
by the fact that some accepted his son Musa as the
seventh Imam, while others gave this honor to his
other son, Ismail. The same period saw a develop-
ment of the theory that incarnations of the divinity
had been sent to earth to bring man nearer to God
and to reveal his will. These prophets, who were
called "speakers" (na^ifc), were Adam, Noah, Abra-
ham, Moses, Jesus, Mohammed, and Mohammed
al-Mahdi, the son of Ismail. These prophets, each
of whom marked an advance on the teachings of his
predecessors, were aided by a "silent one," who
spoke nothing on his own authority, but proclaimed
and promulgated the tenets of the " speakers."
These " silent ones " are the Imams, so that Seth
was the Imam to the prophet Adam, Shcm to Noah,
Ishmaei to Abraham, Aaron to Moses, Peter to
Jesus, Ali to Mohammed, and Abdallah ibn Maimun
to Mohammed al-Mahdi, and between each prophet
came seven Imams. This entire system of prophets
and Imams was accepted, though with modifica-
tions, by the Druses. The Abdallah ibn Maimun
just mentioned was an adherent of a dualistic sect
and used his propaganda of the doctrines of the Is-
mailiyyah solely to advance his teachings which
were a confused mixture of Zoroastrian, Manichean,
and Greek concepts. His missionaries were charged
to lead suitable adepts of the new faith through
various stages (at first seven, and later nine) to his
own nihilistic and materialistic point of view, thus
alienating them not only from Shiite Mohammed-
anism, but from all positive religion. Abdallah 's
propaganda naturally brought upon him the hos-
tility of the authorities, and he was forced to flee
to the town of Salamiyyah in Syria. Many ad-
herents were won in Persia and the lands lying
along the Euphrates, while on the lower Euphrates
the Karmathians split off from the Ismailiyyah and
formed a political party with communistic tenets.
The Ismailiyyah also made their way back to Africa
before the calif ate of al-Hakim bi'amri-Uah, as noted
above, and communities of them still exist in Syria.
The doctrines of the Druses mark an advance over
the tenets of the Ismailiyyah and the Karmathians,
their immediate predecessors, and they regard the
teachings of the Ismailiyyah, like Shiitism and Is-
lam in general, as superseded by their own and even
hostile to them. On the other hand, the Moham-
medans consider the Druses infidels, and Islamic
writings seldom mention them. The difficulty of a
clear presentment of the confused doctrines of the
Druses is increased by the fact that their religion is
esoteric, its adherents being forbidden
3. Obscur- to reveal its mysteries to non-believers
ity of the and being required to hide their re-
Druse ligious books from all. Druses who
Religion, have been initiated into the faith sel-
dom become converts to other religions,
and from the uneducated nothing can be learned.
Many dogmas and customs, moreover, which for-
merly had a distinct religious meaning, now survive
as unintelligible remnants, especially as the Druses
seldom pursue deep religious studies, and the very
fact that the religion is secret (as it must be on
account of the Mohammedan attitude toward it)
renders it peculiarly liable to the danger of degen-
erating into meaningless phrases and ceremonies.
The many-sided character of their religion makes
it possible for Druses to emphasize the Islamic ele-
ments of their faith in conversing with Moham-
medans and to follow a similar course with Chris-
tians or even with freemasons.
According to the teaching of the Druses, God is
one, and the confession of his unity is the first duty
of religion. While this coincides with the Koran,
their doctrine that God is devoid of all attributes,
having neither origin, limitations, definitions, names,
or anthropomorphism of any sort, makes them
closely akin to the rationalistic Mutazilah. This
philosophical concept of God might
4. Doctrine seem to lead to pantheism, but its
of God. principal result was the theory that
the Deity, in order to approach more
closely to man, has revealed himself in bodily form,
and has accordingly hidden himself in men; al-
though man does not thereby become the Divinity.
God ever remains the same, even in these forms
which serve him as a veil, and it is, therefore, the
duty of each one to attain through these manifes-
tations a knowledge of God and a proof of his exists
ence. The last of the ten (or nine) incarnations of
the Divinity was the calif al-Hakim.
The real administrators of the world and the
actual preachers or priests for mankind, however,
are the " bonds " (hudud)^ or " revelations" (ayyat),
which are also called by many other names. The
chief terms are derived from the fact that before
the origin of the Druses the Mohammedan sect of
the Bataniyyah interpreted every expression of the
Koran allegorically and applied it to persons. In
the system of the Druses such administrators were
primarily abstract ideas which were later regarded
ss incarnate. The persons in whom they dwelt,
IS
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Drosea
who have lived at various times under various names ,
are regarded, however, merely as bearers of the one
unehaDged idea. The first of these administrators
was Will, a figure of perfect purity
5. The created by God from the light which
*<Adfflinis^ streams from him, and from it all else
trators." comes. It is also universal Wisdom,
from which all truths are an emanation.
Although it is a ''speaker," it has appeared at vari-
ous times as an Imam, its last incarnation being
Eamzah, who had attended Adam as Shatnicl, Noah
as Pythagoras, Abraham as David, and who was
Eleazar, the true Messiah, in the days of Jesus.
lliTicn, however, Wisdom saw that he had no equal,
he became proud, and thus was bom Darkness, the
author of disobedience in every form. Wisdom
then implored forgiveness, and at his prayer God
created as the second administrator the universal
Soul, who received the knowledge of truth from
Wisdom, to whom she stands in the relation of a
wife, the other administrators deriving their exist-
ence from her. The soul has likewise been incar-
nate at certain times, as in Enoch and Hermes,
while Hamzah regarded his contemporary Abu
Ibrahim Ismail ibn Muhammad as an incorpora-
tion of this principle. The union of Wisdom and
Soul produc€Ki the Word (in the Neoplatonic sense),
whfle Soul's need of assistance against the adversary
resulted in the fourth administrator, the " Pre-
ceding," or " Left Wing." On this principle the
writings of the Druses are vague and scanty, al-
though it is apparently derived from the allegorism
of the Bataniyyah. The fifth and last adminis-
trator, called the " Following." or the " Right
Wing," is important as being identified with the
last noteworthy author of the sect, Abu'l-Hassan
Ali, surnamed al-Muktanah or Baha al-Din, who
established the doctrines of the Druses on a dog-
matic basis about 1038.
A subordinate hierarchy must be distinguished
from the one just described. On the " Following "
are dependent the spiritual leaders of the Druses,
who are called, in decreasing order, DaH (** mis-
sbnary"), Ma*dhun ("he to whom it is per-
mitted"), and Mukassir ("breaker," i.e., of the
doctrines of other beliefs). These subordinate
hierarchs are invariably regarded as men. The five
celestial administrators are opposed, furthermore,
by five principles of error, who have been incarnate
in Mobunmed, Ali, and others.
Both the universe and man were created in their
present form, so that they are as immutable as
God himself. Man is composed of two essentials,
wisdom and soul, and of one accident, body. The
Mulfl have been created from eternity, but are later
than universal Wisdom. The number of souls,
like that of men, remains invariable; when a man
dies his soul enters another body, generally without
remembrance of the past, the souls of
^ Hature unbelievers again becoming infidels
o^tbe and the souls of the faithful remain-
Soul, ing believers. They do not, however,
enter the bodies of animals, but are
reincarnated in better or worse human forms ac-
^^0"% to their deeds in their former life. The
number of Druses, therefore, neither increases nor
diminishes, but they abo believe that in the far-
thest parts of China coreligionists live, where the
soul of a dead Druse may find its reincarnation.
Souls pass through a certain process of purification
until the end of time, when al-Hakim and Hamzah
will again appear and when the souls will conuningle
in the Imam.
True knowledge consists in insight into the nature
and dogmas of unitarianism, the cardinal feature of
the religion of the Druses. It is divided into five
parts, two concerned with nature, especially with the
healing of men and animals, and two with religion.
The first of the latter is understanding of external
religion, or revelation, and was the function of the
" speakers," Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus« and
Mohammed. The second religious
7. Knowl- truth is that each of these " speakers "
edge. had an asas (" foundation," a synonym
for the " silent ones "), who repre-
sented the interpretation of revelation. These
" speakers " all typified true religion or the uni-
tarianism of the Druses, which is also taught in the
Pentateuch, in the Psalms, in the Gospel, and in the
Koran, although these books are a mixture of truth
and falsehood and have been superseded by the
teaching of the Druses. In their knowledge of
religion the Druses are divided into *' initiates"
(*ukkal) and " ignorant " (juhhal), the former
having a much higher rank, and the latter being
denoted by distinctive clothing. There are also
apparently many intermediate grades. The places
of worship of the Druses are situated in lonely spots
outside the villages. The initiates gather there
frequently, but the nature of worship in these
khalwas is imknown. They are often said to rev-
erence a calf, which, if true, may represent a princi-
ple of evil.
In conformity with their doctrine of the immuta-
bility of bodies and spirits, the Druses make no
religious propaganda whatever. When al-Hakim
returns, however, he will either destroy or subju-
gate the misbelievers, and will found an earthly king-
dom in which his followers will rule in wealth. The
time of the coming of this Messianic kingdom is
unknown, although signs will herald its approach,
one portent being a period when the Druses are in
a most pitiable plight and the Christians have
gained power over the Mohammedans.
The ethics of the Druses are closely connected
with the practise of their faith, but the Moham-
medan prescriptions of prayer, fasting, pilgrimage,
and the like, already allegorized away by the Bata-
niyyah, are altogether discarded. According to De
Sacy, the seven religious duties of the Druses are as
follows: to speak the truth; to watch over their
mutual safety; to follow the religion
8. Ethics which they have professed, and to
and renounce the faith and worship of
Customs, vanity and falsehood; to separate
themselves from evil spirits and men
of false creed; to confess the unity of God, as it has
existed throughout the centuries; to be content with
the acts of God, whatever they may be; and to sub-
mit entirely to the divine guidance in weal and wo.
They are also enjoined to abstain from unlawful
gain, to be dignified, and to refrain from cursing.
Dnudlla
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
14
The use of wine and tobacco is forbidden, at least
to the initiates, while grave misdemeanors are
pimished severely, and even with exclusion from
the community. Women are more highly esteemed
among them than by the modem Mohammedans,
and are usually instructed in reading and religion,
although, in conformity with ancient Oriental usage,
they are veiled in the presence of strangers.
It is impossible, with the sources thus far known,
to give a complete presentment of the religion of the
Druses, nor do they themselves possess a perfect
system of all their dogmas, for in the course of cen-
turies many new doctrines have been developed,
and others have been forgotten. Although their
faith is not without its dark aspects, the Druses
have sought with all their might to preserve their
views and customs, and to defend against external
influences their consciousness of nationality, which
rests upon a foundation of religion.
(A. SociNt.)
Biblioorapht: S. de Sacy, EzpotS de la reliffion dea Druzea,
2 vols., Paris, 1838; C. Niebuhr, Rei$ebe9chreibun(f, ii.
428 sqq., Copenhagen, 1778; C. H. Churchill. Ten Year§*
Residence in Lebanon, . . . Full Account of the Dnue
Reliffion, 4 vols. (vol. iv. is Drutee and MaronUee under
Turkiah Rule), London, 1853-62; G. W. Chasseaud, VitiU
to the Dnuee of Lebanon, ib. 1854; Earl of Carnarvon,
RecoUectiona of the Druzea of Lebanon, ib. 1860; B. H.
Cowper. Secta in Sj/ria, ib. I860: H. Petermann, Reiaen
im Orient, i. 376 sqq., Leipsic, 1860; H. Guys, Thiogonie
dea Druaea, Paris, 1863; idem. La Nation Druae, aon hia-
toire, aa reliffion, aea nutura, Marseilles. 1864; R, Dosy.
Het lalamiam, Haarlem, 1880; L. Oliphant, Land of
Gilead, London, 1880; idem, Haifa, or Life in Modem
Paleatine, ib. 1887; A. Muller, Der lalam im Morffen- und
Abendland, i. 629 sqq.. BeHin. 1885; T. Waldemeier. Au-
tobioffraphy: . . . Sixteen Yeara in Syria, London, 1886;
W. Ewing, Arab and Druae at Home, ib. 1907.
DRIJSILLA. See Herod and his Family.
DRUSroS, JOHANNES (Jan van den Dries-
sche): Orientalist and exegete; b. at Audenarde
(Oudenaarde; 14 m. s.s.w. of Ghent), in East Flan-
ders, June 28, 1550; d. in Franeker Feb. 12, 1616.
He studied Latin and Greek under Peter Dickel at
Ghent, and with Cornelius Valerius and Johannes
Stadius at Louvain. When his father, Clement
van den Driessche, was proscribed in 1567 as a
zealous Protestant and had to flee, the son followed
him to London where, among others, his teacher
was Antoine Rudolphe le Chevalier. In 1572
Drusius became professor of Oriental languages at
Oxford. After the Peace of Ghent (1576) had en-
abled him to return home, he filled the like office
at Ley den. In 1585 he accepted a call to Franeker,
where he lived as professor of the Hebrew language
until his death. His scholarship was recognized
wherever unprejudiced judgment was not overcast
by theological bias. When a committee was organ-
ized in 1596 for the preparation of a new Dutch
version of the Bible, Drusius was made a member
upon the recommendation of Arminius and Uy-
tenbogaert; but subsequently the committee was
obliged to dissolve. In IGOO Drusius was com-
missioned by the States General to annotate diffi-
cult passages of the Old Testament, to which task
he devoted himself with great industry, but had
often to hear reproaches of tardy progress. He was
also attacked by theologians of other opinions for
being a friend of Arminias and Uytenbogaert.
Even the morality of hia family was aasailed.
Taken all in all, the accusations brought against
him by his pupil Suctinus Amama and others have
been shown to be unjust. But in his age of stormy
conflicts he passed for an undecided man because,
having applied himself with all his might to th«
advancement of Biblical science, in connection with
his investigations he could not admit dogmatic
definitions as authoritative. He repeatedly ap-
peals to the " judgment of the Church catholic "
against particular churches and ecclesiastical fao*
tions, by which he will not suffer himself to be
restricted in his scholarly activity. Only a small
portion of his notes on the Old Testament appeared
in his lifetime; the rest, were published by Amama
and others, 1617-36. He also wrote comments on
the New Testament, containing especially elucida-
tions from the Talmud and rabbinical sources
(Franeker, 1612; 2d cd., 1616). His collective
works were issued by Amama (10 vols., Amheim and
Amsterdam, 1622-36). Lists of Drusius's numer-
ous writings are to be found in Meursius, Vriemoet,
and Nic^ron. In the Critica sacra his annotations
stand after those of MUnster, Fagius, Vatablus,
Castalio, and Clarius; they rank among the most
important in this great compilation.
Carl Bebtheau.
Bibliography: A. Curiander. Vita operumque Johannia
Druaii . . . delineatio et tituli, Franeker, 1616; J. Meur-
siuB. Athena Batava, pp. 252 sqq.. Leyden. 1625; R.
Simon, Hiatoire critique du V. T., p. 499, PwiB, 1680;
Nic^ron, Mhnoirea, xxii. 57-76; G. W. Meyer, Oeathidhia
der SchrifterktArung, iii. 413-414. Gdttingen, 1804; F. A.
Tholuck, Daa akademiache Ld>en dea 17. Jahrhundmia, u.
206. 378. Halle. 1854; L. Diestel, GeadiiehU dea A. T, in
der chriatlichen Kirche, passim, espedally pp. 422 aqq.,
Jena, 1869; ADB, v. 439-440.
DRUTHMAR, CHRISTIAN: The name assigned
to the author of an extensive commentary on
Matthew, and two briefer ones on Luke and John.
It has recently been shown, however, that the name
Druthmar does not occur in the manuscripts, but is
based on a statement of Trithemius {De scriptaribui
ecclesiasticis, 280), and therefore must be given up.
According to the prologue to the commentary on
Matthew, Christian was a monk in the cloister of
Stabulaus (the modem Stavelot, 24 m. s.e. of Li^ge),
where he wrote his work on the basis of the lectures
which he delivered in the school of the monastery.
Sigibert of Gembloux {De acripioribua eccUHaa^
ticiSf 72) states that Christian came from Aquitaine
to Gaul, although certain passages in his own wri-
tings make plausible the conjecture that his native
district was Burgundy. His date can only be con-
jectured, but his statement that the Bulgarians
were in process of conversion to Christianity during
his lifetime points approximately to 865. A deacon
named Christian is known to have lived at Stavelot
m 880, and it is not impossible that he was the
exegete. The commentary on Matthew ranks above
the average contribution of the ninth century.
Though the author drew much from other sources,
he did not content himself with mere excerpting,
but proceeded with a considerable degree of inde-
pendence. He was tolerably accurate in his judg-
ment on literal and allegorical exegesis, preferring
the former in cases of advantage, yet not disdaining
15
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
DruslUa
DnBartaa
the latter* The other two commentaries are inf&-
nof in value, and umj have been merely notes for
lwl«ctuic9. (A. Haugk.)
Bimoaui'm': Ttie tdiUo princffpt of the Cbmmeiit&o^ was
pubtiilied Stra^buTK, 1514; Ibe Commentmri^ on ICftlthjew
wfitJiliBlieid neparately by M. Molther at HageomUp 1530,
indiD MPL, rn, Coixffult E, Dammler, Ueb€r CHriMtitin
tm Stavdal^ in SiLeun^jtberithte tUr Berlin^ Akademi*,
DRYATOElt, ERNST; German Protestant; b,
li Halk Apr. IS, 1843. He studied in Halle and
Tubingiea (IS60H54), and, aftef being asaistanl pa^
tor It the Berlin Cathedral 1870-72, was pastor at
Torpu 1S72-74 and Bonn 1874-82, and superintend-
m and pftstor of Trinity Church, BerUja, 1882-^98,
From 1890 to 1900 he was superintendent-je^eneral of
the Kitnnark, and h^ been chief court preacher
Moe 1898. He was chosen a member of the Kvan-
idjcdCbitrch Cmincil in 190Q, and has been a mem-
b«T of the Pruseiati Upper House sinee 1901, and
miK 1903 i^non of Brandenburg* He ha£ wni-
imAangriijsche Frcdigten (2 vols., Bonn, 1884-86);
Dot Evangel ium Marti in Predigten (2 vols., Bremen,
lMi-92^; Der ^sie Brief Johunni^ in pAAigim
am; Eng. tmnah by W. O. -E, Oesterley, London,
1899); and Das L^ben dea Apoatels Patdui in
Phsrfij^ (Halle, 1904).
' DRYSDALE, ALEXANDER HUTTON: United
Fbe Preabyterian; b, at Bridge of Allan (32 m. n.w,
of Edmburgh), Stirlin^hire, Scotland, June 3, 1S37.
He itudied at Edinburgh "Umvereity (M.A., 1858)
Mid the United Presbyterian Theological Hall,
Edinhurgh^ and has been min(ister of Maidondieu
Church, Brechiil, ForfaiBhiie (1861-67), Trinity
' Church, Rochdale, Lancashire (1867-83), and St.
GeoTfci Church, Morpeth, Northumberlandnhiie
(nEce 1883). He has been a member of the exam-
ioiag board of the Th^logical College of the Pres-
byterian Chureh of England (now Westminster
College, Cambridge) iince 1885, convener of his
denotninaiioa since 1S9S, and was a member of the
committee on law and historical documents in pre-
paring the revised edition of the Book of Order in
1905. In theology he is emphatically evangelical,
l]ut baa no fears of the results of criticism. He haa
writteti Exposiiion af the EpiMile ti> Phikmon (Lon*
dan, 1879; new eA, 1906); History of the Prt$bw
teriim in Enj^land (1889); Early Bible Bongs (1890)-
and A ModeraloT^a Year (sermons and addres^s;
190IJ.
BUMJSH: In general, any twofold classifi-
catkjD that admits of no intermediate degrees; in
J^iSoeophy, the theory that the facts of the world
aie to be explained by two independent and eter-
nally eoeiisteut principles, vii,, mind and matter
(sc^ DEKMtTEs, Rene); in theology, the view
that there are two mutually hostile forces in the
worid, one the creator of all things good, both in
nature and morals, the other the source of all evil
aodmL
It ba« been claimed that all heathen, or at least
all polytheistic, religions are of a dualistic character;
but this is true only to a limited extent. To be »ure,
in polytheiMic religions there is always the belief
in demoag. Ttiese are the enemies of man, and
appear as the person ideation of disease, death, and
all natural phenomena harmful to man (sed
Comparative Religion, VL, 1, a, 5 4). However,
though they have a certain influence in the world
of nature, they are ne%*er euppoeed to influents the
moral order of the world, and so are not responHibla
for moral evil, Hence^ such religions can not be
called du^istie in the proper sense of the word.
Throughout heathendom there is only one religion
that can be said to be dualistic, and that is Zoro-
astriaamm Cq.v*)^ According to the teachings of
Zoroaster, there are two personal creative forces in
the world: (t) Ahura Maeda, the good spirit, the
creator of gods and men antl all that is beneficent
in nature, and the guardian of the moral order of the
world: (2) Angra Mainyu, the evil spirit, the creator
of demons and all that is injurious in nature, and the
source of all evil and sin. He is the enemy of Ahura
Maada and tries to overthrow the moral order by
tempting men to sin, and thus making them hia
alliea. This conSict between the two spirits con-^
tinuos till the end of the world; and this dualism
extends through the whole of nature. Everything
that exists belongs either to the creation of Ahura
Mazda or to that of Angra Mainyu; and only man,
by rcaaon of a free wiU, can choose for himself one
master rather than the other, though morally he
belongs on the side of Ahura Ma^da, hia creator.
It must be added that this dualism is not perfcN^t
in the sense that tile two powera are equally matched.
With his superior wisdom Ahura Masda has the ad*-
vantage from the beginning, and is to triumph over
his enemy in the end. Then Angra Mainyu, with
all that he created, slrnll be destroyed, and his fol-
io went, after they liave been purified by a great
world-fire, shall return to their creator. Thus the
spirit of goodn^s reigns supreme in the end, and
the dualism la overcome. See Gnobticibu* { 6,
(B. LiNnNBR.)
BiBMoaftAPftT: The literature oi speci&e fomu of diuligm
wilJ be found under CELtfiAcT, MANicaitAWB. New Mam-
i:c)il^A?(«, ZoiiOAKniiANiciM. For further treatment codbuII
the wurks on the hist, al pbilopopby by K. Ueberwet?*
Now York, 1894. J. E. Erdmaim, London. 1893, uid W,
WindfiJband, ib. IS&3. AUw* Kl, iii. 20P2-m
DU BARTAS, dii bflr"ta'. GUILLAUME DE SAL-
LUSTE, SEIGNEUR: French Protestant; b. at
Montfort, near Auch (42 m. w. of Toulouse), 1544;
d. in Paris July, 1590, He served in the Huguenot
army under Henry of Navarre and undertook diplo-
matic missions to Denmark, Scotland, and Eng-
land. Hia death was caused by a wound reeeiv^
at the battle of Ivry- As a poet he enjoyed great
popularity in the sixteenth century, being regarded
by the Protestants as the superior of the famous
Honsard. His poetry hoA been praised by no less
a critic than Goethe, His masterpiece, La S^
maineou laartatiofn du monde, was published in 1578*
In six years it passed through thirty editions and
was translated into almost everj'- European lan-
guage (Eng. transl. by J. Sylvester, in Du Barias^
hU Dimm Weekat and Workes, London, 1641), In
1584 he published La Seamde semaine, an epic em-
bodying a large part of the history of the Old Testa-
ment. The first collected edition of hia works
apfjeared in 1611 (2 vols.),
BiELicHiftAFBT: C. A. 8iiinte-Beu¥e, To&Ziatt . . . df la
paiMi* /ran^aUe mu XV U uUct^ 2 vob., Paxil, 1S38; F,
Dnbbink
Duohesne
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
16
Sayous, Stttde* ntr lea icrivaina <U la Riformation, ib.
1841; E. and £. Haag. La France proieelante, ed. H. L.
Bordier, Paris. 1877-86; Lichtenberger, ESR, iv. 112-
114, Paris, 1878; H. M. Baird, HuffuenoU and Henry of
Navarre, i. 176, New York, 1886.
DU6BINK, GERRIT HENDRIK : Reformed
(Dutch); b. at Overisel, Mich., Dec. 3, 1866. He was
graduated at Hope College, Holland, Mich., in 1892
and Western Theological Seminary, Holland, Mich.,
in 1895. He was pastor of the Third Reformed
Church, Holland, Mich., 1895-1904, and since 1904
has been professor of didactic and polemic theology
in Western Theological Seminary. In theology he
is in full sympathy with the symbols of the Re-
formed Church in America. His literary activity
has thus far been confined to contributions to
religious and theological papers and journals.
DUBBS, JOSEPH HENRY: Reformed (Ger-
man); b. at North Whitehall, Pa., Oct. 5, 1838. He
was graduated at Franklin and Marshall College
in 1856, and Mercersburg Theological Seminary in
1859. He was pastor of Zion Reformed Church,
Allentown, Pa. (1859-63), Trinity Reformed
Church, Pottstown, Pa. (1863-71), and Christ Re-
formed Church, Philadelphia (1871-75), and from
1875 to 1906 was professor of history and arche-
ology in Franklin and Marshall College, Lancaster,
Pa. He was acting president of his college in 1904,
for fifteen years was secretary of its faculty, and
since 1889 has been secretary of its board of trus-
tees. He was corresponding delegate to the Lu-
theran General Synod in 1873 and to the Presby-
terian General Assembly in 1891, as well as president
of the Eastern Synod of the Reformed Church in
the United States in 1893. In theology he adheres
to the orthodox Christological position of his de-
nomination. He was editor of the Guardian in
1882-86 and of the Reformed Church Messenger in
1894-95, and has written Historic Manual of the
Reformed Church (Lancaster, 1885); Home Ballads
and Metrical Versions (Philadelphia, 1888); Why
am I Reformed f (1889); History of the Reformed
Church (New York, 1895); Leaders of the Reforma-
tion (Philadelphia, 1900); The Reformed Church in
Pennsylvania (1902); and History of Franklin and
Marshall College (Lancaster, 1903).
DU BOIS, WILLIAM EDWARD BURGHARDT:
Protestant Episcopal layman; b. at Great Bar-
rington, Mass., Feb. 23, 1868. He was educated
at Fisk University (B.A., 1888), Harvard (Ph.D.,
1895), and the University of Berlin, and after
being fellow in sociology at Harvard in 1890-
1902 and traveling fellow in 1 892-94, was professor
in Wilberforce University (1894-96), and assistant
instructor in sociology in the University of Penn-
sylvania (1896-97). Since 1897 he has been pro-
fessor of economics and history in Atlanta Uni-
versity. He was general secretary of the Niagara
Movement from 1905 to 1908, and, while a commu-
nicant of the Episcopal Church, interprets '* its
creed very broadly, so broadly, in fact, that I
ought not perhaps to be considered as a member."
He has written: Suppressions of the Slave Trade
(New York, 1896); The Philadelphia Negro (Phila-
delphia, 1899); Souls of Black Folk (Chicago, 1903);
and The Negro in the South (in collaboration with
B. T. Washington; Philadelphia, 1907).
DUBOSC, dtt"bosc' (DU BOSC), PIERRE THO-
MII^ES: French Protestant preacher; b. at Bayeux
(17 m. w.n.w. of Caen) Feb. 21, 1623; d. at Rotterdam
Jan. 2, 1692. He was educated at Montauban
and Saumur, and at the age of twenty-three be-
came pastor of the Reformed congregation of Caen.
He was one of the first preachers of his Church to
discard dogmatic sermons in favor of appeals to the
imagination and feelings of his hearers, and the
majority of addresses contained in hb two collec-
tions of sermons (2 vols., Rotterdam, 1692; 4 vols.,
1701) are practical applications of Biblical facta
and concepts. In 1663 he presided over the Synod
of Rouen, but having incurred the hostility of the
Roman Catholics, he was banished to Ch&lons,
though he was soon allowed to return. In the per-
secutions which increased in seventy after 1665 he
rendered valuable aid to his Church by his courage
and skill in his negotiations with the court, where
he won the favor of Louis XIV. On June 6,
1685, however, a decree of the Parliament of Rouen
forbade him to exercise his office in France, and he
accordingly went to Holland, where the prince of
Orange received him with great honor. His bi-
ography, together with a valuable collection of ad-
dresses, maxims, and sermons, was published by his
son-in-law, Pliilippe Legendre, under the title La
Vie de Pierre Thomines, sieur du Bosc, ministrt
de Caen (Rotterdam, 1694; enlarged ed., 1716).
A series of his sermons on the Epistle to the Ephe-
sians was translated into English by J. B. Law, to-
gether with an introductory essay and a biograph-
ical sketch (London, 1853). (C. Pfender.)
DU BOSE, WILLIAM PORCHER: Protestant
Episcopalian; b. at Winnsborough, S. C, Apr.
11, 1836. He was educated at the University of
Virginia (M.A., 1859), and studied at the Divinity
School at Camden, S. C, from 1859 to 1861. He
then entered the Confederate Army, first as an ad-
jutant and later as a chaplain, and served throu^-
out the war, after which he was rector of St. John's,
Winnsborough, in 1866-67, and of Trinity, Abbe-
v-ille, S. C, in 1868-71. Since 1872 he has been
connected with the University of the South, Se-
wunc^e, Tenn., chaplain in 1872-83, professor of
moral theology and New Testament exegesis after
1 >72, and dean until his retirement in 1908. He
his written Soteriology of the New Testament (New
York, 1892; reissue, 1906); The Ecumenical Counr
cils (1896); The Gospel in the Gospels (1906); and
The Gospel According to Saint Paul (1907).
DUBOURG, dtt"bur', AlWE: French Reformer;
b. at Riom (17 m. n.e. of Puy-de-Dome) c
1520; d. at Paris Dec. 23, 1559. After pursu-
ing the practise of law, he became, about 1547, pro-
fessor of civil law in the University of Orleans. In
1557 he was appointed conseiller-clerc to the Par-
liament of Paris. In his father's house he became
acquainted with the doctrines of the Reformation,
and at Orleans he had been in close sympathy with
the Reformers, and had made a deep study of the
Scriptures, the Fathers, and early church history
before he embraced the ne^ ideas. In 1558 he be-
17
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Dubbink
Doohaana
1^ to frequent the meetings of the Reformed con-
|Ti!^tioa in Paris, In the Parliament most of the
punger metnbera inclmed toward the Reforma-
tion; ind of the older members some of the most
pfomkeent, as the president, Harlay, and Siguier,
Tft? in favor of a mild policy Eigainst heretics.
Thm was, however, in the Parliament a party of
p^ctreme Roman Catholics led by Alinard, Le Maia^
tir. ^d SL Andr^, and a conflict waa not stow in
irising. In order to arrive at some common policy,
ik procurator-general, Bourdin, convoked a plen-
ty tnembly of all the divisions of the Parliament,
m Apr., 1^, When it became evident that the
Aieods of the Reformation were in the n^jority,
Mioard, Le Mai&tns, and Bourdin addressed them-
rives directly to Henry IL The king appeared
personally in the Parliament at the head of an im-
pceinf escort, and reproached it forlukewarmnessin
respect to the ext irpat ion of heresy. Dnbourgreplied
lot spirit of fearlessness, argningthat, while the heav-
I iffil inmsgressionfi against t he dl vine taw were allowed
to go unpuniahedi the Parliament did wrong to
devote iti energies to the persecution of believers,
who in the midst of the flames called upon the name
of Christ. Personally incensed at this speech,
which he construed as an allusion to his relations
with Diane of Poitiers, Henry ordered the arrest
of Dubouif . Legally^ a member of the Parliament
codd be judge^l only by the Parliament itself,
Nevertheless, the king appointed a commission of
Dubeurg's bitterest opponents to try the case.
Dubourg appealed suoceesively to the archbishops
of Parisi Senn* and Lyonsj but the appeals were not
•ccepted. An appeal to the pope was atill possible,
btit Dubourg refused to avail himself of it. The
death of Henry IL, July 10, 1559, made his situation
still more d^perate, as, by the aeeession of Francis
IL, the Guises came into power. All exertions of
his friends, including Coligny, Cond^, and the
ElectoE^Piil&tine Frederick, who wished him to be
rel^sed to take a professorship at Heidelberg, were
in vain. Duboui]? presented to his judges a con-
fevoD of faith which was a masterly defense of the
Rdomiation. Then for a moment he wavered^ and
undef the influence of certain friends presented a
Kcond confession which wss ambiguous, and was
coosidered a surrender by his opponents; but he
•GOO retracted, and, declaring his first confession
to be the one which he actually believed ^ brought
h» fit* upon himself. The verdict was given Dec.
21, and two days afterward he waa strangled and
humei (Theodor ScHO-rrt.)
BcauoavjuFHT: Zd Fravtt Hiatair* sint^nant ViniquM jutt^
««* U fmtme procedtire &m&v Ann* D^^xmrg. Antwerp,
1^1* fvpriDted ia voU i, of lUiiTtoif^* dt C&ndi, Loodan,
17*3; A. cb to. Roche-Cbaiifii«u. tfittaire tUt jtrrt^^cuHont
m marten da Viglise de Parity t5&7'6a. LyooB. 1563; Bul-
ktsm it ffclalavv d^ prQUwianiimt* franfait, voln. xxivi.-
^siHi.; UchimuhmrKnr, ESIt, tv. 131-1^, Plwia, 1S78.
DUCTUS, See Frostton nu Due.
m CAHGE, do cflhash. CHARLES DU FRESITE,
SXEUR: French historian and lexicographer; b*
ftt Amiens (S4 m, n, of Paris) Dec, 18, 1610; d at
Paris Aug, 16, 1688, He wss educated at the Jesuit
eolk]^ of his native city» and studied law at the
UnjveTBity of Orleans, after which he became
treamirer of Amiens. His life was devoted, bow-
IV.-2
ever, to the study of the Middle Ageit, and his firwt
work was his Histoire de I* empire d& ConManiinapU
sau^ ie« empereurs fran^ms (Paris, 1657), In 1668
the plague which raged in Amiens led him to re-
move to Paris, where he spent the remainder of
his life. In considering the importance of the worki
of Du Cange it must be borne in mind that the
Renaissance, with its admiration for Greece and
Rome, and the Reformation bad little sj^mpathy
with any study of the Middle Ages, Medieval
Latin and the Romance lan§:uages had thus far
found no investigator^ nor was there any chronol-
ogy, numismatics, archeology, paleography, or
geography of that period- His ^T-iting^, both
printed and unprinted, embrace, on the other hand,
not only the general history of medieval Europe,
but also the history of France and the Byzantine
Empire. His chief works are the Ghmarium ad
jicnpiores mediw et infimts Latinitnils (3 vols., 1678;
enlarged edition in 6 vols,, 1733-36; supplement by
P. Carpentier, 4 vols,, 1766; and by L. Diefentiach,
Frankfort, 1857, IS67; abridgment with additions
and corrections by J, C. Adelung^ 0 vols., Halle,
1772^84; most recent edition of the Ghssariurrif
including the additbna of Carpentier, Adelung, and
others, by L- Favre, 10 vols,, Niort, 1883-87; a con-
venient abridgment in one vol. by W. H, Maigne
d'Anm, Paris, 186G) and the GtossaHum ad 3crip~
t&res TnedtiE ei infima Gntcitatis (2 vols., Lyons,
1688). Both these dictionaries are true encyelopedias,
one for Latin Christendom in all Its ecclesiastical,
political, and social aspects, and the other for the
Bysantine Empire, to say nothing of their lexico-
graphical value. In the preface to the Latin Gio9*
Barium^ moreov^er, the author gives the history of the
decay of the Latin language and sketches the earli-
est developments of French, The last work of
Du Cange, which was not completed until after
his death, was his edition of the Chronican pa*-
chak (Paris, 16SS). (C. Pfendeh.)
Beblicxiiiaphv: L. Fmygtm, Ea»ai mur la tit tt Im outTO^st
dg Du Cang€, Pftrij, IS52; H. Hiu-ilouin, E*mi 9w h vim
€t tut La ouvroffe* de , , , Du Cange, ib, 1840,
DUCEY, THOMAS JAMES: Roman Catholic;
b, at Lismore (111 m. s.s.w. of Dublin), County
Cork, Ireland, Feb. 4, 1843. He went to the United
States at the age of five, and was graduated at St.
Francis Xavier's CoUege, New York City, in 1864,
and at the Provincial Seminary, Troy, N. Y., in
1868. He was ordained to the priesthood in 1868*
and in 1869 was attached to the staff of the Church
of the Nativity, New York City, where he incurred
the opposition of the Tweed ring by hij* denimcia-
tions of municipal corruption. In 1872 he was
transferred to St, Micluiel's in the same city, and
in the following year began the active organization
of Bocieties for Roman Catholic young men. In
1880 he founded St. Leo's Church, He was assist*
ant chaplain in the City Prison for several years,
and is active in movements against political evil
and in philanthropic enterprises.
PUCHESNE, dil'^sh^n'. LOinS MARIE OLIVIER:
French Roman Catholic; b. at St. Servan (100 m.
n. of Nantes) Sept. 13, 1843. He studied in Paris
and at Rome from 1873 to 1876, visiting Epkus,
Tbessaly, Macedonia, and Mt, Athos in 1874, and
Dndii
Jth
Frema
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
IS
makirtg a tour of Asia Minor in 1S76. From 1877
to ISQ5 he was professor of ctiurch history in the
Inatitut Catholique de Paria, and since the latter
year has been director of the French nchool at
Home, He was also matt re de conf^rencea and
later dlrecteur d'^tude^ at the £cole dea Hautea
fitudes^ Paria, 18S5-i»5, and in 1888 waa elected a
member of the Acad^mie des Inscnptiona et BelkiiS'
Lettres. He hoa written De Alacari4t Magnete et
KripiU eju^ (Paris, 1877)? Mttide aur U Liber
Poniificalis (1S77); Mimoite imr une. mission au
Mont Athos (1877; id cotlaboration with C. Bayet);
Vita Sancti Fobjcarpi auciirre Pi<?nio (1881); Ls
Ijiber Pontific4ilis : TexH^ iniroduHi&n ei cammeu'
taire (2 vols., 1886-92); Origine» du cidte chrilien
(1889; Eng. transL by M. L. McOure tinder the
title ChrvUitin Worship: It^ Origin and EvoltUion^
London^ 19€2); Les Aneiens Catalogues ipiscopaux
de kt province de Taur$ (1890); Faatts ^$copaux
de I'uncienm Gauie {2 vols,^ 1894-99); AiUonomies
mcUsiasHques (1896); Les Premiers Temps de
r^ai pontifi€<it (1898); Le Forum, chrHien (Rome,
1899); Autonomies eccUsiastiqu&s; iglises s^part^
(1904; Eng. transi,, Churches Separated from Rome,
New Yark, 1908),
DUBITH, cla<Ut' (DUBICH, DUBICS), AR-
DREAS: Hungarian bishop, later a Protestant; b,
at Budar>eat Feb. 16, 1533; d, at Breslau Feb. 23,
1589. He waa educated by his uncle, who was
canon at Breslau, and went to Italy about 1 550 to
continue hb studies. There he gained the favor
of Cardinal Pole, w*hom lie accompanied on his return
to England after the aceeasion of Queen Mary* He
was an excellent Latin scholar and had meanwhile
been appointed canon at Gran, but in 1S58 he again
devoted himself to study in Padua. He was ap-
pointed bishop of Tminium (Knin) in Dalmatia by
the emperor Ferdinand, and took part in the Coun-
cil of Trent, where, in complianoe with the wish of
Ferdinand, he urged that the cup be given to the
kity , Although he did not appear there aa an oppo-
nent of the celibacy of the clergy, he wrote a Oewifm-
iiroiio pro Hbertate confugit. Being appointed bishop,
first of Fflnfkirchen, and then of Szigeth, he went
to Poland in 1565, where he married a maid of
honor of the queen, and resigned his sec, becoming
ftn adherent of Protestantism. In 1575 he became
io involved in political intriguea to secure the throne
of Poland (then vacant) for Maximilian that hia
opponents confiacated his estates and expelled him
from the city. The last ten years of bis life were
ipent at Brealau, Five orations and a brief biog-
ra^phy of Dudith were published at Offenbach in
1610 by Quirinus Reuten K, Benhath.
BrBLioGHAPHT: D»ldea the bio^i^phy by Eeuter. then» Ia
available C. B, StiefF, Vetnti^h *iner . . . G^chUhU von
htbtn uftd Meinun^en AndrmiM DudithM, Br^^liLU. 1756,
DUDLEY, THOMAS UITDERWOOD: Protee*
tant Episcopal bishop of Kentucky; b. at Rich-
mond, Va., Sept. 20, 18:^7; d. in New York City
JaiL 22, 1904. He studied at the University of
Virginia (B.A., 1858), where be was professor of
Latin and Greek until the outbreak of the Civil
War. He then entered the Confederate Army and
attained the rank of major. After the close of the
war he studied theology at the Virginia Theological
Seminary, Alexandria, Va., from which he
graduated in 1867* He was ordered deacon In
18B7 and ordained priest in 1868. He w^as curate
and rector of Christ Church, Baltimore, 1869-75,
and in 1875 was consecrated bishop coadjutor of
Kentucky. On the death of Bishop B. B, Smith io
1884 he became diocesan of Kentucky. He wrote
^4 Wise DiscrimtTuUi^n ike Church^ & Ne-ed (New
York, 1881); and Why am I a Chmdkmanf
(1894).
DUEL, See Wageh op Battlie,
DUESTERDIECK, dQ-^esternilk', FRIEDRICE
HERMAIfN CHRISTIAIf; Herman Protestant; b,
at Hanover July 14, 1822; d. there Apr. 23, 1906,
He studied in G6ttingen and Berlin and was lec-
turer at Gfittingen 1846-^8, director of studies at tho
theological seminary at Hanover 1848-54, ps^tor at
Schwichelt 1854-58, and director of studies at Loe-
cum 1858-65, In 1865 he was appointed consas-
torial councilor at Hanover, and became eouit*
cilor of the supreme consistory seven years latcr»
while from 1879 until his retirement from actiirft
life in 1900 he was general superintendent. He
wrote Qwje de Ignutianarum eptstatarum an^^mMa
duorumque texluum rtUione et digniiaie h%ic umpti
protaitE sunt sententitr (G6ttingen, 1843); De rei
propheliae natura ethica (1852); i>£e w^lM^
Eikiung des Geistlkhen (Hanover, 1873); DU
Revision der Luther^ schen Bibeliiberstixun^ (18S2);
KrUisch'e:reg^isclte3 Handbuch u6er die Offenbarun§
Johannes (Gdttingen) ; and InspirtUion und KriUk
der heiligen Schrift (1896),
DOTF^ ALEXANDER: First missionaty of the
Church of Scotland to India; b, at the farmbouM
of Auchnahyle, Moulin (25 m, n.n.w. of Perth),
Perthshire, Apr. 25, 1SI>6; d. in Edinburgh Feb.
12, 1878. He studied at the grammar-school of
Perth and the University of St. Andrews under
Dr. Chalmers and others, and was licensed and sailed
for Calcutta in 1829, losing all hi« books by ship-
wreck on the way. He resolved to make an edi^
cational institution a leading feature of his work
in India, and had the valuable eupport of an en-
lightened Hindu for his school in Calcutta, which
was conducted on two principles — finst that the
Christian Scriptures should be read in every claM
able to read them, and second that through the
English language We^em science should be taught^
notwithstanding the revolution it must cttuse la
many Hindu notions. Duff prepared various text-
books ^ including one on Christian ethics and the
elements of pohtical economy. His school rapidly
became popular and influential. The teaching
of Englbh, however, roused oppoeition among the
European residents, including some of the earlier
miasionari^, and his whole method brought him
into conflict with the Hindu College, already estab-
lished, which aimed to avoid offense to Indian aen*
timent by maintaining a secularist fttmospbere.
DulT won the confidence of the governor, Lord
William Bentinck, and T, B, Macaulay (afterwatid
Lor^l Macaulay) added his powerful advocacy to
the cause of English education; eventually the
neutrality of government guaranteed Bounty fof
19
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Dndlth
Du Frems
Chriitl^ work AA well &s for Indian oustoms.
Wrtb fromng knowledge of India Duff made hia
ioaueuce felt in every social movement, &ud ulti*
mttW as editor of the CaltuUa Remew he waa one
of the chief unofficial factors in politics and ad^
Biimstratian^ his advice being listened to with re-
V Epect both by the authorities in India and eommis^
I mm &t home,
I Muming to Scotland in ill health in 1S34,
r Duff made a tour of the country and much increased
tbe mterest in his mission, though met by apathy
It fiM, His addresses in the General Assembly
Win truly eloquent, and he was felt to be the equal
of Chfllmera. Attempts were made to keep him
in Scotland, but he returned to India and prosecuted
hk work there* At the disruption of the Scottish
Qmnch in 1S43, like all other missioaaries, he threw
in his bt with the Free Church* As the property
of the mission belonged legally to the E^tablish^
meat, Duff was stripped of everything, but friends
nllied to his support with the result that the
efficiency of the work was immediately doubled.
Tbt rtonns that were stirred up by the conversions
which took place from time to time were safely
weathered, and the college still remains one of the
ledirtg educational institutions of India. At the
General A^emblies of the Established and the
United Free Churches of Scotland held in ]Vlay,
19()7, steps werB taken to unite the two missionary
wDeps founded in Calcutta by Dr. Duff. The happy
enksvunmation of thb union in the foreign field is
bang bailt^ as the first step toward the 6nal re-
anion of Scottish Presbyterianism. In 1S50 Duff
•lain retitrtied home, and sought to rouae the Free
(iufch to new and moreenergetic efforts in the cause
of mifflionB, He was c^led in 1851 to the chair of
the General Asaembl^^, He also visited America
in 1^, under the auapices of Mr, George H. Stuart,
of PhiUdelphia, and made a deep impression both
b Canada Mid the United States,
He went back to India, and continued his labors
for some years; but, his health failing, he returned
penffiiQently to Scotland in 1864. Appointed
CQii\^jier of the Foreign Missions Committee, he
hid the chief management of the foreign work of
the Free ChnrcK and has left his mark on its bnai-
nesi details. He showed his catholicity by the
deep interest he took in South African missions,
and cBpedally by the share he had in organizing
the livinptania mission on Lake Nyassa, In
ISSfl be was appointed first professor of Evangelistic
Ihedogy in the Free Church,
Df. Duff took an active interest in many im-
povtant movements of the home Church. He was
mn active promoter of the proposed union of the
Free. Onited Presbyterian. Reformed Presbyterian,
and English Presbjrtcrian churches, which, how-
ewer, fell through. He was moderator a second
tiiDe in 1873, To the end hit advice and eounte-
luuiee wete sought alike by Indian statesmen and
by all maaner of religious societi^ in England
as well as Scotland. His principal publicatioua
rdated to the India mission.
(E. W, Stewart) Thomas M. Lindsat.
Gojwttlt the btAETsphtea of G«jnre Smith.
laSi; J, Macimt, in Twa Standard Btarert in bW
j^offt. ib. IBS2; Tbomu Smith, la Afen Worth Rrmen^fenng, '
ih. JS83. Further: Lai Behwi Day, ReeoUeeHont of A.
Duff, jb. tS7d; W. P. Duff, Memoricd* t>f Ak^ndvr Duff,
ib. ISeo (by hja mn).
DUFF, ARCHIBALD: English CoDgregation-
alist; b, at Fraserburgh (37 m. n. of Aberdeen),
Aberdeenshire, Scotland, Sept. 26, 1845. He
studied at McGill University, Montreal (B.A,,
1864), Andover Theological Seminary (B,D., 1872),
and the universities of Halle (1872-74) and Gatting-
en ( 1 S74 - 75 ) . He was head master of Dun ham Aead-
eniy, Quebec, 1864-65, professor of mathematics
in St, Francis College, Richmond, Quebec, 1865-67,
and assistant master of the high-school at Montreal
1SG7-69. He was Biblical lecturer in the Congrega-
tional College, Montreal, 1875^76, temporary pro-
fessor of Hebrew in McGill College, 1876-77, and
mathematical lecturer in the same institution
1876-78. Since 1878 he has been professor of Old
Testament theology in the United College (Con-
gregational), Bradford, Yorkshire. He waa chair-
maji of the Yorbshire Congregational Union in 1893,
and a city councilor of Bradford in 1904-06. In
theology he h an exponent of the at net scientiBc
and historical stuily of Hebrew religion and Chris-
tianity. He was coeditor of the BMiotheca Sacra
in 1874-94, and has written Old Testament Thiohgtf
(2 vols., London, 1891- 1^00) j Hebrew Grammar
(1901); Hebrew Thmhgy and Ethki (1902); FirH
and Second EsdraSf in The Temple Apocrypha {1903);
and Abraham^ and ihe Patriarehai Age (1903).
DUFFTELD, GEORGE: Preibyterian; b. at Car-
lisle, Pa., Sept 12. 1818; d. at Bloomfield, N. J.,
July 6, 1888. He was graduated at Yale in 1837,
and at Union Theological Seminary in 1840, H©
held pastorates at Brooklyn, N. Y, (1S40«47),
Bloomfield, N. J. (1847-52), Philadelphia (1862^
1861 ), Adrian, Mich. (1861^5), GaJeshurg, HI. (1865-
1859), and Saginaw City, Mich. (1869-^74)- He was
then an Evangelist at Ann Arbor, Mich, (1874-77),
and after a ministry at Lansing, Mich. (1877-80),
retired from active service. He is best known as a
writer of hymns, especially the familiar '* Stand up,
stand up for Jesus.''
DUFFULD, SAMITEL AUGUSTUS ^[LLOUGH-
BY; Presbyterian; b. in Brooklyn Sept. 23, 1843;
d, at Bloomfield, N. J., May 12, 1887, He was
graduated at Yale (186.5), and in 1866 was or-
dained to the Presbyterian ministry. He held
pairt orates at the Tioga Street Presbyterian Church,
Philadelphia (1867-70), Claremont Presbyterian
Church, Jereey City, N, J, (1870-71), Ann Arbor,
Minh. (1871^74), Eighth Chureh, Chicago (1874-76),
Central Church, Auburn, N, Y, (1876-78), Second
Church, Altoona, Pa. (1878^2), and BloomBeld,
N, J, (1882-87). He translated a cento from the
De contempt u mundi of Bernard of Cluny under
the title The Heavenly Land (New York, 1867),
and wrote Engli&h Hymmt: Thtir Aulkors and
History (1886) and Latin Hymn-Wriiera and their
Hymn* (1SS9: edited after the author's death by
R, E. Thompson). He was the son of George
Duffield, and likewise a hymn-writer,
DU FRESKE^ da f r^n. See Dtx Camqs.
Da Gnet
Dulia
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
90
DU GUET, dtt g6 q)UGUET), JACQUES JO-
SEPH: French Oratorian and Jansenist; b. at
Montbrison (234 m. s.s.e. of Paris) Dec. 9, 1649;
d. at Paris Oct. 25, 1733. In 1667 he entered the
Congregation of the Oratory, where he received his
education, and also lectured in the church of St.
Roch at Paris on the history and discipline of the
Church in various periods, his addresses being print-
ed under the title Con f fences eccUsiastiques (2 vols.,
Cologne, 1742). When the Oratorians were re-
quired to sign a condemnation of Jansenism and
Cartesianism in 1686, Du Guet fled to Brussels, and
lived for a time with A. Amauld in the Spanish
Netherlands, remaining in constant communication
with Paschasius Quesnel and editing his R^flbxions
morales aur le Nouveau Testament (8 vols., Paris,
1693-1700). His strict adherence to Augustinian-
ism was shown by his Rlfviation du systhme de Nicole
touchant la grdce universeUe (1716) and by his re-
peated protests against the bull UnigeniiuSf al-
though, on the other hand, he opposed all Jansenis-
tic excesses, especially the convulsionnaires. After
working for many years in various places of con-
cealment, he returned to Paris, where he spent the
remainder of his life. Among his numerous works
special mention may be made of the following;
Traiti de la prikre pvblique et dee dispositions pour
offrir les saints mystkres (1707); Rhgles pour Vintellv-
gence des Saintes ^critures (1716) ; Lettre sur
divers sujets de morale et de pidti (3 vols., 1718;
later extended to ten vols.); Explication du mys-
tkre de la passion (2 vols., 1722; extended to 14
vols, in the edition of 1733); Explication de la
Gen^e (5 vols., 1732); and many interpretations
of various books of the Old Testament. His
Institution d*un prince (London, 1739) was trans-
lated into English in 1740, and an English version
of his Traits des principes de la foi chrHienne (3 vols.,
Paris, 1736) appeared in 2 vols, at Edinburgh in
1755. Du Guet ranked as one of the best Jansenist
authors, and was regarded as uniting the logic of
Nicole with the grace of F^nelon.
(C. PPENDER.)
Biblioorapht: The edition of Du Guet's InaUtution d'un
Tprince by Goujet, 1739, ut sup., contains a biography.
DU HALDE, dtl hold', JEAN BAPTISTE:
French Jesuit; b. in Paris Feb. 1, 1674; d. there
Aug. 18, 1743. He entered the Society of Jesus
in 1708, and succeeded Father Legobien as editor
of the letters written by the foreign missionaries
of the order. He edited vols, ix.-xxvi., inclusive,
and published an excellent r65umd of letters from
China under the title, Description giographiquef
historique , . , de V empire de la Chine ... (4 vols.,
Paris, 1735, Eng. transl., The General History of
China, 4 vols., London, 1736).
DUHM, dahm, BERNARD LAWARD: German
Protestant; b. at Bingum, East Frisia, Holland,
Oct. 10, 1847. He studied in G6ttingen (Ph.D.,
1870), where he was tutor in the theological semi-
nary 1871-72, and privat-docent for Old Testament
theology 1873-77. From 1877 to 1889 he was as-
sociate professor of Old Testament theology in
G6ttingen, and since 1889 has been professor of the
same subject at Basel and instructor in Hebrew at
the gymnasium of Basel. He has written PauU
apostoli de lege judida dijudicata (Gdttingen, 1873);
Theologie der Propheten (Bonn, 1875); Ueber Ziti
und Methode der theologischen Wissenschaft (Basel,
1889); Kosmologie und Religion (1892); Das Buck
Jesaia ubersetzt und erkldrt (Gdttingen, 1892);
Das Geheimniss in der Religion (Freiburg, 1896);
Die Entstehung des Alien Testaments (1897); Das
Buch Hiob Ubersetzt (1897); Das Buck Hiob erkUlH
(1897); Die Psalmen Ubersetzt (1899); Die Psabnen
erkldrt (1899); Das Buch Jeremia erkldrt (1901);
and Das Buch Jeremia ubersetzt (1903).
DUKHOBORS: A Russian sect, first heard of
in the latter half of the eighteenth century, when
they attracted attention by their rejection of
the Church, the priesthood, and the sacramento.
They proclaimed the equality and
Tenets and brotherhood of man. The Czar and
Early all his officials, as well as the priests
History, and metropolitans, were regarded as
usurping a power to which they had
no moral right. War and taxation, as well as law-
courts and all police regulation, were condemned.
The Bible was mystically interpreted, and not
regarded as having so high an authority as the
** Living Book '' (which may be taken to mean
either " the Voice Within " or the oral traditions
taught by the leaders of the sect). Wealth and
commerce were condemned. The laborious, agii*
cultural life of a Russian peasant in his village
conunune was considered to be the only good life.
None of these ideas was peculiar to the Dukhobon.
They had all previously found expression among
one or other of allied religious groups — LollardSt
Hussites, Moravian Brethren, Mennonites, Anar
baptists, Quakers, or the Eastern Pauliciana and
Bogomiles.
The history of the Dukhobors, however, differen-
tiated them from other sects because, after mudi
persecution, in the reign of Alexander I. (1801-25)
they were allowed to come together from all parts
of Russia and form a clan. Their place of settle-
ment was " Milky Waters," near the Sea of Asov.
Here they had to face the problem of arranging
their practical affairs as a group, under their new
conditions. The need of a government to regulate ]
both their civil and religious affairs, as well as to i
negotiate with the Russian authorities (whom they I
regarded as the Hebrews in Egypt regarded Phanu^),
was at once urgently felt; and without altering
the phraseology of their old anarchist beliefs, or
being conscious of inconsistency, they instinctivdly
proceeded to establish, and submit to, one of the
most absolute despotisms on record.
Their first leader at "Milky Waters" was m
former non-commissioned officer named Kapodstin,
a man of ability and force of character. He man-
aged the sect-clan with remarkaUe
Kapoustin. success; but he taught that he was
a reincarnation of Christ, and that
his divine authority would descend to his heirs and
successors. His followers, however, were never,
in conversation with officials or other " Gentiles,**
to acknowledge that they had any earthly leader.
81
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Xhi Gnet
DnUa
Hub curious secretiveness, the outcome of much
pereecation, still remains characteristic of the clan.
Tbey 83r8tematically throw dust in the eyes of all
inquiren as to the nature of their internal govern-
ment; and this has led to endless confusion and mis-
naderatandings among those who, lacking the real
doe to the situation, have attempted to study the
«et. Kapotlstin established community of prop-
erty, and maintained that system for many years;
but ultimately he terminated it in a manner which
left him and his family in control of large
communal estates. His immediate successors, his
sou and grandson, supported by an oligarchy of
thirty elders, grossly misbehaved and appear to
have terrorized their opponents by a series of
secret assassinations carried on under the maxim:
''Whoso denies his God shall perish by the
swora.
In 1841-44 the Russian Government, after a
prolonged investigation into these crimes, banished
the sect to the Caucasus. Here they lived quiet,
industrious lives till the death of
Peter L. V. Kalmik6va, who had succeeded
Veripn. to power on the death of her husband,
Peter, the great-grandson of Kapoiis-
tin. This woman had shown favor to a young man,
Peter Verigin, who belonged to the ruling family,
and whom she probably intended to appoint as her
neoesBor. However, after a quarrel with him she
died suddenly, without having made the appoint-
mmt, and strife broke out in the sect. The maj ori ty
admowledged Peter Verigin as leader, but an in-
fluential minority (including those who had man-
aged affairs imder Kalmik6va) refused to do so.
The Russian authorities, in 1887, banished Verfgin
to Archangel for five years, and at the end of that
time sent him to Siberia. In exile Verfgin became
acquainted with Leo Tolstoy's teaching; and, recog-
niang in it much that corresponded to the original
Dukhobor doctrines, he " advised " (his advice
amounting to a command) his followers to rename
themselves ** The Christian Conmiunity of Univer-
sal Brotherhood"; fuvther (1) to refuse military
•orice; (2) to divide up their property equally;
(3) to cease killing animals for food, and abstain
bom intoxicants and tobacco; (4) to refrain from
sexual rdations during their time of tribulation (i.e. ,
during the persecution which arose in connection
with his I»Adership). About this time Tolstoy
made the acquaintance of some of Verfgin's
adherents; and, being misled by them as to the
real state of the case, wrote a series of articles
wliich ignored the fact of Verfgin's theocratic
authority, and represented the Dukhobors as an
ezamfde of a sect of peaceful anarchists, who con-
ducted their affairs without a government of any
kind, except that of their own reason and con-
arience Verfgin's advice led to a fresh split in the
aeet. Nearly half his followers, finding his demands
too severe, seceded, while the rest accepted them and
entered on a campaign of passive resistance against
CQoseription for army-service.
In 1898 the loyal Verlginite Dukhobors were
allowed to migrate to Canada, and, having secured
from the Canadian government a pledge that they
■bould be exempt from all forma of oonscription.
7,363 of them arrived there in 1899. Verigin being
still in exile, and they being unwilling or unable
without him to decide on what lines
The Du- the new life should be arranged, great
khobors in confusion arose, leading ultimately to
Canada, a strange pilgrimage which set out to
meet Verfgin when the news of his
release from Siberia was at last received. After
his arrival in Canada, in 1902, the clan gave the
government less difficulty; but owing to their un-
willingness to own allegiance to any one but Verfgin,
and their consequent reluctance to become British
subjects, there was still some friction. More than
1,000 Dukhobors have now broken away from
Verigin's community, and the superstitious rever-
ence for him has much decreased. It is only the
more ignorant members, especially some of the
women and children, who still regard him as a
superman.
The Dukhobors are remarkably honest, sober,
temperate, and frugal, and they are also generally
industrious, well-mannered, self-respecting, and
hospitable to strangers. Their differences with the
Canadian government have all pivoted on the
question of Verfgin's leadership, and have been
increased by the extraordinary duplicity and men-
dacity which they never scruple to practise in order
to screen their leader from responsibility for the
consequences of actions they take at his prompt-
ing. Allowance should, however, be made for the
difficulties exp>erienced by members of a sect-clan
who had always been accustomed to a communal
or semicommunal way of life in which public
affairs were managed for them, and who suddenly
found themselves in a land of individual enterprise
and democratic institutions, the laws and lan-
guage of which they did not understand.
Aylmsr Maude.
Biblioorapht: The only full account yet published is by
A. Maude, A Peculiar PeopU: the Doukhobart, New
York, 1904. Further references are: Stepniak, The
Rueeian Peaeantry^ London, 1894; Chrietian Martyrdom
in Rueaia, ed. V. Tchertkoff, with chapter by L. Tolstoy,
ib. 1897; L. Tolstoy, in London Daily Chronicle, Apr.
29, 1898; idem, Eeeaye and LetUrt, in World'e Cla—iee
Seriea, ib. 1903; J. Elkinton. The Doukhobora, their HieL
in Rueaiaf their AfigraUon to Canada, Philadelphia, 1903
(better on the Canadian episode than in the other part),
liaterial is also to be fotmd in: Life . . . of WiUiam
Allen, London, 1847; Life . . . of Stephen GreUeU, ed.
Seebohm, ib. 1802; Canadian Maffazine, xx (1903). 211
sqq. The fully authoritative work on the sect in Russia
will be K. K. Grass, Die rueaieehen Sekten, vol. iii., Leip-
■ie, not yet out. Consult also the literature under Russia.
DULCmO, DULCnnSTS. See Dolcino.
DXTLIA (Latiniaed form of the Gk. douleia,
** servitude, service "): The name technically ap-
plied in Roman Catholic theology to the veneration
accorded to the saints and angels, and sharply dis-
tinguished (in kind, not alone in degree) from
latria (Gk. latreia), or the worship due to God alone.
Hyperdulia is a somewhat higher degree of venera-
tion paid to the Virgin Mary on account of her
intimate relation to God. Dulia is expressed by
external acts of reverence and by invocation, and
may be extended, in the former shape at least, to ob-
jects closely connected with the saints, such as their
garments and other relics and their images, which
Xhinin
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
are, however, venerated not for any intrinsic virtue
of their own, but only with respect to those whom
they represent or with whom they are associated.
See Saints, Veneration ok
DULLES, dul'es, JOSEPH HEATLY: Presbyte-
rian; b. at Philadelphia, Pa., May 27, 1853. He
was educated at Princeton College (B. A., 1873) and
Princeton Theological Seminary, from which he
was graduated in 1877. After pastoral service at
home (1877-83) and travel and study in Europe
(1883-85), he became librarian of Princeton Theo-
logical Seminary (1886). He is a member of the
American Historical Association, honorary secre-
tary of the Palestine Exploration Fund for New
Jersey, an editor of the Princeton Theological Review.
In theology he is a conservative. He compiled the
general catalogue of Princeton Theological Seminary
(Philadelphia, 1894) and James McOosh bibliog-
raphy (Princeton, 1895), and edited the proceed-
ings of William Henry Green's jubilee as instructor
in Princeton Theological Seminary, contributing
Professor Green's bibliography (New York, 1896).
DU HOXTLIN, dtl ma"lan', CHARLES: French
jurist; b. in Paris 1500; d. there Dec. 27, 1566.
He became an advocate in 1522, but gave up plead-
ing because of a defect of speech. He joined the
Reformed congregation in 1542. Later he became
famous as a consulting lawyer. In 1551 he pub-
lished his Commentaire 8ur V^dii des petOea dates
to show that Henry II. was right in forbidding the
exportation of gold and silver from his kingdom
to Rome. The argument was effective, and the
pope dropped the question so far as Henry was
concerned, but he had the author tried for heresy.
This resulted in the flight of Du Moulin; and from
this time till his death he was pursued by the
Roman Church, being forced to move from one
place to another. Finally he returned to Paris,
where he was prevailed upon to publish his Con-
aeil 8ur le fait du Concile de Trente (Lyons, 1564).
The book was condemned and Du Moulin was im-
prisoned; but he was afterward released through
the efforts of Jeanne d'Albret.
Biblxoorapht: J. Brodeau, La Vie de Maittre C. Du Mou-
lin, Paris. 1654; Lichtenberger, ESR, iv. 137-138.
DU MOULIN, PIERRE (Molinaeus) : Olebra-
ted preacher, professor, organizer, and controver-
sialist of the French Reformed Church; b. at the
ch&teau of Buhyin, Normandy (department of Seine-
et-Oise), Oct. 18, 1568; d. at S6dan Mar. 10, 1658.
His father, Joachim du Moulin, a Protestant
preacher, after the Third Religious War took refuge
at Buhy, which belonged to the family of Du Plessis-
Momay, and Pierre was bom in the same room
as Philippe du Plessis-Momay (q.v.). After St.
Bartholomew's Night (Aug. 24, 1572) the family,
then settled at Soissons, was again obliged to flee,
and, under the protection of the duke of Bouillon,
reached S^dan. Here Pierre began his studies
in the academy. In 1588 his father took him to
Paris, and, declaring that he could no longer sup-
port his son, left with him twelve gulden in his
purse. Paris not being safe at the time, Pierre
went to England and spent four years in London,
where he ultimately became tutor to the young
dukes of Rutland. He accompanied his pufub to
Cambridge and Oxford and heard lectures in theol-
ogy and philosophy from Whitaker and Rejmokk
His maiden sermon at the Huguenot Church d
London was a success. In 1592 he went to Hol-
land and became, first, lecturer on ancient huh
guages, then professor of philosophy and Greek in
the University of Leyden. He lived in Scaliger'i
house and had Hugo Grotius among his pupils. Id
1598, after dedicating to the hospitable Leyden
university a Panegyricus Batavia, he returned to
France, and in December was ordained at Gien,
where his father was then living. In March, 1599,
he became minister of the Reformed congr^atioo
at Charenton, where he remained twenty-one yetn,
faithful in danger and noted for eloquence. Cath-
erine of Bourbon, sister of Henry IV. and wife of
Duke Henry of Bar (a Roman Catholic), made him
her chaplain, and he sp>ent two months of each
year with her at her residence in Lorraine. Per-
haps his greatest celebrity was gained by his con-
troversies both with Roman Catholics and Calvin-
ists. Noteworthy among the former were (1) those
with Palma-Cayet (1602), who tried to convezt
Catherine to Roman Catholicism (cf. Narri de la
conference verbale et par escrit tenue entre M. P. d»
Moulin et M, Cayet par Archibald Adair, geniilhommi
dcossaie (Geneva, 1625); (2) with De Beaulieu about
the mass and the doctrine of the Church; (3) with
the Jesuit P. Coton concerning the teachings and
morals of the Jesuits (1606-07); (4) with the prists
Gontier (1610) and Ck)efifeteau (1625) on transub-
stantiation (see list of works below). His princquJ
controversies with Reformed theologians were (1)
with D. Tilenus, professor at S^dan, on the vbiquir
tas corporis Christi; (2) with the Arminians, against
whom he wrote his Anatome Arminianismi (Ley-
den, 1619); (3) against Amyraut and his school
By invitation of James I. of England he went to
London in 1615, promising his Paris congregation
to return in three months, and James proposed to
him to attempt to unite all Protestants. Shortly
after his return a Jesuit, Amoux, preached before
King Louis XIII., maintaining that the Scripture
passages on which the Calvinist creed was founded
were wrongly interpreted. In reply Du Moulin
produced his two most celebrated works. La Df-
fense de la religion chrdtienne and Le Bouclier de la
foy (Charenton, 1617; Eng. transl. of the latter,
The Buckler of the Faith ; or, A Defense of the Con-
fession of Faith of the Reformed Churches in France,
London, 1620; 3d ed., 1631 ). This controveray ex-
asperated both parties and Du Moulin had to flee
to S4dan, where he became pastor, professor, and
tutor of the young duke of Bouillon. His oldest
son, Pierre du Moulin (b. at Paris Apr. 24, 1601;
d. at Canterbury, England, Oct. 10, 1684), lived
in England, and died as chaplain to Charles II. and
prebendary of Canterbury. He wrote a munber of
theological tracts.
The most important of the elder Du Moulin's
numerous writings, not already mentioned, were:
Defense de la foi catholique contenue au livre du roi
Jacques /, contre la reponse de Coeffeteau (La
Rochelle, 1604); Apologie pour la Sainte Ckne du
Seigneur, contre la presence corporeUe on irantmb'
29
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
DnUes
3>iixilzi
9ianHaiion (1607; Eog. tmnsl., LoniJon, 1612);
Be Vaa^mplUmment des proph^iies (1612; Eng.
traiiBl., Oxford, 1613) ; Copie de la Ultrt itriU eonire
TUenus f^iiX miniMrm de France (Parifl» 1613);
Dela tacation des pasteurs (S^dau, 16 IS); Nouveauli
4u papisme oppo&iA h VurdiquiU du trai chrinim-'
nisme (1627); Ahrigi des conirmerHmf ou »ommaire
de^ erreurv d€ Valise rmnaine (1636); Du jttge de*
ctmiromrte^ (1630). G. Bonet-Maurt,
BtauoomjLFHir: Du Modin'* A-aiijhioffraphit, *d. C. Htmd,
is elirefi in Eidletin ds la, tixiiU d'hi^toir-t du, -proicfkUin-
U*me fraqf^i*, vii. 170 m^Q,\ J. Aytnuo, Tout It* aynodt§
lutUmatix dtm igluem riformSe* de Francv, The Hactifip
1710; A. Vinet. Hitioine dt ia ptSdieation pormi hu ri*
farmi* tn. Fr^na, Pima» I8d0; H, M. Baird* The llugue-
mtO* and th€ Reveoatiftn of the Edict of Nanta, vol. i. poA-
Ktm, New Y&tK iS9b: P. de F^1i«e. Lw FroltMianU
d'au&tf&it. vol J- pwfiim^ Pari*, 1897,
DUnCAll, JOHN; Scotch Preabyterian; b. at
Aberdeen I796j d. at Edinburgh Feb, 26, 1870.
He was graduated from the UniverBity of Aberdeen
In 1814, then studied theolcgy at Edinburgh and
vas liceDsed to preach in 1825. In 18.*16 he was
ordaine^i to the charge of Milton Churchy Glasgow.
In lS4t he was appointed the first mksioimTy of the
eoomiittee of the Choreh of Scotland for the con-
pefsion of the Jews. After spending two years in
Budsipest he returned to Scotland to beconie pro-
foBOf of Hebrew and Oriental languages at New
GoU^e, Edinbuiigk He published an edition of
EL Robinson ^J9 Greek and English Lejieon of the
Xeto TesiamerU (Edinburgh, 1S38) and a few
leeiurea.
BcBUOGmiLFST: W. Kmglii, CoUoquia Peripat^iea by the
taU J&hn Duncan, Bdinbw%K IS79; A. M, St^rt, fiecal-
uefiont of the kfie Jahn Duncan^ ib. 1872; D. Brown.
Lift of the latt John Darusan. jb, 1S72; tdeRi^ John 0un-
OMn in ths FuipU and ai the Communvtn TabU. ib. 1B74.
DTTHGAL; The name of several ecclesiastics of
tbe early Middle Ages. A Celtic bishop Dungal is
mentioned by Alcuin, but is searcely identical with
tbe monk Dungal of St, Deni«» who ia never terraed
a bishop. This monk was the author of a number of
letters and poems. Of the former the first is dated
in 81 1 , the next five during the re^ of Charlemagne ^
the seventh after the death of that monarch, and
the ei^th either in bis reign or in that of Louis the
Fioi^. Dungal is named in only two of the poems ^
but he hsA been regarded as the chief author of
tbe poems emanating from St. Denis. His wntiuga
ahow him to have been a man of unusual attain-
ments and a scion of a wealthy Scotch' Irish fam-
Dy, ^though on the Continent be lived in needy
ciicumstanccs. He apparently left his home about
7S4 or 787^ since the twelfth St. Denis poem was
written at the earliest in the former year, and the
second in or shortly after the latter date, Charle-
magne valued Dxmgal^s learning highly, and r^
quieted him to eicplain the eclip^ of the aun in 810
and to eriticize the De stibsiantia nihUi et tenebria
an airU of Fridugis. Dungal was thus natin-aUy
an entfausiasttc panegyrist of the emperor.
It ia uncertain whether this Dungal was the au'
Ihor of the R^^ponm confra perversua ClaudU sen-
itntitui, written at the request of Lothair in 827.
It seems more probable, however, that thia work
was composed by a third Dungal, whom Lothair
mentions in 825 aa a teacher of the school of Pa via,
though do little ia known regarding thia teacher
that the question can not be decided. Despite
their polemics against Claudius of Turin, the Re-
sponsa adhere in the main to the Carolingian
theology* A fourth Dungal, of somewliat later
date, was the author of another poem from St.
Denis, while a fifth, who seems to belong to the
eleventh century, presented numerous books to
Bobbio. (A. Hauck.)
BmuoGRAPnT: Tlie Epiatottr^ ed. E. DOmmlerT are in
AfQH, EpUt i^c. fiii., iv (LS92). 5^Bqq4 the Carmina^
ed. E. DQimnler. in MOH, P&eta Latini ctin Catolin\ I
(18S1), [3m aqq., ii (I8S4), e&4-dOS; ct W»tleabnch.
DGQ, i iim2), 153, and Traube, AM A, pbilosopkiaclia
CIbasc, wjt 332 aqq,
DtTNni, dQ'nin, MARTIN VOlf: .\j«h bishop of
Posen and Gneaen; b. at Wat, near liawa (45 m.
B.W. of Warsaw), in Poland, Nov. 11, 1774; d, m Poaen
Dec. 26, 1842. He was the son of a landed gentle-
man, and studied at the Collegium Germanicum
in Rome. After he had fulfilled various posit iona
as a clergyman he became sufl'ragan bishop to Arch-
bishop Theophilua von W^olicki in Posen and suc-
ceeded him in the archbishopric in 1831. His
significance Mqm in the controversy between the
Roman Church and the Prussian government con-
cerning mixe^i marriages (nee Droste-Visckebino).
The usage in Poaen was lenient until the appear*
ance of the brief of Piua VllL, dated Mar, 25, 1830
(Mirbt, Qu^^lkUf pp. 350-3&3). Dunin wished to
enforce this brief in Posen, or to petition the Curia
for special directions concerning mixed marriages
in his arcbdiocese. The Prussian government re-
fused both requests. After t he allocution of
Gregory XVI. on Dec. 10, 1837, relative to Droato-
Vischering (q.v.) had become known, on his own
responsibility Dunin forbade his clergy, under
penalty of suapension, to assist at any mixed mai^
riagc, unless the education of the children in the
Roman faith had previously been promised. He
stood by the position taken in his circulars even
against the authority of the royal miniateriura.
Thereupon a suit was brought against him, although
he maintained that the case should not come under
the cognizance of the civil court, and the clergy re-
fused to give their testimony. On his side there
stood tbe prince bishop of Ermland, Stanislaus
von Hatten, and Bisiiop Sedlag of Kuhn, but not
the Prince Bishop Sedlnitzky of Brealau. The
sentence of the higher court of appeals in Posen,
pronounced in 1839 against the archbishop for ex-
ceeding his official power, gave him six months'
imprisonment in a fortress and removal from office.
For the first punishment the king aubstituted the
requirement that he should stay in Berlin until the
controversy was settled. Neverthelcsa, Dunin left
the capital secretly and returned to Posen to resume
the functions of his ofEce. On Oct. 8, 1839, he was
arrcatcd and brought to the fortress of Kolberg,
where he stayed until the king died. Frederick
William IV. set him free and even restored him to
office after he had modified his obnoxious regula*
tions. The government, however, was not able
to secure any recognition of tbe old milder iisage.
On the whole, Dunin 'a actions did not have the same
importance as the procedure of Droste-Viachering,
although hia cathedral chapter, the diocesan clergy.
Bunkers
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
M
and the nobility stood manfully by him and the
antithesis of Polish and German national feeling
entered into the contest. Carl Mirbt.
Biblioorapht: H. F. Jaoobson, UAer die gemuchUn Ehen
in DeuttdUand und in^>e9ondere in PreuMen, Leipaio,
1838; K. G. N. Rintel. Verteidiguno dee . . . Martin
von Duntn, WOrsburg. 1839; K. Haae, Die beiden Erm-
biMchdfe, pp. 153-200. Leipaio. 1839; F. Pohl. Martin von
Dunin, Marienburg, 1843; H. Sohmid, CfeechiehU der
katholiMchen Kirche DeutadUande, Miinich. 1874; H.
Brack, OeeckichU der katholiechen Kirche DeuUdUanda,
vol. ii., Leipflio. 1903.
DUNKERS (DUIfKARDS, TUNKERS).
1882
The Division of
(§6).
II. The Progressive Dun-
kers.
Fxindamental Cause of
Separation (§ 1).
Organisation and Pres-
ent Status (( 2).
Doctrine and Practise
(§3).
III. The Old Order Breth-
ren.
I. History to the Separation
of 1882 and the Main
Body or Conservative
Dunkers since that
Date.
Origin in Germany (( 1).
Emigration to America
(§2).
Development 1783-1882
(§3).
The Ministry (f 4).
Creed, Government, and
Present Condition (§ 6).
The Dunkers are a denomination of Christian Re-
formers which originated in Germany in 1708,
and in 1719 and following years emigrated to Amer-
ica. The name is from the German tunkerif " to
dip/' signifying their method of baptizing. Among
themselves they are known as Brethren. The
corporate and official name is German Baptist
Brethren. Since 1882 there have been three
branches: the Conservative Dunkers, Progressive
Dunkers, and Old Order Brethren. For the
Seventh-day Baptists, German, who were origin-
ally a secession from the Dunkers, see Commun-
ism, II., 5.
I. History to the Separation of 1882 and the
Main Body or Conservative Dunkers since that
Date: Prior to 1708 there was a religious awaken-
ing in Europe, many earnest and pious people be-
lieving that the Lutheran Reformation did not
reproduce the ideal Christianity demanded by
the New Testament Scriptures. This condition
prompted Alexander Mack (b. in Schriesheim — in
Baden, 5 m. n.n.w. of Heidelberg — Germany,
1679; d. at Germantown, Pa., Jan. 18, 1735) and
several others of like convictions, residing at
Schwarzenau in Wittgenstein, Westphalia, to
study the Scriptures independent of all creeds
and to submit themselves wholly to the guid-
ance of the Word. Mack was a Calvinist,
and well-to-do miller at this time. Knowing of
no religious body, accepting the teaching of the
New Testament as it appealed to them, they agreed
to enter upon a life of obedience to
wifirln ^jjg WqpjJ j^g lY^Qy understood it, form
Ghermany. ^ society of religious believers, and
trust the Lord for future developments.
They accepted the Bible as the inspired Word of
God and agreed to recognize the New Testament
as their guide, but to accept new light as it came to
them. Desiring to enter the covenant relation
with Christ, they recognized that they must be
baptized as he directed. This they understood
to be trine immersion for penitent believers only.
There were eight of them with Mack as their leader.
The seven desired their leader to baptise them, but,
as he believed he had never been baptised aright
himself, he declined to baptize others. It was tiien
decided that one, to be selected by lot, should bi^p-
tize Mack, and he the rest of them, which was done
in 1708 in the river Eder. The eight then oi^gaDiied
themselves into a society, chose Mack for their
preacher, and commenced active work. The aervioei
clustering around the Last Supper became their
model for the love-feast, hence they observed the
rite of foot-washing, followed by an evening meal,
and that by the loaf and cup; greeted each other
with the kiss of charity; anointed their sick with
oil; refused to take oaths or engage in lawsuits;
held to the doctrine of non-resistance; became
earnest advocates of plain attire; and refrained
from attending places of amusement. Because of
their claims of conformity to New Testament ideals,
their zeal, and their simplicity, many were drawn
to their ranks, and in the course of a few yean
there were hundreds of members, a number of min-
isters, and several churches in Germany, Holland,
and Switzerland, the congregation at Schwanenan
being much the strongest.
Though they were a peaceable and harmlesB
people, persecutions soon arose and scattered and
disheartened them, and they began emigrating to
America, settling first at Germantown, Pa., wheie
denominational headquarters were established.
The first company, headed by Peter Becker, a
minister of great piety, came over in 1719. A
second and larger company, accompanied by
Alexander Mack, landed at Philadelphia in 1729.
In the course of a few years the entire membership
found its way to the Western world, largely throu^
the instrumentality of William Penn,
^'^^" ^^° offered the persecut^ed of Europe
to America. ^^^^P ^^ ^ Pennsylvania, with per-
* mission to worship God as their con-
science dictated. The first congregation in America
was organized at Germantown Dec. 25, 1723, with
Peter Becker in charge. Several settlements had
already been formed in the vicinity of Germanto?m
and Philadelphia, and some meetings held. Mack
visited these communities with a view of promo-
ting harmony, encouraging the Brethren, and con-
firming them in their faith and practise. John
Conrad Beissel, a man of considerable ability and
influence, holding mystical views, occasioned much
trouble. He became convinced that the seventh
day should be observed as the Christian Sabbath,
that there should be community of goods, and that
the celibate life was most pleasing to the Lord.
He secured a considerable following and, notwith-
standing Mack's earnest efforts to heal the breach,
withdrew with his adherents and established the
Ephrata Community (see Communism, II., 5).
Mack died in 1735 and was buried in the German-
town cemetery. The small communities grew into
large congregations, and these gave rise to other
settlements in Virginia, Maryland, and other parts
of Pennsylvania. Christopher Sower (or Saur)
established a large printing plant in Germantown,
published a weekly paper, printed many books,
and brought out the celebrated Sower Bible (see
Sower, Christopher); he also aided in establiab-
85
REUGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Xhinkors
mg a hi^i-flchool in Germantown, and printed Sun-
day-tehool cards for the use of the Brethren inany
years before the Sunday-school was introduced in
Englazid by Robert Raikes.
Daring the Revolutionary War the Dunkers
lost aemely in property and prestige, but soon
after the close of the war they again became active,
and settlements were formed in Tennessee, North
Carolina, Kentucky, Ohio, and Indiana, many of
which grew into flourishing churches. Until the
CM War they continued to spread, passing into
ISiDob and west of the Mississippi river. They
«^ opposed slavery, were non-resistant,
V^^ and hence took no part whatever in
^^^ the conflict between the contending
1788-1882. ^^^^^^> though their sympathies were
* with the North. When peace was
ratoied the churches on both sides of the Mason
and Dixon line again came together and went for-
ward af though there had been no national strife.
Emigration resumed its course, and now they have
efaurches from the Atlantic to the Pacific. Their
fint religious paper, the Gospel Visitor, a small
monthly, was published in 1851. From this small
beginning the publishing interest has grown until
now the main body of the Church owns and controls
a lai]ge, finely equipped printing plant at Elgin,
m. The Gospel Messenger, a large religious weekly,
is the church organ. There are many other pub-
lieataons, including a paper for young people, a
misBonary journal, a full supply of Sunday-school
literature, and a large printing business is carried
on. The profits from these sources are used in mis-
aiooazy work. Ekiucational interests came to the
front in the seventies, and there are now a number
of educational institutions, extending from Mary-
land to California, including schools at Huntingdon
and EHisabethtown, Pa.; Bridgewater and Dale-
▼ille, Va.; Union Bridge, Md.; Canton, O.; North
Manchester, Ind.; Mt. Morris and Chicago, 111.;
McPhereon, Kans.; and Lordsburg, Cal. Foreign
suasion work conmienced in 1876, when a mission
in Denmark was opened. There are now churches
in Switaerland, France, Sweden, and India. The
most extensive foreign work is done in India,
where twenty-five American missionaries are in the
field The conference of 1906 appointed the first
misskmaries for China.
From the beginning the society depended upon
and encouraged the free ministry systenL Mack,
Beeker, and other early ministers received no
eompeneation for their services. This gave rise
to a system well adapted to the opening up of mis-
nous and founding of churches by emigration.
Of late years many of the congrega-
iS* ^^**°* ^^ supporting their pastors,
Ig^^ especially in the cities. Ministers are
elected by the congregations in which
they hold their membership, each member being
entitled to a vote. The brother receiving the
hi^iest number of votes is declared elected and is
jnstalkyl in what is known as the first degree, where
he has limited privileges. If he proves faithful
and efficient he is advanced to the second degree,
his duties and privileges being considerably en-
kusped. The bishops (or elders, as they are generally
called) are chosen from the ministers of the second
degree. They are set apart or ordained by the lay-
ing on of hands of the elders presiding at this or-
dination, and placed in charge of the churches as
needed. There are also deacons, elected in the same
way as ministers, whose duty it is to look after the
poor and the sick, to visit the members, and to
look after the church finances.
The Dunkers have no formal creed aside from
the New Testament, but are aided and unified in
their work by the minutes of the Annual Meeting,
which has convened since about 1742.
Screed, Jq ^j^jg conference questions involv-
^®^" ing doctrine, church polity, and
^^^ ' methods are brought, and the deci-
Present ^ions made are the rule of the churches.
Oondition. '^^is general conference is made up of
delegates, lay or clerical, from the
local congregations, and bishops from the State dis-
tricts. The latter compose a standing committee,
whose duty it is to select from their own number
the officers for the conference. Only regularly or-
dained elders can serve on the standing committee,
and no one can serve two years in succession. The
local churches in each State are grouped into one
or more State districts, and each district is entitled
to one or more elders or bishops on the standing
committee, the number being determined by the
membership of the district. Church government is
democratic. The Annual Meeting settles disputed
points, and each member is expected duly to respect
and live up to the conference decisions. The Con-
servative Dunkers make a specialty of plain dressing
and avoid places of amusement unbecoming their
profession. Their attire is neat, comfortable, and
tidy, and there is a general uniformity about their
style that renders them easily recognizable. In
this respect they resemble the Quakers, and they
are the most radical of temperance people.
The Conservative Dunkers now number about
100,000, and are increasing rapidly. Their move-
ment began among the common people, and for
generations they were found principally in the ru-
ral districts, most of them being industrious and
thrifty farmers. They have long been noted for
their skill and enterprise in establishing and build-
ing up ideal rural communities, with the finest
moral, religious, and educational environments.
Many of their places of worship, which are large and
commodious, are in the country. They meet each
Lord's Day for Sunday-school and preaching serv-
ices. Once or twice a year they meet, always in
the evening, for their love-feast. On these occasions
there is first preaching on self-examination, fol-
lowed by the service of foot-washing, the men and
women occupying separate parts of the building;
next, they eat together what they call the Lord's
Supper, at the close of which they greet each other
with the kiss of charity; then follows the commu-
nion of the loaf and cup, unleavened bread being
used.
Until 1881-82 the Dunkers were a united people
with one conference. For some time, however,
there had been a growing desire for more advanced
steps along educational and missionary lines.
There was a demand for more liberty in dress
Xhmkors
Xhrns Sootus
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
ae
and a growing disrespect for the decisions of the
Annual Meeting. Two radical parties developed and
became separated from the Church; a
^1.^* large majority took middle groimd,
■ion of and remained with the conference. The
1882 result was the separate organization of
the " Progressive " and " Old Order "
Brethren' (see below). Since the separation the
mother Church has made rapid advance. It retains
all of its fundamental doctrinal and moral principles,
while opening Sunday-schools, building up colleges,
extending and endowing its mission work, and en-
laiging its publishing interests. The Conservatives
and Progressives do not affiliate, but the unpleasant
feeling that at first existed has practically subsided.
J. H. Moore.
Bibxjookapht: Sources are the MintUcM of the Annual
MeeHng, 177S-1876, collected into one volume, Elfcin,
111.; Rmieed MinuieM of the Anntud Meetino, brought
down to 1898, ib. For the history consult: Henry Kurts,
Brethren' § Encydopadia, Columbiana, O., 1867; M.
G. Brumbaugh, HieL of the Oerman Baptiet Brethren in
Ewope and America, Elgin, 1899; G. N. Falkenstein,
Hiei. of the Oerman Baptiet Brethren Church, Lancaster,
Pa., 1901; H. R. Holsinger. HieL of the Tunkere and
the Brethren Churchee, Oakland. Cal., 1901 (important
for the later period); J. L. Gillin, The Dunkere. A So-
dologioal Int/arpretation, New York, 1906 (gives valuable
bibliography). For doctrine consult: A. Mack, Jr., A
Plain View of the Ritee and Ordinancee of the Houee of
Ood . . . , a translation of Kwz und einf&Uioe Voretet-
lung der &ueeeren aher doch heiligen Rechten und Ordnungen
dee Haueee OoUee . . . , last ed., Moimt Morris, 111., 1888;
R. H. Miller, Doctrine of the Brethren Defended, Indian-
apolis, 1876.
n. The Progressive Dunkers: The ultimate and
fundamental cause of the secession of those Dun-
kers commonly known as " Progressive " from the
mother Church was the rapid growth and develop-
. ment of the north-central division of
menSa ^^® United States. As the country
Cause of iJ^cr^Med "^ population, and new
Sepa- nieans of speedy communication with
ration, the world, with all that it implies,
became available, the former isola-
tion of the Dunkers in the wilderness was destroyed.
Traditions and customs of the Church which could
be defended neither by the Bible nor reason fell
into disfavor, and dissatisfaction grew especially
with the dogmatic type of mind characteristic of
many of the older and more ignorant. The neces-
sity was felt of bringing the Church as rapidly as
possible into line with the knowledge and culture
of the times. On the other hand, congregations
and individuals isolated from the influences which
affected the more advanced communities were con-
trolled by traditional beliefs and usages, and aimed
at uniformity on the basis of tradition all the more
strenuously because they knew of differences which
had grown naturally in widely separated parts of
the Church. Thus the socixd conditions of the
United States created two radically different tend-
encies in the Dunker Church; and by 1880 these
tendencies had come into open conflict which re-
sulted in the division.
The immediate cause of the separation was sym-
pathy with Henry R. Holsinger, of Berlin, Pa.,
because of what his friends considered ill treatment
by the Annual Meeting of 1882. He was a radical
" Progressive " and was expelled by the Annual
Meeting, charged with speaking and writing dis-
respectfully of certain leading members of the Church
and of the Annual Meeting. Large numbers of
his sympathizers in many oongr^g»-
^' O^*^^- tions went out with him, in some
"^?^ places the separation being made by
p^i^g^jit i^utual consent, in others the Progroag"
Status, ives being expelled. Theworkofoi^gan^
izing Progressive congregations went ocb^
rapidly under a committee appointed for the par^
pose by a convention at Ashland, O., in 1882.
Hope of a reconciliation with the Conservatives was
Anally dissipated by the failure of the Annual Meet-
ing of 1883 to take steps looking to that end, and
the Progressives then formally organized as the
Brethren Church at a convention at Dayton, 0.,
in June, 1883, representatives being present from
about fifty congregations. In 1887 State organ-
izations were formed and a national Sisters' Society
of Christian Endeavor was organized. In 1892 a
denominational Young People's Society was formed,
which later was afl&liated with the Christian En-
deavor movement. In 1895 the General Mission
Board was organized; it has city missions in Chi-
cago, Philadelphia, and Washington. About 1900
a Foreign Missionary Society was organized, which
maintains stations in Montreal, Canada, and Urmia,
Persia. Following the Dayton convention the
college at Ashland, O., was turned over to the
Progressives on condition that they assume its
indebtedness. It now has an endowment of about
$60,000 and in 1905-06 had an enrohnent of 150
students. The publishing house is at Ashland,
O. In 1895 there were 138 congregations re-
ported with a membership of 10,031. In 1905 the
membership was 14,117 in 144 congregations in
eighteen States of the Union. The States having
the largest membership are Pennsylvania, 3^57;
Indiana, 3,275; Ohio, 2,443; Virginia, 880; and
Iowa, 841. The church periodical is the BreUiren
Evangelist.
In doctrine the Progressive Dunkers differ from
the Conservatives in but few points. They hold
that the decisions of no conference are
binding upon the individual conscienoe.
8. Doc-
trine
^^^ Hence, in church polity the Progress-
Practise. ^^^ ^^ congregational. They differ
from the Conservatives in refusing to
conform to '' the order," i.e. the style of dress and
cut of the hair and beard prescribed by the Annual
Meeting. They agree with the Conservatives in
holding the general Evangelical doctrines, and in
laying less emphasis upon orthodox theology than
upon a pious life. They abo hold with the Con-
servatives the doctrines (1) of the Lord's Supper
consisting of foot-washing, the love-feast, or primi-
tive agape, the communion in bread and wine, and
the salutation; (2) of baptism for adults only and
by trine immersion; (3) of non-resistance of evil,
which includes opposition to war and avoidance of
lawsuits; and (4) of opposition to the taking of any
kind of oath. J. L. Gilun.
Bibijoobapht: Consult, besides the works of Holsinger
and Gillin. ut sup., the files of The Progreeeive CkrieUan,
1878-83; The Brethren Evangeliet, 1883-<lAte; The Brwtk-
S7
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
XhuLkers
3>iixi8 Sootos
m Anmtal^ 1883-dAte; ReporU of iKe Proe«edino9 of
tuAwnal MoaUng: Claatified MinuUB, 1888; and the
. imtd MinuioB.
TSL The Old Order Brethren: These are the ul-
tncooBervatives who oppose all change and refuse
to accept new methods. In 1881 they organized a
yeiriy conference meeting in a bam in Montgomery
' Ooanty, 0., following old traditions and customs
uiu$B possible, and have continued as a separate
weiety with no affiliations with either of the other
bodies. They publish a monthly, the Vindicator,
it Biookville, O., but have no colleges, high-
Kbools, Sunday-schools, or missionary departments.
They have no supported ministers. In dress and
other ways they are extremely plain. In doctrine
tbey do not differ materially from the mother
GhurcL For alleged Scriptural reasons they ob-
ject to being numbered, but are estimated to include
about 4,000 members, chiefly in the States of Ohio,
Indiana, and Pennsylvania. J. H. Moorb.
DUHH, RANSOM: Free-Will Baptist; b. at
Bakenfidd, Vt., July 7, 1818; d. at Scranton, Pa.,
Noy. 9, 1900. He was educated at New Hampton,
N. E, and in the early part of his life was an Evan-
gelist, chiefly in Ohio, Missouri, Illinois, and Michi-
gan. Later he held a number of pastoral charges,
the most important being at Boston and Hillsdale,
MicL He taught at different times in Hillsdale
College, where he was president 1885-86 and pro-
fessor of homiletics and head of the theological de-
paitoient after 1888. He wrote Freedom of the Will
(Dover, N. H., 1850) and Systematic Theology
(in collaboration with J. J. Butler; Boston,
1892).
BUiniE, EDWARD JOSEPH: Roman Catholic
bishop of Dallas, Tex.; b. at Tipperary, Ireland,
Apr. 23, 1848. He was brought by his parents to
Chicago in infancy, and studied at the College of St.
Mapy*8of the Lake, Chicago, St. Francis' Seminary,
Milwaukee, and St. Mary's Seminary, Baltimore.
In 1871 he was ordained to the priesthood, and after
being assistant at two Chicago churches was ap-
pointed rector of All Saints' in the same city in
1875. In 1893 he was consecrated second bishop
of Dallas.
DUmiuiG, ALBERT ELIJAH: Congregation-
alist; b. at Brookfield, Conn., Jan. 5, 1844. He was
graduated at Yale College in 1867, and Andover
Theological Seminary in 1870. From 1870 until
1880 he was pastor of the Highland Congregational
Church, Boston, and was then general secretary of
the Congregational Sunday-school and Publishing
Society until 1889, since which time he has been
editor in chief of the Congregationalist He was a
member of the International Sunday-school Lesson
Cooumttee 1884-1902, and its secretary 1897-1902.
In 1903 he was elected secretary of the department on
Smiday-schools of the Religious Education Associa-
tioD, and was made chairman of the committee on
polity for the union of the Congregational, United
Brethn^ and Methodist Protestant Churches in
1906. He has written The Sunday-school Library
(Boiton, 1883); Bible Studies (1888); and Congre-
gaUonaUsts in America (1894).
DU5S SCOTUS.
His Life (S 1). Conoeption of God (f 6).
His Philosophy. The Rela- Doctrine of Sin (f 7).
tion of UniTersals to Par- Redemption (§ 8).
ticulars (f 2). The Sacraments (( 9).
His Epistemology (§ 3). The Importance of Sootus
Tiie Primacy of the Will (J 4). (J 10).
Revelation and the Church His Works (f 11).
(§6).
Johannes Duns Scotus (known as Doctor subtilis)
was one of the leading scholastic philosophers of
the Middle Ages; d. at Cologne Nov. 8, 1308. The
date of his birth is unknown; the more probable
tradition would place it c. 1265, since the other,
assigning him an age of only thirty-four years at
death, hardly gives time for the production of such
an amount of literary work as we have from him.
His birthplace is a matter of controversy. The
surname Scotus may indicate either Scotland or Ire-
land. Cavellus and Waddington assert that he was
an Irishman. The best view, however, seems to be
that which makes Duns an Englishman. At the
end of the Oxford manuscript of his work on the
" Sentences " of Peter Lombard there is a note
asserting in the most positive and detailed way that
he was bom " in a certain village of Northumber-
land called Dunstane." He joined the Franciscan
order at Newcastle, and became a
I. His Life, member of Merton College, Oxford
(whose statutes, moreover, allowed
the admission of none but those of English birth).
Under the direction of William of Ware (or Varron),
he laid the foundation of his comprehensive learn-
ing. Outside of philosophy, his writings display a
wide acquaintance with mathematics and astron-
omy, no doubt a result of his Oxford training.
Here, too, originated his philosophical writings, and
probably also the great commentary on the " Sen-
tences," the so-called Opus Oxoniense. On Nov.
18, 1304, at the command of the general of his order,
he presented himself in Paris for the degree of bach-
elor, and soon afterward proceeded to that of doctor.
Here originated the Quodlibetica and the so-called
Reportata Parisiensia, a smaller commentary on the
" Sentences," representing the lectures in dogmatic
theology which he delivered in Paris. In 1308 he
was tnmsferred to Cologne, where he was received
with great honors, and lectured in the Franciscan
house there for the few months of life that remained
to him. The cause of his death is not known.
Some later writers speak of apoplexy; others as-
sert that he was buried alive while unconscious,
and give harrowing details which are obviously
untrustworthy, as they appeared for the first time
two centuries after his death.
The philosophy of Scotus was concerned especially
with two problems — the relation of universals to
particulars, and the theory of knowledge. The
position of Scotus is for the most part that of a
moderate realism as it was maintained by the Arabs
and by Albertus Magnus and Thomas Aquinas.
To him universals are by no means '* fictions of the
intellect"; otherwise there would be no objective
essential unities in the world, but only numer-
ical differences between individuals. There must be
something real outside ourselves corresponding to
the terms; the universal exists both in inteUectu
Duns Sootus
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
28
and in re. Since all pxistence is traced back to
God, it follows that the archetypes of all things
that are have been from eternity in the
2. His divine mind. This is true also of mat-
Philosophy, ter, which may be understood not only
The Rela- as ens aut nihil but also as ease in po-
tion of tentia. What, then, is the relation of
Universals the universal to the particular? Ao-
to Particu- cording to Thomas, matter is the
lars. principle of individuation. This Scotus
denies, even on Thomas's view of
matter as negative. For him individuation is the
work of an entiias posiHvaf and consists in a unity
which resists any further division. Now this unity
can not have for its basis anything negative, since
no negative can be opposed to a positive. The
basis is aliquod poaitivum intrinaecum. The signifi-
cance of the hacceitas of an object (that which
renders the object capable of being designated as
" this "), or, as he elsewhere calls it, unitaa aignata
tU hcBCf or indimduitaSf is that in his view (which
here again is opposed to Thomas's) the purpose
of nature is realized in the particular. As this
purpose is laid down by God, we must, in accordance
with the divine ordinance, regard the individual
and the particular as a higher form of existence than
the universal.
In his epistemology the generally accepted
Aristotelian principles naturally predominate.
Knowledge is the product of the joint operation of
the soul and some objectum prcsaena et hoc in apecie
inUUigibUu Though our knowledge presupposes an
impression made on the senses, yet the image they
receive does not create the conception; the apedea
intelligibilia inherent in the object excites the action
of the mind, which appropriates the species by ab-
straction. In this process of building up a con-
ception the intellect is the " principal
3. His cause"; only the "occasion" of its
Epistemol- activity is furnished by the external
ogy. world. The work of the intellect is
thus to extract universals from par-
ticulars. This is not to be taken as if it were neces-
sary to neglect all concrete sense-perception in order
to attain the universal; the general must authen-
ticate itself by the concrete. The view of Scotus
is that thought, in the process of constructing terms,
perceives in the phenomena of sense the universal
which imderlies them; and this is in the main the
view of the later realists.
The primacy of the will is a dominant thought
in all his philosophy. In both Aristotle and Thomas
the will is moved by the intellect, which Thomas
thus places higher than the will, believing that
happiness is to be attained through it and not
through the wilL This view is strongly combated
by Scotus. All knowledge, according to him, is
dependent upon the operation of ex-
4. The temal things, and man is not free in
Primacy of regard to his thought; as distinguished
the WilL from the will, thought is natural, and
subject to " natural necessity." If,
then, thought (or the object which determines the
thought) caused the act of the will, an affirmative
act of the will would be explicable enough, but not
the simultaneous possibility of a negative act, since
a " natural agent " can produce only one effect.
The will, therefore, must be the sole cause of its
decisions. If this were not the case, natural actions
would not be free, and there would be no room for
merit or demerit as applied to the will.
This view postulates the possibility of things
happening freely and by chance, which is a fact of
experience. Scotus does not deny that the intellect
cooperates with the will, or that intellectual notions
influence every act of the will. He means only that
the actual volition is the work of the free will, the
intellect playing merely the part of a cauaa subaer'
viena. From this proposition he deduces con-
sequences opposed to the Thomist views. Acta
of the will are on a higher plane than acts of the
intellect. The fact that it is the will which is at-
tacked by the corruption of sin is an additional
demonstration of its primacy; and in like manner
happiness is enjoyed primarily not by the under-
standing but by the will. In a word, the purpose
of being is realized by the exercise of free, personal
wiU.
The theology of Scotus presupposes a revelation,
which teaches man the aim to be sought by his will
and the means of reaching it. These necessary
truths are taught by Scripture, whose credibility is
demonstrated at length, and contained in summary
in the Apostles' Creed, or in the three ancient creeds,
and in addition to these in the authority of the
"authentic Father" and the "Roman Church."
Since the Church has determined the canon, sub-
mission to the authority of Scripture involves sub-
mission to the Church, which " ap-
5. Revela- proves and authorizes " the Scriptunl
tion and books. The decision of the Roman
the Church. Church pronounces a doctrine orthodox
or heretical. Even when a doctrine
has no other authority or rational foundation, it
must be accepted on the single authority of the
Church. The way is thus paved for the ecclesias-
tical positivism of later scholasticism. The whole
body of positive and practical truths offered by
theology is apprehended by faith.
He reaches his conception of God by endeavoring
to show, from the standpoints of causality, finality,
and eminentiaf the necessity of an Ena infinitum,
having no external cause or end and no superior.
Considering God as the primum efficiena and per
ae agena, he reaches some useful positive conclusions,
proving at length that this primum efficiena must
possess intelligence and will. What God wills, he
wills only because he wills it. He does not will
the good because it is good, but good is good be-
cause he wills it. The absolute power
6. Concep- of God has theoretically only one
tion of God. limit, that of the logically impossible;
in practise it is limited, in accordance
with what he actually has willed or wills, to a
potentia ordinata. The sum of the relations of God
to the world may be designated as love, which em-
braces the entire creation, present and potential.
All creation forms a whole, whose individual parts
rank according to their relation to their end of being;
and this relation determines the degree of the divine
love given to each. As God finds the end of his
being in himself, he loves himself first — then men,
89
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
DunsSootus
m 80 far as they are in immediate relation to this
end.
T\» sinlessneas of man in Paradise was theoret-
ically only potential, since the will includes the poe-
gibffity of sinning. The real sinlessness of the first
num therefore involves a " superadded gift," the
imparted supernatural " habit" of grace, by which
aknie he was able to subject his lower powers to his
higher. Since concupiscence, or the opposition of
the flesh to the spirit, belongs to the original nature
of man, it can not be the basis of orig-
7. Doctrine inal sin, which is rather to be des-
ofSb. ignated as "the lack of original
righteousness." Concupiscence is the
natural material of original sin, but only becomes
sin wh^ the frenum cohiberu is removed. Scotus
is thus led into the denial of the physical trans-
missioa of original sin. Just as the will can not
bring about a metamorphosis of the natural con-
stitution, so an inherited physical constitution
can not change the will. The redemption of man
from sin stands for Scotus upon quite another
basis. In so far as justitia originalis was imparted
to Adam and his posterity, it was a justitia debiia;
and the will of each of his descendants has the
same debt. Physical generation comes into ques-
tion only in that by it we are made children of
Adam and placed under the ideal obligation to this
i^itm. This doctrine strikes at the root of the
Augustinian theory of original sin; it replaces the
physical transmission of sinful concupiscence by
the ideal obligation of every child of Adam to the
supernatural righteousness originally imparted to
the first man.
In his treatment of redemption, Scotus denies
that the merits of Christ are infinite. Their basis
is m the obedience rendered by him, which is the
act of his human will; and as that will is finite, so
the merits acquired by its act must be finite. The
eternal divine predestination embraces in itself, as
the means to its accomplishment, the meritorious
Passion of Christ. The death of Christ acquires
its unique value in virtue of the divine will which
has ordained this means and purposed to accept
it as sufficient for the redemption of hiunanity.
Here comes in the question made familiar by Aa-
sehn— whether the precise form of the Passion
was necessary to redemption; and this
8. Redemp- question leads Scotus to a criticism
tion. of Anselm's theory. He denies the
absolute necessity of satisfaction,
which was only necessary so far as God willed it,
which he was not bound to do. But even if the
i^^cessity of satisfaction is admitted, it does not
follow that it must be made by God, since it is
oot true that a satisfaction exceeding in value
that of all creation must have been offered. The
^ueof the redeeming act is not in the thing offered,
Iwt m its acceptance by the divine will. Christ,
Keingthe sinfulness of the Jews and their perverted
<fevotion to the Law, desired " to recall them from
wror by his words and deeds." He taught them
^ truth, and, in the execution of this task, died
for righteousness, considering his Passion the most
effective means of winning men back to God through
^ So far this doctrine of satisfaction follows
in the main the type represented by Abelard.
How Scotus conceived the objective side of the
Atonement is seen in another passage, where he
says that God would not forgive sin unless some-
thing was offered to him which pleased him more
than sin displeased him; and this could only be
the obedience of a person whom he loved more
than he would have loved hiunanity had it not
sinned. This was Christ, in return for whose
obedience and love God showed mercy to the hu-
man race. The imparting of the grace of God is
thus the result of the merits of Christ. By the
word grace in the ordinary sense of gratia areata
Scotus understands the divinely-imparted ** habit **
of love, which inclines the human will to merito-
rious acts. Grace is '' a principle cooperating "
with the will. With such cooperation, man would
have to be supposed capable of performing meri-
torious acts ex soli8 naturalibus, which would be a
Pelagian assumption. There must be a super-
natural form imprinting its character upon human
action, without forcing it and thus taking away
all merit; and through this ** habit " not only the
single act but the whole man becomes acceptable to
God.
Like most medieval theologians, Scotus consid-
ered the imparting of grace as inseparably attached
to the sacraments, which are given to men in vir-
tue of the Passion of Christ as the " most perfect
meritorious cause of grace." Apart from the gen-
eral questions as to the nature of sacraments, the
most interesting thing in his treatment is his discus-
sion of the relation between the divine and earthly
factors in the sacraments. Since the
9. The Sac- grace which is imparted to man by a
raments. sacrament can only come into being
through a creative act, and creation
in that sense is impossible to man, it follows that
the gift of grace in the sacrament is the result of
the direct operation of God, not of priestly action.
On their human or external side, the sacraments
are symbolic acts, which typify the accompanying
divine operation within the soul. But these sym-
bols are sure and operative, since God has promised
to accompany their use with the effect which they
symbolize. He thus defines a sacrament as '' a
symbol cognizable by the senses, efficaciously signi-
fying by divine institution the grace of God or the
effect of God's gracious operation, ordained for the
salvation of man in this life." There can then be no
question of an indwelling of supernatural power
in the sacraments; they are not in themselves
" causes of grace," but can be so called only be-
cause the symbols are secure evidences of the cor-
responding operations of grace, while God's will is
the sole cause of grace, which he creates directly
in the soul. This view had already been clearly
stated by Bonaventura, and through Scotus it
came to dominate the theology of the later Middle
Ages.
The historical importance of the general teach-
ing of Scotus can scarcely be overestimated. He
brought the scholastic method to its highest point.
His brilliant dialectic, his acuteness of insight, the
earnestness of his criticism, and the carefulness of
his demonstration set an example which has eel-
Duns SootiLi
Du Perron
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
80
dom been equaled by his followers. In his treat-
ment of authority he gave it a different bearing
from that which it had bad with the older Bcholastiesj
it became a positive eeeleaiasticul law, from which
no deviation eould be tolerated, and
10. Tbe this legal conception of orthodoxy
Importance marked out the line m which the later
of Scotus» nominaiiat theology followed. Ac-
cording to his klea of God^ all that is
mustt be referred to the absolutely free will of the
Creator; and the taak of learning is therefore not the
working out of what is rationally necessary but the
determination of that which is positively ordained
by God. This ia particularly true of theology,
which, embracing a number of contingent disposi-
tions of God, hau to deal with a peculiar rang@ of
facts. T\m explains Scotus a feeling for the pai^
tieular and the indi^ndual) a^ well aa the free skep-
tical spirit in wliich he approaches tradition* Char-
acteriaing God as Will, and finding the essence of
man's nature also in his Will he naturally empha-
&2.CR the individual and his freedom in his view of
humanity* Thua by his sharp criticism of tradi-
tional theories and by hiis bold creation of new terms
and combinations, he set forcee at work in the
donmin of theology wliich did much to prepare the
way for the still more thoroughgoing criticism of
the Reformers,
His works are best conmilted in the relatively
complete edition of his fellow ('ranciacan Wadding
(12 vols., Lyons I 1639), or the new one (26 vols.,
Paris, IS91-95), which, however, marks no very
notalile advance over Wadding. The mmt im-
portant is the great commentary on the "' Sen-
tences ** known as the Opus Oxonien/se (vols.
viii*-x?ci- of the Paris edition); of
II. His this the Reportata Pan&iensia (vol*?,
Worl^. xjtii.-s^iv. ) is an abridgment. Of
the remaining works a large part con-
flists of commentaries on various treatises of Aris-
totle, including the " Physics," *' Metaphysics,^'
" Meteorologies," ** Refutations," and " Of the
SoaL" His logical works of which the Grammatica
Spe^uMiva is the most importanti are also largely
based on those of Aristotle and on the hagage of
Porphyry, Others are entitled Theoremaia, Dis-
puiatwn€s 8ubiilissim(£, Condnwnes mclaphysiem
(whose authenticity is questioned by some), and
the Quasiione^ qtwdlibdalc^ (vols. xxv.-xxviJ.
Of the exegetical and homUetieal works mentioned
by Wadding, no trace has yet been found.
(R. Seebero. )
BtnuoonAPUT; The b«Bt Life la in vol. J. qI the cKiitioQ of
rhfl worki by WaddJnir. «t puPh Consult further: J.
MOller, BiographitehsM aher Dun* SeotuM, Coloipi*, 1S81;
K. Wemer. JohanTWM Duna Scotua, Btruburg. 18SI;
DNB, 3tvi, 216-220. For the philosophy oonpult: F. C.
Baur. Dreinniokfit umi MenAchwerdungy vol. li. paKiiiDt
TQhingpd. 1842; M. Sehiteid, SJk AVperieAre diM Jo^
hannes Dun9 Scotia, Mmni^, iST^i K. Werner, Die Scho-
l&tHk de* tp&teren M itteJiilt^i, vol i., Vienoa^ 1881; A.
Ritschl. Rtehtfertifjunff und VerMiihnuno, i. 73 iqq., Bonn.
1882; W; Kfthl, Dtf Primat deM Wiliewt &ei A-uffuttiTiu*,
Dun* Bcotui und Dexartea, Btra*burg. 1886: R, Seebflfff.
Die Butnlehre dt» Durtt Scotut, m AUiandiungen /ur Akz-
and^ von Oettingen, pp. 172 Rqq., Munich, ISUZ; idem.
Lehrb\teh der DoOTnenffgachichtt. vul. ii. puflioit Leipaic,
1Kgt8; idem. Die Tksologie dex Johannet Dun* Smhtw, ib-
lOOO; A. H, Ritt*t. G^chirhta der FhihmphU. viii. 334
eqq., Hambtirs, 1S34-B3; and the worka on the hiito^y
of philosophy by F. Uebenreg (i. 452-457. New York.
Ig74)* J. E. F^rdnMim ivoK L OASfim. ib, 1^K)>* aod W,
Wjudelband (pp, 3U-344, 3S1 394. 42CH4^. ib. 1803).
An excellent list of work* on the iiibjeet it fuTOjabed ia
J. M. Baldwin, Didionofy &f Phihmphjf and Ftychol4fffy.
I'd. 1, pp. 18d-lS7, New York. 1905. The treatment hf
A. Rit^hl is in Eng. traiiBL. A Criiual Hwt^y of the C*n*.
tian Doetrint of JiitHfkaiian ami RwceneUiaimn^ Edla*
burirh, 1872.
DtnCSTAH, SAIHT: Arebbisbop of Canteibuiy;
b. near Glaatonbur^* (5 m. s, of Wells, SomeTwt)
probably in 925; d. at Canterbury May 19, 9S8.
He was of noble family and related to Elph^e of
Wmcheater and other bishops. Hb early educa-
tion was received from Irish scholars in the abbey
of Glaj5tonbory, but his distinguished birth and
rich personal endowments led to bia being sum-
moned to the court by King Athelftan while stEl a
lad. Stories of bis visions and dreams point to
some morbid or abnormal nervous condition. His
fondness for heathen poetry and study of incanta-
tions was made a ground of accusation against him^
and, as a consequence, he suffered physical ill
treatment and was driven from the court. His
kinsman. Bishop Elphege, received him at Winr
Chester and, after a period of reluctance on Dun-
itan^s part, nmde him a tnonk.
He now returned to Glastonbury (942t) and
devoted himself to the study of the Bible and the
Fathers, finding ako occupation and amusement
in painting, music, and working in metals. Bells,
crosses, and many small articles were long shown in
Glaalonbury as his workmanship* He is aaid to
have adopt e<.l an ascetic life and to have built with
his own hands a small cell " more like a grave than
a iiuman dwelling-place," which served him &m
living-room, oratory, and workshop. He was
again summoned to the court by King Edmund,
only to be again exi>elled; but the almost miracu-
lous escape of the king from great danger while
hunting softened his mind and led to Dunstan's
being recalled and made abbot of Glastonbury
(c. 946, at the age of twenty-one). The buildings
were in a ruinous condition, the true monastic life
had. died out, lay brothers had taken the place of
monks, antl the crown had seized upon the rights
of patronage and the estates, Dunstan's innova-
tions were rather a new foundation than a reforma-
tion. With generous support from the king he
built up an institution which was more of a school
than a Benedictine community, though his compan-
ions wore monk*s garb. From it went forth arch-
biahops and clergy of all aort^, who founded and
ruled monasteries, disseminated Dunst>an*i tejich-
ing, and instructed the young. Glastonbury be-
came the center of a mona*5tic reform in Britain,
which culminated in the complete establishment
of the Benedictine rule (though not till after Dun-
stan's return from Blandigny; see below), earned
through by Dunstan himself in milder form, by his
followers with more rigor.
After Edmunds murder (046) Dunstan became
chief advisor and treasurer of King Edred, who had
probably been his playmate at Athelstan's court.
The young and physically we^k king owed much to
Dunstan's wbe counsel, and the final suppression
of a revolt in Northumbria was largely the work
81
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Dims Sootofl
XhiPerr<m
of the energetic mimster. Edred promoted Dun-
gtan's plans for monastic reform and wished to
mike him bishop of Crediton in Devonshire (953),
bat Dunstan declined because he had not attained
the canonical age and wished to remain by the
king. A divine revelation is said to have fore-
told him of the impending sudden death of his
royal friend (955), and he interred the body at Win-
chester with great honor. Dunstan's enemies pre-
vailed with the new king, Edwy, and he fled to
Flanders to the monastery of Blandigny, near Ghent.
It was here that he gained his full knowledge of
the Benedictine rule. A revolt against Edwy fol-
lowed in England, Dunstan's friends gained the
upper hand, and in 957 he was recalled. The young
king, Edgar, made him bishop of Worcester the
same year, in 959 also bishop of London, and finally
archbishop of Canterbury. He was consecrated
Oct. 21, 959, and in 960 received the pallium from
Pope John XII. in Rome, where his liberality and
piety were much praised. As archbishop he filled
his soffragan sees with his adherents, pushed on the
monastic reform, and substituted monks for secular
deigy, having in all these measures the support of
the king and an influential party. It is said that
he founded forty new monasteries and filled them
in part with French monks. With other bishops
he crowned Edgar at Bath in 973, and with wise
statecraft he acted as chief minister during Edgar's
sQccessful and orderly reign. In the disorders
which followed Edgar's death (975), during which
the archbishop crowned more than one king, Dun-
stan's party finally prevailed. In the last years of
his life he returned to his early artistic avocations,
and took much interest in church building and in
education; lus old zeal for religion and charity
continued unabated. On the whole he presents
the picture of a man of piety, himself eager to
learn and anxious to teach others, also of an able
statesman. Laws of his time, particularly under
Edgar, show a strong sense of justice, and church
ordinances bear marks of his mild hand. No gen-
uine literary works of Dunstan's are preserved.
He was buried in his church, not at Glastonbury,
as asserted later. A cycle of legends and wonders
soon grew up about his memory. H. Hahn.
BnuootArar: Sources for biography are the VUa, in-
eittluig one by a contemporary priest (signed B). that
byAddsrd of Ghent (1006-11 a.d.), and one by Osbern
(a eoDtcmporary of LAnfranc), are collected in ASB,
^J, iv. 34<(-384. in MPL, exxxvii.. cxxxix., clix., and
with other documents, ed. W. Stubbs, in MemoriaU of
SL Dunatan, RoUt Series, No. 63. London. 1874. These
ve iai>pleinented by the Dunatan Saga, ed. G. Vigfusson,
E<«. traasl. by Q. W. Daaent, RoUa Seriee, London,
1S87HM. Further sources are indicated in T. D. Hardy,
^Wtpttft CeUaloffue of MaieriaU relaUng to the Hist, of
Orat Britain, RoUa Serine, No. 26. i. 2, pp. 594-609, ib.
1862. As sources consult also: D. Wilkins, Concilia
^OQW BrUannieeB . . . 446-1717, 4 vols., London,
1737; Coda dijUamaHcua avi Saxonici, ed. J. M. Kem-
M«. fi voU., ib. 1839. For more modem treatment con-
iult: Eogelhardt, DieeertaUo de Dunaiano, Erlangen,
1834; W. Robinson, lAfe of St. Dunatan, London, 1844;
W. F. Hook. Livea of the Archbiahopa <4 CaniabuTy, vol.
>- ib. I860: DiVJ5. xvi. 221-230.
DUHSTER, HENRY: First president of Har-
vwd College; b. probably at Bury (8 m. n.n.w. of
^^^ncherter), Lancashire, England, 1609 (said to
h»n been baptized Nov. 26, 1609; cf. Tht Nation,
Ixxxiv., 1907, p. 9); d. at Scituate, Mass., Feb. 27,
1659. After studying at Magdalene College, Cam-
bridge (B.A., 1630; M.A., 1634), he took orders;
in 1640 he came to America to escape High-church
tyranny. On Aug. 27 of the same year he was
appointed president of Harvard, and held this
position till Oct. 24, 1654, when he was forced to
resign on account of his antipedobaptist views
(see Baptists, II., 1, § 4). He then removed to
Scituate, where he was engaged in the ministry
till his death. For the public proclamation re-
garding infant baptism, which had caused his
retirement from Harvard, he was indicted by the
grand jury and sentenced to a public admonition;
and later he was presented to this body for failure
to baptize one of his children. He did much to
give standing to Harvard, and was greatly es-
teemed for his piety and learning. He had a good
knowledge of Hebrew, and when Eliot, Welde, and
Mather prepared the " Bay Psalm Book " (q.v.)
they submitted the work to him for revision.
Biblioorapht: J. Chaplin, Life of Henry Dunater, Boston,
1872; the histories of Harvard by B. Pierce, Cambridge,
1833. J. Quincy, Boston, 1840. and S. A. Eliot, ib. 1848;
W. B. Sprague, Annala of the American PulpU^ i. 125-
126. New York. 1859: DNB, xvi. 231-232.
DUPAifLoup, da''pah'aQ', felix antoine
PHILIBERT : French prelate; b. at St. F^lix, 14 m.
n.n.e. of Chamb^ry, Jan. 3, 1802; d* at the Ch&teau
Lacombe, near Grenoble, Oct. 11, 1878. He was
ordained priest at Paris in 1825. In 1841 he re-
ceived a professorship at the Sorbonne, in 1849 the
bishopric of Orleans, and in 1854 he became a
member of the French Academy. As a writer and
speaker he was untiring in his efforts in behalf of the
Roman Catholic Church and clergy. He belonged
to a liberal group, opposing the dogma of papal
infallibility, but submitted to the decision of the
Vatican Council in 1870. In 1871 he was a deputy
to the National Assembly, where he allied himself
with the clerical right, and in 1875 he was elected
a life-senator. He aided in Broglie's attempt at a
clerical reaction in 1877, establishing a paper. La
Defense, in the interest of the movement. Among
his numerous writings may be mentioned: Manuel
des catichiames (Paris, 1832); De V education (3
vols., 1850-62); (Euvrea choisiea (4 vols., 1861); De
la haute education intellectuelle (3 vols., 1870).
BiBLiooRiiPHT: F. Lasranse, Vie de Mgr. Dupanloup, 3
vols., Paris, 1883-84. Eng. transl., 2 vols.. London. 1885;
F. A. P. de Falloux. L'Svique d'Orliana, Paris, 1879;
J. Pougeoifl, Mgr. Dupanloup, aa vie publique el privfe,
aea eauvrea, ib. 1870; C. Hartwig. Die ErMiehungaprinti'
pien Dupanloupa, Leipsic, 1884
DU PERR05, dQ pft"r6h' (DUPERR05),
JACQUES DAVY: French cardinal and author;
b. near Bern Nov. 25, 1556; d. at BatignoUes (now
part of Paris) Sept. 5, 1618. He was the son
of Reformed parents, and received a careful educa-
tion from his father. Presented at the French
court at an early age, he gained the favor of Henry
III., and in his twenty-fifth year took orders in the
Roman Catholic Church. He was an important
factor in the conversion of Henry IV., who ap-
pointed him Bishop of Evreux in 1591, and it was
he who, together with Cardinal d'Ossat, sought
and obtained absolution for the king at Rome in
I>aPin
Du Plassis-Komay
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOO
88
1595. At this same time the pope consecrated
him to his bishopric, and he thereupon devoted
himself to the conversion of the Reformed. In
1604 Du Perron became cardinal, and two years
later was made Grand Almoner of France and arch-
bishop of Sens. In 1604 he was invited by Clem-
ent VIII. to take part in the conferences of the
Congregaiio de aiLxiliis on Molimsm, and he also
labored for the reconciliation of the pope and the
republic of Venice. He became still more promi-
nent at the Synod of Paris in 1612, which con-
denmed the De eccleaiastica et polUica poUstcUe of
Edmond Richer, and at the assembly of the Es-
tates at Paris in 1614-15, where he vainly sought
to secure the acceptance of the canons and decrees
of the Council of Trent. His writings were pub-
lished at Paris in 1620-22 in three folio volumes,
the first containing his TraiU 8ur Veuchariatief di-
rected primarily against Du Plessis-Momay; the
second comprising his controversy with James I.
of England, who had asserted that the Anglican
Church formed part of the Church Catholic; and
the third including briefer controversial works and
the articles drawn up for the conversion of the
sister of Henry IV. (C. Pfender.)
Biblxoorapht: P. Feret. Le Cardinal Du Perron, Paris,
1877; Pmroniana, Geneva, 1667.
DU Pm, dttpaii' (DUPm), LOmS ELLIES:
French Roman Catholic priest and historian; b.
at Paris June 17, 1657; d. there June 6, 1719. He
was a scion of a noble Norman family, and received
a thorough education, becoming a doctor of the
Sorbonne in 1684. Two years later appeared the
first volume of his chief work, the Bibliothtque unv'
veraeUe des atUeurs eccUsiastiqiteSf which brought
its author into conflict with the clergy and es-
pecially with Bossuet on account of its rational-
istic tone. Under the threat of a rigid censorship
he retracted his views, but could not save his book
from suppression by the Parliament of 1683. It
was continued, however, under the new title Nou-
vclle bibliotfiique des auteurs eccUsiasiiquee, and in
this form reached, with the supplements, sixty-one
octavo volumes (original ed., 58 vols., Paris, 1686-
1704; Eng. transl. by W. Wotton, 17 vols., Lon-
don, 1693-1707). Involved in the controversy
over the bull Unigenilus and accused of being a
Jansenist and a signer of the " Case of Conscience,"
he was banished to Chatellerault, and although he
was permitted to return after a second retraction,
he was not allowed to resume his activity as a
teacher at the College de France. During the re-
gency he corresponded with William Wake, the
archbishop of Canterbury, on the union of the An-
glican and Roman Catholic Churches, and all his
papers were accordingly confiscated in Feb., 1719,
at the order of Dubois. He likewise took part in
the attempt to unite the Greek and Roman Catholic
Churches made when Peter the Great visited Paris
in 1717.
As a Gallican canonist Du Pin wrote his De an-
tiqua ecclesicB disciplina disseriationes historiccs
(Paris, 1686) and his Traii6 de la puissance eccld-
siastique et temporelle (1707), the latter a detailed
commentary on the four theses of the Gallican
clergy. Among his numerous other works special
mention may be made of the following: DissertO'
Hon prdiminaire, ou proUgomhiea tur la Bible (2
vols., 1699; Eng. transl., 2 vols., London, 1699-
1700); Bibliothkque universelle dea kistoriens (Am-
sterdam, 1708; Eng. transl., 2 vols., London,
1709); Hiataire de Vigliae en abrigi (Paris, 1712;
Eng. transl., 4 vols., London, 1715-16); MahaU
pour itudier la thiologie (1716; Eng. transl., Lon*
don, 1720); and his editions of Optatus (Paris,
1700) and of the writings of Johann Gerson (1703).
He wrote with extraordinary ease, skill, and taste,
but was lacking in depth. (C. Pfender.)
Bibuoobapht: Du Pin's notes upon his life and writinci
are in the NouvelU Inblioih^qu^, xiz. 176-253. Conaolt:
Nic^ron. Mimoires, ii. 25-28; L. O. Miohaud. BiograpJtfs
univeruiU, vol. xii.. 45 vols., Paris. 1843-85.
DU PLESSIS-MORNAY, dQ^ples'^si'-mftr^nfe', PHX-
LIPPE.
Early Life and Education (S 1).
First PubUc Services, 1669-77 (J 2).
Enters Service of Henry of Navarre (S 3).
Defense of Henry's Claim to the Suecession (f 4).
Activities as Governor of Saumur (S 5).
His Great Polemic (f 6).
His Influence and Importance (S 7).
Philippe Du Plessis-Momay (called also Philippe
de Momay, Seigneur du Plessis-Marly, Baron of
La For^t-sur^vre), French Protestant states-
man, soldier, theologian, and controversialist; b.
at Buhy (Normandy) Nov. 5, 1549; d. at La
For^t-sur-S^vre (Poitou) Nov. 11, 1623. He was
destined for the priesthood, and at an early ag»
was sent to the Roman Catholic college of Usieux
at Paris in spite of the fact that his mother had been,
won over to the practise, though not to the publlG
acknowledgment, of the Reformed faith. In 1559
the father died, a convert to Protestantism, whieh.
was now openly professed by the widow and her
children. Momay prosecuted his studies at Paris
for a number of years, then, on the outbreak of the
second war of religion in 1567, he made ready to
join the Huguenot forces under Cond^, but was pre-
vented from carrying out his intention by a fall
from his horse. A poem on the horrors of civil
strife, composed at this time and ad-
z. Early dressed to the Cardinal of ChatiUon,
Life and gained him the friendship of that
Education, prelate, at whose advice he imdertook
in 1568 a long journey abroad for the
purpose of completing his education under the best
foreign- teachers. Through Germany, Italy, the
Netherlands, and England he traveled, devoting
his time with characteristic seriousness of purpose
to linguistic and juridical studies, acquainting him-
self with political, ecclesiastical, and social life and
the great men of the different countries, and pre-
serving the results of his observations in a care-
fully kept diary.
At Cologne he came into contact with Dutch
refugees, whose accounts of Alva's rule stirred
the ardent young Protestant to vehement hatred
against Roman Catholic Spain and convinced him
of the unity of interests between the adherents of
the Reformed faith in France and Holland. Two
pamphlets addressed to the Dutch people, exhorting
them to cast off the Spanish yoke, gained him the
attention and friendship of Wttliam the Silent. Co-
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
DnPin
Xhi Ples«iB-Komay
figny. too, discerned the splendid promise of his tal-
ents, and a memorial composed by Du Plessis, ui^ging
the expediency of rendering aid to the Dutch prov-
iDoeB, was laid by the great admiral before Charles
EL He narrowly escaped the massacre of St.
Bttthobmew, and with great difficulty made his
way to England, where he remained
2. First till the end of 1573, acting for a time
Pabtic as the agent of William the Silent
Semces, and the Duke of Alen^on and Anjou.
1569-77' Summoned by La Noue to France, he
took part in the unsuccessful Huguenot
attempt at Saint Germain in Mar., 1574, was de-
fntod at Nantes, went on a diplomatic mission to
Louis of Nassau, and was taken prisoner in the
battle of Dormans in Oct., 1575, but escaped recog-
nition and, ransomed for a small sum, took up his
residence at S^dan. There he made the acquaint-
ance of Charlotte Arbaleste, a young widow of
deeply pious character and an ardent Huguenot,
whom he married in Jan., 1576. It was character-
istic of her that she requested a literary disserta-
tioQ as a marriage gift, and Du Plessis accordingly
composed his Discaurs de la vie et de la mart (Lau-
none, 1576; Eng. transl. Discourse of Life and
DmA, by Edward Aggas, London, 1577, six later
In the sixth civil war, which broke out in 1577,
Da Plessis took little share. La Noue had pre-
wted him to Henry of Navarre, who sent him on
a missbn to England, where he remained for
more than a year, composing his TraiU de V6glise
London, 1578; Eng. transl. A Treatise of the
Cimk, by L Feflde, 1579, 2d ed., 1581). From
1578 to 1582, with the exception of
3. Enters a brief sojourn in England, he rep-
Serricc resented the interests of Henry of
of Henry of Navarre in the Netherlands, residing
Kinrre. at Antwerp, and, after 1580 at Ghent.
In the latter city he completed an
ambitious theological work, the Traiti de la verity
I de la religion ckriiienne contre les Ath^es, Epicu-
naUf PayenSf Juifs, MahumedisteSf et autres Inf.-
dda (Antwerp, 1581; Eng. transl. A Worke Con-
emiing the Treumesse of the Christian Religion, by
Sir Philip Sidney and A. Golding, London, 1587,4th
ed-, 1617). In 1582 he was recalled to France by
the king of Navarre, and from that time dates
the friendship between the two that was to last
ontfl Henry's conversion to Roman Catholicism.
With consummate energy and fine literary talents
he became Henry's mouthpiece and public defender.
He was his most trusted counselor and a fearless,
though respectful, critic where he believed the
prince untrue to himself. His presence at court
was felt in a general chastening of manners, and a
monument of his peculiar part in this friendship
was the remarkable essay, R^lement de la fa^on de
ri^re, composed for the king in Jan., 1583. In the
differences existing between the heads of the
Huguenot party and Henry of Navarre, Du Plessis
•cted as a mediator. At the Synod of Vitr6 in May,
1583, suspicion of Henry's ambitions was rife
wnong the delegates, whose views were largely
tinged with the spirit of Calvinistic democracy;
Du Plenis was instrumental in bringing about the
IV.-3
agreement that a number of deputies of the synod
should be assigned to the presence of the prince
to be consulted on all ecclesiastical affairs. The
project of a union of the Protestant churches of
Europe which received some discussion at the same
synod was very close to his heart, and at the syn-
ods of Gap in 1603, La Rochelle in 1607, and Ton-
neins in 1614 he was an ardent advocate of the
scheme, although he achieved not the slightest
The death of the Duke of Anjou in June, 1584,
brought Henry of Navarre next in succession to the
throne, and the health of the childless Henry III.
was such as to make his death at any moment a
probable event. By the mass of the French nation
the accession of a Protestant king was regarded as
out of the question, and the League, in alliance
with Spain, entered on a period of
4. Defense renewed activity. In the war of
of Henry's pamphlets that ensued, Du Plessis
Claim to naturally appeared as the most promi-
thc Sue- nent defender of the legitimate claims
cession, of Henry of Navarre. With untiring
energy he poured forth a succession
of state documents, letters, instructions, and for-
mal argumentations, all expressive of devoted
faith in a prince to whom he looked as the coming
disseminator of Evangelistic teaching throughout
the world. In the war of the Three Henrys which
followed the Edict of Nemours in 1585, Du Plessis
acted as governor of the important fortress of
Montauban and took part in the battle of Coutras
(Oct. 20, 1587), Henry's first great victory, and in
the unsuccessful siege of Saint-Nazaire. At the
political assembly of the Huguenots at La Rochelle
in 1588, he exercised his accustomed function of
mediator between Henry and the Protestant leaders,
and was elected president of the council entrusted
with the management of the affairs of the party
and its representation at court. The assassination
of the Guises at Blois in December of the same year
led to a temporary aUiance between Henry III. and
the king of Navarre against the League, negotiated
by Du Plessis, who received the command of the
important city of Saumur, which had been assigned
as a stronghold to the Huguenots. He fought by
the side of Henry of Navarre at Ivry (March 14,
1590) and was present at the siege of Rouen, in the
course of which he made a journey to England to
solicit the aid of Elizabeth.
The resistance of the League had convinced
Henry of Navarre that the crown of France was
not to be gained so long as he remained a Protes-
tant, and the problem became one merely of ren-
dering his change of religion as little odious as
possible. In the negotiations that preceded the
king's abjuration of the Huguenot faith Du Plessis
appears as the victim of Henry's double dealing.
Fond as he was of theological disputation, he felt
convinced that an open debate on the rival merits
of the warring confessions, could not but serve to
strengthen the king in his hereditary faith, and in
this spirit of confidence he negotiated with the
representative of the League a treaty by which
Henry agreed to place himself under Roman Catho-
lic instruction in order to test the truth of the
Da Plassis-Komay
Durand
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
M
doctrines of the Church. Too late Du Plessis dis-
covered that his project of a public disputation was
not to be realized and that Henry had used him
for his own ends. The old friendship between the
two was thereby destroyed, and though Du Plessis
remained in Henry's service and was concerned in
many important affairs of state, he was no longer the
spokesman of the king. The loss of royal favor,
however, brought no end to the active
5. Activ- career of Du Plessis. As governor of
ities as Saumur he devoted himself to the
Governor of strengthening of the fortress and the
Saumur. improvement of the surrounding dis-
trict. With his own means he founded
in 1593 the Protestant university of Saumur,
which, till its suppression by Louis XIV. in 1685,
was the most important and influential of Protes-
tant theological schools in France. As arbitrator
between the Huguenots and the king, he was an
especially important figure during the years pre-
ceding the promulgation of the edict of Nantes,
when the favor shown by Henry IV. to the great
Roman Catholic nobles roused among the Hugue-
nots fear of the resumption of persecution. At
the assembly of Nantes in 1593 the first steps to-
ward the Edict of Nantes were taken in the for-
mulation of the Huguenot demands. Of greater
importance was the Synod of Sainte Foy in the
following year, where the organization of the Hugue-
not party was carried out in accordance with the
plans formulated by Du Plessis. Although he
took no share in the negotiations leading up to the
Edict of Nantes or in the drafting of that document,
its provisions must be regarded as largely the
result of his long activity in the councils of the king.
As the most prominent among Protestant states-
men and theologians Du Plessis received at this
time the nickname of the Huguenot Pope.
In July, 1598, Du Plessis published at La Ro-
chelleDe V institution, usage et doctrine du saint sacre-
ment d6 Veucharistie enlUglise ancienne (Eng. transl..
The Institution, Usage, and Doctrine of the Holy Sac-
rament, London, 1600), a work representing many
years of labor and comprising in addition to the main
attack on the mass, a polemic against other Roman
Catholic doctrines. Over 5,000 quotations from the
Scriptures, the Church Fathers, and the medieval
theologians constituted a formidable array of evi-
dence and bore testimony to the learning of its
author. It was regarded not only as
6. His a monumental apology for the Re-
Great formed faith, but as the reply of the
Polemic. Protestants to the king's conversion.
The Roman Curia and the Sorbonne
expressed their condemnation of the work and many
rejoinders were published. In 1600 Davy Duperron,
bishop of Evreux, formulated the charge against
Du Plessis that a large proportion of the citations
adduced by him were either entirely false or incor-
rectly quoted. Du Plessis thereupon challenged
his critic to a public disputation which occurred in
the presence of the king and his court at Fontaine-
bleau on May 4, 1600. Du Plessis, as a matter of
fact, had not made use of the best editions in com-
piling his references and was, moreover, unequal
in theological learning and dialectic to his opponent;
but what principally led to the letter's inamf/k
was the disingenuous action of the authorities ia ]
allowing Du Plessis a single night for the preput* I
tion of his side of the case. Deeply humiliated bf j
the result of the disputation, Du Plessis retired to |
Saumur, where he busied himself with the recutiDg
of his work, which, sanctioned by a general synod,
appeared in a second edition at Saumur in 1601
The death of his only son in 1605 and that d
his wife in the following year were severe blows,
although they did not draw him away from the
sphere of active church politics. After the assas-
sination of Henry IV. (1610), he persevered in his
attitude of loyalty to the royal house
7. His In- notwithstanding the machinatioos of
fluence the regent Mary de' Medici against the
and Im- Huguenots. His influence was s^
portance. exerted for peace, and when Coiid6
took up arms in 1615, he was soe-
cessful in restraining the majority of the Prolr
estants from resorting to violence. The oooit
showed little gratitude. On the outbreak d
the religious war of 1621 Du Plessis, in spite
of his well-known pacific attitude, was de-
prived of his governorship of Saumur. Wounded
in spirit and half-blind, he retired to his castle of
La For6t-sur-Sdvre where he died two years later.
His principal works, in addition to those men-
tioned above, were as follows: Lacrim<B (Paris,
1606; Eng. transl. by J. Healey, London, 1609),
a threnody on the death of his son; Le myttbre
dHniquU^f c*est d dire, Vhistoire de la papauU (Saumur,
161 1 ; Eng. transl., The Mysterie of Iniquitie that is
Historie of the Papacie, by S. Lennard, London,
1612); and Discoursetm^dUations chr^tiennes (3 vols.,
Saumur and La For^t, 1609-24). His religious
writings show no original contributions in the field
of theology; he was too much the polemist to be
the pioneer. His importance rests rather in the
multifarious activities of his eventful life and in the
high example he set of unselfish and steadfast devo-
tion to a cause of the merits of which he was thor-
oughly convinced. (Theodor ScHorrf.)
Biblioorapht: The Sources are: D. Lioques, Hiaioirt if
la vie de . . . PhUippe de Momay, Leyden, 1047;
Mhnovrea et correapondance . . . de la ForUenelU, vola.
i.-xii., Paris, 1824-25; earlier collections of MSmoirm
appeared at La For^t, 1624-62, and Amsterdam, 1652-
1653; a complete collection of the letters is a desidera-
tum. The best acooimt of the life is in E. StShelin,
Der UebertriU . . . Heinrich'e IV. , . . tur katkolieekan
Kirche, Basel. 1856; for English readers, H. M. Baird.
The HuguenoU and Henry of Navarre, New York, 188A,
is very valuable and is detailed. Consult also: Q. de
Fdlice, Hi»t. de proteetanta de France, Paris, 1860; E. and
6. Haag. La France Proteatante, vol. vii. ib. 1857; P. de
Felice, Lea Proteatanta d'autrefoia, 4 vols., Paris, 1897-
1902. His literary activity is well characterised in A.
Savous, Studea liltfrairea aw lea icrivaina de la Reforma-
tion, vol. ii., Paris. 1841.
DURAND, dQ-rond', OF SAINT POURCAHf, pQr san.
His Life (§ 1). His Doctrine of the Sacra-
Independence as a Thinker ments (| 5).
(§ 2). His Significance as a Teacher
Philosophical Position (§3). (5 6).
His Theology (§ 4).
Durand of Saint Pour^ain {Durandus de Sancto
Porciano), scholastic theologian, bishop of Meaux,
was bom at Saint Pour9ain (85 m. n.w. of Lyons) in
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Xhi Ples«iB-Momay
Ihurand
[ Anvergne, in the third quarter of the thirteenth cen-
; tmy; d. at Meaux (28 m. e. of Paris) Sept. 10, 1334.
I fie entered the Dominican order as early as 1303.
h 1312 he was made a licentiate and was called
to Avignon as ledor curice and magister S, PaUUii,
and remained there for some time. In
L His Life. 1317 he was made a bishop, in 1326
bishop of Meaux. During the last
yean of his life he was in opposition to John XXII.
ntecount of his teaching of the visio becUificaf and
g judicium magistrorum theohgice in curia existen-
turn declared eleven of his articles objectionable.
Of his writings one only has importance, the com-
pidieiisive commentary on the " Sentences *' of
Feter Lombard, which be commenced, according to
hiBCfim statement, while a young man and finished
in his old age.
In the controversy between the scientific tend-
encies of his time, Durand occupied an independ-
ent critical position and adhered to no school-
nlhority, a position for which he obtained the
mme of Doctor resolutissimus. To be sure, dogmatic
itstements which had become authoritative in the
, Church are without question authoritative for
Um, but he distinguishes clearly between that
, liueh is really an ecclesiastical statement and that
[ which is commonly deduced from it,
2. hide- the former, not the latter, being bind-
fndence as ing. Besides, the authority of any in-
t Thinker, dividual teacher must yield to good
contrary reasons. Especially is this
tiUB (as he states with unmistakable reference to
the colleagues of Thomas, who would make him
tile absolutely authoritative theologian of the order,
frtf. in $ent. no. 12) with respect to every modeiTi
tttchor, for " every one who dismisses reason for
fte sake of human authority falls into beastly
vmriBdom.*' Still more decided is Durand's posi-
tion against extra-ecclesiastical authorities; " it
ii no part of natural philosophy to know what
Aristotle or other philosophers thought, but the
tnith of the matter is the essential thing; where-
iore when Aristotle deviates from the truth of the
! Batter it is no science to know what Aristotle
th(Wj5ht, but rather error " {Prcef. in sent., qu. 1,
me).
Like all theologians of that time, Durand has
his say (m the question of universalia. But his
position is not clear owing to the fact that the
commentary was composed during a long period,
within which his views underwent development.
fience Pranti states (p. 292) only that he approaches
to nominalistic views and Baur {Kirchengeschichte
da MiUdalters, p. 377), that the premises of nom-
inaliBm are found in him. Nevertheless every real
entity is to him merely individual entity (II., dist.
3, qu. 3, no. 9). To be sure the general concepts
lie not merely nothings, since they designate con-
gndties which are found among different things,
bat these congruities do not go back to something
reafly common, therefore: " The unity of auniver-
aal in its particulars is not a unity of the thing but
a unity of relationship, just as the entity is an entity
jf relationship " (I., dist. 19, qu. 4, no. 10; cf.
L, dist. 3, qu. 3, no. 16). On this account also
lie much disputed question concerning the prin-
cipium individuaiionis becomes to him null and
void, because he thinks it a simple matter of fact
that every thing real proceeds as such
3. Philo- from the individual and is individual
Bophical (II., dist 3, qu. 3, no. 15). From this
Position, point of view Durand must be con-
sidered a nominalist, though this is
not clear everywhere. But on the other hand it
can not be said that the theological views of Durand
are to be traced to his nominalism, or even to his
philosophical views in general, for he does not do it
himself. Only a certain corresponding tendency
in his thinking on both spheres may be admitted.
Durand allows his views to develop everywhere
from a criticism of his predecessors, but this crit-
icism, acute as it is, rests so little on firm pervading
principles that a Durandian system can hardly be
spoken of. As a Dominican he started in the first
place from Thomas, but in essential points he freed
himself from Thomism and pursued in many
directions a like path to Scotus, without therefore
becoming a Scotist. For example he does not share
with him the fundamentally important position
of the will before intelligence. On the question
whether theology is to be considered a science, he
deviates much from Thomas asserting with em-
phasis that for most theological statements a scien-
tific demonstration is impossible ; he does not even
admit with Scotus the possibility of a scientifically
satisfactory refutation of the contrary reasons
(IV., dist. 11, qu. 1, no. 6). Further considerations
lead him to the result that theology is in no respect
a science in the strict sense, but only in the wider
sense, because one may call science a discipline
which rests on true propositions, though not evi-
dent to the reasoner. On the whole in Durand may
be perceived a keen apprehension of the distinction
between faith and knowledge. Thomas imagined
that he was able to bridge over the chasm between
both, since faith, so far as it rests on divine authority
appeared to him under the point of view of knowl-
edge, and indeed of a knowledge the certainty of
which is greater than that of all knowledge
from natural reason (Summaf p. I., qu. 1, art.
8, ad. 2). Durand, however, says (II., dist. 23, qu.
7, no. 10) " there are many conditions of knowl-
edge and action in us more certain and better
known than faith.''
Characteristic of Durand's morally serious but
religiously cool mode of consideration is his answer
to the question (IV., dist. 1, qu. 7) " whether sin
should be more hateful to the believer because it is
offensive to God or because it is hurtful to him-
self." The idea of offensa Dei, also that of the
wrath of God, is here in substance wholly removed :
both are asserted of God only secundum effectum,
not secundum affectumj and by offensa Dei must not
be understood a displeasure of (}od in the siimer or
the will to punish him, for the expression is noth-
ing more than a metaphorical designation of pun-
ishment itself, and originated by trans-
4. His ferring to God a disposition analogous
Theology, to that in which the reproving man
generally is. The guilt of the sinner is
therefore not in the offensa Dei, but in the irregular
conduct of man; such a conduct is against reason,
Xhirand
Durle
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
whereas tbe just punishment is not a^inst roason,
and hence sin is a greater evil and must be hated
more than punisliment* Thiu is a way of viewing
things which cornea near to that of Kant, but is
just aa far removed from that of Ansel m aa from
that of Luther. No less removed from Anselm is
Durand also with respect to the necessity of re'
demption through the satisfaction by the eon of
God. If Thomas allowed it at least relatively,
Durand denies in the first place all necessity for
God to redeem the fallen racfit secondly also^ if a
redemption was to take place^ the n€*cessity of a
perfect satisfaction, since God could have refused
all satis fact lOQ or could have been satiis&ed with a
lesaer one (HI.t dist, 20, qu. 12). That not all have
part in the salvation, and that there eKtsts a dif-
ference between the predestined and non-pre-
destined, must be asaumed on the ground of reve-
lation. For a rational argument one may assert
with Thomas that in this way in the order of the
universe not only the bonum miHerTcordiw but also
the bonum ju^^titim punientis is fully afserted, but
Durand finds this reaion not cogent because the
punitive justice is only a relative good, in so far as
it serves a& remedy, for " the universe were better
off without guilt and punitive justice tlian with
them; juat as nature were better off without sick-
ness and medicine than with them " (L, dist. 41,
qu. 2» no. 13).
Concerning the sacraments Durand artopted the
already customary number seven, but he went back
again to the more ancient distinction between sac-
raments in the narrower and wider sense and con-
sidered marriage as a sacrament only in the wider
gense* The doctrine of transubstantiation caustjd
hin\f like many of his contemporaries, great diffi-
culties. His older contemporary and monastic
colleague, John of Paris, taught a kind of consubstan-
tiation — the substances remain after the conse-
cration but not in propria isupjHunio-^
S, His Doc- he was tried on that account but died
trine of the at AvTgnon before the trial was ended.
Sacraments* Durand is more cautioun; he remarks
indeed tliat the reasons for the doc-
trine are not satisfying, but he also states that the
assumption that the substance of the elements
renraains would remove many difficulties (IV., dist.
11, qu. 1, no. 15-17), Against all these consider^
ations however stands the authority of the Church,
to which one must be subject. He wishes there-
fore only to oppose a certain form of transubstan-
tiation— the common one — according to which a
complete change of the substances takes place, and
tries to explain this as conceivable by assuming a
change of the form of the elements, whereas the
substance turns into the form of the body of Christ.
Taking all together the injportance of Durand
may thus be expressed: (1) he is a theologian of a
strictly eccleaiaiticoHJomien^ative tendency, and
only within these limits of one eom-
6* His Sig- panitivply more liberal (2) a somewhat
nificance as larger frt'^dom was miwle possible for
a Teacher, him by the separation of the domains
of faith and knowledge, but even in
this form he used it in a very moderate manner.
(3) His talent is predominantly critical, not produc-
I
tive; he is stronger in critical refiectioQ OfQ tlie
points under discussion than in the deeper appn^
hension of the subjects; (4) the preceding oonajd-
erations taken together explain why he was unabk
to produce an epoch-making impression. Sudi
could have proceeded mainly from the treatment',
of the preliminary questions of theology and from
his nominalism j but in both respects he was on^
stripped by the boldness of Occam and, as it
placed in the shade. (5) Nevertheless his
work has for a long time enjoyed an authority on
account of the excellences mentioned above and on
account of its dogmatic correctness. Gerson reo^
ommended him beside Thomas, Bona vent ura, mA
Henry of Ghent, and in the sbcteenth ceatury tbero -
Btill existed at Salamanca a special chair for Dunuid* -f
S. M. Deittscb. ■\
Biblioqilafhy: The ooauneatary on P«i«r Lombard biit
bci«ti often printed; the Antifierp edition of 1^67 ii QiulBd
above, O. R«yiiatduj«, Annale* e€xU»iaMici, iid. hl
15S4. Cologne. 1304-1727; C. E. du BouUy. Hitiffria wm^
vrrtitaUs PariitUTuis, iv, t54, fl vob., P&ti^, 1665-73;
C. Oudin^ CammefiktHtu dt §criptaribus €4xi«9ift, Vot Lii*
Fmakfort, 1722" AH. Eitter, Gadiidiig dgr PAiiowfAi*,.
VI IL 550 pqQ>» BAtnbut^. 1&45^ idem. Die ehrigUi^e PM«
hwophis. i. 712 SQq., G5Ceiiigcn. 1358; A. BiAM, ik>
aehidiU dtr Fhihanphie d^ MiUelaUerM^ ii. iTMH^
Mainip 1865; J. B. HmunSau. Du fa pAifoK^Mi* 'MWlfirti|M^
iL 411 ^q.| PariH, 1850: idem, Hiatoire dt la phUomjikk
aooUuHque, iL 2. pp. 47 «qq.t tb. ISSO; C. you Prud,
Q^tchidite der Logik im Abendtander iii. 2)^2 sqq., Ldp*
tae^ 1S&7I K. W#m@r, Th^mvia uon Aquitta, iii. 106 (Km.*
Regeafburg. l^^l idem. Din nomituUiti&vnde Pf^cA^-
h&w dem MpAieren MiUetalter^, Vienna. 1882; IdetO^ JMf
SdioUuttik dsM tpateren M Utelaitcrg^ voL ii., lb. 1B83S
J, E. Erdmann. i/wl of Phil&9ophv. vol. i.+ Loading
I3$d; C. i^lLiimker, Beitram ^f Qetekichte dtr PAiioHfMl
del MitUlaiter*. 3 vols.. Maoater. lg@ 1-1001.
DURAim OF TROARN: Roman Catholic abboi
of Troarn; b. at Neubourg (13 m. n.w. of Evreux)
apparently in the early part of the devcnth centuiT;
d. at Troarn (5 m. e. of Caen) Feb. II, 1088. H«
entered a monastety in early youth, and in 10S9 ■
was appointed abbot of Troarn, an office which ha
held for the remainder of his life. He is noteworthy
for his share in the second eueliaristic con trover^, .
hia De cor pore et sanguine ChrisH dating appan&ntiy
from about 1054, In his opinion the entire ooo*
troversy centered about the question whether in
the Sacrament there was a symbol or a true swl^
stance, he himpelf maintaining the latter teachiiig
as the belief of the entire Catholic Church. Hll
book is noteworthy, as showing the feeling that tbtt
attacks of Berengar on the doctrines of PaachaaitV
Radbertua imperiled the trtith of Christianity, and
as indicating the oppoflition of the older traditionai*
L<*tie theologians to any explanation of contro-
verted probiemjs. In conformity with his theory
that all difficulties may be solved by the state-
ments of the Chiirch Fathers, a Urge portioti of hii
work consists of compilations from such pred©ce»*
Bors as Hilary, Ambrose, Augustine, Jerome, Ct»-
siodorus, Bcnie, Amalarius, Hinemar, and Fuibert.
Noteworthy also are his data concerning the coiirtt
of the Berc»ngarian controversy from 1050 to 10$L
(A. HAoes,)
TlrniiHioiiiiAFRT: The work of Durand in appvikded bo L.
d'Achery'rt etcUtion of Lii,nfrnnc-, Pftria* 1745t And in MPlt,
oilix. CoEL5ul1^ Hint. UifMiire 4« Frsmct, viiu 3^0; H.
Sijd«iidtirf, Btt^T^f&rim TaronemU, pp. 25 aqq., Qath%
S7
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Dnrand
Durie
ttSO; C Wemer, (7cr6«rf von AuriOae^ pp. 171 aqq.,
finnA. 1878; J. SchniUer, BerwQor von Toutb, pp. 328
iqq^ Stattgart. 1892.
DURAHDUS, GUUELMUS: French canoniste.
1. Oiled " Speculator" after his chief work; b. at
PdimisBoii, near B^ziers, 1237; d. in Rome Nov. 1,
1296. Clement IV. made him his auditor-general,
HbdMOOQ, and chaplain ; Gregory X., his secretary
ittheeouncilofLyons(1274); Nicholas III. sent him
klo the Romagna and to Bologna to receive their
komige in his name (1278) ; Martin IV. made him
ipritual legate in the Romagna (1281), and in 1283
netor-general. In 1286 he became bishop of Mende,
■ntiiem FVanoe. His chief book was the Speculum
mUMe [Rome, 1474; latest ed., Frankfort, 1668].
Another useful book was his Rationale divinorum
^uuman, Augsburg, 1470 (Eng. transl. of the first
book, The Symbolism of Churches and Church Oma-
ante, London, 1906).
8. His nephew succeeded him as bishop of Men-
deB,Dec 18, 1296; d. there 1331. His book, De
Mi> edtbrandi concilii et corruptelis in ecclesia
t^tmandis (in TracUUus iUustrium Juris consul-
fcntm, XIII., 1. 159 sqq., Venice, 1584), made quite
iKoaation in the Middle Ages.
fibuooEAPBT: J. F. Ton Sehulte, (TctcftidUe der CueOm
wd LUentur df eanomadlen Rschtt, u. 156-156, Stutt-
IHt. 1877; KL, iv. 45-^46; and preface to the Eng. tranal.
«IUkefialioiiale, 1906.
DURBnr, JOHN PRICE: Methodist Episcopal
dagyman; b. near Paris, Bourbon Co., Ky., Oct.
10^ 1800; d in New York Oct. 19, 1876. In 1818
be became an itinerant minister, and later studied
it Miami University and Cincinnati College. In
1833 be edited the Christian Advocate and Jour-
Mi; New York. From 1834 to 1845 he was
puident of Dickinson College, Penn., and from
1850 to 1872 was secretary of the Methodist Mis-
■onaiy Society. He was an eloquent minister and
aa ezoeOent administrative officer. His principal
wikB were Observations in Europe (2 vols., New
Yofk, 1844), and Observations in, Egypt, Palestine,
Sffria, and Asia Minor (2 vols., 1845).
Bbuooupht: J. A. Roche, Life of John Price Dwhin,
Rw York, 1889.
DURHAM: A town of northern England (60
m. DJLe. of York), the seat of an important bishop-
ne of the Chureh of England. The ecclesiastical
foandation there dates from the end of the tenth
ceotaiy, when the monks who were transporting
the j)ody of St. Cuthbert (q.v.) to protect it from
DiBiBh invaders chose this spot for a permanent
ibidiiig-plaoe and built the first chureh. After the
NormaD Conquest Benedictine monks were placed
inehaige of the shrine, and William I. gave W^cher,
the bkhop, the temporal power of an Earl of North-
onteiand Speaking of the palatine jurisdiction
vfaieh the bishops of Durham enjoyed without
linitataon until the reign of Henry VIII., Freeman
mj9 that thus ** the prdate of Durham became one,
mkI the most important, of the only two English
pRbtes whose worldly franchises invested them
vfth wofme faint shadow of the sovereign powers
ajoyed by the princely churohmen of the Em-
pire." The other prelate referred to is the bishop
of Ety (see Elt), who owed his power and influence
to the location of his see among the fens of East
England, as the bishop of Durham owed his to the
position of his castle and cathedral on the top of a
lofty rock, — an almost impregnable natural fort-
ress. Walcher's successor, WUliam of St. Calais,
began the construction of the present stately cathe-
dral, the interior of which is regarded as the
noblest piece of Norman architecture extant. In
1827 the supposed tomb of St. Cuthbert was opened
and the skeleton found there was identified as
actually that of the saint. The remains of the
Venerable Bede also repose within the cathedral.
Among other names associated with Durham is that
of Richard de Bury (q.v.), the most learned man
of his generation north of the Alps. Cardinal
Wolsey lived here during his tenure of the arch-
bishopric of York, and it was his quarrel with
Henry VIII. that resulted in the palatinate begin-
ning to lose its power. Among later bishops, the
most distinguished names are those of Joseph
Butler, author of the Analogy, and the last two,
J. B. Ughtfoot and B. F. Westcott. The bishops
no longer live in the castle, which is now the seat
of Durham University, foimded in 1833, corre-
sponding to the " Northern University " pro-
jected in Oomwell's time, but at Bishop's
Thorpe. The bishopric was long one of the
richest in England, but on the death of Bishop
Van MUdert in 1836 the revenue was reduced to
£8,000 (now £7,000) a year, the surplus being
devoted to the augmentation of a fund for increas-
ing the revenues of the poorer bishops. Although
the last vestiges of the palatine authority disap-
peared at this time, the bishop of Durham still
takes precedence immediately aiter the bishop of
London.
Biblioorapht: J. L. Low, Durham, London. 1881 (in
Diocuan HiUory 8€rie9); idem, Hiatorical Scene* in Dur-
ham Cathedral, ib. 1887; the works on the Cathedral of
Durham by K. T. Talbot, London, 1893; J. T. Fowler,
ib. 1808; and J. E. Bygate, ib. 1800. Conault also the
publications of the Surtees Society, and ArchcBologia
JBUana, Newcastle, 1856 sqq. (journal for the history of
Durham).
DURIE (DIJRY), JOHN: A persistent Scotch
advocate of Protestant union; b. in Edinburgh
1596; d. at Cassel Sept. 26, 1689. His father left
Scotland because of his opposition to the policy of
King James VI., and Durie, having completed his
studies in Oxford, accepted the position of minister
of the English settlers at Elbing just after Gustavus
Adolphus of Sweden captured the city. There he
became acquainted with Swedish Lutherans and
was thus led in 1628 to a careful study of the dif-
ferences between the Lutherans and the Reformed
with a view to effecting a reconciliation between
them. About that time Elbing was visited by the
English ambassador, Sir Thomas Roe, who became
interested in Durie's plan and introduced him to
Chancellor Oxenstiema. In 1630 Roe sent Durie
to England with an indorsement of his project to
the moderates among the bishops. In Germany
the Lutherans and the Reformed then seemed to
be drawing closer together, for at the conference at
Leipsic in 1631 (see Leipsic, Colloquy of) both
denominations were on remarkably friendly terms
with each other. It seemed a favorable moment
Buty
THE NEW SCHAFF-HER20G
to Bend Durie to the Continent in the interest of
eccleiiiajstical |)eace| and he thit^ began an act]\dty
of aJmoat fifty years as an itinerant advocate of
uaion between the Ite formed and the Luttierans.
Until the end of 1633 he traveled through Ger-
many with lettere of recommendation from Sir
Thomas Roc, as well aa from Archbiflhop Abbot of
Canterbury and other bishops and theologians.
Gu^tavus Adolphus received him at Wilraburg and
promised him a letter of recommendation to the
Protestant princDi of Germany. In 1633 Durie
wa^ recalled to England by the death of Arch bii hop
Abbots whose successor^ Laud, supported him only
after he had joined the Anglican Church and had
been ordained m it. Aided by the recommendation
of X^ud and by English ambassadors^ Dune labored,
beginning with 1534, in Germany and Holland In
1638 he was expelled from Sweden, but in 1639 he
was in Denmark, where his reception was unfriendly ^
and in the following year he returned to Germany, a#-
iociating chiefly with the dukes Augustus and George
of Brunswick, who were CaUxtine in eympathy.
The troubles in England called him home. From
1641 to 1644 he was an Anglican clergyman in The
Hague, but in K)45| when Laud fell, he rejoined the
Presbyterians, He labored as their asioeiato in
the eventful years 1645-^9, taking part in the draft-
ing of the Westminster Confession and the West-
minster Catechism J but refusing to vote in favor of
the king's death. During Cromweirg protectorate,
Durie woa a partizan of this powerful pioneer of
religious liberty, joined the Indepi'ndentii, and waa
again sent to the Continent by Cromwell in 1654,
though the plan of union was now restricted to the
Reformed Churches, He vifiited Reformed theo-
logians and statesmen in Switzerland, Germany ,
and Holland » and returned to England in 1657,
Cromweira death in 1658 and the restoration of
1660 interrupted all his efforts. With no more hope
of governmental support of his plans for union, he
could continue \m work only in private and at hia
own risk. Despite his advanced age, he left Eng-
land in 1661 and returned to his task of uniting the
Protestant churches and of reconciling the Reformed
and the Lutherans. He gained the sympathy of
the Landgrave Willkrn VL of Heaee-Cajisel and the
Elector Frederick William of Brandenburg, and
after the early death of the former his widow,
Hedwig Sophia, who ruled almost alone at Cassel
from 1663 to 16S3, remained Durie 'a patroness
throughout the remainder of his life.
The majority of Lutheran theologians harshly
rejected Durie 'ts plat^ for reunion, e-specially aa they
were not clearly defined. At times he empha.^ij£ed
the so-called fundamental dogmas, but allowed
variations in subordinate doctrines and their dis-
cussion, while at other times he urged that an en-
tirely new confession should be formulated. Hia
concept of fundamental doctrines was likewise very
vagupt since he sometimes defined them bja the
conMsnauft of modem confessions, yet also classi-
fied them according to their teaching concerning
God and Christ. The time was not yet ripe for an
idea of aucb far-reaching importance, and thus
Durie 's life-work ended in apparent failure. In
the dedication of a work on the Apocalypae of John
(written in Freneh and pubHabed at
1674) to his patroness, the laadgraviiie of
be wrote: ** The chief fruit of my labora i
see that the misery of the Christians is far
than the wretchedness of tlie heathen and
nationa; I see the cause of the misery; 1 aee
of remedy, and 1 see the c^use of that lack. Fte
myself, 1 see that I have no other profit than tfai
witness of my conecience."
Paul Tschackest.
Biblioobapst: Amo^ Dun^'a oum^roua vofki met
Benisntia da paeia ration^uM initr ^mrvcCieoi, paUiAiit
with dedftrmtioaB of Yariouai Enftiflli faubofw is tfitt
(Bcparately, 1638; Eitg. trAosU, 1641); A S^mtmani D*
cour^ €tjneemin^ ih§ Work of Peacs £ceiMMi«6ca| iC«m-
briilBie, 1MI>, preseatsd to f^ir Tboi^aiiA Rae iu IGit
A MemofTvd concermng Peace J^ct.torkri<ijnf (LoadoQ,
1641), ^dreaMd " to the kio^ of KiiffUod mod the pu-
torti and eld^ra of the Kirk of Scotland meetiius %l St.
Andnsws "; An EpUtolm-u IH*vonr*e (1644K coboemint
the toLeratioQ of mdepemlfliicy; A M^d^d ^f Ckvd
Gmtrnm^nt {l6il): The Reformed Librta^ JC«pw (IflSft
fd. Ruth Sbepard GrmimiA^ with meisoir. Chieaco, IflOA^
An Eqttu^ Ptes for Gompd Commmniam (I €64); A Sm^
mmy FLatff^^n of Ihs Heade of a Body of /Vuctiao^ Jlfii»
itv (1654}; trvnir^ntm traetatuum ^rpdrommt (AttH^
d&m. 1674). The Refdfffwd LihfaHe-kmptr, flr iMa o^itf
(?/ teUtr c^ncerriing the Place a^ Office of a LibfttriMiqv
€bi»«Q, 1006.
A Mbft of his eoQtrovezviaJ works is given in %. Wilt
BibiiotkKm Britannim, p. 334. EdinburEH^ 1S34« ft»i «f
hi A other works la 0. 11^ Pf&ff. /rUrWucCid in kittm^k
tkeoioffiir Hteranam, Tflbiii($en« 1720. The chkf aeeiMil
of hifl Ufa Id io C, J. B«tit«], Dieterintio dt J. Dm^
Helmst&dt. 1744. ConnuU further: A. h Wood, A9mm
Oxonienitt, ed. P. BUm, HI 866, 961, 1Q43, iv. 57E, 4 volt,
London, 1313-20; C. A. Biiras. PreMbut^^t Benm,
Apr. 1887: DNB. 3cvi. 261-203; K, Brnwer* Die (Jajm-
taliifkeii John Duriea unter dem Proiektorat Croimril^
Marburg, 1007.
DURYEAj JOSEPH TUTHILL: Cbnpcgstloa-
alist; b. at Jamaica, N. Y., Dec. 9, 1832; d &t
Boston, Mass., Uay 17, 1898, He was gradu&ted
at the College of New Jersey in 1855 and PrincetoD
Theological Seminary in 1859. He was then p«-
tor of the Second Presbyterian Chureh, Troy^ N, Y.
(1859-62), Collegiate Reformed Dutch Chureh,
New Y'ork City {1862^7), Classon Avenue Pres-
byterian Church, Brooklyn {1867-79), Central Con-
gregational Church, Boston, Mass. (1879-95), and
First Reformed Dutch Church Brooklyn (1895-98).
During the Civil War he took an active interest in
the work of tho CiiHstian and Union commisf^lons,
and in the furtherance of their cause visited the
army and delivered many addresses throughout
the Northern States, While at Boston he was pro-
fessor of Biblical theology in Ando'ver Theological
Seminary for two years, of political economy in
Boston U nivcrsity for one year, and of philosophy
in Wellesley College for eight years. He compiled
The Pmbyterinn Hymnal (Philadelphia, 1874);
A Vesper Service for the Ubc of Congregations ^ Coi-^
leges^ SehoolSf and Academics for Sunday Bi^enin§
Worjihip (1887); A Morning Service fot the Use of
Congregaiionaj Colleges ^ Schooh, and Academ^i^ for
Sunday Morning Worship (1888); and Sele^i^na
from the Psalms and other Scriptures in the Revised
V&r^ion for Ee^ponmve Heading, in addition to a
number of addres^sea and other occasional vmtm^
mainly of a practical character.
DUTCH REFORMED CHXHICH. See H^Fomuxo
(Dtmm) Chuecej Holland*
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Darie
Duty
DDTorr, d(i"twa', jean Philippe : French
SIljBiic; b. at Moudon (14 m. n.n.e. of Lausanne),
SwitKriand, Sept. 27, 1721; d. at Lausanne Jan.
Si, 1793. He is usually called Dutoit-Membrini,
mfter his mother. He studied theology at the acad-
emy of Lausanne, but in 1750 he was taken ill and
believed that death was near. As he lay on the
ground, he had a vision in which he saw his dead
father who annoimced to him his speedy recovery.
"When he rose, he heard a voice saying: " Thou
flhalt eat of the flesh of thy Redeemer and drink of
his blood." He at once felt the effect of these
ivords, and a few days later he was far on the way to
lecovery. Shortly afterward Dutoit became ac-
qiuainted with the writings of Madame Guyon and
was soon one of her enthusiastic admirers. He
vowed never to marry, and often preached in the
diurches at Laxisanne, where he saw rich results
from his discourses, although he could not be per-
suaded to take a permanent position. In 1759 his
health obliged him to request that his name be
stricken from the clerical list, and he then devoted
himself to an earnest study of the Bible and the
Fathers of the Church, especially the mystics. He
corresponded with the famous men of his time, and
gathered about him at Lausanne a small circle of
enthusiasts. Despite the injurious reports cir-
culated concerning him, especially at Geneva, and
the suspicion of the government at Bern, his influ-
ence steadily increased. After his death a number
€i his followers, chiefly women, entered the Catholic
C3iurchy while others returned to the State Church
or joined various sects.
Dutoit's chief works were his Philosophie divine
par Keleph ben Nathan (3 vols., Lyons, 1793) and
Pkilo9ophie chritienne (4 vols., Lausanne, 1800),
a collection of sermons published by his admirers.
He also reedited the letters of Madame Guyon, and
published a new edition of her works in forty vol-
umes. Dutoit was guided in his labors by two
points of view, since he opposed deism, unbelief,
fanaticism, and magnetism, and strove to teach an
inward and empirical Christianity as contrasted with
an external faith based merely on historical belief
and a superficial religious life. As in the case of
mystics generally, the objective aspect of redemp-
tion, though by no means denied, was over-
shadowed by subjectivity, and justification by
faith was not fully recognized. Dutoit accord-
ingly disregarded the Moravians, and was equally
unsympathetic with the Jansenists and Calvin.
He made a laudable effort to establish the efficacy
of grace, and avoided the harshness of particularism,
although his system contains no satisfactory solu-
tion of the problem. He likewise rejected the cer-
tainty of the state of grace, coinciding here with
Catholic doctrine. His Biblical and Protestant
spirit, however, protected him from quietistic ex-
tremes. EuofeNE Choist.
BiBUOoaAPHT: J. ChAvannes. J. P. Dutoit, m vie, ton
earaetire et «m dodrinet, Lausanne, 1865; A. Verdeil,
HiML du canton de Vaud, iii. 126-128. ib. 1852; H. L. J.
Heppe, (TMcfcicAte der quietiatiachen MytHk, p. 515, Ber-
lin, 1875; Liohtenbercer. SSR, iv. 166-160.
DUTY: The moral obligation to do or omit to
do something, also any act or omission which is
perceived to be morally binding. The derivation
of the word (due+ty) shows that a duty was
originally thought of as something expected, or an
obligation. Similarly, the derivation of the Ger-
man Pflicht from the Old High German phlegan,
plegan (Modem Germ, pflegen), shows an original
connection of the idea with fixed custom or rule.
As custom becomes law in an objective respect, so
it becomes duty in a subjective respect. The doc-
trine of duty has formed a chief article of ethics
since the earliest times. The Stoics in particular
developed with peculiar care the conception of con-
duct in accordance with duty. They did not get
beyond a eiidemonistic principle, confined to this
world, but still they understood by happiness a life
according to nature, which they interpreted as a
life in harmony with the divine reason of the uni-
verse. Cicero's work De officiis rests upon that
of the Stoic Pametius. The first book treats of
the honestum^ the second of the tUile and the third
of the choice between the two. The same division
and manner of treatment was adopted by Ambrose
in a work of the same title. Neither of them
brings to light a scientific principle and psycho-
logical motivation. Both wrote merely for prac-
tical purposes, Cicero for his son Marcus, and
Ambrose for his young clergymen. However, these
two works, with their superficial conceptions and
accidental arrangement, formed the standard of
ethics until Kant revealed the true essence of duty.
Duty is the form of ethical conduct. This form
is conditioned by the law, by the unconditioned
demand, ** thou shalt," which through mediation
by the conscience applies itself to the will of man
and binds him to obedience. The consciousness
of this obligation is Kant's " categorical impera-
tive "; but Kant considered all morality as a legal
fulfilment of duty, thus overlooking the radical
nature of evil, which the law can repress but not
eradicate. De Wette perceived this gap in Kant's
system of morals and tried to bridge it over by
adducing the fact of redemption. But it was
Schleiermacher who, correcting the exaggeration
of Kant, assigned to duty its proper place in ethics.
Accordingly, the production or realization of the
highest good is the moral task. Virtue is the moral
power used for the performance of this task, and
duty gives form to the virtuous moral action. The
abnormal development of man under the dominion
of sin makes the formula of duty, the law, indis-
pensable, although it must be gradually dispensed
with by the subversion of sin and the realization
of the highest good.
The law defining duty becomes really moral only
by its continual reference to redemption, which, by
means of grace, has opened to sinful man the possi-
bility of ethical action. In the conduct of the
individual in accordance with duty there is always
an additional factor besides the formula of duty as
defined by the moral law. This is the " individual
court of appeal," this expression being used to
denote in a comprehensive sense the individual
ethico-religious feeling and conscience.
In the doctrine of duties casuistry holds still a
necessary place, since in practical life it is impossible
to reduce moral law to an abstract formula. Ethics
THE NEW BCHAFF-SER£OQ
onrr xht general formulat: of duty.
losi rzuMl' must find hk duty In- applying the
isw I. u.- cmx person, and lie must shape his action
r ArrjTuaac* with duty by resorting to his own
fcrjr- o* appeal." Since the Christian can pei^
.*s=. ^. 'einieal act only in union with t he Redeemer,
vy nib graoe» no distinction can be drawn
reiipous and moral duties, or between
c:nj!» .uward God. our fellow men, and ourselves.
A^ iSK S>;uiw taught, eveiy sin is a sin against God.
Tilt prnper division is suggested by the fart that
«%. as: the one hand, inoitate in our life the moral
«saiu^ue of Ciirist, whUe. on the other hand, we have
T» c-xvperai« in the realization of the mond eom-
saunicT. the kingdom of God. Thus we may dis-
ury.iiw^ between duties toward ourselves and duties
'toward aoriety. The Roman Catholic Church still
hfoU* to the ao-called eaiuilia evangeliea, i.e., pre-
oefXtf of the Lord, or of the apostles, by means of
vtjch man may attain supererogatory merits and
cie^ate himself to a higher plane of morality (see
C*jx»iLiA Evakgeuca). But there is nothing so
eziwliefU or sublime that it can not be expressed
by the form of duty. Duty is the absolute stand-
ard of morality. See Ethics.
(Karl BuROERf.)
BuuMotHLAPur: For works eovwiiic the mibjeet oonmiU
DU VERGIER (DU VEROER) DE HAURAIINE,
da'vir^'ihy^' de h6"r(ln', JEAN (usually called
Saint-Cyran from the monastery of Saint Cyran-
en-Brenne in Touraine): French theologian; b.
at Bayonne 1581; d. at Paris Get. 11, 1643. Ho
studied theology at the University of Louvain,
where the Church Fathers and Augustine were
taught to the partial exclusion of the prevailing
scholasticism, and at Paris in 1605 he met Cornelius
Jansen (q.v.) with whom he formed an intimate
friendship that lasted throughout his life. From
16 11 to 1616 they lived in retirement near Bayonne,
devoting themselves to patristic studies, but in
1617 Jansen returned to Louvain, and five years
later Du Vergier settled in Paris. The two were,
however, in constant correspondence on the sub-
ject of the gn^at ** reforms ** which were stirring
in the hearts of both. To Vincent de Paul, whom
he sought to win over to his cause, Du Vergier
declared that he had seen a great light, and that
there was no church nor had there been one for
five or six centuries; once it had been a bountiful
stream of pure water, but was now a muddy chan-
nel. He characterised the Council of Trent as a
|ioliticul assembly, and declared that the first
tfcholustics, together with Thomas Aquinas, had
lieeu the C4iuse of great evils. In 1624 he came
iiit4> couHict with the Jesuits through a book
(lirecteil against Garasse, a member of the order,
aiul the work was condemned by the Sorbonne at
the uistigation, the Jansenists claimed, of the
Jesuits. A more lasting struggle began in 1631
with the publication of the Opera of a fictitious
theologian Petrus Aurehus. This book was gen-
iTttUy ascribeil to Du Vergier, although the greater
IKirtiun of it had been written by his nephew acting
under his supervision. The work was based on the
cuiiHict which had been precipitated among Eng-
lish Catholics by the action of the pa^ 'n
had curtailed the rights and fvsv^ans
religiouF orders. This especially sSsstet
uitfi. who had been the most szotSjoa
pionF of the Roman Catholic canse m. Eniea
the reign of Henry VIII., and
acquired special prerogatives,
the Jesuits of attempting to set vp aa
Church with Clirist as its head pmcly ferit
purposes. He repudiated their arguzzKOS '
pope was the universal bishop from wbon «
power emanated, basing the bishop s soli
the unction of the Holy Spirit. Againrt t
iocs of the monastic orders to whom, as thi
pointed out the introduction of Chrisuui
the British Islands had been due, Aurdins I
the ElngUsh secular clergy, who had en
with their French brethren in eombaSiii
gianism which the monks had ahraTi i
The Jesuit Sirmond replied to Auxeliiis,
oontro\'erBy soon included the entire so
the secular clergy as opposed to the orde
general assembly of the clergy lent its su
the woi^ of Aurelius and caused it to be pi
1641 and again in 1646; yet ten years Iste
first heat of the Jansenist conflict, it proDoc
condemnation on the book. In 1635 Sail
became confessor to the abbey of Port Royi
and was spiritual director of the group of si
among whom were the brothen Le 3fatbe an
lot, who began to gather there after 1636
characteristic seal he preached of the
of the priestly office and of the grace thai
lie in the confessional and in public
ing. The hatred of envious prfests roosec
lieu against him, and on ]iay 14, 163S, be ^
a prisoner to the donjon of VizKesnesw 1
was confined imtil two months after the a
death, when he came from his prison a brok
whom the power of an untamed spate ak
to his duty until his death some e%ht moot
See Jansenism. C. Prra
BiBUoaRAFHT: H, BcaehMBL Cm Mi km w« Pi
2 vols.. Hsmbufs. I83a-M: Xn. M. .i. adiu
ninek, S^Uei Mmmoin of P^irt Rj^mL 3 vok..
1858; C. Beard. Port R^9^ L IIX I:*l>173.
LiohtonberKer. KSR. a
D WIGHT, HEHRT OIS: Congr-cu
b. at Constantinc^ June -k IS43. 5e
Ohio Wesleyan University, but len ac the
his freshman year to es&c in the Uoiiiet
army at the outbreak of tlto Crru W^r.
promoted adjutant, and wv aUl^•ie-<aolp ti
General M. F. Foree, and after the ^nuw li
was treasurer of the yoffthampcmt Hasa
Railway Company 1SI5&-67. Be w» "inst
agent at Constantinople for ^im iiiwiiin
American Board from 1^157 CO L;<ri. iDii-vai
in editing their Turkish pnhBrTrams> tob
1899. In 1901 he reuiraedtti %mHrfin. Jini
himsdf to general IHerarrami^
1904-05 he was secRtaiy of T '
in New YorkCity, and as Jbo
assistant to the secictarias <f i
Society audi
Ba Verffier de Hauranne
Xaohard
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOQ
40
I
can furnish only the general formulas of duty.
Man himself must find his duty by applying the
law to his own person, and he must shape his action
in accordance with duty by resorting to his own
" court of appeal.'' Since the Christian can per-
form an ethical act only in union with the Redeemer,
and aided by his grace, no distinction can be drawn
between religious and moral duties, or between
duties toward God, our fellow men, and ourselves.
As the Stoics taught, every sin is a sin against God.
The proper division is suggested by the fact that
we, on the one hand, imitate in our life the moral
example of Christ, while, on the other hand, we have
to cooperate in the realization of the moral com-
munity, the kingdom of God. Thus we may dis-
tinguish between duties toward ourselves and duties
toward society. The Roman Catholic Church still
holds to the so-called consilia evangelica, i.e., pre-
cepts of the Lord, or of the apostles, by means of
which man may attain supererogatory merits and
elevate himself to a higher plane of morality (see
Consilia Evangelica). But there is nothing so
excellent or sublime that it can not be expressed
by the form of duty. Duty is the absolute stand-
ard of morality. See Ethics.
(Karl BuRQERf.)
Biblioqrapht: For works covering the subject consult
Dthxcs.
DU VERGIER (DU VERGER) D£ HAURAIINE,
dQ'vftr^'zhyfi' de h6"ran', JEAN (usually called
Saint-Cyran from the monastery of Saint Cyran-
en-Brenne in Touraine): French theologian; b.
at Bayonne 1681; d. at Paris Oct. 11, 1643. He
studied theology at the University of Louvain,
where the Church Fathers and Augustine were
taught to the partial exclusion of the prevailing
scholasticism, and at Paris in 1605 he met Cornelius
Jansen (q.v.) with whom he formed an intimate
friendship that lasted throughout his life. From
1611 to 1616 they lived in retirement near Bayonne,
devoting themselves to patristic studies, but in
1617 Jansen returned to Louvain, and five years
later Du Vergier settled in Paris. The two were,
however, in constant correspondence on the sub-
ject of the great " reforms " which were stirring
in the hearts of both. To Vincent de Paul, whom
he sought to win over to his cause, Du Vergier
declared that he had seen a great light, and that
there was no church nor had there been one for
five or six centuries; once it had been a bountiful
stream of pure water, but was now a muddy chan-
nel. He characterized the Council of Trent as a
political assembly, and declared that the first
scholastics, together with Thomas Aquinas, had
been the cause of great evils. In 1624 he came
into conflict with the Jesuits through a book
directed against Garasse, a member of the order,
and the work was condemned by the Sorbonne at
the instigation, the Jansenists claimed, of the
Jesuits. A more lasting struggle began in 1631
with the publication of the Opera of a fictitious
theologian Petrus Aurelius. This book was gen-
erally ascribed to Du Vergier, although the greater
portion of it had been written by his nephew acting
under his supervision. The work was based on the
conflict which had been precipitated among Eng-
lish Catholics by the action of the papal vicar, who
had curtailed the rights and privilegeB of the
religious orders. This especially affected the Jes-
uits, who had been the most steadfast cham-
pions of the Roman Catholic cause in En^and anoe
the reign of Henry VIIL, and had consequently
acquired special prerogatives. Aurelius accused
the Jesuits of attempting to set up an inviaibie
Church with Christ as its head purely for their own
purposes. He repudiated their argument that the
pope was the universal bishop from whom episcopal
power emanated, basing the bishop's authority od
the unction of the Holy Spirit. Against the serv-
ices of the monastic orders to whom, as the Jesuits
pointed out the introduction of Christianity into
the British Islands had been due, Aurelius baianoed
the English secular clergy, who had cooperated
with their French brethren in combating Pda-
gianism which the monks had always fostered.
The Jesuit Sirmond replied to Aurelius, and the
controversy soon included the entire subject of
the secular clergy as opposed to the orders. The
general assembly of the clergy lent its sanction to
the work of Aurelius and caused it to be printed in
1641 and again in 1646; yet ten years later, in the
first heat of the Jansemst conflict, it pronoimoed its
condenmation on the book. In 1635 Saint-Cyran
became confessor to the abbey of Port Royal (q.v.),
and was spiritual director of the group of solitaries,
among whom were the brothers Le Mattre and Lance-
lot, who began to gather there after 1636. With
characteristic zeal he preached of the sanctity
of the priestly oflice and of the grace that should
lie in the confessional and in public preach-
ing. The hatred of envious priests roused Riche-
lieu against him, and on May 14, 1638, he was sent
a prisoner to the donjon of Vincennes. There he
was confined until two months after the cardinal's
death, when he came from his prison a broken man,
whom the power of an untamed spirit alone kept
to his duty until his death some eight months later.
See Jansenism. (C. Pfender.)
Bibliography: H. Reuchlin, OeuMchU von Port Royal,
2 vols., Hamburg. 1839-44; Bin. M. A. Schimmelpen-
ninck, Select Memoira of Port Royal, 3 vols., London.
1858; C. Beard, Port Royal, i. 113, 121-173, ib. 1801;
Lichtenberger. ESR, xi. 395-402.
DWIGHT, HENRY OTIS: Congregationalist;
b. at Constantinople June 3, 1S43. He entered
Ohio Wesleyan University, but left at the close of
his freshman year to enlist in the United States
army at the outbreak of the Civil War. He was
promoted adjutant, and was aide-de-camp to Majop-
General M. F. Force, and after the close of the war
was treasurer of the Northampton (Mass.) Street
Railway Company 1866-67. He was then business
agent at Constantinople for the mission of the
American Board from 1867 to 1872, and was engaged
in editing their Turkish publications from 1872 to
1899. In 1901 he returned to America, and devoted
himself to general literary and editorial work. In
1904-05 he was secretary of the Bureau of Missions
in New York City, and in Jan., 1905, was appointed
assistant to the secretaries of the American Bible
Society and recording secretary in Jan., 1907. He
was Constantinople correspondent of the New
41
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Da Verffii
Baohard
ler de Eauxmnne
Y^ Tnimne 1875-92, and edited the Report of tU
Bemmi^l Cmtferenct on Foreign Missions (New
YmI, 1900). He was editor^m-^chief of the Ency-
dep^ of Missions (New York, 1904) and has
written Turkiah Lift in War Time (New York,
IS§1); TVeoly Rights of American Missionaries in
Tiffkiy (1^3); Constantinople and Um ProbUms
fCytagOt 1901); and Blue Book of Miaaiom (New
Yofk, 19O5M)0, a bieimial)>
DWIGHT, HMOTHT: 1, Eighth preaident of
TileCotle^; b. at Northampton, Mb^., May 14,
1752; d. at New Haven, Cdnn., Jan, U, 1817. He
na graduated at Yale la 1769 and was tutor 1771-
1777. For more than a year he was chaplain in the
tmf during the Revolutiooaty War. From 1783
to I7!^5 be waa at the head of an academy In Green^
fieldf Conn., and from 1796 til! hia death preaident
of YaJe» where he exerted an influence decisive for
vamy years in the history of the college. His aer-
mem in the college ehapel eonatituted a system of
diviaity, and were published under the title The-
ctog^ Explain^ and Defended (5 vols., Middletown,
(W, 1818; often reprinted). The work teaches a
nswkfate Calviniam wilh an avoidance of extreme
itatementa and raetapbyaical pefinements. Be-
lidci minor publications he alao wrote The Con-
^ of Canaan, a Poem in Eki^en Books (Hart-
ford, 17SS); Oreenfieid HiU, a Poem in Seven Parts
(New York, 1794); and Travels in New England
sMNew York (4 vols., New Haven, 1821-22).
Ue la5t*named work ia a storehouse of facts,
itrewd observations, and quaint comments* Presi-
dent Dwight was the author of the familiar hymn
" I love thy kingdom, Lord.*' F. H, Foster.
B[bl£ixi14fht; Tb« lettdjTijg M^mov" is by his aon, Sfmao
Edwardi Dwight. in ThMdngv Bxj^ined, New Ytjrk,
I4W. QciiiuuU »1«: J. Sparks, Lihrttry of Amtrican Bi-
VajAfl. vol. lav., Botftoo, 1865; W* B. Sprngue. AnmU*
^ tic Awrimn PtdpU. ii. 152-105, New York. iSaO;
It CTyJnf, Tkmt Mm of LvUert, pp. 69-127, ib. 1695.
3. Twelfth president of Yale College^ gran<laon
«( the preceding; k at Norwich, Conn., Nov. 16,
im He was educated at Yale (B.A., 1840), the
Yifc Dhrfnity School (1850-53), and the univei^
«liM of Berlin and Bonn ( 1856-58). He was tutor
k Gmk. tA Yale from 1^1 to 1SS5 and piofeasor
of New Testament Greek in the Divinity School
from 1S5B to ISSti^ In the latter year be was
elected president, and held this position until 1S9D.
He was a member of the American committee for
the revision of the English veraion of the Bible and
for several years was one of the editors of The New
Englander, He has written Thoughts of and for the
Inner Life (sermons; New York, 1899) and Mem-'
oHes of Yale Life and Men (1903), and prepared
the American edition of Meyer's commentary on
Romans (New York, 1884), several other Pauline
Epistles and on the Eptj^tle to the Hebrews (l$j^5),
and the Epistles of Jamcft, Peter, John, and Jude
( 1887)j as well as of F. Godet'a comment^y on the
Gospel of John (1SS6).
DYKES, JAMES OSWALD: EngUah Presby-
terian; b. at Port Glasgow (17 m. w.n.w- of Glas-
gow )f Renfrewshire, Scotland, Aug. 14, 1835. He
studied at the University of Edinburgh (M.A.,
1854), New CoUege, Edinburgh (1865-58), and
the universities of Heidelberg (1856) and Er-
langen (1857), He waa minister of the Free
Church of Scotland, East Kilbride, Lanarkahire,
1S59-^>1 and aaabtant miniaterof Free St, George's,
Edinburgh, 1861-65. He then rcaigned on ae-
count of ill health and spent three years with-
out a charge in Melbourne, Australia, delivering
occasional lectuiea and filling various temporary
poatj in the Presbyterian Church. After his return
to England he was minister of Regent Square Church
London, 1869-88, to 1907 principal and Barbour
professor of theology In the College of the Presby-
terian Church of England (Westminster College,
Cambridge), since emeritus-principal. He waa the
chief author of the new creed adopted by the Preaby-
terian Church of England in 1890. He baa written
On the WrUten Word (Ix>ndon, 1868); Beatitudes of
the Kingdom (1872); Laws of ihe Kingdom (1873);
Relations of the Kingdom (1874); From Jerusalem
to Aniioch : Sketches of ihe PHmitive Church (1874);
Abraham the Friend of God (1877); Dail\j Prayers
for the Household (18S1); Sermons (1882); Laws
of the Ten WordJt (1884); The Gospei aeeording to
SL Paul : Studies in the Epislle to the Romane
(1888); and Plain W(^ds on Great Themes (1^2).
S: The cfymbol employed to designate the Elo-
histic (E^hraimitic) document which, according
to the critical school, is one of the components of
the Hexateuch (q.v.). See Hebrew Language
AND Literature, II., 4.
EACHARD, JOHN: English clergyman and
satirist; b. in Suffolk c. 1636; d. at Cambridge
July 7, 1697. He studied at Catherine Hall, Cam-
bridge, of which he became Master in 1675. He
WBs created D.D., by royal mandamus in 1675 and
was elected vice-chancellor of the imiversity in 1679
and again in 1695. He published anon3rmously his
famous essay, The Grounds and Decisions of the
Contempt of the Clergy and Religionf inquired into
in a Letter to R. L. (London, 1670), in which he
attributed the failure of the clergy to their defective
education. Other works from his pen are, Some
Observations upon the Answer to an Enquiry . . .
in a second Letter to R. L. (London, 1671), a sequel
to the foregoing; Mr, Hobbs' State of Nature . . .
(London, 1672); and Some Opinions of Mr. Hobbs
(1673). Eachard was master of a light bantering
style that was particularly effective in satire, but he
Eadfrld
Saster
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
4S
I
did not succeed In serioint writing. The be«t col-
lected edititm of his works was published in London
in three volumes, 1774,
BiBLKXinAPitt: A Life, by T. D&vies^ in prefixed to thfl
Colta^td W&fki, ut Btip.; BNB.jcvi. 302-303.
EADFRID (EADFRITH, EDFRID): Eighth
bifihop of Lindkfame, 698 ttll his death in 721. He
wuA an ardent disciple of St. Cuthbert (q*v.) and
the great aim of his life w£is to honor hk master.
He repaired Cuthbert's oratory on Fame Island,
and at his solicitation the anonymous life of Cuth-
l>ert was written, aa wt^U bm both of the lives by
Bede, the one in prose being dedicated to Eadfrid
and his monks* The so-called " Durliatn Book "
or " Lindisfame Gospck," a manuscript of Jerome's
vers ion of the four Go«ixJb with the addenda usual
in such manuscripts^ beaulifuUy written on vellum
in haif-uncial letters , now in the Brili^h Museum,
is believed with good reason to have been originally
written and ilJunuimt^ by Eadfrid, His succes-
sor at LindtufamOr Eiiielwaldi adorned the work
with gold and jewels, and in the tenth century a
certain Aid red added an interlinear gloss in the
Northumbrian dialect. The manuscript m one of
the most beautiful in Europe and teMifies to Ead*
frid's skill. The I^tin text and Aldred's glomes
were edited for the Suttees Society by J. Stevenson
and G. Waring (4 parts, 1854-65) and for the Cam*
bridge Press by J^ M. Kemble, C. Hardwick, and
W. W. Skeat (185S-78).
Bf»uCK3iiAfHT: Souroee ftre in: Bymeon of Durham* Ni^
ioria DufmlmenmM 'i&^istia:, «d, T. ArDobl, RoIIm Series ^
no. 75. vol i poKimi London, lS79i Bed*. ViUt CwM-
btfti^ preface. Coiuult also DNB^ xvi, 3Q6-307.
EADTE, JOHH: United Pre^sbyterian Church of
Scotlanri; b, at Alva (7 m, n,e. of Stirling), Stirling-
ehire, May 9, ISIO; d. at Glasgow June 3, 1876.
He was educated at the tiniverEity of Glasgow and
in the theological seminary of the United ^cession
Church, He wewi ordained Sept, 24, 1835, to the
pastorate of the Cambridge Street Church, Glasgow,
which he retained until, in 1863, he removed with a
portion of his^ people, to form the new Lansdowne
Church, of which he was minister until his death.
As early as his student dayfi, he showed his lean-
ing to the department of exegesis, in which he
achieved hui greatest success? and he had so dili-
gently given himm'lf to Biblical Mudy in later years,
that, on the death of Dr. John Mitchell, he was
elected by the dcnominarionat synod (May 5, 1843)
to the professorship of Biblical literature in it a divin-
ity hall. Sueh an appointment at that time did not
involve the dissolution of the past-oral relationship,
and for thirty-three yeara Dr- Eadie jierformed the
duties of both pastor and professor, finding in the
professorship the great sphere of his life.
As a preacher, his manner was not elegant and
his utterance wa« often indistinct; but his sermons
were eminently instructive. He waa particularly
excellent as an expositor As a professor he was
affable, easy, and natural, and possesHed the mag-
netic influence which kindles enthusiasm. His
scholars hip was broad and accurate, and was so
generally recognijBed that he was chosen a member
of the New Trnt^mmi revision company* Uia
commentaries are marked by candor and eleartmi,
as well as by an '* evangelical unction " not com-
mon in work.^ of the kind.
Besides contributions to periodicals atid eacy*
elo|x»dic works, he prepared a coEidensed editioti of
Cru den's concordance (Glasgow, I $40), and com'
piled A Biblical Cyclopmdia (Edinburgh^ 1848; new
ed,, rewritten, 1869). An Analyiic Ctmcsrdanet to
the Holy Scriptureg appeal^ in London^ 1856, and
An Ecclesiasii€4il CychpfFdia in 1861, He pob^
lished two volume! of discour»^, The tMviw Loit
(London, 1855) and Paid the Frt^ket {lg59).
Further mention may be made of his biography of
John Kitto (Edinburgh, 1857) and The Ei^g^isk
Bible, an External ofid Crilical Hiaiortf g} ike Vanevs
English TTonslatiows of S<Tipt%iT€, with ^ipmorJb m
the Ntfd of Rrti^ing the Engliih New Ttstament
(2 vols., London, IS76), Scripture lUu^atioM
frmn Ihe Domestic Life of the. Jew* and Other Eadern
Nations appealed posthumously (1877). His faine,
however, resta on his comnaentaries on the Greek
text of the epistles, vie. Ephesi^tJiS (London^ 1854),
CohsjfionJit (1856), Philippium (1859), Gohtkiu
(1869), and / The^sahniamt (1877),
BifiUpaRAPUt: Jjiiniifl Brt^wn, Lif* of Jifhm E^ie^ Ltmdoo,
iS7S; DNB, icvL 307-30fl.
EADMER (EDMER); Monk of Canterbury; b.
probably c, 1060; d. at Canterbury Jan. 13, 1124(T).
He first api^ars as the close companion of Anaelm
after the latter became archbishop of Canterbury
(1CHI3); according to William of Malraeabury,
Anaelm esteemed him so highly that he never rose
from bed without Eadroer's command. After
Anselm^s death he continued associated with Arch-
bishop Ralph, and, in 1120, was chosen by long
Alexander of Scotland for the archbisbopne of St.
Andrews, but, owing to the bitter rivalry between
Canterbury and the northern see, was never conse-
crated. Eadmer is one of the beet of early English
hi^orians; he avoids tri\nal details and is uncom-
monly incredulous for his time concerning alleged
miracles; his fjtyle is good and approaches clasBical
models. His HiMori4i noi'orum or " History of his
own Times;'* in six books, extends practically from
the Conquest to 1122; it treats especially matters
connected with the Church, which he remarks he
had been accustomed to note from early childhood,
and recounts the deeds of the two archbishops
with whom he was connected; it shows strong na-
tional feeling and asiscrts the rights and privileges
of the English Church. The best edition is by
M. Rule in the RolL'i Series (no. 81, 1884), Be-
aldeis minor works he wrote lives of Anselm (ed.
Rule in the Roth Scries ^ ut sup.); Dunatan; Breg-
win, archbishop of Canterbury, 759-763; Oswald,
archbishop of York (the last three in Wlmrton,
Anglia sacra , ii., London, 1691), and Wilfrid of
York (ed. J, Raine in The fliMorians of the Church
of York, i., R4iils Series, no, 73), His ooUeoted
works arc in jtf PL, clix, 345 sqq., and extracts are
in MGH, SfTipi., xiii, (1881), 139-146.
DiBLioaRAPHT: William of Mmlmetbuir, Cr«ila pontifievm
Anffkrrum. erf. N. K S, A= Hamilton, id Rtflit Switu^ No.
52. London, 1870; T. Wright, Bioffmphia Britannica
lUfT&ria, Anglo-Smton period, ib, 1^2; J. CoLLier, Eed.
Mitl, vol. 11. lb \H4bi P. Ra£ey, Eadmee, Fui«, 1892;
DNB, 3tYi. 30O-S10.
48
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Badfirid
Bastar
L The Celebration.
1. Namee and their Sicnificanoe.
2. Orifin of the Celebration.
Testimony of the Ante-Nicene
Period (§ 1).
Testimony of the Posi-Nioene
Period (t 2).
Conduaions ({ 3).
EASTER.
3. The Day of Celebration.
4. Rites of Celebration.
Prior to 300 a.d. (§ 1).
In the Post-Nicene Pteiod and Bfiddle
Ages (t 2).
In Modem Times ({ 3).
II. The Paschal Controversies.
The Quartodedmans of Asia Bfinor ({ 1 ).
Documentary Bases and Harmonistic
Calculations ({ 2).
Controversy in the Second Century
(«3).
The Nioene Decision as to Date of
Celebration ({ 4).
III. The Easter Cyde.
L The Celebration. — 1. iramea aad Their 8iff-
nifioaTiee; Easter, the festival of our Lord's
resurrection is, with Christmas, the most joyous
festival observed by the Church. The English
Easter and the German equivalent Oatem, are
derived from the Anglo-Saxon OatarA or EAstre,
the name of the goddess of spring and the dawn (cf.
Skeat's Etymological Dictionary ; Bede, De ratione
temporum, xv.). The French pAques and the terms
used in the other Romance languages are derived
from the Hebrew pesah, ** Passover." In the early
Church the term jKudia was used for the festival
next preceding Pentecost, whatever it was that
that festival commemorated (see Pentecost). It
remains to show whether the term stood only for
the festival of the death of Christ, or for both the
festivals of the death and resurrection, or for the
festival of the resurrection alone. It is certain that
if the resurrection of Christ was annually commem-
orated, the festival of commemoration was called
patcha and by no other distinctive term. The word
pascha was at first derived from Gk. paschein, " to
suffer " (so Tertullian, adv. Jud.; Irensus, Hcer.f
iv. 23, etc.). Later the true derivation from the
Hebrew pesah was recognized and the meaning
diabasis, traruitua, " passing over " was given to it
(e^., by Gregory Nazianzen, Sermo xlv., MPL,
xxxvL 636; Augustine, EpisL, Iv., AfPL, xxxiii.
205). After the year 300 the day of the resurrection
was called the " day alone great " by Leo I. {Sermo
de restarectione Domini, MPL, liv. 498), ** the most
royal day of days," by Gregory Nazianzen (MPG,
XXXV. 1017); "the festival of festivals," "the
happiest of days," and by other designations which
show that it was looked upon after that date, if not
before, as the most joyous and important festival
of the year. John of Damascus has given ex-
pression to the devout feelings of the ancient
Church in regard to Easter in his resurrection
hymn:
The day of resurrection, earth, tell it out abroad.
The paoeover of cladneas, the paasover of God.
2. Origin of the Oelebration: Two questions
present themselves: (1) When did the custom of
the yearly commemoration of the resurrection
begin? (2) on what day of the week and what
day of the year was the festival celebrated? For
the period after the Council of Nicsea (325), the
difficulty largely vanishes. The comparatively
lengthy statement of Eusebius (Hist, eccl, V., xxiii.-
XXV.) does not relieve the difficulty for the ante-
Nicene period, but by its vagueness, growing out of
what Eusebius assumes to be known, rather in-
creases the difficulty. If we were in possession of
the lost tracts called forth in the third century by
the pajchal controversies (see below, IL), to which
Eusebius makes reference, all uncertainty might be
removed.
The only possible allusion in the New Testament
to the observance of a Christian Passover, or festival
of the death of Christ, is I Cor. v. 7,
1. Testi- where " Christ our Passover " is said
"f**^ to have been sacrificed for us. That
Anf^^ ^^6 Jewish Christians continued to
Kioane ^'^P ^^® Jewish festivals is altogether
Period, probable, if not certain, from Paul's
habit. On the other hand, Paul seems
to disparage the observance of special festivals
except the first day of the week (I Ck)r. xvi. 2).
What was the custom of the Gentile Christians ?
Did they also keep the season devoted to the Jewish
Passover, putting into it Christian ideas? And if
so, did they observe it as a commemoration of the
resurrection of Christ as well as of his death and
burial? In the literature of the subapostolic age,
(excepting Justin Martyr) there is no reference to
a celebration of a yearly festival of the resurrection
or pascha. There is no hint of anything of that
kind in the Didache. Trypho charged the Chris-
tians with not keeping the Jewish feasts or the Sab-
baths; the reply was that Christians did not place
any virtue in keeping such festivals (Justin Martyr,
Trypho, x.). From Tertullian it seems to be evi-
dent that there was a struggle between the Jewish
and Gentile elements in the Church over what was
included under the feast of the pascha and a struggle
within the Gentile portion of the Church as to
whether any yearly festivals were to be observed.
Tertullian says: if the Apostle set aside all special
reverence for days and months and years, why do
we celebrate the pascha in the first month of each
year? (De jejuniis, xiv., ANF, iv. 112). It is evi-
dent from this that the pascha was observed. But
that there was a difference in respect to what was
included under the term pascha is evident from Ter-
tullian. In his De oratione (viii.) he refers to it as
Friday the day of the Lord's death, and in De
corona (iii., ANF, iii. 94) he says: ** we count fasting
or kneeling in worship on the Lord's day to be un-
lawful. We rejoice in the same privilege also from
Easter to Whitsunday." Similarly in De baptismo
(xix., ANF, iii. 678) he says that they did not fast on
the Lord's Day and that the period between the
day of the pascha and Pentecost the Christian spent
in joy. From this it seems to be apparent that the
whole season of the pascha was observed with sad-
ness and grief. So far then it would appear that
the pascha observance was a time of grief and it is
left uncertain whether the resurrection was ob-
served annually by a special day, or, if observed
at all, whether it was observed separately from
the festival of the death of Christ.
The next point of approach is through Eusebius
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
44
{Hist, eed, V., xxiii -xxv., NPNF, 2d ser., i. 241
sqq.)- In this famous passage the historian has es-
pecially in mind the conflict as to the day of the
week and of the year on which pascha
2. Testl- was to be celebrated. He records that
mony gg early as the middle of the second cen -
P T* tury, there was dispute over this double
moene question, Polycarp of Asia Minor and
Period. Anicetus of Rome being at that time
the representatives of the two views.
Eusebius further says that the churches in Asia
Minor derived their custom of observing the pascha
from the Apostle John and Philip. Without doubt
Christian elements were incorporated into the cele-
bration. It was not a question of whether a day
corresponding to the Passover should be celebrated,
but a question of the time at which it was to be
celebrated. Further, according to Eusebius, the
churches of Asia Minor finished '' their fasting on
the festival of the Savior's passover." This was
the 14th of Nisan. In other parts of the Church,
Eusebius goes on to say, it was not their custom
" to end it on this day " but, " on no other day than
that of the Lord's resurrection." From this it
would seem on the surface that in Asia Minor the
Churches finished the fasting on the day set apart
for the pascha, that is in all probability the day
commemorating the crucifixion, and in the rest of
the world they carried the fasting over to Sunday.
Joy is not mentioned as an element in the cele-
bration in the case either of Asia Minor or of the
rest of the world, so that if the resurrection was
celebrated at all as a separate feast, Eusebius does
not indicate it. We can not think that, if the
resurrection was celebrated, fasting and grief
entered into its observance, as has been deduced
from \his statement of Eusebius. (For the fast
preceding Easter, see Fasting, II., §. 3). To this
passage of Eusebius have been added recently
passages from the Canons of Hippolytus (TC/, vi. 4,
pp. 116-116) and from Aphraates (ed. Bert, TU,
new ser., iii. pp. 170-171). The former speaks of the
pascha as a time of fasting and lamentation. Aph-
raates also (cf. Bert, in TU, ut sup. p. 83) seems
not to have in mind the resurrection when he speaks
of the Christian pascha. However, Alexander of
Egypt (d. 264, Routh, ReliquuB SacrcB, iii. 223 sqq.)
distinguishes the festivals of the death and of the
resurrection.
From these imsatisfactory notices, different
views have been deduced. Neander, Hilgenfeld
and P. Schaff have held that in the second and third
centuries the pascha included the celebration of the
resurrection and death of Christ ; Steitz and Drews
only the death; while SchOrer, Karl
8. Oon- Mtiller, and others hold the modified
^ '*" view that it celebrated the completion
of the full work of redemption and
not specifically either the death or the resurrection.
It must be said that the silence of the writers of
the ante-Nicene period, who give such scant notice
of the pascha feast, can not safely be interpreted to
mean that the resurrection was not celebrated as a
distinct part of the pascha festival. The few ex-
tant notices, taken by themselves, seem to favor
the theory that there was but one festival of the
pascha and that it included the death and the resur-
rection. Certainly in the fourth century the tern
pascha stood for both the resurrection and the deatb
of Christ. It was then called '' the holy feast,
the pascha of our salvation " as by the Council oj
Antioch 341 (canon i., Hefele, ConcUiengesdiichie^
i. 513); and Athanasius frequently describe the pas-
cha as a feast of joy at which the Lord himself u
the festival. It is a festival of redemption (cf.
" Festal Letters," ANF, 2d ser., iv. 506-556). Fi-
nally, in the fourth century pascha came to be used
in a limited sense for Easter Sunday alone, as byf
the Councils of Aries 314, Carthage 397, and the
First Synod of Toledo 400 (canon xx.). Con-
temporaneously the whole feast of the pascha was
known under the two names the pascha of the cruci-
fixion and the pascha of the resurrection. They were
parts of a single festival.
8. The Day of Oelebration: As already indi-
cated, Eusebius states that there was a wide differ-
ence in the customs prevalent in Asia Minor and
the rest of the Christian world in regard to the day
of the year and of the week on which the pascha
festival was to be celebrated. The Christians of
Asia Minor were called Quartodecimans from theii
custom of celebrating the pascha invariably on the
14th of Nisan, the first month of the Jewish yeai
and falling in the springtime. The date might
fall on Friday or on any of the other days of the
week, which fact made no difference in the cele-
bration of the paschal feast. For this reason
the day of the resurrection did not always fall on
a Sunday. In the churches of the West and also
in parts of the East a different custom prevailed.
The result of these differences was that different
sections of the Church might and did observe the
pascha on different dates. Out of this difference
grew the Paschal Controversies, so-called (see XL,
below). The Council of Nicsea had for its second
object the unification of the date of the Christian
pascha, which the Council of Aries (314) had refer-
red to as a most desirable thing " that the pascha
of the Lord should be observed on one day and at
one time throughout the world " (cf. Hefele, Con-
ciliengeschichte, i. 205). The decree of Nicsea fixed
as Easter Sunday the Sunday inunediately fol-
lowing the fourteenth day of the so-called paschal
moon, which happens on or first after the vernal
equinox. The vernal equinox invariably faUs on
Mar. 21. Easter, then, can not occur earlier than
Mar. 22, or later than Apr. 25. In the former
case the fourteenth day of the moon would coincide
with Mar. 21 , the day of the vernal equinox. In the
latter, the fifteenth day of the moon would happen
on Mar. 21, and a whole lunar month would have
to intervene before the condition, " the fourteenth
day of the moon first after the vernal equinox,"
was fulfilled; and, as this might be Sunday, Easter
Sabbath would not occur till seven more days
had elapsed, i.e., Apr. 25.
4. Bites of Oelebration : Up to the year 300
notices are very scant. Eusebius states that the
pascha was celebrated with mourning, and that
church synods (exclusive of those in Asia Minor)
ordered that " the mystery of the resurrection of
the Lord " should be observed only on the Lord's
46
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Baiter
day and that on that day " the close of the paschal
fast " should be observed. The pascha was a time
Prio- ^ fasting. " The mystery of the resui^
' gQQ lection of the Loid " must refer to
^P^ the Eucharist. Tertullian (Ad uxo-
rem, ii. 4) and others refer to vigils
extaidiog into the night of Satiirday or until the
oockcrowing of the Sunday morning {Apostolic
Cmtiiutims, ANF, viL 447). The chief source
of mfonnation is the Didaakalia (xxi., Apostolic
Constitutions^ v. 18-19) which speaks of the fasting
beginning on the Monday of the paschal week and
continuing with growing rigor into Satiirday night,
and adds that on Saturday night the whole con-
gregation met and engaged in prayer, especially
for the Jews, and in reading from the Scripture.
Sunday was then observed by the meeting to-
gpther of rich and poor in the love-feast and the
Eucharist.
After 300 notices of the festivities of Easter are
frequent and many sermons on the pascha are
preserved in Ambrose, Augustine, and other writers.
The day was looked upon as the most joyous fes-
tival of the year. The week beginning with Easter
Sunday was observed with special religious fes-
tivities and each day had its sermon.
2. In the Easter Sunday was called dominica
^^ in aUns (see Alb; Catechxtmbnate,
Pa^ § 4) or octava infarUium and the
^^ Sunday closing Easter week was
Kiddle called octava paschoe or pascha claur
Afes. ^<^^- Ambrose in his sermon on the
"Mystery of the Pascha" {MPL,
xvii.695) gives full expression to the joyous feelings
which were involved in Easter. He called the day
the real beginning of the year, the opening of the
months, the new revival of the seeds and the res-
toration of the joy interrupted by the cold of
winter. On that day God, as it were, relights the
sun and gives light to the moon. The Easter cele-
bration began on Satiirday, sometimes as early
as three o'clock in the afternoon, as is stated to
have been the case in Jerusalem by the " Itinerary "
of Sflvia (cf. Hauck-Herzog, RE, xiv. 743). This
Saturday celebration was known as the Easter or
Paschal Vigils. Augustine called this vigil the
"mother of all the sacred vigils" (Sermo ccxix.,
^^It xxxviii. 1088), and says that even the
heathen kept awake on that night. According to
l^actantiuB {De divinis institutumibus, VIL, xix.,
AiV^, viL 215) and Jerome (on Matt. xxv. 6, MPL,
5^ 184), the Lord was expected to return
at that time. The celebration is referred to by
other authors, in nussaLs, in the codes of Theo-
doshis and Justinian and in the acts of coun-
^ The services in the churches consisted of
fci^dingB from the Law, the Prophets and the
narratives of the Lord's passion, in the administra-
tion of baptism and confirmation, and ended with
the EuchaJist. For Spain and Gaul these services
*re recorded in the Mozarabic Liturgy {MPL,
^^'.), and in the Gothic missal, the Gallic
™j«al, the Gallic sacramentaryand the Lectionary
of Luxeuil (all in Af PL, Ixxii.). The use of lighted
^^^^ became universal and is attested as the
^^^m in Rome at least as early as the middle of
the third century. The Canons of Hippolytus (TU,
vi. 4, p. 136) say '' that on the night of the resur-
rection no one should sleep and every one should
have a light, for on that night the Redeemer made
every one free from the darkness of sin and the
grave.'' Augustine bears witness to the custom
of lighting and carrying candles. Eusebius says
that the whole city of Constantinople was illumi-
nated with wax candles and colunms of wax
(" Life of Constantine," iv. 22). Gregory Nazian-
zen (d. 390) and Gregory of Nyssa (d. 395, " Oration
on the pascha," xlii.) speak of persons of all ranks
carrying tapers and lamps. The custom of the
paschal fire was also an early institution and can be
traced back to 600 at least as in vogue in France.
Alcuin {De divinis officiis, xvi. 17, MPL, ci. 1205)
and Boniface (d. 752, MPL, Ixxxix. 951) definitely
refer to it. The new fire was struck from a stone
and the tapers and candles lighted from it. Per-
haps the custom was drawn from the ceremony
of the Romans at the altar of Vesta at the opening
of the New Year, Mar. 1. The symbolical signifi-
cance of such an act, as a means of instruction to
the people and as an expression of piety for the
new light brought into the world by the resurrec-
tion is so natural that it is not necessary to fall
back upon the old Roman ceremony. In Gaul
the custom was also observed, how widely is not
known, of placing five pieces of incense in the great
paschal candle to symbolize the five wounds of
Christ. The codes of Theodosius and Justinian
recognized the joyous character of the day by en-
couraging the emancipation of slaves and the
liberation of minor criminals, and ordering the
omission of spectacular entertainments during
Easter week. It was also made a time for the
presentation of gifts and the distribution of alms.
The acts of councils (Orleans, 538, Macon, 581,
and others) down through the Middle Ages to the
Fourth Lateran (1215) and later councils forbade
the Jews to tread the streets or to show themselves
out of doors from Maundy Thursday till after
Easter, lest the joy of the Christians should be
interrupted.
At the present time the religious festivities of
Easter time in the Greek and Latin Churches in-
volve the substantial elements in the ancient custom
of the day. Elaborate solemn rites are observed on
Saturday and until the cockcrowing of Easter
morning when the tapers (extinguished on Good
Friday) are lighted with the words " The Light
of Christ." In the church of the Holy Sepulcher in
Jerusalem until a few years ago the pious fraud of
the " holy fire " was perpetrated by the Greek
patriarch who presented from the sacred tomb
three times a lighted taper or torch
Mod- wWch he declared had been lighted
em" ^y * miracle without human interven-
Times. t-ioi*' The spectators, wrought to
great excitement, struggled to light
their tapers at the miraculous fire, and then carried
it throughout the Greek world. Often disgraceful
scenes occurred and the intervention of the Turkish
soldiery was required to prevent or check violence.
In the twelfth century Saladin is said by an early
tradition to have witnessed this miracle and acknowl-
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOO
46
edged its miraculous character (Itinerarium Ricardi
I. V. 16, ed. W. Stubbs, London, 1864). Easter is
observed throughout the Continent by the various
bodies of Protestants. The Church of England has
always observed the day and the Protestant Epis-
copal Church of America follows it. The Puritans
abolished all special recognition of the festival. The
churches of Scotland as well as the different non-
episcopal branches of the Protestant Church in
America are more and more using the day as a
means of commemorating the resurrection of the
Lord, confirming the faith of men in the hope of the
resurrection, and giving expression to the joyous
character of the Christian religion.
D. S. SCHAFF.
11. The Paschal Controversies: While Jewish
Christians for a time celebrated the Jewish Pass-
over, the practise of the Church was not uniform
either in the day or in the ideas and customs at-
taching to what eventually became the Easter
festival. The Christians of Asia Minor celebrated
the Jewish Passover on the 14th of
1. The Nisan, imiting with it, according to
Quarto- gome, the commemoration of the de-
of Asia Pftrt^re of Jesiis from his disciples
jll[\j^Qj>, *"^^ ^^® institution of the Lord's Sup-
per. According to others, the day
was celebrated in strict obedience to Jewish law,
without any allusion to Gospel history. A third
view maintains that the Christians of Asia Minor
celebrated on the 14th of Nisan the memory of the
death of Jesiis. But the grounds of the contro-
versy must be sought elsewhere. If the sources
are examined without prejudice and without re-
gard to criticism of the Gospels, a different result
must necessarily be reached concerning the sig-
nificance and import of the celebration. Euse-
bius says that it was decided on the basis of numer-
ous conferences of bishops that the mystery of
the resurrection of the Lord from the dead should
be celebrated on no other day than on the Lord's
day and on that day the Easter fast should be
broken {Hist. eccL, V. xxiii. 2, NPNF, 2d ser., i.
241). Hence it is evident that the party who
were opposed in the conferences, who were un-
doubtedly the Christians of Asia Minor, must have
celebrated the mystery of the resurrection on the
day on which the fast was broken, and that this
day was not Sunday but the 14th of Nisan, around
which the controversy revolved. This conclusion
is justified by the account of Epiphanius concern-
ing the Quartodecimans (that is, those who com-
memorated the Lord's death on the 14th), in which
he relates that fasting and the celebration of the
resurrection took place on the same day. It is
hardly conceivable that a bitter and protracted
controversy should have originated on a mere
matter of fasting; the real reason for the differ-
ences lay deeper. The Christians of Asia Minor
appealed to an old apostolic tradition according
to which Jesus rose on the evening of the day of
his death, and the opposition of the Occidentals
was directed mainly against the commemoration of
death and resurrection on the same day.
The Syriac Didascalia makes an attempt to har-
monize the tradition of the canonical Gospels and
that of the Christians of Asia Minor. On the
morning of Friday Jesus was led before Pflate and
crucified on the same day. He suffered six houra,
and those are counted as one day. Then there
was a darkness, lasting three hours, and that is
counted as a night, and further, from the ninth
hour till evening three hours, — another day, and
then followed the night oi the Sab-
2. Doou- bath. In the Gospel of Matthew we
mentary ^^d, " Now late on the sabbath day
^^^^ as it began to dawn toward the first
monistic" ^^ °^ *^® week, came Mary Magda-
Oalcula- le^Cf" ^^' (Matt, xxviii. 1, R. V.).
tions. I'he calculation is strange, but its
purpose is easfly seen. The author
believed that Jesus rose on the evening of the Fri-
day on which he suffered death. In order to rec-
oncile this tradition with the other which assumed
a resurrection on the third day, he calculated (as
above) in such a way that Jesus really rose after
two days and two nights although only one day
had passed. It is not known whether Friday (^
every week was celebrated by fasts and the
mysteries of resurrection or the 14th of oach
month or the 14th of Nisan in each year. In the
Orient, Sunday was not known as the day of resur-
rection, and hence there was no weekly celebra-
tion of this day, but in the Occident Wednesday
and Friday were r^ular fast-days, and Sunday
was celebrated as the day of resurrection. It is
doubtful whether the Occident possessed in ad-
dition a special day in the year for the commemo-
ration of the death and the resurrection of the
Lord.
When Polycarp visited Anicetus in Rome (c
154), the celebration of Passover was discussed,
but no agreement was arrived at. Polycarp ap-
pealed to the old age of the tradition in Asia Minor,
Anicetus to the Roman tradition.
. on- i^jgi^jjer made concessions, but there
^^tv^ was no rupture. At the beginning of
Second ^^® paschal controversies, there arose
Oentnry* ^^ ^^® heresy of the Montanists
who by means of the Egyptian calen-
dar designated the seventh of April as the day
of the death of Christ on which they annually
celebrated Passover without regard to the day of
the week and the phase of the moon. This revolu-
tionary spirit was opposed by the representatives
of the Church of Asia Minor, especially by Melito
of Sardis and Apollinaris of Hierapolis, but, owing
to his disagreement with the Church of Asia Minor,
Victor of Rome was favorably inclined toward
the Montanists. He attempted to exclude the
churches of the province of Asia from the ortho-
dox Church, but Polycarp of Smyrna defended the
old custom so that the measures of Rome could
not be carried out. Most of the bishops took the
part of Polycarp. Even Irensus wrote to Victor
in the name of the Galilean bishops, exhorting
him to be moderate. The leaders of the Church
of Palestine, such as Narcissus of Jerusalem, The-
ophilus of Csesarea, also the bishops of Pontus and
Gaul, and the Church of Alexandria stood on the
side of Victor, appealing to the tradition of the
Apostles, while Syria, Mesopotamia and Persia
47
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Baster
took the part of Asia Minor. Victor was not suc-
oMfol in subjecting the Asiatics to his views; on
the other hand the Church of Asia Minor was not
able to influence the Western Church to abandon
the celebration of Sunday in favor of an account
of the resurrection which was in evident contra-
diction to the prophecies of the Old Testament,
to the tradition of Paul and the acknowledged
Gospels, and in favor of a custom that was based
merely upon the appeal to traditions which could
Dot daim equal authority with the Gospels and
apostles. Gement of Alexandria, as the repre-
sQitative of the view of the churches in Palestine
ud Alexandria, seems to have influenced the final
result of the controversy.
For the following period the more important
problem was the calculation of the term of Pas-
sowr and Easter. In Asia Minor this question
was not raised. The Jews strictly insisted that
their festival should take place at the time of full
moon, but beyond this they attempted no accu-
rate calculation. It was probably in Eg3rpt that
the vernal equinox and the next full moon were
first taken into consideration as fixed points in the
calculation of Easter.
In Rome there developed in the mean time a
different calculation of the festival of Easter which,
beside the celebration of Sunday as
*'^* the day of resurrection, formed an
jj^^* object of dispute between the two
to the Date P^*^* According to a statement of
of Cele- Tertullian, Easter was celebrated an-
brttion. nually in the first month, i.e., March.
But if Easter is calculated after the
full moon which follows the spring equinox, it
does not always take place in the month of March.
Consequently at the time when Tertullian made
this statement (in the beginning of the third cen-
tury), Easter must have been celebrated in Car-
thage and in the Occident on an immovable day
in the month of March. As Tertullian in another
place designates the twenty-fifth of March as the
day of the death of Christ, and as this tradition is
very frequently in evidence in the whole Occident,
it is to be assumed that in the Occident there be-
gan a fast on that date which was broken on the
following Sunday in the celebration of the Lord's
Supper. At the Council of Nicsea an attempt was
naade to abolish the differences between the vari-
ous churches and to introduce the Egyptian cal-
culation into all provinces. Easter was to be
celebrated on the Sunday following the first full
moon after the vernal equinox. But by this de-
cision a uniform regulation of the question was
not guaranteed, as is evident from the necessity of
Reaffirming the decision at the Synod of Antioch
ui 341. An anti-Judaistic polemic which is notice-
able in the regulation of the question since the
third century has undoubtedly influenced to a
great extent the final victory of the custom of
Palestine and Egypt. In spite of the decision of
the councils, the churches of Mesopotamia, Anti-
och, and Syria adhered to the old custom.
(Erwin Preuschen.)
OL The Easter Cycle: This is a determinate
"nw of yeara such that in each series Easter
Simday always recurs in the same sequence on the
same day of the month. Such a cycle exists for
the Julian calendar and comprises 532 years. Be-
sides this cycle there is another, consisting of eighty-
four years, which is mentioned at the close of the
third century but which was later superseded by
the cycle of 532 years because it was found that
the computation was wrong. A lunar cycle of
nineteen years is also named and only in this sense
can an Easter cycle be connected with the Gre-
gorian calendar.
Carl Bertheau.
Bibuoorapht: On I.: Bingham, Orioinea, XX. ▼.; J. C.
W. Auguflti, DenktoHrdigkeiten, vol. ii., Leipsio, 1818;
F. Piper. OetchichU dea Otterfeatea, Berlin. 1845; H. Alt.
Der chriaUidie CuUua, part ii., Berlin. 1850; W. I. Zip.
Hiat,, Object and Proper Obaervance of the Holy Seaaon
of Lent, New York, 1875; E. Renan, U6aliae chriHenne,
pp. 445-451, Paris, 1879; idem, M. AurHe, pp. 194-206,
ib. 1882, Eng. transl. of both vols.. London, n.d.; F. X.
Kraus, Realencykhjadie der ehriatiichen Alterthanur, i.
486-602, Freiburg. 1881; J. H. Hobart. FeaUvaU and
Feaata, London, 1887; L. Duchesne, Originea du cuUa
chrStien, pp. 226 sqq.. Paris, 1889, Eng. transl., Otriatian
Worahip, pp. 236-239 et passim, London, 1904; T. Zahn,
OeadiuMe dea neuteatamentlichen Kanona, i. 180 sqq.,
Leipsio, 1889; idem, Skizzen aua dem Leben der alien
KircKe, chap, vi., ib. 1894; Neander, Chriatian Church,
L 149, 297-300 et passim, ii.-iv. passim; Hefele. Con-
eUiengeachichte, vol. i. passim, Eng. transl.. vol. i.; Schaff,
Chriatian Church, ii 206-209; DCB, i. 586-595; DCO,
i. 255; E. C. Achelis. Lehrbuch der praktiachen Theologie,
L 292 sqq.. Leipsic. 1898; O. Rietschel, Lehrbuch der
Liturgik, i. 172 sqq., Berlin, 1900.
On II.: C. L. Weitiel, Die chriaUiche Paaaafeier der
drei eraten Jahrhunderten, Pforsheim, 1848; A. Hilgen-
feld, Der Paachaaireit der aUen Kirche, Halle, 1860; W. F.
Hook, Archbiahopa of Canterbury, i. chap, i., London,
1860; F. C. Baur, Daa Chriatenthum der drei eraten Jahr-
hunderten, pp. 156-169, Tabingen. 1863; W. Milligan,
The Eaater Controveraiea of the Second Century in their
Relaiion to the Ooapet of St, John, in Contemporary Re-
view, Sept., 1867; J. F. S. Gordon, Scotichronicon, i.
60-65, Glaagow, 1867; E. Scharer, De controveraiia paa-
diolibua, Leipsio, 1869; idem, in ZHT, 1870. pp. 182
sqq.; L. Duchesne, La Queation de la Pdque, in Revue dea
queationa hiatoriquea, July, 1880; G. Salmon, Hiatorical
introduction to the N. T., lect. xv., London, 1894; Mo-
Qiffert in NPNF, 2d ser.. i. 241; Neander, ut sup., i. 297-
300. ii. 337-338, iii. 347. 585; Schaff, ut sup., ii., 209-220.
On IIL: Van der Hagen, Diaaertationea de cyclia paa-
thalibua, Amsterdam, 1736; L. Ideler, Handbuch der , . .
Chronolooie, ii. 191-298. Berlin, 1826; idem, Lehrbuch
der Chronolooie, pp. 345-379, ib. 1831; B. Krusch, SUk-
dien zur diriatlichen mittelalterluJien Chronologia, Leipsic,
1880; H. Grotefend. Zeitrechnung dea deutachen Mittel-
aUera und der Neiueit, p. 144, Hanover, 1891.
EASTER COMMUNION: The celebration of the
Lord's Supper early became one of the chief of the
rites connected with Easter. Those who had become
cold and lax in their attention on religious cere-
monies felt that they must, on Easter, if at no other
time, commune. In the council held in the Lateran
in Rome in 1215, that which had become a practise
was made an obligation, and the twenty- first canon
of this council reads thus: " Every believer, of either
sex, who has come to years of discretion, must at
least once a year confess honestly his sins to his own
priest and perform the penance which may be en-
joined as far as he is able, and at least on E^aster
solemnly receive the Eucharist, unless his priest
out of sufficient grounds has forbidden its reception.
Whoever refuses so to do will be excluded from the
Church, and on death be refused Christian burial.'
Hefele, ConcUiengeschichU, v. 888.
Eastern Ohnroh
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
EASTERN CHURCH.
I. Names, Extent and Branches.
II. History.
General Characterisation ($1).
Three Periods ({ 2).
Intolerance and Persecution (§ 3).
The Schism between East and
West (S 4).
Points of Difference (S 5).
I. NameSy Extent, and Branches: Various names
are used to designate the great division of
Christendom which is considered in this article.
The full official title is " the Holy Orthodox Catho-
lic Apostolic Eastern Church'' {i dyia hfy^dSo^o^
luv&okiK^ QTrooTokiK^ iivaroXiK^ kiuck^ia) . The Roman
Church clainis all these titles, except " Oriental,"
for which it substitutes " Roman/' and claims
them exclusively. The name *' Eastern (or Oriental)
Church " designates its origin and geographical
territory. The " Orthodox Church " expresses its
close adherence to the ecumenical system of doc-
trine and discipline as settled by the seven ecumeni-
cal councils before the separation from the Western
or Latin Church. On this title the chief stress is
laid, and it is celebrated on a special day called
" Orthodoxy Sunday," in the beginning of Lent,
when a dramatic representation of the old ecumeni-
cal councils is given in the churches, and anathemas
are pronounced on all heresies. The common des-
ignation " Greek Church " is not strictly correct,
but indicates the national origin of the church and
the language in which most of its creeds, liturgies,
canons, and theological and ascetic literature are
composed, and its worship mainly conducted.
The Eastern Church embraces the Greek, and
the Russian and other Slavonic nationalities. It
has its seat in Eastern Europe — chiefly in Turkey,
Servia, Rumania, Greece, Russia, and some parts
of Austria — and in Western Asia. Bulgaria was
long a bone of contention between Constantinople
and Rome and one of the causes of separation, but
is now an independent branch of the " Orthodox "
Church, ruled by an exarch (see Bulgaria; Bul-
garians, Conversion or the). In Western
Europe and America there are congregations of
merchants and immigrants or connected with em-
bassies (for America, see below, IV.). The total
number of adherents of the Eastern Church is
about 100,000,000, of whom 85,000,000 belong
to the Russian Church. The Eastern Church thus
ranks third among the three great divisions of
Christendom, the Roman Catholic Church being
credited with 230,000,000 adherents, and the Prot-
estant Churches with 140,000,000.
The Eastern Church is ciivided into at least
fifteen branches or partfl, each independent of the
other. The first rank is held by the Ecumenical
Patriarch of Constantinople (see Constantinople;
Patriarch). Then follow (2) Alexandria (see
Alexandria, Patriarchate of); (3) Antioch;
(4) Jerusalem (see Jerusalem, Patriarchate of);
(5) Cyprus (which was recognized as a bishopric
by the Council of Ephesus in 431 and includes 160,000
Greek Catholics); (6) Russia (q.v.), (7) Karlo-
witz (the metropolitan see of the Hungarian Ser-
vians); (8) Montenegro (q.v.), (9) the archbishop-
Saints, RelioB, mad Imacea.
guage of Wonhip (f 6).
Monks and Ckrgy (f 7).
Religious Life (t 8).
The Greek Canon (t 0).
Minions (f 10).
IV. The Eastern Churoh in
Relations to Protestant Churches
(§6).
m. Doctrine, Polity, and Liturgy.
Creed (S 1).
Theology (t 2).
Goyernment ({ 3).
Worship 'and Ritual ({ 4).
Liturgy of the Lord's Supper ({ 5).
ric of Sinai (mdependent since 1782); (10) Greeee
(independent of Constantinople since 1852; see
Greece); (11) the metropolitan see of Hennamh
stadt (for the Rumanians in Hungary); (12) the
exarchate of Bulgaria (since 1870; see BinuaABiA);
(13) the metropolitan see of Czemowita (for Bi]ko>
wina and Dalmatia, including the Rutheniana and
other Cisleithanians); (14) Servia (since 1879; see
Servia); (15) Rumania (since 1885; see Rumania).
The Georgian Church has been absorbed by tbo
Russian. The Church of Bosnia and Herzegovina
(q.v.), with three independent metropolitans, has a
loose relation to the ecmnenical patriaiclL Caor
stantinople, the city of the first Christian emperor,
is still the natural center of the whole Easten
Church and may again become, in Christian hands,
for the Eastern world what Gregory Nairianwsn
described it to be in the fourth century, '* the eye
of the world, the strongest by sea and land, the
bond of union between East and West, to which
the most distant extremes from all sides come to-
gether, and to which they look up as to a oommon
center and emporium of the faith.''
IL History: The Eastern Church has no con-
tinuous history like the Roman Catholic and the
Protestant. It has long periods of monotony and
stagnation, and is isolated from the main current
of progressive Christendom. Yet this
^' 1?!^!*^ Church represents the oldest tradition
"**" in Christendom, and for several cen-
turies was the chief bearer of our
religion. It still occupies the sacred
territory of primitive Christianity, and claims most
of the Apostolic sees, as Jerusalem, Antioch, and
the churches founded by Paul and John in Asia
Minor and Greece. All the Apostles, with the ex-
ception of Peter and Paul, labored and died in the
East. From the old Greeks the Church inherited
the language and certain national traits of charac-
ter, while it incorporated also much of Jewish and
Oriental piety. It produced the first Christian
literature, apologies of the Christian faith, refu-
tations of heresies, commentaries on the Bible, ser-
mons, homilies, and ascetic treatises. The great
majority of the early Fathers, and at least some of
the Apostles, used the Greek language. Polycarp,
Ignatius, Clement of Alexandria, Origen, Euaebiua,
Athanasius, Basil, Gregory Nazianzen, Gr^ory of
Nyssa, Chrysostom, Cyril of Jerusalem, and Qyril
of Alexandria, the first Christian emperors ban-
ning with Constantine the Great, together with a
host of martyrs and confessors, belong to the Gredc
communion. It elaborated the ecumenical dogmas
of the Trinity and Christology, and ruled the first
seven ecumenical councils, which were all held
in C\)nstantinople or its immediate neighborhood
(Nicsea, Chalcedon, Ephesus). The palmy period
Oharao-
teriza-
tlon.
49
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bastem Ohnroh
of the Eastern Church during the first five centtiries
wSl pver elaim the grateful respect of the whole
(^biistuui world; and Its great teachers siUl live in
tbeir writings far beyond the cou^neBf nay, even
more outaide of ita eommujiianj as the books of
Hoeei and the Prophets are more studied and better
understood ajnong ChristiaDS than among JewSf for
wboifl tbey w*rote. But the Church has never mate-
liiEy progressed beyond the standpoint occupied
in the fifth and sixth centuries. It has no proper
middle age, and no Reformation, like Western
(^mtendom. It infiuences the ChuFehes of the
West to-day ehiefly through the Nicene and other
CTwdftf Its hymns made known by J, M. Neale and
ot^rs, mid the writings and examples of its great
tbeokigmti8| preaeherm^ commentators^ and histori-
ans d the &rat five centuries.
Three periods may be distinguished in the history
of the Eastern Church: (1) The Ciassical or Pro-
tntitt period, the first five or sLx centuries^ has
Jort been characteriEcd. The la^t great theologian
of the East m John of DomaBcus (d. before 754),
wbo fiummed up the scattered results of the labora
of tl)G preceding Fathers into a tolerably complete
^«m of theology; but he is an isolated phenom-
Hsoti. The process of degeneracy and stagnation
had already set in; and the former
L Tlit«a life and vigor gave way to idle specu-
lailoda, lationsp distracting controversies, dead
formalism, and traditionalism, (2)
Tb Bjrzantine period^ corresponding to the Middle
Ages of the Latin Churehj extends from the rise
of MohatniQjedanism to the fall of Constantinople
(650-1453). Here are fonnd the gradual separation
fitimthe West and from all progressive movements j
dcpcndeDce on the imperial court at Constanti-
oopJc: continuation of a certain literary activity;
pluldi^gical and Biblical studies in slavish depend-
^SKtm the Fathers; commentariea of CEcumemus
(«. &90)p Theophylact (d. after 1107), Euthymius
%l«iiu (d. after 11 IS); large litemty eollectioni,
di«etl and Christian, of Photius (c. 890), Balsa-
m% Zonaras, Snidas, and Simeon Metaphrastes;
the liturgical works of Maximus, Sophronius, Simeon
^ Tbenalonica; the Byzantine historians; the
bnodartic controvert (72^-842; see Iuaois
AHB IstAGE WoBSHiP, II); inroads and conquests
I of MohaDHcaedanism (from 630) in Syria^ Pec^
^ ^ %yptt North Africa; temporaiy suspension
\ pf the patriarchates of Alexandria, Antioch, Jeru-
•*^; finally, the conquest of Confitantinople by
the Turkfl, and the extinction of the Greek Empire
{m% which led to the immigration of Greek
^'^xAm (Chakondylas, Chfysoloras, Gemistoe Ple-
^f Michael Apostolius, Theodore Ga^a, George of
^iroad, and others) to the West, the revival of
**^, the study of the Greek Testament, and pre-
pared the way for the Reformation. During this
Mod of decline in its original home, the Greek
^«Pch made a great conquest in the convereion of
^w Slavonians (the Bulgarians and Ruisians) in the
^">^b Slid tenth eenturies, while the Latin Church
*« converting the Celtic and Teutonic races,
pjTbe Modern period may be dated from the down-
™! of the Greek Empire {14^). It presents in
^ stagnation and slavery under the rule of the
IV.-4
Turks but great tenacity and independence aa to
all internal affairs; in Europe^ rapid external growth
through the rising power of Russia, with some re-
forms in manners and customs and the introduction
of Western culture, protests against Romanising
and evangelical movements^ the orthodox con-
fession of Petrua Mogilas (1542), the Synod of
Jerusalem (1672), the Russian Church, the patri-
arehaie of Moscow, the reforms of Patriarch Nikon
(d. 1681) and of the Czar Peter the Great (d. 1725),
the reaction of the Old Believers (Raskolniki), the
Holy Synod of St. Petersburg (since 1721), the
New Greek Church in HeUas (since 1S33), with
proepeets for the future, depending chiefly on
Russia.
In the history of the Eastern Chureh there have
been no organised bloo<iy tribunals of orthodoxy
like the Spanish Inquisition, no sya^
* ntoxcr- tematic and long^ontinued persecu-
Persecu- ^^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^ crusades against the
tiqn, Waldenses, Albigenses, and Huguenots,
and no massacre of St. Bartholomew.
But the Greek Chureh of old mercilessly expelled and
exiled Arian, Nestorian, Eutychian, and other here-
tics, and persecuted the Paulicians (835). For cen-
turies none of the Oriental Churches except the
Russian lias been in a position to exercise jurisdic-
tion over heretics and dissenters, beijig themselves
only tolerated by the Turkish or Egyptian govern-
ments. Modem Russia has enforced severe measures
against the Stundists and other dissenting bodies
and has withheld from Lutherans in the Baltic
provinces certain privileges (such as exemption from
military service) sacredly promised by the C^ar.
Secession from the national orthodox Church is
rigidly prohibited. No one can be converted in
Russia from one religion or sect to another, except
to the national orthodox Church; and all the chil-
dren of mixed marria^s, where on» parent belongs
to it must be baptised and cduc4ited in it. The
spirit of fanatical intolerance has manifested itself
recently in the atrocious persecution of the Jews as
it did earlier in 1881; but it would be unfair to hold
the Eastern Church responsible for these excesses.
No two Churches are so much alike in their creed,
polity and cultus, as the Greek and Roman; and
yet no two are such irreconcUable
4, The rivals, perhaps for the veiy reason of
Schism ^^^^^ afTinity, They s^ree much more
East ajid ^^^^^ either agrees with any Protes-
Westr *'^^* Chureh. They were never or-
ganicaliy united. They differed from
the beginning in nationality, language, and genius,
as the ancient Greeks differetl from the Romans;
yet they grew up together, and stood shoulder to
shoulder in the ancient conflict with paganism and
heresy. They cooperated in the early ecumenical
councils, and adopted their doctrinal and ritual
decisions. But the removal of the seat of empire
from Rome to ConMantinople by Diocletian and
Constantine, the development of the papal mon-
archy in the West, and the establishment of a West-
em empire in connection with it, laid the foundation
of a acliism which lian never been healed. The
controversy culminated in the rivalry between the
patriarch of Constantinople and the pope of Rome.
BastamOhuroh
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
50^
The bishop of Constantinople was recognized by the
Council of Constantinople in 381 and a place was
given him by the Council of Chalcedon in 451
" next after " the bishop of Rome. Leo I. (440-
461) protested against the growing assumption of
power by the Constantinopolitan bishop, who as
early as 500 used the title " ecumenical patri-
arch." From 484 to 519 the relations between the
two bishops were much strained over the Henoticon
of Zeno, which sought to soften the Chalcedonian
Christological formula (see MoNOPHYsrrEs). The
controversy over their relative authority reached
an acute stage under Photius and Nicholas I. (qq.v.)
who each excommunicated the other (869 and 879).
When Ignatius was deposed from the patriarchate
of Constantinople and the layman Photius put in
his place (857), the latter appealed to Rome for a
decision against the Ignatian party. Nicholas
sent a commission to investigate and refused to
recognize Photius, who then retorted in a famous
encyclical letter charging the Roman Church with
heresy for the unauthorized insertion of the fUtoque
into the Nicene Creed (see Filioqub Controversy)
and with various corrupt practises. In 1054 the
controversy was renewed under the patriarch
Michael Ca^rularius (q.v.), whom Pope Leo IX.
excommunicated as guilty of nine heresies, and it
became irreparable through the Venetian con-
quest of Constantinople (1204) and the establish-
ment of a Latin empire there (1204-61), a Latin
patriarch of Constantinople and rival Latin
bishops in other Eastern sees by Innocent III. and
other popes. Vain attempts at reunion were made
from time to time, especially at Lyons (1274) and
Florence (1439). The latter was attended by the
patriarch and the Byzantine emperor, but its com-
promise formula was rejected in the East as treason
to the orthodox faith (see Ferrara-Florence,
Council or). With the fall of Constantinople
(1453) the political motive for seeking a union with
the West ceased. In 1870 the Vatican Council
intensified the chief cause of separation by declaring
papal absolutism and papal infallibility an article
of faith. Leo XIII. in the bull Pradara gratvr
lationis of June 20, 1894, directed " to all princes
and peoples," expressed the hope of a reunion of
Christendom (cf. A. Hamack, Reden und Auf-
sdize, ii., Giessen, 1906, 295 sqq.). The patriarch
Anthimos II. replied, Oct. 11, 1895, charging the
Roman Church with innovations, such as the
filioquef the doctrines of the inmiaculate conception
and papal infallibility, baptism by sprinkling,
purgatory, etc.
The points in which the Greek Church differs
from the Roman are the following: the single
procession of the Holy Spirit (against
6. F<mits ^Yie fUioque), which is as far as the
Differ. Council of Constantinople in 381 went;
enoe.' *'^® equality of the five patriarchs,
and the rejection of the papacy as an
antichristian innovation and usurpation; the right
of the lower clergy (priests and deacons) to marry
(though only once); communion in both kinds;
trine inunersion the only valid form of baptism;
the use of the vemacidar languages in worship;
a number of minor ceremonies, as the use of com-
mon or leavened bread in the Eucharist, infant
munion, the repetition of holy unction (evxi^am^
in sickness, etc.
On the fruitless negotiations for union betiPM
the Lutheran and the Greek Church, and tis;!
-^ Anglican and the Greek and T
t^V" Churches, cf.Schaff, Cre«fo,L 60 aqii.^
to Protes- ^^^ ^^ '^^* '^^ Reformation of tia
tant sixteenth century had no effect upoa
Ohnrohes. the Oriental Church. The refcca
movement of Cyril Lucar (q.v.) who^
as patriarch of Constantinople, attempted to in-
graft Calvinism upon the old trunk, failed taor
pletely: he was strangled to death, and his bod|f
thrown into the Bosphorus (1638); and his 6o^
trines were condemned by synods in 1638, 1641^
and 1672 (cf. Schaff, Creeds, i. 54 sqq.). In reoflfli
times, however, German universities are often fn^-
quented by Russian and Greek students; and tkt;
works of German scholars have exerted aootf
modifying influence. The Old Catholic moTeoMBi;
was followed with interest; and the Old GaUioBfeS
conferences in Bonn (1874 and 1875) were attended^
by several dignitaries from Greece and Rnnik.
There has been also considerable intercourse b^
tween Greek and Anglican bishops. The Gi«fc
Church is not so strongly conmiitted against Fral>;
estantism as the Roman, and may therefore
something from it. [Yet converts to ProtestantisM;
from the Roman Catholic Church have been fitf
more numerous than from the Greek Church, ml:
the thought of Roman Catholicism has been ii '
enced by Protestantism far more than the thooglbfr
of Greek Catholicism. A. H. N.] <
m. Doctrine, Polity, and Liturgy: The EasM
Church holds fast to the decrees and canons of tkt
seven ecumenical councils (see Councilb
Synods, § 3). Its proper creed is that adopted ll'
Nicsea in 325, enlarged at Constantinople 381,
indorsed at Chalcedon 451, without the Latin fiH _
(see Constantinopolitan Creed). This creed h
the basis of all Greek catechisms
1. Creed, systems of theology, and a rogobv
part of worship. The Greeks
never acknowledged in form the Apostles' Cnsl^
which is of Western origin, nor the Athanaritf^
Creed, which teaches the double procession, and H
likewise of Western origin. Besides this ecuinftfitdj
creed, the Eastern Church acknowledges tfaM^
subordinate confessions, which define her positioi
against Romanism and Protestantism, name^
(1) The " Orthodox Confession " of Petrus 1
(q.v.), metropolitan of Kief (1643), a catecbfltiol:
exposition of the Nicene Creed, the Lord's Fn|V
and the beatitudes, and the decalogue; (2) tta
" Confession of Dositheos or Eighteen Decrees of tkl
Synod of Jerusalem " (1672); and (3) the " LoogBT 1
Catechism " of Philaret, metropolitan oi Halt \
cow, adopted by the Holy Synod of St. Feten-
burg in 1839 and published in all the lang<i«gM
of Russia. (For text of these creeds and ooofoi"
sions, cf. Schaff, Creeds, ii. 273-542; and J. MSchal-
cescu, see bibliography below.) [Mention shooU
also be made of the work of Gennadius II. of Ooii-
stantinople and of Metrophanes Kritopulus (qq.T.X
the former of whom wrote a brief dooument m
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bastem Ohuroh
icDty articles, and the latter a confession in
•enty-three chapters (given in full by Biichal-
«»). A. H. N.]
The doctrinal system of the Elastem Church is,
ipoB the whole, more simple and less developed
hn that of the Roman, though in some respects
MR subtle and metaphysical. The only serious
doctrinal difference is that on the
fl. The- procession of the Holy Spirit (see
«tofy« FnjOQUE Controvbrst). The Greek
Church holds to the leading principles,
bst rejects many of the consequences or results
gf Roman Catholicism. It adheres to the theology
if the Greek Fathers down to John of Damascus,
nd Ignores the succeeding scholastic theology of
Ik ichoolmen, who completed the Roman system.
The Eastern theology remains rigidly in the f rag-
■eotary state of the old councils. The resistance
l» tbe Western filioque implied a protest against
fafte progress both in truth and in error, and
■N&t stagnation, as well as faithful adherence to
ii venerable Nicene symbol. The Greek theology
h ant full on the doctrine of God and of Christ,
hA nry defective on the doctrine of man and the
Oder of salvation. The East went into all sorts of
Ikological and Christological subtleties, especially
knng the long and tedious Monophysite contro-
ttM, which found little or no response in the
Test; but it ignored the Pelagian controversies,
le development of the Augustinian and later
ii^dicai theology. It took the most intense
terest in the difference between ousia and hypo-
ini, the ^omoousion and hoTnoiousum, the relations
the persons in the Trinity, the agennlsia of the
ither, the eternal genrO^ia of the Son, the eternal
yoreims or " procession " of the Spirit, the pcrt-
lirint, the relation of the two natures in Christ,
KNestorian, Eutychian, Monophysite, and Mono-
lAke heresies, but was never seriously troubled
ith questions about predestination, vicarious
Unement, justification and imputation, convei^
ion and regeneration, faith and good works,
Mrit and demerit, vital union with Christ, and
qpiste doctrines, which absorbed the attention
f Western Christendom. The cause for this
Siereiioe must be sought in the prevailing meta-
Ajacil, rhetorical, and objective character of the
bitem Church, — inherited partly from Asia,
IH^ from Greece — as distinct from the practical,
qgial, and subjective tendency of the Western
Skmches, which is derived from the Roman and
fe Teutonic nationalities. The difference is illus-
ntod as early as the Nicene Creed, with its meta-
iijfrieal terms about the Son, as compared with the
lOfe simple and popular Apostles' Creed , which origi-
■ted in the West, and is very little used in the East.
The Greek Church is a patriarchal oligarchy, in
■tmction from the papal monarchy. The epis-
copal hierarchy is retained, the pa-
8. Oorr- pj^^ rejected. Centralization is un-
^^. known in the East. The patriarchs of
Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch,
d Jerusalem, are equal in rights, though the first
■ a primacy of honor. The czar of Russia,
ireveFy exercises a sort of general protectorate,
d may be regarded as a rival to the pope of
Rome, but has no authority in matters of doctrine,
and can make no organic changes. The Elastem
hierarchy resembles the Jewish type. The Greek
priest within the veil of the sanctuary is concealed
from the eyes of the people; but in social respects
he is nearer the people than the Roman priest.
He is allowed, and even compelled, to marry once,
but forbidden to marry twice. Celibacy is con-
fined to bishops and monks. Absolution is given
only in the form of a prayer, " May the Lord ab-
solve thee," instead of the positive form, " 1 ab-
solve thee." The confessional exists, but in a
milder form, with less influence and abuse, than
in Romanism. The laity are more independent;
and the Russian czar, like the Byzantine emperor
of old, is the head of the Church in his dominion.
The unction of confirmation is made to symbolize
the royal priesthood of every believer. The mo-
nastic orders, though including many clergy, are
not clerical institutions as the Latin orders have been
since the thirteenth century. The community of
Athos (q.v.) is a lay corporation with chaplains.
The administration of the churches as devel-
oped in the Byzantine Empire is most compli-
cated, and involves, besides the regular clergy,
an army of higher and lower ecclesiastical officers,
from the first administrator of the church prop-
erty (^ f^a^ oiKovdfiu^)^ the superintendent of the
sacristy (6 er/cfvo^'Aaf ), the chancellor or keeper of
ecclesiastical archives (<i ;rapro^{>Aaf ), down to the
cleaners of the lamps (oi hifiiraddpioi)^ and the bearer
of the images of saints (<i Paarayapio^). These
half-clerical officers are divided into two groups,
— one on the right, the other on the left: each is
subdivided into three classes, and each class has
again five persons. Leo Allatius and Heineccius
enumerate fifteen officials of the right group, and
even more of the left. But many of these offices
have either ceased altogether, or retain only a
nominal existence.
In worship and ritual the Eastern Church is much
like the Roman Catholic, with the celebration of
the sacrifice of the mass as its center, with an equal
and even greater neglect of the sermon,
^? ^^^ ^ addressed more to the senses
xj^^, and imagination than to the intellect
and the heart. It is strongly Ori-
ental, unintelligibly symbolical and mystical, and
excessively ritualistic. The Greeks reject organs,
musical instruments, and sculpture, and make
less use of the fine arts in their churches than
the Roman Catholics; but they have even a more
complicated system of ceremonies, with gorgeous
display, semibarbaric pomp, and endless changes
of sacerdotal dress, crossings, gestures, genuflex-
ions, prostrations, washings, processions, which
so absorb the attention of the senses, that there
is little room left for the intellectual and spiritual
worship. They use the liturgy of St. Chiysostom,
which is an abridgment of that of St. Basil, yet
very lengthy, and contains, with many old and
venerable prayers (one of the finest is incorpora-
ted in the Anglican liturgy under the name of
Chrysostom), later additions from different sources
to an excess of liturgical refinement.
The most characteristic features of Greek wor-
Bastem Ohuroh
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
ship, as distinct from the Roman, are the three-
fold immersion in baptism, with the repudiation
of any other mode as essentially invalid; the si-
multaneous performance of the act of confirmation
and the act of baptism which in the West have
been separated; the anointing with oil in cases
of dangerous illness, which Rome has changed
into extreme unction of the dying; infant com-
munion, which the Latin Church has not only
abandoned, but forbidden; the communion in
two kinds; the use of leavened bread in the Eu-
charist; the standing and eastward posture in
prayer; the stricter separation of the sexes; the
use of the screen or veil before the altar; and the
withdrawal of the performance of the mysteries
(sacraments) from the eyes of the people.
The form which the Greek Church developed
for the celebration of the Lord's Supper is en-
tirely different from that developed
5. Liturery by the Roman Catholic Church. It is
^' *^® symbolical throughout. Not only
Sum>er ^^^^ ^^® °^ *'^® antiphonal choirs
which perform during the act rep-
resent in some mystical way the cherubim, but
the whole act is, in its every feature, a symbol-
ical representation of the passion. Five loaves are
laid on the altar, each stamped with the sign of the
cross and the inscription, " Jesus Christ conquers."
The officiating priest selects one of them for the sacri-
ficial lamb; and with a symbolical reference to the
soldier w^ho pierced the side of Jesus with a spear, so
that blood and water flowed from the wound, he
cut« the loaf, by thrusting the holy lance — a knife
in the form of a lance — into it, while at the same
time the deacon pours the wine and the wat<?r into
the cup. Under somber dirges the elements are
then carried in a solemn procession, headed with
many lighted candles and much incense-burning,
through the whole church, and back again to the
altar, where they are deposited, like the body of
Christ in the tomb. A curtain is lowered before
the altar; and, unseen by the congregation, the
elements are consecrated while the choir is chanting
the Lord's Prayer. When the curtain is drawn, the
altar represents the tomb from which Christ has
risen; and, while the choir sings a hymn of praise,
the elements are presented to the commimicants
w^ithout any special formula of distribution. The
consecrated bread is broken into the consecrated
wine and both elements are given together in a
spoon. Greek writers on liturgy claim that this
custom (known as intincti/m) dates back to the
time of Chrysostom. It never gained foothold in
the Western Church, and was forbidden as unscrip-
tural by Pope Julius I. (337-352).
The worship of saints, relics, flat images, and
the cross is carried as far as, or even farther than,
in the Roman Church; but statues,
e. Saints, bas-reliefs, and crucifixes are forbidden.
Relics, and £n Russia especially the veneration
^^"^^**®** for pictures of the Virgin Mary and
Lancrnag'e
of
the saints is carried to the utmost
Worship, extent, and takes the place of the
Protestant veneration for the Bible.
The holy picture (icon) with the lamp burning
before it is found and worshiped in the comer (the
SlavQokl
Hie
sacred place) of every room, in the street,
gatew^ays, in offices, taverns, steazners, rmihny
telegraph stations, and is carried in the '
every soldier, not as a work of art, but as
blem, a means of instruction, an aid to ~
The vernacular languages are used in
the Greek in Turkey and Greece, the
Russia; but they have to a considerable
become unintelligible to the people. ~
Slavonic differs from the modem RusBiaD
as much as Chaucer's Englbh from our
The Oriental sects hold to their native d
the Syriac, Armenian, etc. The old Greek
which is thirteen days behind the new style
duced by Gregory XIII., is still retained.
Christian life has the same general features i
the Roman Catholic Church. The mass of
people are contented with an oi .
7. Monks morality, while the monks aim il %
Clerr7 higher degree of ascetic piety. Tk
monastic system has not devdopai
into great orders, as in the West. There oi
three classes of monks, the cenobites {mtm^mnti
who live together in a monastery ruled by a
archimandrite who is often a bbhop iapxifia96pir%
yyoifxevo^)', the anchorets {avaxf^pirfoi^ ^bo fill
in a cell apart from the other monks, or among
the laity; and the ascetes {aaKtrrai), or hermiti
The monks usually fcAlow the rule of St. Bad;
some, the rule of St. Anthony. The bishops an
taken from the monks. Important monasterin
are at Jerusalem, Mount Athos (q.v.). Mount Siui
(where the celebrated Sinaitic manuscript of tha
Bible was kept for centuries), and Mar Saba near
the Dead Sea. The Greek monks as a rule are mora
ignorant and superstitious than the Roman Cath(h
lie, and the same may be said of the clergy, miqy
of whom are merely mechanical functionaries.
Religious life is supposed to originate in baptwna!
regeneration, and to be nourished chiefly by the
sacraments. Prayer, fasting, and chai^
8. BelifiT- itable deeds are the principal mani'
ious Life, festations of piety. The obeervanei
of the Ten Conunandments is strictly
enjoined in all the catechisms. The Greeks and
Russians are very religious in outward observ-
ances and devotions, but know little of what Protes-
tants mean by subjective experiential piety, and
personal direct communion of the soul with the
Savior. The Greek Christians surpass their Mo-
hammedan neighbors in chastity, but are behind
them in honesty. What St. Paul says of the Cre-
tans (Titus i. 12) is still characteristic of the raee^
of course with honorable exceptions. In Russia
there is the same divorce between religion and
morality. The towns are adorned with churefaea
and convents. Every public event is celebrated
by the building of a church. Every house has an
altar and sacred pictures; every child his guardian
angel and baptismal cross. A Russian fasts every
Wednesday and Friday, prays early and late,
regularly attends mass, confesses his sins, pays
devout respect to sacred places and things, makes
pilgrimages to the tombs and shrines of saints,
and has the phrase Slava Boga ! (" Glory to God! ")
continually on his lips.
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Sastem Ohuroh
Demmg the extent of the canon of the Scrip-
the Eastern Church is not quite consistent,
and stands midway between the Ro-
2* nian and the Protestant view concern-
ion. "^ ^^® Jewish Apocrypha. The Sep-
tuagint is used, which includes the
fpha. The Orthodox Confession repeat-
quotes the Apocrypha as authority and
rood of Jerusalem (1672) mentions several
fphal books (The Wisdom of Solomon,
i, Tobit, the History of Bel and the
a, the History of Susanna, the Maccabees,
le Wisdom of Sirach} as parts of the Holy
ores. On the other hand, Metrophanes enu-
» only twenty-two books of the Old Testa-
(according to the division of Josephus; see
r OP Scripture, I, 4, § 3), and eleven books
! New Testament (counting fourteen Epis-
Paul, the two Epistles of Peter, and the three
n as each one book), and then speaks of the
1 Apocrypha as not being received by the
1 among the canonical and authentic books,
nee not to be used in proof of dogmas. The
^Catechism " of Philaret likewise enumerates
irenty-two books of the Old Testament, but
-seven books of the New, and says that
VHsdoni of the Son of Sirach and certain
xwks " are ignored in the list of the books
Old Testament, " because they do not exist
Hebrew." The use of the Apocryphal books
fied because ** they have been appointed by
thers to be read by proselytes who are pre-
for admission into the Church."
circulation of the Scriptures among the
i not encouraged, and certain portions, espe-
d the Old Testament, are declared to be un-
general use. But the Greek Church has never
ited the reading of the Bible in the vulgar
; and the Orthodox Church of Russia has
had A popular version of the Bible, first in
I Slavic, and now in modem Russian. The
ig and circulating of the Bible in the Russian
ge and within the Orthodox Greek Church
er the exclusive control of the Holy Synod of
tersburg. See Bible Versions, XVI.
Eastern Church has spread, through Russian
loe, in Siberia, the Aleutian Islands, and
wherever the civil and military power
■Is- oi the Czar has prepared the way;
BS. but, apart from the aid of govern-
ment, it has little or no missionary
aad b content- to keep its own. Its greatest
D-woric was the conversion of Russia; and
as effected, not so much by preaching as by
irriage of a Byzantine princess and the des-
ifder of the ruler Vladimir (see Russia). In
idst of the Mohammedan East the Greek
ttioDs remain like islands in the barren sea;
!ie Bedouin tribes have wandered for twelve
ies round the Greek convent of Mount
ptt>bably without one instance of convei^
> the creed of men whom they yet acknowl-
inth almost religious veneration as beings
, higher world.
(Philip ScHAFFf) D. S. Schaff.
The Eastern Church in America: The
Greek Orthodox Church in present United States
territory dates from 1794, when nine Russian mis-
sionaries arrived at St. Paul on Kadiak Island,
Alaska, led by Archimandrite Joasaph Bogoloff.
There the first Russian church and school in Amer-
ica were erected. In 1796 an episcopal sec was
founded and Joasaph was consecrated at Irkutsk in
Siberia to be the first bishop of Kadiak, Kamchatka,
and America. In 1840 four churches and eight
chapels in Russian America were consolidated into
an independent diocese and Ivan Veniaminof, who
had labored in Alaska as missionary and priest
with self-sacrificing zeal and marked success since
1823, was made bishop with the name of Innocent.
He provided an Aleutian alphabet and grammar,
translated the Gospels, a catechism, and other relig-
ious literature into the Aleutian tongue and the
language of the Koloshes, living in the vicinity of
Sitka, built the cathedral in Sitka, and established
a seminary there, where many of the priests and
readers now officiating in Alaska have received
their education. His influence with the natives
was great. In 1855 he removed to Siberia and be-
came archbishop of Kamchatka in 1858. He was
made metropolitan of Moscow after the death of
Philaret (1867), and died, greatly revered through-
out Russia, in 1879. Yakof Netzvetof, a half-
breed priest, translated Veniaminof's version of
the (jospels and catechism into the Atkha language.
After the cession of Russian America to the United
States, the bishop of Alaska undertook the over-
sight of all Slav Orthodox communities in the
country, and in 1872 under Bishop John, the epis-
copal residence was transferred from Sitka to San
Francisco. After the death of Bishop Nestor, who
was drowned while traveling in performance of his
episcopal duties in 1882, the mission of the Russian
Church was governed by the ecclesiastical Consis-
tory of San Francisco until 1888, when Bishop
Vladimir arrived from Russia. His successors have
been Nicholas (1891-98), Tikhon (1898-1907), and
the present Archbishop Platon.
The increase of Greek Chthodox communities
in the United States has been particularly great
since 1888 owing to the immigration of Austrian
Slavonians. There are at present 152 churches and
chapels in the United States, Alaska, and Canada
under the jurisdiction of the Synod of Russia, with
one archbishop (since 1905) residing in New York,
two bishops — one for Alaska residing at Sitka, the
other (since 1904) for Orthodox Syrians residing in
Brooklyn, — and an administrator for the Servians.
There are seventy-five priests, a seminary at Minne-
apolis, and 46,000 registered parishioners. An
official organ is published in New York in Russian
and English. A religious paper formerly published
in Chicago in Servian has been discontinued. The
Russian cathedral in New York City was dedicated
in 1902. In 1906 Archbishop Tikhon introduced
Sunday evening services in English in this church.
Bishop Innocent of Alaska also favors the sub-
stitution of English for the Slavonic service for the
Orthodox natives of his jurisdiction.
Orthodox congregations in the United States
for those of Syrian nationality date from 1895,
when the Russian Bishop Nicholas brought with
Sb«r
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOQ
him the Very Rev* Archimandrite Raphael Hawa-
wecny and founded a chinrh for Orthodox Syrians
in New York City. In 1899 the corigregation ac-
quired permanent quarters in Brooklyn. In 1904
the patriarch of Antioch elevat43d Raphael to the
rank of bbhop and he was conaeerated by the
Russian bishopa Tikhon and Innocent, his con-
secration being the first in the United States of a
biiihop of the Eastern Church. There are ten
churches under Ms jtirisdiclion and the member-
ahlp of hilt flock is about 45,000.
The firrt Orthodox church for those of Greek
nationahty was founded in New Orleans, where
many Greek merchants were engaged in the cotton
trade. The second was founded in Chicago in
1S72, when Greeks and Slavs united in calling a
Greek priest from Ruasia, This church, after an
interval, was reestablished in 1891, and in the same
year another was opened ifi New York City, and
a fourth in Boston with a priest of Syrian nation-
ality. The Church of Lowell, Mass., a city having
a large Greek population, dates from 1895. The
total number of Orthodox churches for those of
Greek descont, under the jurisdiction either of the
Synod of Greece or of the Greek patriarch at Con-
stantinople at present exceeds thirty. A religious
paper is published in Greek at Milwaukee. In
1905 and again in 1907 a bill was introduced in the
Greek parliament at Athens for the despatch of one
of the prelates of Greece as a resident bishop for the
Greeks in the United States. The bill, however,
failed to pa^, perhaps because the existence in the
LTnitcd States of bishops of the Greek Church owing
allegiance to two different autonomous synods—
those of Russia and Greece — would be anticanonical.
It has been su^est^ that, besides the Russian
and Syrian bishops, a Greek and a Servian bishop
be appoint-ed; an independent synod for the United
Statea and Canada can then be formed and the
bishops c^n elect their own metropolitan.
The total number of Greek Orthodox inhabitants
of the United States, Alaska, and Canada is believed
to exceed 300, PCX). The growth of the church ea
has been due in no small degree to a tendency on
the part of Austrian and Hungarian Uniates who
have emigrated to America to separate from Rome
and return to the Eastern Orthodox eonfesaion.
One reason for this tendency is the effort of the
Roman Church to deprive the Uniates in America
of their married priests. A. A. Stamouw.
BiBLTOdRAPHY: The chief Bource* for the earlier bistory art
the finit Be Yea councilf, the writinga of the Greek Fathera,
cidpecialt^ of AthanaHius. ChryflOPtom, John of DamaacUH,
tmd Photius. For a, Doii»pectua of the litermture oJ the
Churi^h, cQUBult Krunibficher^ OtMchidftte* On the general
history comiult: J. M NeAle, Hi^L of the ili^lt/ Eaifttrn
ChutiJi, LQQdot), 1^50: J. M. llejneeciu.H, AbbiMunff tfer
aUfn urui nsuen griechischen Kirdi^e, 3 vols., LeipHic, 1711;
M, La QuIflQ. Orient ChrUiiamta, 3 voln., PoriSt 1740;
A. P. Stanley, Leeiuret &n the Ecatten Chtifeh^ LoDdon,
1861, new issue^ 190S5 A. Iveroy-Beaulipu, L' Empire des
taoTM et les Ruaee*, vol. iii=, La RdUiion, Fu^Ab, 1S89; A. Ji.
Hore, Eightmn Centurie* of the OrtiwdQj Greek Vhwrdi,
London. 1899; idem. Student' 9 HUU of th^ Greek Church.
ib. 1&02; K. Beth. Die onendUiMchs ChrUtenheit der Mtt-
idrraertander, Berlin, 1902; J. FuLrgoire, L^^sHmh bj/sQn-
tirm, £i?-M7, PariB, I005r A. ForteBcue, The Orthodoz
EoMtem Church, Londo;:!. 1905 (by a Kom&n Ca.tholic)t
F. G, Cole, Mother of Ait ChurchBt; s bri^J and comprt-
hennve Handbook */ the Hotff t^OMt^m Orihodor Churdi^
ib. 1908: the butoriAa of the Cbtmcilfl by HKrdnitt,
and Hefele; th* CSmrdk Hiatorie^ of Herffen^ntber-
Fimit, Hefele-Kisappfler^ luid K, Mailer.
Od tbs KTBfrt Bcbism emd Lbe attempia to bei] it
■ult; G. B. Howard, The SdOtm beiwvn ^ Orimiti
Wetitrn Chun^ime, Loodan, 1892; Leo AUAtiu», Dtmk^
Ha ocadeniiUit ei orieiiieiifA perpeiuA cofuesuvmi
16481 C, WilL Aiia et *eripta . . , d* controrertui mdt^
«t£» QriteiB et Latintr, Mmrbux^. 1861; A, Piehler, (?f*Aaii
der kirchtkhen Trtmvuno t^eisi^Mn dean Oriml vnd Osei^iti
2 vols.* Mutiich, 1864- OS; J. HeivBiir^tber, Pfislm,
3 Tdli., ReffeiubuTi, 1867-60; B. BaztoAiin, Die PdiB
der Pnp9ie, 2 vob,. EJberfeld, lSm-6&; L. iHtcbaa,
Aiiie>nome* tetlitiatti^tiiee: iglieew e^pm^ie^ Vmxi% IBM;
Eii|t» iraojil., ChurthfM Separaied from R^tme. Npw Yak,
1908; L. Brehier. Le Sdiitmie orienial du ru nede, tk 191;
W. Nofden^ Da* Paptitum und Bj/Kin^ BerlJiu L9Qa,
For the fsyrmali led iiyniboticfl of tb« ChttPch tmm^
Sciiaflf» Creede^ vols, i.-ii.: E. J. Kimmei* JtfemrwiN
ftdei P4xl««i<e orientaliM, 2 voIb., Jena, 1850^ J. B. Btn,
Jurit ecdeetOMUei Gracarum hUtoria et fiummmtmM, 2 -nk,
Rome. 1864-68; WMms^. Sjffnbolkk der grimkitekm Kwdm,
Berlin, 1S72; F. KAttenbuAcrh, Lehrbvck der ptr^leii^gaiat
Confe99ion9hinde, vol. i.. FreibuiE, I892j E, F. K. MQlte,
Sjfmbotik^ pp. 19t5~24S, Ldpoie^ 1306; N. Milaa. Dv Kir^
chenrecht drr mwrQefdAndi^^i{i€n KirrJhe* Zmx^ ISS7; 0»
thodai ConfeMion of ^ Ea*tem ChunA^ Eng. tr&ofl hy
F. Lodvill. London, I&9S; Act* and Decrmu q! tkt .SymJ
of Jerumiem, . . . J^7t Ebb, trmtul. by J. N. W. R
Robertson. London, 1899; F. Loofa, Stfln^botik, l. %V^
100-160, Tflbingen. 1902; J. Mirbal^jeKU, Die B«lu^
fiiifp und die wifhti^eten OtaahenMieugnijae der jftiae^iwl*
m'itntaliackfn Kirdu:, Ldpsie^ 1904 (eontaina the fU£^
mentK of the first seven counoilfl* Jind the oonl««aoiii df
GeaoadiiuA, Mogitas, Doattbeui ete.)« The Lnnger Cit^
chism of Philaret. ii^^ued by authority of the Holy 871104 fit
Bt. Petersburg. 1839> is used in tho cburcbw tsA wskodi*
of the Russi&n empire, and Ib the be4t modern cxpodliai
of the doctrine of the E^utem Church.
On the titunprai consult: H. A. Danie]. Cvdm UhetyieM
eeti£*iie unimrmliM, voU i?., Leipnlc, 1S53; J. Gcmr, Ewdte^
logiumt mve rituale Gracum, Faiis, ld47i E. Rcrauiditt,
Liturmarum arieniahum caltectio^ 2 vols., Fiarii, 171Q»
En^. iranil,, CnUection of the Frineipal lAtitrsfiia . . ,
Uied bit the Greekt . . . of the Orientai Ckvrt^ D«b-
lin, 1S22; J. King, Ritee and Ceremtmie* of At Ormk
Church in Eu.9m%a. London, 1872: The OifUm ff
iA« Orien^aZ Chureh, ^tyith H^orieal InJrtiduction* «d.
N. B Jerri ng. New York, 18&4; Stfnsim*, or Spirituai
Coit0cii0n of the DaHjf Pravera^ LUuri^^ ... af the Qrmk
Ofthodojt Churt^ of the Eamt, tr&nai. Aod ed. Katborine
I>ady Lech mere, London (1890)- C. E. Hjunmond.
LHurgie* BoMtern and Weeiem^ ed. F* E. BricliUnan,
vol. i., Oxford. Ig96; A. Staerk, Der Taufribt* in d^
ffriedtiMdi-^rueeischen Kir^te^ Freiburi, 1003.
On the moT^ modem bietory Kad that of the differesi;
branebes tauch nmteri&l ii fntmd in the H^vue de r^runl
cfvrititn, voli. L sqq., 1806 eqq.: in Edko* d^orimni, ^tvlU.
i.-vi^ «nd in the Heeue iniem^^ionalB de thfaloffie, voli. iii.-
ir., Bern, lS95r-e6. Consult further: J. J. I. voa D6l-
lin^or, Kirdae und Kwd^en., pp. 156 sqq., Miinitb, 1861^
EDg. tran^l., Th& Chwrch and the Churrhea, Londoo. 1862:
idenit U^m- die WiedtreinisunQ der christiiekett. JttrdWis
ib, ISSS; L. Boiss&rd, V^gtise de Rume^ 2 toIs., Fvia^
1867; A. d'Avril. La Bulgarie ehrHi^ne, Paris, 1803;
idem, Let ^glise* autonomee et auioc^pkatee, ib. ISM;
idem. La Scrbie ehrt^tietin^ ib. 1897; H. Gelaer, Otii^
liche* und WeUiiche* aue dem tQ^^bi*dteit Citvnj; Ldpii^
190O; O, HQbner, Statistiiche TabeUe aUer LAndm-, Tna^-^
fort, 1901; D. KyritLkoj], Geaehuhta der arienfalimaim
KirchejK lUS-r89S. l^ipaie, 1002; M. C. DaEDpiBtr
Hiet. S'/ the Orthodox Church in AuA^ria-Hungftry, LondoD,
1905. MuteHol of viLlue will be found &bo in D. M. Wal>
laoe, Buseia, New York. 1905.
Sperdal topics are treated in: A. de Stourdjia, Ctm-
sidirationa *ur la doc-trine et l*eaprii de I'^tiee orthodoie,
Paris, 1816: K, P, Fobedonnssew, Btreitfra&en dwr Qeoen-
tmrt, Berlin, li07; K, BoU. EnfkueiaMmu* und Butage'
waU ht^m griechiechen Mdnrhthum, LeipstCn 1898; P.
Meyer, Die theaUsffiKJie LiU^ntur der ffriechiechen Kirch*
iffi W. Jahrhunderi iK 1SB9: A. 8ohmidtke, Das Klot-
teriand dee AthoM. ib. 100-1: B. Ptck. fij/mn* and Poelr^ 4
the Eaet«m Chweh, New York, 1908.
66
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bastem Ohuroh
Bber
SATOH, ARTHXTR WENTWORTH HAMELTOH:
Plt»l€8taQt Episcopalian; b. at Kentville, Nova
SeoUa^Dec. 10, 1849. He was educated at Har-
vird College (A.B., 1880), and was ordered dea-
«ni in 1884 and ordained priest in the following
K. After being rector of St. Andrew's, Chestnut
Mass. (1885-86), he spent two years in Europe,
i nd anoe 1888 has been head of the department
f. if En^ish literature in the Cutler School, New
' Toik City. In theology he is a Broad-churchman
^ d the Maurice and Phillips Brooks type. He has
vntten The Heart of the Creeds ; Historical ReHg-
iM in the Light of Modem Thought (New York,
1888); Acadian Legends and Lyrics (1889); The
Cktrdi of England in Nova Scotia and the Tory
(hrgy of the Revolution (1891); Tales of a Garrison
Tovii (m collaboration with C. L. Betts; 1892);
Acadian Ballads (New York, 1905); and Poems
9l Ae Christian Year (1905). He has also edited
ie?eral worics of l^e^iph literature.
EBED JESU, inyed jt'sQ: Nestorian theologian;
k m Mesopotamia about the middle of the thir-
teenth century; d.- at Nisibis, in Armenia, Nov.,
1318. He became bishop of Sinjar (60 m. w. of
Honl) about 1285, and in 1291 metropolitan of
NinbiB. His importance is principally of a iiter-
117 diaracter, since he is regarded as the last great
viiter of the Nestorians. The most important of
Ub works is the metrical " Catalogue " of Syriac
nthon, in which in four books he treats of the
writizi^ of the Old and the New Testament, of
tnndations from the Greek into Syriac, and of
KxkB originally written in Syriac, especially Nes-
twian productions. Other works of note are " The
Peail," a dogmatic work, in five parts; the Nomo-
eoHm, a collection of the canons of synods; and
Fandisus Eden, a collection of poems. Other
lorb have been lost.
The name is frequent among the Syrians, and is
pnoounced by them Abdisho or Odisho. A mar-
tyr of this name is referred to in H. Feige's Ge-
acftidUf des Mar Abhdiso (Kiel, 1889), while a
bMhop of the name, a convert to Romanism, was
present at the last session of the Council of Trent
lod 18 pictured at the entrance to the Sistine
Cbapd at Rome (cf. G. E. Khayyath, Syri orien-
tafes, p. 124, Rome, 1870). E. Nestle.
BnuooaAPBT: The '* Catalogue " wms edited by Abraham
farhrileniBB. Borne. 1053; by J. 8. ABseman. with Latin
^ tend, and oommentary, in Btbliotheoa crienkUia, iii. 1, pp.
1-382, Borne, 1728; an Eng. tranal. appears in Appendix
i of G. P. Badser'e Netiorian» and their Ritual, ii. 361-
379, London, 1852, which oontaina also a trand. of " The
Fearl.'' ii. 380 sqq.; '* The Pearl " is also in A. Mai, Sarip-
ftrm Mtemm nova coUecHo, ii. 317 sqq., 10 vols.. Borne,
182S-38, where (pp. 100 sqq.) will be found also the
Nmacanon. The poems were edited by H. Oismondi at
' Beirut, 1888 (cf. Ndldeke in ZDMO, 1889. xUii. 675, and
&i«erle, in the same, 1875, xxix. 406). CJonsiilt: W.
Wncht. A Short Hi$t. of Syriac Literature, pp. 285 sqq..
London, 1804; R. Duval, La LitUraiure eyriaque, Paris,
IMa
EBEL, «l)el, JOHAITN WILHELM: German
peacher; b. at Passenheim (75 m. 8.8.e. of KOnigs-
beig), East Pruasia, Mar. 4, 1784; d. at Hoheneck,
netr Ludwiggburg (9 m. n. of Stuttgart), WQrttem-
beig, Aug. 18, 1861. After his graduation at KOnigs-
beig, he became acquainted with Johann Heinrich
Schdnherr (q.v.), and espoused his views of relative
dualism. His pronounced evangelical views, and
eloquent advocacy of practical Christianity, were
distasteful to the rationalistic and dead orthodox
clergy of the province, who tried, from the be-
ginning of his ministerial career at Hermsdort
(1807-09), to awe him into submission, and, upon
his removal to KOnigsberg as preacher and teacher
(1810), resented his growing popularity by char-
ging him with heresy. The charge, however, was
dismissed as unfounded, while Ebel was chosen
preacher of the Old Town Church at Kdnigsberg,
the largest in the city, in 1816, and filled that high
position until his deprivation in 1842.
In 1826 a ministerial rescript, directed against
mysticism, Pietism, and separatism, was eagerly
seized by Schon, the provincial governor, an un-
christian and unprincipled man, and other oppo-
nents of Ebel and Heinrich Diestel, his brother
minister and friend, as an opportunity for the
trumped-up charge of having founded a sect which
held secret meetings and advocated tenets of peril-
ous and immoral tendency. The consistory decided
the case against the accused, and, in 1835, arbi-
trarily and illegally suspended them ab officio. On
appeal the action of the consistory was canceled,
but Ebel, though acquitted of the charge of hav-
ing founded a sect, was not reinstated, on the
alleged ground of neglect of duty. The prosecu-
tion, originating in theological hatred, took place
at a time when the judicial process in Prussia was
still private. To-day it would be impossible to
bring such a case to the cognizance of a jury.
After his deprivation, Ebel lived at Grttnefeld
(1842-48), at Meran in the Tyrol (1848-50), and at
Hoheneck (1850-61). J. I. Mombbrt.
Bibuoorapht: The most important of the works of Ebel
are: Die Weiaheit von Oben, KOnigsberg, 1823; Oedeih-
liche Ertiehung, Hamburg, 1825; EHe apoatoliadie Prtdigt
w< teitoem&M, Hamburg, 1835; Die Treue, Kdnigsberg,
1835; Veretand und Vemunft (in company with G. H. Dies-
tel), Leipeio, 1837; ZeugnUederWahrfieit (by the same), ib.
1838; Orundtaoe der ErkenrUniea der Wahr?ieit, ib. 1852;
Die Philoeophie der ?ieiligen Urkunde dee Chrielenthumt,
Stuttgart, 1854-56. For his life consult: J. I. Mombert,
Faith Victorioua, being an Account of the Life and Laboure
and of the Timet of J. Ebel, London. 1882; H. Wagener.
Ueber J. W. Ebel, Ludwigsburg. 1861. Consult also:
E. Hahnenfeld, Die religidae Beioegung eu Kdnigeberg,
Braunsberg, 1858; E. Kanits, Aufkl&rung nach A<Uen-
queUen aher den KSnigaberger (1835-4^), Religioneproteee,
Basel, 1862; Bibliotheca Sacra, vol. xzvi., 1869.
EBER. See Tablb or the Nations.
EBER, 6'ber, PAUL: German theologian and
Reformer; b. at Kitzingen (11 m. e.s.e. of Wtirz-
burg) Nov. 8, 1511; d. at Wittenberg Dec. 10, 1569.
He received his first education at home, and at-
tended the schools of Nuremberg, then entered the
University of Wittenberg on June 1, 1532, where his
teachers were Luther and Melanchthon, and in 1537
was made a member of the faculty, being appointed
regular professor four years later, first of Latin
and then of physics. His lectures comprised the
wide range of the liberal arts, although his chief
attention was devoted to Latin, history, natural sci-
ence, and even to anatomy. A versatile literary
activity was the result. With the aid of Melanch-
thon he wrote his Contexta popiUi Judaici historia
Bber
Bbionites
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
a reditu ex Babylonico exilio usque ad ultimum ex-
cidium Hierosolymw (Wittenberg, 1548;, and with
Kasper Peucer he prepared his Vocabula rei numma-
ricB . . . volucrum ct piacium appellationes (1549).
His most famous work is his Calendarium historicum
(1550), written in collaboration with Melanchthon
and containing a reformed calendar of the saints
with a historical calendar.
Eber's firm attitude during the Schmalkald War
of 1546-47 won him the admiration of his colleagues,
and on June 21, 1557, he succeeded Johann
Forster as professor of the Old Testament and
preacher at the Schlosskirche. He accompanied
Melanchthon to the Colloquy of Worms and acted
as secretary, but returned from Worms at Christmas,
and succeeded Bugenhagen as municipal preacher
and general superintendent of the electoral circuit,
Sept. 4, 1558. When Melanchthon died in 1560, his
course of lectures was completed by Eber, who, as
professor of the Old Testament, was invited by the
Elector August to revise the Vulgate of the Old Tes-
tament for the Biblia Germanico-Latina (1565). He
was obliged, however, to complete his work in a year
and a half, and he was little pleased with his results.
As a preacher he is best known by two volumes
published after his death by his pupils, the Evan-
geliorum daminicalium explicatio (ed. J. Cellarius,
Frankfort, 1576) and the Katechismuspredigten
(ed. T. Feurelius, Nuremberg, 1577). His most
bitter struggles were connected with the controver-
sies on the nature of the Eucharist. Like Melanch-
thon, he rejected the ubiquitarianism of Brenz, and
frequently approximated the Calvinistic \'iew.
Peucer later said in reproach of him that he had
been convinced of the truth of the Swiss doctrine
as early as 1561, but had suddenly become an
opponent of the crypto-Calvinists of Wittenberg
after the Dresden conference of Mar. 25, 1561. It
is indisputable that on that occasion he advocated
a confession which harked back to the Wittenberg
Concordia, and henceforth taught a modified Lu-
theranism which he regarded as the true interpre-
tation of the Augsburg Confession, defending his
views in his Vom heiligen Sakrament des Leibs und
BluU unsers Herm Jesu Christi (Wittenberg, 1562),
although his course contented neither the Lutherans
nor the Reformed. Eber is also famous as an au-
thor of hymns, of which the best-known are Herr
Jesu Christ, wahrW Mensch und Gott (" Lord Jesus
Christ, true Man and God ") and Wenn wir in
hochsten Ndthen sein ('* WTien in the hour of utmost
need "). (G. K\werau.)
Biblioorapht: Sources of value for a life are in CR, iii.-
ix., and in J. Voigt, Briefwechitl der berilhmtesUn OeUhr-
ten mit Herzog Albrtcht, pp. 234 aqq., Konigsberg, 1841.
Consult also: C. H. Sixt. Dr. Paul Eber. Heidelberg,
1843; idem, Paul Eber. Ein Stack WxUenberger Lebent,
Ansbach, 1857; T. Pressel. in Leben und auagexcAhUe
Schriften der Voter . . . der lutherischen Kirche, vol.
viii.. Elberfeld. 1862, G. Buchwald. Paul Eber, Leipsio,
1897: J. W. Richard, PhUip Melanchthon. passim. New
York, 1898; Julian, Hymnclogy, 318. 9.
EBERHARD, 6'ber-hard, OF BETHUWE: French
grammarian and theologian; b. at B^thune (20
m. s.w. of Lille); flourished between 1100 and
1200. Of his life almost nothing is known, except
that he was the author of two important works.
The first of these is his Grftcitmut de figuris d «to
partibus orationis, a poem of more than 2,000 veim,
treating of rhetoric, prosody, grammar, and syntax,
the whole without any logical arrangement. It i
first edited by J. H. Metulinus (Paris, 14S7). Ai
a theologian Eberhard distinguished himself bj
his Liber antiharesis, in which he assailed theOiU^
ari, then numerous in Flanders. This work is im-
portant as a source for the teachings of this sect
It was first edited by J. Gretser in his Trias serif-
torum contra Waldenses (Ingolstadt, 1614), ud
contains two appendices, one a catalogue of oUsr
heresies, drawn from the Origines of Isidore of
Seville, and the other a polemic against the Jein.
A number of unimportant treatises, including the
LabarintuSf a poem on poetry, rhetoric, and puor
mar, are erroneously ascribed to this Eberhard.
(C. ScHiiiDrt.)
Bibuographt: Sources of information are indicated io
U. Chevalier, Ripertoire det mntrces hiatoriqum du iMym
dge, Paris, 1883. Consult J. A. Fabricius. BiVMims
Latina, ii. 218, Hamburg, 1734; Histoin lUUrain d$ Is
France, xvii. 129.
EBERLIN, JOHANN: One of the most impor-
tant popular writers of the time of the Refonnation;
b. at Giinzburg (30 m. w.n.w. of Augsburg), Bavaria,
c. 1465; d. at Wertheim (20 m. w. of Waraburg),
Baden, c. 15.30. His youth is obscure. He wis
already priest of the diocese of Augsburg when he
was matriculated at Basel in 1489. Here he became
master of arts, and later entered the monastery of
the Franciscans at Heilbronn. In the second decade
of the sixteenth century he entered the monasteiy
of Tubingen, developing a remarkable activity as
a preacher in the town and its neighborhood, where
he became involved in disputes with the theologians
of the University of Tubingen. Subsequently he
went to IHm and in 1520 seems to have been in the
monastery of the Franciscans at Freiburg in the
Brcisgau where he became acquainted with Luther's
works, which he studied with great zeal. The
result of his studies showed itself in his Lent-ser-
mons, preached in Ilm after his return to that city,
as a consequence of which he was persecuted and
compelled to leave (1521). At this time he con-
ceived the plan of writing a cycle of popular works
under the title FUnfzehn Bundesgenossen, in which
fifteen prominent people should give utterance to
the wrongs of the nation, one after the other ex-
pressing his opinion in a special treatise. The work
appeared at Basel, 1521, and shows the influence of
Luther. Eberlin's propositions of reform were
most radical; his main attacks were directed against
monastic affairs, but he touches almost every ques-
tion of ecclesiastical, religious and social life. In
the later Bundesgenossen Eberlin was influenced
by the radical tendencies of Carlstadt, and his ideas
undoubtedly contributed to the revolutionary tend-
encies of the ' lower classes which found expression
in the Peasants' War. Eberlin shows himself in
this work a popular writer of the first rank, original
and striking in his way of treating matters in popu-
lar and blunt language. Friend and foe testify to
the great sensation caused by thb collection of
treatises. In the mean time Eberlin had gone north.
After a short stay at Leipsic he went to Wittenberg
07
REUGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bber
Bbionitea
wbere like many older men he became a student at
the University (1522). Under the immediate in-
ihieDoe of Luther and Melanchthon his radicalism
tobered down, as appears from his treatise Vom
MvbratuJi christlicher FreihtU (1522) and from
hter wiitingB in which he recalled not a few of his
fonner demands. In 1523 he visited the South
and preached at Basel, Rheinfelden, Rottenburg-
flhthe-Neckar and Ulm, returning before the close
rf tbe year to Wittenberg. In the spring of 1524
be vent to Erfurt where he received a position as
pieacfaer, but lost it in the following year in the
distiirbanoes caused by the Peasants' War. Af-
terward he found a permanent position as first
pittcher of Coimt George II. of Werthcim, which he
held until his death. Besides the works mentioned
Ebeiiin wrote a famous tract entitled Mich vmndert,
im kein Geld im Lande ist in which he tried to
ihow the causes of impoverishment and advocated
liQDat and dignified labor, and Wie sick ein Diener
Gotftt Worts in all aeinem Thun halten soil . . .
(1525), a kind of pastoral theology highly esteemed
by August Hermann Francke. (T. Kolde.)
Bhuoqbapht: Selected writings of Eberlln, ed. L. Endera.
in in Naidrueke deutaekgr LiienUunoerke, nos. 139-141.
HiOe, 1896. Consult: B. Riggenbach, J. Eberlin . . . und
am Rffanmprofframm^ Tflbingen, 1874 (cf. W. Schum,] in
QQA, 1875. pp. 801-^802): M. Radlkofer. J. Eberlin . . .
nd. . . Hana Jacob Wdu, N6rdlingen. 1887.
EBERSDORF BIBLE. See Bibles, Annotated,
AM) Bible Summaiues, I., § 3.
EBIOHITES: The name applied first to Christians
io general, then to Jewish Christians, and finally
to heretical Jewish Christians. To Jewish Chris-
tiioB this name was given because they were gen-
etslly poor (Hebr. ebtpn, ebi^onim); and this poverty,
espeeially characteristic of the Christians of Jerusa-
leo evoked from the pagan world for the whole
wt the contemptuous appellation "the poor" (cf.
Minudus Felix, Odawus, xxxvi). Subsequently
its application was limited to Jewish
Early Christians (Origen, Contra Celsum^ ii. 1 ) .
I^ of the When a portion of the Jewish Church
Rune. became separate and heretical, the
designation marked this division ex-
dusively. In the foiurth century Epiphanius,
Joome and Theodoret used it of a separate party
within the Jewish Church distinct from the Naza-
Koes. Many of the fathers derived the term from
supposed founder of the sect called Ebion (Hip-
polytus, Pkilosoj^ummena, vii. 34; TertuUian, Hcer.,
ttnii.; De came Christi, xiv.; Epiphanius, Hcer.,
&L 1), said to have lived at Fella after the de-
itniction of Jerusalem.
The sources for the history of Ebionism, or of
Jewish CSiristianity, are very meager. Neither the
New Testament nor the extracanonical literature
bow of any writings coming directly from them.
The Dottoes in the early fathers are confused;
^ hi later fathers like Epiphanius and Jerome
Uoog to too late a time to justify inferences as to
n earlier existesoe. Several of the fathers give
ft pieUue of the Jewish Christians of their times
V it vas presented to them and according to their
nhjeeUve interests.
Hk doctrinal position in Jewish Christianity was
not such as to produce different sects. A stronger
contrast existed only between ordinary Jewish Chris-
tianity and syncretistic Gnostic Christianity, while
the former divides into a milder and a stricter party.
In the New Testament three groups
Three are apparent. The heretics of the
Groups Epistle to the Colossians prefigure
Mentioned Gnostic Jewish Christians; the Chris-
or Implied, tians called Ebionites by Epiphanius
appear in the New Testament as
those who observed the Mosaic law, but did not
make it binding upon Gentile Christians. Besides
these there were the Pharisaic Jewish Christians,
who insisted upon the observance of the Mosaic
law and of circumcision by all, and rejected Paul as
a false apostle. Both the latter parties were known
to Justin {Trypho, xlvii.). Between the time of
Justin and Irenieus the complete separation of
Jewish Christianity must have been consummated.
Irenseus described the Ebionites as Jewish Christians
who insisted upon the observance of the whole
Jewish law, rejected Paul as a heretic and used only
the Gospel of Matthew. Their teaching agreed
with that of Cerinthus and Carpocrates, denying the
virgin-birth, and regarding Jesus as a mere man.
While the importance of observance of the Jewish
law was diminishing, the Christological question
became crucial. To regard Christ as mere man was
considered specifically Ebionitic. Origen {Contra
Celsum, V. 61) distinguished between
Christol- two branches of Ebionites, those who
ogy the denied and those who accepted the
Distin- miraculous birth, but says of both
guiahing that they rejected the epistles of Paul
Doctrine. {Contra CeUum, i. 65). Those two
groups of Ebionites dwelling in the
neighborhood of the Dead Sea had little influence
upon the nascent Catholic Church. The case was
different with the third group, the syncretistic Gnos-
tic Jewish Christians, whom alone Epiphanius calls
Ebionites, though he knew other parties related to
them. Those Ebionites represented a syncretistic
Judaism which combined theosophic speculation
with ascetic tendencies. Heathenish elements de-
rived from Asiatic religions were combined with
Jewish monotheism; the Old Testament became
an object of criticism and parts were eliminated,
angelic powers played a great part. That type of
Judaism, in absorbing Christian elements, became
a syncretistic Jewish Christianity. Jesus was only
a man upon whom descended the Holy Spirit in
the form of a dove at his baptism, whereby he
became a prophet. Circumcision and daily ablu-
tions were regarded important; sacrifices were re-
jected ; and the Old Testament was acknowledged
only in part. Christianity was a purified Mosaism ;
Paul was opposed and rejected. See Elke&a.ites.
(G. UHLHORNf.)
Biblioorapht: The souroes are indicated in the text in the
writings of Justin Martyr. Hippolytus, Tertullian, Epi-
phanius, Hegesippus, and Origen. Collections of souroes
more or less compfete and of later literature are made in
A. Schliemann. Die Clementinen, pp. 362-522, Hambu)rg,
1844; A. Ritschl. Die Entatehung der aU-katholiechen
Kirche, pp. 152 sqq., Bonn, 1857; A. Hilgenfeld, Novum
Teetamentum extra canonem, Leipsic, 1866. Consult:
J. B. Lightfoot, Galatian*, Dissertation iii., London,
1890; G. Uhlhorn, Die HomUien und RecogniHonen dee
Bbner
Bbxmrd
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
68
Clemms Ritmanut^ pp. 3^ sqq., G^ttingen, 1854; D.
Chwolsohn, Diie S*ahier und tier Baabiam^tiMt 2 voh., Ei.
Peienibiirg, lSd6; A. Hilfieafeld, Juden^um und Jud€n-
chri4tenthum. Leipdo. lS80i T. Zolm. KttJwn, 1L iL 624
miq.t i^-^ 1§01; HArnAr^k, LiUeraha; 1, i. 625 nqq-; Kean-
der. C&riflian CAurcA. L 344-334 et panlmj Bebufl*
C/trwtion CfcurcA, ii. 4:Ei-433; t>€B, ii 24-28,
EBNERy gb'ner, CHRISTIHA: Priore^ of En-
gelt haJ, near Nuremberg; b. at Nurembei^ Mar,
28, 1277; tl. at Engetthal Dec 27, 1356. She waa
the daughter of a Nuremberg pairieiaii. In 12S'D
Bhe entered the convent of Engelthal, whenee
the fame of her holinesa sprDad as early as 1297;
in 1345 she became prioresB. She lived for many
years an aicettc life and had visions and inner
experienoea which have been preserved in her own
records and those of her confessor, the Dominican
Conrad von Fueiaen. In her biographies of deceased
sisters she introduces a circle of God -seeking women
who had been filled with the spirit of mysticiam.
Christina 's spiritual memoirB relate the events
of the time and thus offer material useful for the
historian. She ako wrote on earthquakes and the
Black Death {VMS). The last days of her life were
enlivened by a visit of Henry of Nordlingen (135 1 )»
whose congenial thought and feeling confirmed her
inner life. Her memoirs are written in noble and
at times poetied language and gbow a woman
deeply in earnest and of fine taste and education.
(Philipp Steauch.)
BlBtiooftAFHT: G. W. K. Lochaer^ Leben ufvi OeMchithtv
dtr Cktiatina Ebnerin, Ntirttmb«re, 1S72; K. Schrfkifir,
Der NonfiB von EntfwUhat BUdUein Von d^ Genadtn
Ueberitutt. Ttlbing^D, 1871; R. A. VAi^h&d. Horn with
the M unties, i. 223-224. Sth ed., London [1905]*
EBUER, MARGAAETA: Fourteenth century
mystic; b. at Donauwdrth (25 m. n. of Augsburg)
c. 1291; d. at the convent of Maria Medingen near
DiUingen (23 m, n.w. of Augsburg) June 20^ 135L
She k not related to Christina Ebner, but descended
from a patrician family at Donauwtirth and en-
tered the monastery of Dominican nuns at Maria
Medifigen. On account of a lingering disease she
retired from 1312 to 1316 more and more into
herself and soon experienced supposed proofs of
divine grace » but her life received m decisive tend-
ency only in 1332 by her intercourse with Heniy
of Ndrdlingen (q*v.)* In her diaries she ha£ re-
lated the Btory of her eufferijigs and visions, and
of her spiritual intercourse with Henry of N6rd-
lingen. Her style lacks variety and a liigher
flight of thought. Like Christina, she touches
biatorieai events of the time. She was highly re-
spected, not only in Medingen, but men like Tauler
sought her acquaintance and entered into corre-
spondence wi th her. ( Ph ili pp Stra uch . )
BlBt-loPBAPSr: K Btraucb, MafgarBta Ebntr und Hein^
rich von NOrdlingtn, TQbingca, 1882; W. Pr««er, Qe-
BtkichU der deuUehen Myatik, ij. 247-251, 26^274,
277-306. Leipsio, ISSl; R. A. Vaughim, Hour* wi^ eM
MuHkt, i. 216. 8tb ed., Landoa [1905].
EBO (EBBO): Arehbishop of Reims and bishop
of Hildesheim; b. on a Frankish crown estate east
of the Rhine toward the end of the eighth century;
d. at Hildesheim Mar. 20, 851. His father was a
serf, but he was educated in Charlemagne's court
Dchool and became the youthful friend of the sub-
tiequent Emperor Louisj who elevated him in 816 to
the archbishopric of Eeunji. In S23 he led a gre»
Frankish mission to Ilenmarkp and was appoiate<l
by the Pope apoistolic legate in the NortL From
SleKwi^^k, where he first gained a firm footing, ht
penetrated heattiendom, liberated many Chrikiin
captives from slavejy, founded a cloister in Hoi-
Btein, and thus paved the way for Denmark'i
transition to Christianity. In the partiiuiBhipg
and contentions about the throne which subee-
quently disordered the Empire, he took sides with
the opponents of the Emperor Louja, interested
himself in the latter's humiliation, and was le-
warrled therefor by Lot hair with the opulent ab-
bey of St. Vedast in Arras. When Louis proved
victorious, Ebo was dispoaaicoocd of all his offices
and honors at the Sjmod of Diedenbofen in S3^
and was kept under guard as prisoner of state in
the abbey of Fulda, Only after Louis' death dkl
he regain his freedom and return to Reims. Sood
after, being banished again by Charles the Bsld,
he fle<l to Italy, till Louis the Ocrman recalled
him and rewarded him with the bishopric of Hjlde»-
heim. Here he still wrought for a short time in
peace. Two small writings are attributed to Ebo:
Indiculum de minMri^ Rememi* ecc/en>, and
Apologia archiepiscopi Remensis cum ejusdem ad
genies $ep(enfrionales Itgatione (Bouquet, iEecuetZ,
vi. 254 sqq., vii. 277 sqq.)- He has been sug-
gested as the po?5sible autlior or instigator of the
pBCudo-Isidorian decrctab (q-v.). A„ Welrker.
BmLioaHAFHY: Flodoard. HUt. Remennt «cfMt«, li. 11^
20. ed. G. Wftitii, in MQH, Script, adii ClBSl), 467 tqq.;
A. Siuuton, Jahrbilteher de* fr^nkiaehm Bfit^^ vttl i.,
Lcipaic^ 1874; G. Dehio, O^tekichle de§ Ertbi*ium* Mam-
hurg-Bremtn^ Berlin, 1S77; H. S<?1ir£>ra, Hinkmar. Frei-
burg. 18S4i E* Bammhr, G^chichit dt* (M^OfdbHhm
HflfAj, L«ipfti^ 1887; HAiwk, KD, it pManci; KL, It.
92-fi4,
EBRARD OF BETHTTNE. See Eberrabd,
EBRARD, e^brart, JOHAHU HEmRICH AUGUST.
Student Life and Early Lffcturos (A 1 )*
Professor jkt Zurich nnd ErliLGifen (f 2),
Councilor of the Qtnsiatoiy it 3).
The ftjew Ciitechi«m and Hytnn-book (| 4),
Victory of Ebrarti'fl Opponenta (i &),
His Eeturri to Erlaneeii (j 0).
Elstitimte of his Work (| 7).
This Reformed theologiau was bom at Erlan-
gen Jan. 18, 1818; d. there July 23, 1888. His
father came of a family of French refugees and was
preacher of the French Reformed Church in Er-
langen. At an early age August revealed extraor-
dinary endowments and vivacity of
I, Student mind. He attended the gymnasium
Life and of hb Dative city, and began the study
Early of theology at the university in 18.35
Lectures, under Olshauaen, Hdfling, Krafft,
Hofmann and Harless. His great
mental vivacity induced liim to study almost all
branches of human science and artj not, however,
neglecting the plt^surefl and attractions of the
student life. From 183S to 1839 he studied at
Berlin, where he was especially attracted by the
philo43opher StefTens. He abo heard Heng^ten-
berg, Neander, Twesten, 5Iarheineke, Strauss,
Ritter, Trendelenburg and others. After his ex-
amination in 1839 he accepted a position as pri-
59
REUGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bbn«r
Bbrftrd
Tite tutor and subsequently established himself
JD the philosophical faculty at Erlangen, lecturing
in 1842 on the relation of philosophy to theology,
h the same year he went over to the theological
Realty and lectured on the Old and the New Tes-
timent and on the Reformation in Switzerland.
At the same time he wrote a comprehensive work
OD the criticism of the history of the Gospels
(Fhnkfort, 1842; Eng. transl. from the 2d ed.,
The Gotpd History, Edinbuigh, 1863) which made
hjB Dame famous and put him in the front rank
of opponents of D. F. Strauss. In 1844 he ac-
cepted a call to the University of
xPrafanor Zurich where he defended positive
ft Zurich and Biblical Christianity against the
and radicalism of Strauss, and foimded a
Itrfamgen. weekly paper for that purpose, Die
Zukunft der Kirche, which, however,
fit discontinued in 1847. His lectures were sue-
eenful, but his relations with his radical colleagues
lod the educational authorities became so strained
that he returned to Erlangen in 1847 after an inde-
pendent chair for Reformed theology had been
otablished. His native soil seemed to develop
hk msny-fiided powers into full maturity. He de-
voted himself to his lectures, attracting large cir-
cles of students, and treating chiefly
3. Coondl- of dogmatics, but also of the Old and
or of the the New Testament and practical the-
Coniitoiy. ology. He founded the Re/ormierte
Kirchemeihmg and took an active
part m all movements of the ecclesiastical and
political life, in home missions and charitable work.
Fran this stimulating work he was suddenly called
away by an appointment as councilor of the con-
8isto7 and chief preacher in Speyer (1853).
Ebrard considered it now his task to restore for
the Church of the Palatinate the old Presbyterian
government, which had been overthrown in 1848
"by a democratic subversion and by an ecclesias-
tieai ochlocracy," and to give this Church a cate-
chism and hynm-book in accordance with its faith.
T^ question of the catechism was brought up at
the general synod of 1853, and Ebrard succeeded
in replacing the old catechism of 1818
4' The Hew by a compilation of the Heidelberg
Cttechiam catechism and the smaller catechism
iodHymn- of Luther and in establishing the
book. Augustana variata of 1540 as the con-
fession of the Church in the Palat-
^'^ The constitution of the Church was also
^^Kmtd at the synod. The aristocratic consti-
^n of 1818 was restored, but it was conceded
^ the liberals that the number of the secular mem-
1^ of the diocesan synods should be made nearly
equal to the number of pastors. The introduction
^ a new hymn-book, however, was much more
<lifficult to effect. The opposition in the Church
{"'ooeeded chiefly from the old rationalists. The
P^, who were filled with the liberal ideas of
1^ connected the introduction of the new or-
tlwdox hymn-book with hierarchism, but the gen-
^ synod of 1857 took the part of the consistory
^ decided that the book should be accepted.
The presbyteries, however, were not forced to ac-
ttpt it until another synod, to be held in 1861,
should fix a definite time at which the introduc-
tion should be obligatory. Most of the congre-
gations accepted the new hynm-book and peace
might have ensued if the consistory had not com-
mitted the serious mistake of ordering the intro-
duction of the book into all schools.
Ih this the liberal opposition found opportimity
to incite the people against the supposed violence
to conscience. Meetings were held and petitions
were sent to the government, the ministry and
the king, but the king did not think as yet of a
retreat, considering the resolutions of
5. ^Hctory the general synods and consistories as
of Ebrard's binding. The final victory of the
Opponents, opposition was achieved by the legal
expositions of Umbscheiden, a demo-
cratic jurist, in his treatise KirchengeseU und Kir-
chengeioalt in der bayerischen Pfalz (Munich, 1860).
He showed that the mode of election instituted at
the general synod of 1857 was illegal, that the gov-
ernment of the State had no power to sanction a
changed constitution, and that therefore the demo-
cratic order of 1848 was still in force. Thereupon
the ministry retreated and King Idax issued a re-
script in 1861 ordering the consistory to reestab-
lish at the coming general synod the democratic
order of election with an equal representation of
the ecclesiastical and secular elements and the pres-
byteries and to permit the introduction of the new
hymn-book only where the majority of the con-
gregation gave consent.
Ebrard remained true to his convictions, and
thus had to resign his position in 1861. He was
forty-three years old and had spent
6. His Re- the best part of his life in a vain
turn to cause. He returned to Erlangen and
Erlangen. resumed his lectures, in 1862 in the
presbyterial hall of the French Re-
formed congregation and after 1863 at the univer-
sity, in his activity manifesting the spirit of his
former years and retaining his vivacity, sociability,
and many-sidedness until the end of his life. In
theology he devoted himself to historical studies
and somewhat later gathered material for an ex-
tensive work on Apologetics (2 parts, GUtersloh,
1874-75; Eng. transl., 3 vols., Edinburgh, 188^
1887). In 1875 he undertook the French Re-
formed pastorate. From 1876 to 1886 he was
also president of the moderamen of the Reformed
synod, continuing all the while his lectures and
literary work. Ebrard's scientific labor was de-
voted first to the defense of the fun-
7. Estimate damental facts of history and next
of his to the eternal truths of Christianity.
Work. The mastery of almost all sciences
revealed in his Apologetik is aston-
ishing. His convictions centered in the Reformed
Church, but he was not so narrow-minded as to
deny the importance of Evangelical Christianity
in general. His theology and devotional life may
be characterized as a happy mean between ortho-
doxy and Pietism. His study of history saved
him from a superficial radicalism and made him
emphasize the peculiarities of the Reformed
Church, especially in its organization and wor-
ship. In spite of his marked industry and the
Bcohellensifl, Abraham.
Sooleaiastes
THE NEW^ SCHAFF-HERZOG
60
fertility of his thought and writings, Ebrard made
little impress upon the study of theology. While
his many-sided activity had no creative effect in
any individual sphere, the beneficent influences
wldch proceeded from his engaging personality are
immeasurable.
His works not already mentioned include Das
Dogma vom heiligen AbendmatU und seiner Ge-
schichU (2 vols., Frankfort, 1845-46); Christliche
Dogmaiik (2 vols., Kdnigsberg, 1851); VorUsungen
uber praktische Theologie (1854); Das Buck Hiob
als poetisches Kunstwerk Ubersetzt und erkldrt
(Landau, 1858); Handbitch der chrisUichen Kir-
then- und Dogmengeschichte (4 vols., Erlangen,
1865-66); Die iroschoUische Missionskirche des
sechsten, siebenten^ und achten Jahrhunderts (Gii-
tersloh, 1873); Bonifatius (1882). He edited and
completed Olshausen's commentary by writing on
the Epistle to the Hebrews, the Apocalypse, and
the Epistles of John, published many sermons,
and, under various pseudonyms, issued a long series
of Christian belletristic productions.
(E. F. Karl MOller.)
Bibliography: The first part of his autobiography, Lebens-
fUhrunifen^ in jungen JcJiren, was published at Gilteraloh,
1S88: the rest of it, in MS., remains unprinted. Consult:
P. SchafT, Qermany, Its Univer§itie9, Theology, and Re-
ligion, pp. 389-397, New York. 1857; G. A. Scartaisini.
in Beilage tur AUgemeinen Kirchemeitung, no. 219-220,
1888.
ECCHELLENSIS, ABRAHAM. See Abraham
ECCHELLENSIS.
ECCLESIASTES.
TheContente (5 1).
Who is the " Preacher "7 (5 2).
The Date (| 3).
Egypt the Place of Composition (§ 4).
The Author's Viewpoint (| 6).
Ekjclesiastes (Heb. Koheleth) is the title of the
book wliich in the English Bible stands between
Proverbs and the Song of Songs. A prologue, i.
2-11, and an epilogue, xii. 9-14, enclose the body
of the book, and in both Koheleth *' The Preacher '*
is spoken of in the third person. The prologue
gives the theme of the composition: All is vanity;
man has no abiding profit from his toil; there is
nothing new under the sun. The key-note is
struck in i. 2, ** all is vanity," and the book proper
ends with the same note (xii. 8). In
I. The i. 12 the Preacher, in the first person.
Contents, begins his proof of the fruitlessness of
all man's striving, and presents in the
first section, i. 12-ii. 23, the results of his collected
experience as king in Jerusalem. Striving after
wisdom, enjoyment, possessions, contented activ-
ity, he found unsatisfying, and the results insecure.
This, however, is not the consequence of chance,
but is the ordering of God which stands fast (ii.
24-iii. 22). Fear of God and moderation are the
duties of man. The next section, iv.-vi., contains
a series of observations and statements, the result
of experience, which supplement and emphasize
what precedes. The best rule of living is, accord-
ing to the next division, vii. 1-ix. 10, to get out
of life the most enjojrment possible. For although
wisdom is best, yet the riddle of life is that re-
wards are proportionate neither to wisdom nor
virtue. The last section, ix. 11 -xii. 8, commends
a prudential morality and grasping of present op-
portunities. The epilogue adds some words on
the Preacher's wisdom, on wisdom-literature in
general, and the conclusion: Fear God and keep
his commandments.
Who is the person whose " I " appears so often
in the book? In i. 2, vii. 27, and xiL 8 he is called
Koheleth ; in i. 12 he gives himself this name and
identifies himself with a wise, rich, brilliant king
over Israel in Jerusalem who, according to the
conception of the author, can be no other than
Solomon. Of the many meanings of the word Kohe-
leth proposed only two call for serious cons^ra-
tion: (1) The word is a participial form with fem-
inine ending but masculine meaning such as is
found in late Hebrew (Pochereth, Ezra ii. 57;
Sophereth, Neh. vii. 57), taken to mean " he who
calls the assembly together'' (and
2. Who harangues). (2) The feminine sense
is the of the ending is retained and some
"Preacher" ? personified being (expressed in Greek
as Hs ekkUsiazousa, " she who har-
angues ") is represented as speaking. This can
be no other than Hokhmaf " Wisdom," but a
specialized wisdom which deals with practicalities,
with the art of living (cf. Prov. i. 21, viiL 1-3,
ix. 3; Is. xl. 9). Herself timeless, in the days of
Solomon (whose person was more or less in the
writer's eye) she had begun to make observations,
which she had continued through the centuries
only to find ceaseless repetition characterizing the
issue of events up to the time of the writing of the
Book.
All data, — ^the historical references, the linguis-
tic character, marking it as at the transition from
the use of Hebrew to that of MLshnaic Aramaic,
and the general tone of the work — compel the
placing of the book at the end of the period when
Hebrew was used. To secure a more exact dating
than this is difficult. The view of Graetz that the
book belongs to the time of Herod the
3. The Great involves a series of impossibil-
Date. ities and contradictions. Nor is the
assignment by Jewish tradition to the
** Men of Hezekiah " or to Solomon himself any
more defensible. A more definite datum seems
to be furnished in the fact that the Wisdom of
Solomon stands to this book in a relation of hos-
tility (cf. Wisd. of Sol. ii. 1-5, iii. 2-3 with Eccles.
ix. 2, 5, 10, viii. 8, i. 1 1, etc., and Wisd. of Sol. ii. 6-9
with Eccles. ix. 7-9, iii. 22, v. 17). If the Wisdom
of Solomon can be placed about 100 B.C., that
furnishes the date than which IJ^oheleth can not
be later. Whether the book of Sirach, the date
of which does not go back of 200 B.C., implies the
prior existence of Ecclesiastes can not with cer-
tainty be decided. The parallels between the two
do not prove the dependence of Sirach, though it
does seem possible that ipi Ecchis. xi. 11, xiv. 18,
xxi. 12 the influence of Ecclep.. i. 2 can be dis-
cerned; similarly in the parallels Eccles. Lx. 11 and
Ecclus. xi. 12-13, the latter seems the younger,
^oheleth gives no sign that its author had shared
in the awakening of patriotism and zeal for the
national religion which the Maccabean rising in-
spired. The atmosphere of the book is that of the
61
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Boohellenais, Abraham
Boolaaiaatea
Wisdom literature, cosmopolitan rather than na-
tioo&L The limits of date are 430-200 b.c. The
age of Nehemiah exhibits many characteristics
whkh fit the historic situation presented by J^o-
heleth. On the other hand the philosophy of the
book shows Greek influence in its terminology and
its agreement with Stoic and Epicurean thought.
In ii 11, V. 18 the word yaphe occurs in the exact
sense of the philosophic kahn ; in iii. 12 " to do
good " has the meaning of the Greek eu prattein ;
and these data involve a time when the Greek fer
ment had had time to work. On the other hand,
iht niceties and fine distinctions of the two schools
d thought find no echo, only the conunonplaces
aod superficialities of the Greek are reproduced.
Aot even the allegory in chap. xii. makes against
this conclusion, since the thought is clearly con-
vey^ in an Egyptian piece of poetry found in the
tomb of Nefer-hotep {Records of the Past, vi. 129,
cf, the " Festal Dirge," idem, iv. 117-118).
Tliis, as well as many other items, speaks for
tbe writing of the book in Egypt. For its compo-
sition in Jerusalem only one passage speaks (v. 1).
Tbe frequent mention (v. 8, viii. 2-5, x. 4-7, 16-
20> of the nearness of the king's house suits Egypt,
siri<% m the times in which the book falls no king
resided in Jerusalem. Residence near the sea is
implied in xi. 1, reminding one of
^ Egypt Alexandria, at the time the royal city,
^lie Plice and the seat of a great Jewish settle-
<af Com- ment. The expression " king in Je-
position. rusalem ** is peculiar to this book
in the Old Testament; thoroughly
E^^Tptian is the designation of the grave as the
everlasting house " (xii. 5 " long home "). The
^Mue and the place are indicated as that of the
^^^olemies and their court, and before the oppres-
sion of the Jews under Ptolemy IV. Philopator;
<^r between 320 and 217 b.c, and at Alexandria
Cc*. viii. 2, 8, with Josephus, An/., XII. i. 1). The
^^^>Jdiie88 with which the author sets forth the
'^orthlessness of wealth as an end for which to
^^^ve, the persistence with which he endures a
*^^«le of life which he would not choose and wishes
^^ foi^t, the intensity with which he sets forth
^^ humiliation to man from his zeal for knowl-
^^ in the face of the ordering and limitations of
*^te, all speak for such a setting.
. It is entirely comprehensible from these expres-
J^ons how the newer exegesis comes to call the
"^k " Skepticism's Song of Songs." But such a
^Qception is a mistaken one. Beneath the ques-
tbning of the book lie strong religious convictions,
the assurance that God Almighty
5- The rules the world. He is the creator
A.uthor's (vii. 29, xii. 1), he is lord of life and
^wpoint the bestower of life on man (viii. 8,
15), he has allotted to man the quest
M^ its toil (i. 13, iii. 10, 18, viii. 17), so that entire
existence, vanity as it is, must be accepted as of
^'s ordering (ii. 26), though in the labor and
^ quest of life he grants joy to man (ii. 24, v. 18,
^ 18). How tragic it is that though the con-
ation of eternity is in man's heart (iii. 11), yet
its depths he can not fathom (vii. 23-24, viii. 17-
^ 1)! The purpose of God was to plant in the
heart of man the fear of God (iii. 14, vii. 18), for
God is the judge of compliance with the laws he
has established (iii. 17, viii. 6-8). Things eth-
ically good in the world are life (ix. 4-5), wisdom,
companionship (iv. 7-12), success, and enjo3rment
of labor and its results (ii. 24, iii. 1-2, 22, ix. 7-8).
Since issues are uncertain, the more urgent is the
duty of constant striving (ix. 10, xi. 1-6). So
that the sum to which a fading Judaism reduced
the wealth of the prophetical faith is the certainty
of one eternal God, creator and ruler of the world,
and the certainty of his judgment. The method
of reaching this conclusion is to put thesis and
antithesis together so that the mean stands out
from the very juxtaposition (iv. 4-6, v. 7-8, vii.
16-18). Yet this method of composition gave
rise to the earlier suppositions that this juxtapo-
sition of contradictory theses pointed to a discus-
sion between two persons, or to an anthology, or
to a mistake of the binder (or copyist). Similariy,
the most opposite views of the teaching of the
book have been held — ^that it involves the conse-
quences of a sheer yet somewhat spiritual skepti-
cism, and that it is a book of consolation.
It is not surprising therefore that its position in
the canon should have been questioned, for ex-
ample, in the debate in the first century between
the schools of Hillel and Gamaliel. The integrity
of the book is rightly questioned so far as the
epilogue is concerned. But the remark of Graetz
that xii. 1 1 sqq. refer not to this book but to the
entire third division of the canon, and its corollary,
that Ecclesiastes stood at the end of the Old Tes-
tament, are both in error. Indeed Graetz thinks
that the entire epilogue was affixed by the Synod
at Jabneh, c. 90 a.d., a conclusion demonstrably
wrong. The book was read by the Jews at the
Feast of Booths. (P. Kleinert.)
Biblioorapht: For litorature on Ecolefliastes oonsult: A.
Palm, Die QoheUUIAUratur, Mannheim. 1886. and the
work of C. H. H. Wright, below. On the text. 8. Euringer.
Der McMorahtext dea KoheUth, Leipsic. 1800. English
tran.«<lationa are foimd in most of the oommentaries;
special and noteworthy are those by [N. Higgins], Lon-
don, 1778, and P. Haupt, ib. 1905. both metrical. The
Commentaries are very numerous, the best are: J. H.
van der Palm, Leyden, 1784; F. Hitiig, Leipsic, 1847;
E. W. Hengstenberg. Berlin. 1859. Eng. transl., Edin-
burgh, 18G9: C. Bridges, London, 1860; C. D. Ginsburg,
ib. 1861 (noteworthy); M. Stuart, Andover, 1862 (philo-
logical); L. Young. Philadelphia, 1866; J. N. Coleman,
Edinburgh, 1867; H. Graeta. Leipsic, 1871; T. P. Dale.
London. 1873; W. H. B. Proby, ib. 1874; T. H. Leale.
ib. 1877 (homiletical);' E. H. Plumptre, Cambridge, 1881;
E. Renan, Paris, 1882; G. G. Bradley, Oxford, 1885, new
ed., 1898; T. C. Finlayson, Meditationa and Maxim* of
KoheUth, London, 1887; W. Volck, Munich, 1889; M. J.
Boileau, Paris, 1892; J. Strong, New York, 1893; C.
Siegfried, Gdttingen, 1898; G. Wildeboer, Ttlbingen,
1898; A. W. Streane, London, 1899; A. von Scholi.
Leipsic, 1901; J. F. (Senung, Boston. 1904; G. A. Barton.
New York, 1908.
The works dted under Biblical Introduction, I. gen-
erally treat of the book, especially Driver, Introduction,
pp. 436-4^9. On questions of this nature consult: A.
H. McNeile, Introduction to Ecdeeiaatee, New York, 1904
(the best); J. S. Bloch, Uraprung und EntatehungBMeU
dea Buchea KoheUt, Bamberg, 1872; A TretUiae on the
Authorahip of Eccleaiaatea, London, 1880; C. H. H.
Wright, Book of Koheleth . . . in Relation to Modem
CrUiciam and . . . Peaaimiam, ib. 1883; T. K. Cheyno,
Job and Solomon, pp. 199-285, New York, 1889; P.
Meniel. Der griechiache Einflitaa auf Prediger, Halle. 1880.
BoolealMitioiui
Booleaioloffy
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOa
6S
On the similarity to Omar Khayyam: J. F. Qenung,
EccUnoMtM and Omar Khawatn, Boston, 1001; A.
Buchanan, E$9ence of EceletiaateB in Metre of Omar Khay-
yam^ London, 1004. On the history of interpretation:
8. SohiCFer, Daa Btuk Coheleth nodi Talmud und Midraech,
Leipsic, 1885; M. M. Kalisoh, Path and Ooal, London.
1880. Consult also: DB, i. 637-642; EB, ii. 1155-64.
ECCLESIASTICUS. See Apocrypha, A, IV., 12.
ECCLESIOLOGY.
Definition and Methods (§ 1).
Ecdesiologioal Phenomena (ft 2).
Forms of Association (§ 3).
Types of Polity (§ 4).
Ecclesiastical Functions (ft 5).
Forces of Integration (ft 6).
Forces of Disintegration (ft 7).
Ecclesiastical Geography (ft 8).
Ecclesiology is the science dealing with the eccle-
siastical institutions of human society. It is a social
and not a theological science. If soci-
I. Defini- ology be defined as the general science
tion and of human relations, ecclesiology is that
Methods, branch of sociology which deals with
so much of social phenomena as results
directly from religious motives. The subject-matter
of this science then embraces all ecclesiastical phe-
nomena objective on the surface of society. It does
not deal with theological dogma and creeds except
in so far as religious faith and enthusiasm are seen
to be the motives of ecclesiastical action. The
science deals with non-Christian as well as Christian
institutions among all races and nations. Ecclesi-
ology being a distinctly social science, the methods
of analysis, comparison, and generalization are those
common to all the social sciences. As in the case of
political science, the current institutions are an-
alyzed, while the past is studied for origins and
earlier forms. From the view-point of social science
ecclesiastical history is the ecclesiology of past ages
of human society.
The primary social phenomena with which ecclesi-
ology deals are individual speech and action for the
purposes of religion. Such speech and
2. Ecclesio- action are possible on the surface of
logical society only because ecclesiastical ef-
Phenomena. forts have the sanction of the physic-
ally dominant institution of society,
i.e., the State, and its representative, civil govern-
ment. Without such sanction speech and action
for the purposes of religion must of necessity be
secret and beneath the surface of society. The
observation of speech and action for the purposes
of religion leads at once to the existing relation
between Church and State, since the Church can not
be one of the visible social institutions without the
express or impUed sanction of the State (see Church
AND State). Secondary ecclesiological phenomena
found are association and cooperation for the pur-
poses of religion. Such association may be tem-
porary only, as is the case with assembhes or con-
gregations,' or it may be permanent and take the
form of organization. Such organization may as-
sume the form of an artificial legal personality
provided for by the State, viz., the civil corporation
for the purposes of rehgion. A third division of
ecclesiological phenomena embraces the existing
relations which the ecclesiastical institutions of
society bear to its other institutions, viz., the State
and civil government, marriage, the family, educa-
tion, and wealth. A fourth division of phenomena
embraces the various fimctions of ecclesiastical or-
ganizations, while a fifth includes what may be
defined as ecclesiastical concepts or ideals which
serve as motives for action and association.
The analysis of association and cooperation for
the purposes of religion shows the following more or
less permanent forms: the religious
3. Forms of society, the Church proper or the body
Association, having the highest spiritual objecti,
the civil incorporation, whether aggre-
gate or sole, which is often found in connection with
the religious society or the Church, and finally the
grouping of local religious bodies into organized
general associations, usually styled denominations.
Of the forms of local association it may be noted
generally that they do not always coexist, but often
occur separately. The temporary assembly or con-
gregation occurs without other form of association.
The religious society exists by itself in cases where
there is no separate body of communicant members
or those having higher privilege and no civil incor-
poration has been effected. A church body existing
alone may be seen in the community of a convent or
monastery. A religious corporation may be seen
without connection with a local religious society or
church when constituted of the trustees of a fund
devoted to the purposes of religion. It may be
further noted of the forms of ecclesiastical associa-
tion that they are found as a rule in some combina-
tion among the peoples of Western civilization. All
of these forms of association are at times constituent
parts of a local religious body, while the civil cor-
poration is most frequentiy lacking. Generally the
local religious bodies of all denominations present
these forms of association, although in varying pro-
portions and with different functions. The Ohureh
proper or spiritual body is the form of associaticHi
that is usually found within the congregation and
also within the religious society. It is the only form
of association for the purposes of religion for which
a special divine sanction is claimed. From the
standpoint of the State it is the body having the
highest interests to be protected, to whose welfare
the other ecclesiastical bodies are to contribute.
The analysis of the forms of ecclesiastical associa-
tion does not end with the limited and local forms
of association, but extends to the com-
4. Types of binations of these local bodies into
Polity. groups scattered over large territories,
some even coextensive with mational
domains. In this larger association for the purposes
of religion the unit for combination among the
several forms of local association is the Chiuvh or
spiritual body, and the analysis proceeds from the
local to the territorial association by ascertaining
what relation, if any, exists between the local bodies
and all other ecclesiastical bodies. The results of
such a larger analysis may be summarized as fol-
lows: First, there are found local church bodies
which, in the management of both their internal
and external affairs, are autonomous and acknowl-
edge and sustain no discernible relation with sinDular
local church bodies other than that which may result
from a general identity of purpose. Second, there
68
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bool«siA«tl<mfl
Bool««ioloffy
are found other local church bodies that do sustain
a common relation. Such bodies are associated by
yielding to a varying extent obedience to the juris-
diction of more general bodies or series of bodies.
There are found to be two divisions of this second
class. First, among some local church bodies of this
second class the general authority or series of
aathorities have as a dominant characteristic of
th^r jurisdiction the right to act in a judicial capac-
ity in cases to which the subordinate local bodies
or individual members of such bodies are parties.
Second, among others of this second class the general
authorities or series of authorities have as a domi-
nant characteristic of their jurisdiction the right to
administer a body of law which has been accepted
by the local organizations. There are, therefore,
three general forms or types of ecclesiastical associa-
tion in modem society, and these are known as
polities. There are (1) the congregational polity,
with local church bodies showing every degree of
actual autonomy (see Congbboationalists, IV.);
(2) the 83rnodical or presbyterial polity, in which
church administration is lodged in a graded series
of courts with both original and appellate jurisdic-
tion (see Presbttebianb); and (3) the episcopal
polity, in which the fimction of administration is
▼ested in an individual (see Bishop; Episcopacy).
While there are many variations of these general
foims of ecclesiastical organization, there does not
occur am<mg civilized people any variation suffi-
ciently radical to constitute a fourth type. Such an
ftoalysis is the only safe means of securing a scientific
classification of existing denominations according to
their type of polity. This classification rests upon
the actual facts of organization and not upon titles,
which are often misleading. The large number of
religiousdenominationsof Western civilization alone
present almost every conceivable variety of ecclesi-
astical organization. Yet they are susceptible of
scientific classification on the basis here outlined,
and may, of course, be fiirther subdivided and clas-
sified according to their peculiarities.
A fourth division of the subject-matter of ecclesi-
dogy deals with the functions which ecclesiastical
bodies perform. As in the case of
S Ecded- political institutions, the primary func-
tttical tion is that of legislation, the making
FoDctions. of the internal law of the organization.
Such law is either organic, fundamen-
tal or constitutional, or it is in the nature of statutes
or by-laws and therefore more easily amended . The
rale prevails throughout the countries of Western
dvHiiation that ecclesiastical bodies may not enact
law containing provisions contrary to the law of
the land, and that the fundamental principles of
the civil law to the extent that they define and
protect civil and property rights will by the civil
fwirts he read into any body of church law. The
•cond ecclesiastical function is that of administra-
tion. The problems that arise in the course of
ecclesiastical administration call for the exercise of
the third function, that of adjudication or the judi-
cial application of law to specific cases. The normal
supplement of the function of adjudication is that
of discipline (see Church Discipline), by which the
penalty for the violation of ecclesiastical law is
enforced. The exercise of this function of discipline
seems to be weakening in many ecclesiastical bodies,
but, on the other hand, it should be remembered
that the sphere of ecclesiastical discipline has in
modem civilization been greatly restricted by civil
law. The two remaining functions of ecclesiastical
organizations are those of propaganda and mission.
Propaganda is the conscious and systematic spread
of faith and principles, while the mission, which
naturally supplements propaganda, is the function
of reproducing the ecclesiastical organization from
which emanated the particular propaganda. Eccle-
siologists are inclined to look upon the rigor with
which these functions are performed as being to a
certain extent a measure of the vitality of the
body. Different organizations vary greatly as to
the relative values of these functions and as to the
energy with which they are to be exercised. In the
simplest and most completely autonomous bodies
there is a concentration of these functions in a single
organ, while among bodies having more complex
polities there is a distribution of powers and fre-
quently a highly developed machinery.
Up to this point has been outlined what may be
called static ecclesiology. There is, however, a field
which may be definecl as that of dy-
6. Forces of namic ecclesiology. Here the subject-
Integration, matter comprises the social and eco-
nomic enviroiunents of ecclesiastical
bodies and the moral forces at work tending to
change the spirit and the structure of such bodies.
Ecclesiastical institutions are, from the standpoint
of the social sciences, aggregations of living social
organism and subject to a certain extent to the
laws of social development. They are seen to have
forces of original impetus, to have their periods of
development, and frequently their periods of decay
and dissolution. A natural division of such social
and moral forces is into those working for the inte-
gration of ecclesiastical bodies, and those working
for their disintegration. The same force under dif-
fering conditions works in opposite directions. The
dominant forces working for the integration of ec-
clesiastical bodies are the influences of education and
of material wealth, energy in propaganda and
mission, and, perhaps more potent than these, cer-
tain ecclesiastical concepts or ideals such as those of
the historical continuity of the Church and those of
ecclesiastical adaptation. The dominant forces
working for the disintegration of ecclesiastical bodies
are the lack of education, the lack of missionary
energy, the lack of material wealth, such ecclesias-
tical concepts or ideals as those of isolation and
alienation, and the tendency to heresy and its normal
result, schism. While the tendency to schism is
the most obvious of all disintegrating forces, it is
probably not as fundamental as certain concepts
which require explanation in order to a due appre-
ciation of their influence. Among the forces oper-
ating for continuous ecclesiastical integration are
the concepts of adaptation and of the historical
continuity of the Church. The ideal of ecclesiastical
adaptation results from the desire on the part of
members of religious bodies to have their organiza-
tion keep in complete touch with all the normal
features of its social environment. Under the in-
Bool««ioloffy
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
fluence of such a concept the form or type of eccle-
siastical organization is regarded as more or less im-
material. What is sought is a perfect adaptation
of ecclesiastical organization and functions to what
are believed to be the needs of the time and the
community. Closely allied to such an ideal is often
found the belief that human society has the capacity
for ita own regeneration; consequently it is better
to hold that religious institutions are to be regarded
as the result of such efforts than that the Church
is a unique organization among men, having a special
divine sanction and charged with a supernatural
mission. The integrating force of such a concept
lies in its capacity for cooperation and in the em-
phasis which it places upon agreement in matters
of faith while minimizing the differences. The con-
cept of the historical continuity of the Church is
based upon a belief that there is one normal organ-
ization, that this normal organization has been
realized in part, and that if the right spirit prevails,
preventing all heresy and schism, this normal
organization is revealed. It is further believed by
those holding this concept that a substantial con-
tinuity of all the essential features of this normal
organization has been maintained in all the past
ages and will be maintained until the end of human
society. Such concepts are not confined to the
members of what are commonly known as the his-
toric churches, although there it is more common.
Such concepts admit of successive changes in what
are regarded as the non-essential features of polity
due to the changing conditions of social and polit-
ical environment. But such changes are regarded
as incidental and as revealing in an ever-widening
range those essential features which shall in the
providence of God persist until the end of time.
The Church with such an ideal would not antagonize
the existing order of society, but it would perpetuate
those features of its polity which it deems essential
to ita character as a true Church. Certain facts
should be noted of these ecclesiastical ideals. First,
that they are held with varying degrees of intel-
ligence and devotion; second, they are widely dis-
tributed, no organization or denomination having
a monopoly of any of them; third, all of these
concepts serve as stimuli to the members of a single
organization: and, fourth, the different ecclesiastical
bodies vary greatly as to their consciousness of the
operation of these concepts as motives of action.
Concepts or ideals of ecclesiastical isolation and
alienation are found to be exercising a profound
influence among certain organizations. Such con-
cepts appear to develop from a religious conviction
which frequently assumes the form of a belief that
certain persons are called of God out of the mass
of human society to be constituted and recognized
as a peculiar people to lead a life apart from the
life of the community in which they
7. Forces have their habitation. Such a concept
of Dis- provides for the least possible inter-
integration, course between the members of the re-
ligious body and those who differ with
them in matters religious. Among certain of the
Christian bodies this concept derives its inspiration
from the history ot the Hebrews and from a feeling
that theirs is a similar case, they being called out of
a corrupt society to lead a peculiariy leligioiu Tak.
Among other bodies ecclesiastical alienatioadeydapi
from a desire on the part of a body of individuilito
lead a certain mode of life and to practise such monl
and economic effects as celibacy or community of
goods, while the normal social envircnmient is re-
garded as imfavorable for such a development
In many cases where such concepts prevail thoR
holding them decline to recognise the normal oUigi-
tions resting upon members of society for the maiih
tenance of civil government and other social in-
stitutions. Such ecclesiastical alienation usually
operates by restricting missionary effort. Deliberate
alienation must not be confused with the physical iso-
lation in which many religious bodies find t-hemselveB.
In addition to the qualitative analysis of eedeo-
astical institutions here outlined, the science d
ecclesiology provides also for a quan-
8. Ecclesi- titative analysis for which the material
astical is largely statistical. Denominational
Geography, statistics are generally deficient, and
only a few countries of Western civili-
zation furnish reliable governmental statistics of
ecclesiastical organizations. The use of such statis-
tics has three objects: to determine the amount of
ecclesiastical association among a given population;
to determine the racial elements of church-member-
ship; and to determine the territorial distribution of
denominational strength. This may be called ec-
clesiastical geography. The racial simplicity or
complexity of the membership of a religious body
is often found to have a profound influence upon
the development of the organization. As in bodies
political, church racial elements are often the source
of weakness and the cause of delayed integration,
especially where diversity of language is a serious
obstacle. Such a diversity, however, is a test, and
affords a training in the capacity of assimilation.
Religious bodies as a rule originate in a homogeneous
people, but systematic missionary effort has brought
into the membership of all the stronger and more
active denominations the most diverse racial
elements. Closely allied to this topic is that of the
geography of the Church. The systematic charting
of ecclesiastical organizations is of recent origin.
It is now being developed on every scale, from the
population of a single city to that of a continent.
It has been brought to the aid of the churches
in the planning of missionary enterprises of all
dimensions. It has been found useful in revealing
the physical and social environment of churches,
and it throws much light on their history and
state of development. See Church, The Chrrh
tian; Church and State; and Polity, Eccub-
8IA8TICAL. George James Batleb.
ECK, JOHANN.
Education. Teacher at Ingolstadt (§ 1).
DiRputations with Luther and Carktadt (§ 2).
Attacks on Luther and Melanchthon (§ 3).
Papal Emissary and Inquisitor (( 4).
Zwingli and his Followers (( 5).
Peace Overtures (5 6).
Johann Eck (properly Johann Maier orMayr)the
German Roman Catholic controversialist , was bom at
Eck (now Egg, near Memmingen, 43 m. s. of Augs-
burg), Swabia, Nov. 13, 1486; d. at Ingolstadt Feb.
13, 1543. At the age of twelve he entered tho
6d
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bool6«ioloff9
Eok
UniTersity of Heidelberg, which he left in the fol-
lowing year for TiibiDgen. After taking his mas-
ter's d^ree in 1501, he began the study of theology
under Johann Jakob Lempp, and studied the ele-
ments of Hebrew and political economy with
Konrad Summenhart. He left Tubingen in 1501
on account of the plague and after a year at Cologne
finally settled at Freiburg-im-Breis-
I. Educa- gau, at first as a student of theology
tion. and law and later as a successful
Teacher teacher. In 1508 he entered the
at Ingol- priesthood and two years later ob-
stadt. tained his doctorate in theology. At
Freiburg in 1506 he published his
first work, Lttdicra logices exercitamenta and also
proYed himself a brilliant and subtle orator,
although obsessed by an untamable controversial
spirit and unrestrained powers of invective. At
odds with his colleagues, he was glad to accept a
call to a theolc^'cal chair at Ingolstadt in Nov.,
1510, receiving at the same time the honors and
income of a canon at Eichst&dt. In 1512 he be-
came prochancellor at the university and from
that time until his death he was in complete con-
inA of the destinies of Ingolstadt, on which he
impressed the character of ultracatholicism which
made it a bulwark of the ancient faith in Germany.
His wide knowledge found expression in numerous
writings. In the theological field he produced his
Ckrysapassus (Augsburg, 1514), in which he de-
veloped a Semi-Pelagian theory of predestina-
tion, while he obtained some fame as conunenta-
tor on the Summvla of Peter of Spain and on
Aristotle's De ccbIo and De anima. As a political
economist he defended interest, despite the oppo-
sition of the bishop of Eichst&dt.
As early as the spring of 1517 Eck had entered
into friendly relations with Luther, who had re-
garded him as in harmony with his own views,
but this illusion was short-lived. In his Obelisci
Eck attacked Luther's theses, which had been sent
him by Scheurl, and accused him of
a. Dispttta- promoting the heresy of the Bohemian
tions with Brethren and of fostering anarchy
Lather and within the Church. Luther replied in
Carlstadt. his Aaieriaci adversus obeliscos Eccii,
while Carlstadt defended Luther's
views of indulgences and engaged in a violent
controversy with Eck. A mutual desire for a
public disputation led to a compact between Eck
and Luther by which the former pledged himself
to noeet Carlstadt in debate at ErJfurt or Leipsic,
on condition that Luther abstain from all partici-
pation in the discussion. In Dec., 1518, Eck pub-
lished the twelve theses which he was prepared to
uphold against Carlstadt, but since they were
aimed at Luther rather than at the ostensible
opponent, Luther addressed an open letter to
Carlstadt, in which he declared Imnself ready to
meet Eck in debate.
The disputation between Eck and Carlstadt
began at Leipsic June 27, 1519. In the first four
sessions Eck maintained the thesis that free will
is the active agent in the creation of good works,
but he was compelled by his opponent to modify
his position so as to concede that the grace of God
IV.— 6
and free will work in harmony toward the conmion
end. Carlstadt then proceeded to prove that good
works are to be ascribed to the agency of God
alone, whereupon Eck yielded so far as to admit
that free will is passive in the beginning of con-
version, although he maintained that in course of
time it enters into its rights; so that while the en-
tirety of good works originates in God, their ac-
complishment is not entirely the work of God.
Despite the fact that Eck was thus virtually forced
to abandon his position, he succeeded, through his
good memory and his dialectic skill, in confusing
the heavy-witted Carlstadt and carried off the
nominal victory. He was far less successful against
Luther, who, as Eck himself confessed, was his
superior in memory, acumen, and learning. After
a disputation lasting twenty-three days (July 4-
27), Eck was greeted as victor by the theologians
of the University of Leipsic, who overwhelmed
him with honors and sent him away with gifts.
The impression produced by Eck upon his audi-
tors during that momentous time may be best
learned from the account of the humanist Peter
of Moselle, who described him as tall, stout, and
squarely built. His voice was full and rolling, and
of an admirable quality for an actor, or even for
a public crier, while the sum total of his features
would seem to argue the butcher or the profes-
sional soldier rather than the theologian. As far
as his intellectual gifts were concerned, he had a
wonderful memory, which, if supplemented by
other talents in like proportion, would have made
him a marvel, but he lacked swiftness of appre-
hension and deep insight, so that his masses of
arguments and citations were indiscriminate, and
he was filled with an inconceivable impudence
though he had the cleverness to conceal it.
Soon after his return to Ingolstadt, Eck at-
tempted to persuade Elector Frederick of Saxony
to have Luther's works burned in public, and dur-
ing the year 1519 he published no less than eight
writings against the new movement. He failed, how-
ever, to obtain a condemnatory decision from the
universities appointed to pronounce on the out-
come of the Leipsic disputation. Erfurt returned
the proceedings of the meeting to the Saxon duke
without signifying its approval, while Paris, after
repeated urging, gave an ambiguous decision
limited to " the doctrine of Luther so far as inves-
tigated." Eck's only followers were the aged
heretic-hunter Hoogstraten and Eraser of Leip-
sic, together with the allied authorities of the uni-
versities of Cologne and Louvain. Luther returned
Eck's assaults with more than equal
3. Attacks vehemence and about this time Me-
on Luther lanchthon wrote CEcolampadius that
and Me- at Leipsic he had first become dis-
lanchthon. tinctly aware of the difference be-
tween true Christian theology and the
scholasticism of the Aristotelian doctors. In his
Excusatio (Wittenberg? 1519?) Eck, irritated all the
more because early in the year he had induced
Erasmus to caution the young theological student
against precipitating himself into the religious con-
flict, retorted that Melanchthon knew nothing of the-
ology. In hb reply to the Excusatio, Melanchthon
Eok
Eckhart
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
proved that he was thoroughly versed in theology,
and Eck fared still worse in October of the same
year, when he sought to aid Emser by a virulent
tirade against Luther. Two biting satires, one by
Gik^olampadius and the other by Pirkheimer, stung
him to a fury which would be satisfied with noth-
ing less than the public burning of the entire litera-
ture in the market-place at Ingolstadt, an act from
which he was restrained by his colleague Reuchlin.
Eck was far more highly esteemed as the daunt-
less champion of the true faith at Rome than in
Germany. In Jan., 1520, he visited Italy at the
invitation of Leo X., to whom he presented his
latest work De primatu Petri adversus Liuiderum
(Ingolstadt, 1520) for which he was rewarded with
the nomination to the office of papal prothonotary,
although his efforts to urge the Curia to decisive
action against Luther were unsuccessful for some
time. On June 16, however, appeared the fateful
bull Exurge Domine, in which forty-one proposi-
tions of Luther were condemned as heretical or
erroneous. Entrusted with the publication of the
bull in Germany, Eck returned home, only to find
how rapidly Luther had gained favor. At Meissen,
Brandenburg, and Merseburg he succeeded in giv-
ing the papal measure due official publicity, but
at Leipsic he was the object of the
4. Papal ridicule of the student body and was
Emissary compelled to flee by night to Frei-
and In- berg, where he was again prevented
quisitor. from proclaiming the bull. At Er-
furt the students tore the instru-
ment down and threw it into the water, while in
other places the papal decree was subjected to
still greater insults. At Vienna its publication
encountered grave difficulties, and Eck had good
cause to set up a votive tablet to his patron saint
upon his safe return to Ingolstadt, although even
there only the authority of the papal mandate
made the publication of the bull possible. This
last humiliation was due, in great measure, to the
fact that he had availed himself of the permission
to pronounce the papal censure on prominent fol-
lowers of the new movement besides Luther, and
had thus made his office a means of personal re-
venge. Eck's letter to Charles V., written in Feb.,
1521, seems to have had little effect upon the pro-
ceedings at the Diet of Worms.
Wealth and power were included in the aspira-
tions of Eck. He appropriated the revenues of
his parish of Gunzburg, while he relegated its
duties to a vicar. Twice he visited Rome as a
diplomatic representative of the Bavarian court
to obtain sanction for the establishment of a court
of inquisition against the Lutheran teachings at
Ingolstadt. The first of these journeys, late in the
autumn of 1521, was fruitless on account of the
death of Leo X., but his second journey in 1523
was successful. With great insight and courage
he showed the Curia the true condition of affairs
in Germany and pictured the general incapacity
of the representatives of the Church in that coun-
try. Of the many heresy trials in which Eck was
the prime mover during this period it is sufficient
to mention here that of Leonhard K^^er, whose
Listory was published by Luther.
In addition to his inquisitorial duties, eveiy
year witnessed the publication of one or more
writings against iconoclasm and in defense of the
doctrines of the mass, purgatory, and auricular
confession. His EnchiHdion locarum commvnntm
adver8U8 LiUherum et alios hastes ecclesice (Landahot,
1525) went through forty-six editions before 1576.
As its title indicates, it was directed piimarihr
against Melanchthon's Loci, althou^it
5. Zwingli also concerned itself to some extent
and his with the teachings of Zwin^ Enk
Followers, offered to refute Zwing^'s " heresies "
in a pubUc disputation (Aug. 13, 1524),
and appeared at Baden, only 12 m. n.w. of Zurich,
but in the hands of the bitterest partisans of the
Roman Church, and from May 21 until June 18,
1526, the debate went on. Zwingli was not pres-
ent, but supported his friends who were there by
constant suggestions. The affair ended decidedly
in favor of Eck, who induced the authorities to en-
ter on a course of active persecution of ZwingU and
his followers (see Baden [im Aaroau], 0>k-
FERENCE of). The effect of his victory at Baden
was dissipated, however, at the Disputation of
Bern (Jan., 1528), where the propositions advanced
by the Reformers were debated in the absence of
Eck, and Bern, Basel, and other places were def-
initely won for the Reformation (see Bern, Dis-
putation of). At the Diet of Augsburg Eck
played the leading part among theologians on the
Roman CathoUc side.
While still at Ingolstadt Eck drafted for the
use of the emperor a list of 404 heretical prop-
ositions from the writings of the Reformers, and
collaborated with more than twenty Catholic
theologians in writing the confttUUio pontificia, in
which the Catholic refutation of the Protestants
was embodied. His efforts at peace,
6. Peace in which his readiness to meet the
Overtures. Reformers half-way shows him to have
been sincere, failed, however, on ac-
count of the hatred and contempt with which he
was regarded by the Protestant theologians. He
renewed his efforts at Worms in Jan., 1541, and
succeeded in impressing Melanchthon as being
quite prepared to give his assent to the main
principles of Protestantism. After the meeting
at Regensburg in the spring and summer of the
same year, on the other hand, he exerted himself
to prevent any compromise between the two theol-
ogies. The last important phase of his activity was
his conflict with Butzcr, whom he attacked on ac-
count of the attitude assumed by the latter in his
edition of the transactions of the Conference of
Regensburg ( q . v. ) . Special mention should be made,
among Eck's many writings, of his German trans-
lation of the Bible (the New Testament a revision
of H. Eniser's rendering) which was first published
at Ingolstadt in 1537. (C. Enders.)
Bibliography: T. Wiedemann, Dr. Johann J?dk, RegeDS-
burg. 1865; J. Greving, J. Eck als junger Qeltkrier, MQn-
Hter. 1006. The subject is treated in more or leas detail
in all works on the Church history of the period, in the
accounts of the life of Luther, Melanchthon, (Ecolamp*-
tX\\i», Osiander, and Zwingli (see the literature und«
those articles). Consult particularly Scha£f, CkritiliiMn
Church, vi. 168 sqq.; Moeller, CkrUt^an Church, vol. iii.;
Cambridoe Modem Hi$tory, vol. ii.. New York, 1904L
67
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bokhart
Various Appointments (S 1).
Herwy Chargw (5 2).
HEdiMrt as Author, SchooimAn,
Mystic and Preacher.
His Works (S 1).
ECEHART.
Schoohnan and Mystic ($2).
As a Preacher (ft 3).
III. System.
His Fundamental View of Deity
(5 1).
The Trinitarian Process (ft 2).
Master Eckhart, as he is generally called, Domini-
on and mystic, was a man almost forgotten after
the middle of the fifteenth century until Franz von
Baader in the first half of the nineteenth century
levhred his memory. Since then he has been highly
praised. But Denifle again passed a somewhat
derogatory judgment upon him on the basis of
sewiy discovered Latin writings; inasmuch as
Denifle has published but a small part of these
fntiogs his opinion can not be too implicitly ac-
cepted. This article will attempt merely to give
accredited facts and indicate the present state of
the questions.
L Life: The long controverted question concern-
ing the locality of Eckhart's origin has been settled
by Denifle. who states that he was bom at Hochheim,
a Tillage 8 miles north of Gotha. The year of
his birth was probably 1260, and he joined the
Dominicans at Erfurt. The lighter studies he no
doubt followed at Cologne. Later he was prior
at Erfurt and provincial of Thuringia.
I. Various In 1300 he was sent to Paris to lecture
Appoint- and take the academical degrees, and
ments. remained there till 1303. In the latter
year he returned to Erfurt, and was
made provincial for Saxony, a province which
reached at that time from the Netherlands to
livonia. Complaints made against him and the
provincial of Teutonia at the general chapter held
in Paris in 1306 concerning irregularities among the
tertiaries, must have been trivial, because the gen-
end, Aymeric, appointed him in the following year
liis vicar-general for Bohemia with full power to set
the demoralized monasteries there in order. In
1311 Eckhart was appointed by the general chapter
rf Naples as teacher at Paris. Then follows a long
period of which it is known only that he spent part
^ the time at Strasburg (cf. Urkundenbuch der
to Stroisburgy iii. 236). A passage in a chronicle
y' the year 1320, extant in manuscript (cf. Preger,
i 352-399), speaks of a prior Eckhart at Frankfort
»b was suspected of heresy, and some have re-
ferred this to MeisttT Eckhart; but it is highly
^probable that a man under suspicion of heresy
»ould have been appointed teacher in one of the
Btoet famous schools of the order.
Eckhart next appears as teacher at Cologne, and
the archbishop, Hermann von Vimeburg, accused
him of heresy before the pope. But
2, Heresy Nicholas of Strasburg (q.v.), to whom
Charges, the pope had given the temporary
charge of the Dominican monasteries
in Germany, exonerated him. The archbishop,
however, pressed his charges against Ek;khart and
igatn?t Nicholas before his own court. The former
low denied the competency of the archiepiscopal
nquisition and demanded litteros dimiaaaricB (apos-
rfi ) for an appeal to the pope (cf. the document in
Veger, i. 471; more accurately in ALKO, ii.
God in Creation (f 3).
The Relation of the Soul to God
(M).
Sin and Redemption (( 5).
The Place of Christ (J 6).
Eckhart's Ethics (( 7).
627 sqq.). On Feb. 13, 1327, he stated in his pro-
test, which was read publicly, that he had always
detested everything wrong, and should anything
of the kind be found in his writings, he now retracts.
Of the further progress of the case there is no in-
formation, except that John XXII. issued a bull
{In agro dominico), Mar. 27, 1329, in which a series
of statements from Eckhart is characterized as
heretical, another as suspected of heresy (the bull
is given complete in ALKO, ii. 636-640). At the
close it is stated that Eckhart recanted before his
death everything which he had falsely taught, by
subjecting himself and his writings to the decision
of the apostolic see. By this is no doubt meant the
statement of Feb. 13, 1327; and it may be inferred
that Eckhart's death, concerning which no informa-
tion exists, took place shortly after that event.
In 1328 the general chapter of the order at Toulouse
decided to proceed against preachers who *' en-
deavor to preach subtle things which not only do
(not) advance morals, but easily lead the people into
error." Eckhart's disciples were admonished to
be more cautious, but nevertheless they cherished
the memory of their master.
IL Eckhart as Author, Schoolman, Mystic, and
Preacher: For centuries none of Eckhart's wri-
tings were known except a number of sermons,
found in the old editions of Tauler's sermons, pub-
lished by Kachelouen (Leipeic, 1498) and by Adam
Petri (Basel, 1521 and 1522). In
I. His 1857 Franz Pfeiflfer in the second
Works. volume of his Deutsche Mystiker
(Stuttgart), which is wholly devoted
to Ekskhart, added considerable manuscript mate-
rial. Pfeiffer was followed by others, especially
Franz Jostes, Meister Eckhart und seine J linger^ un-
gedmckte Texte zur Geschichte der deiUschen Mystik
(Collectanea Friburgensia, iv., Freiburg, 1895).
But some pieces are of doubtful genuineness, and
the tradition concerning others is very unsatisfac-
tory. It was a great surprise when in 1880 and
1886 H. Denifle discovered at Erfurt and Cues two
manuscripts with Latin works of Eckhart, the ex-
istence of which Nicholas of Cusa and Trittenheim
had indeed mentioned, but which had since then
been considered lost. There can be no doubt as to
their genuineness, but thus far only the (compara-
tively extensive) specimens which Denifle had
published (in ALKG, ii.) are known. The extant
writings appear to be only parts of a very large
work, the Opus tripartitum, wliich, to judge from
the prologue in the first part treated of more than
1,(X)0 propositions, in the second part debated a num-
ber of special questions, and in the third part, first
expounded Biblical texts (opus «ermonum) and after-
ward explained the books of the Bible in their
order with special reference to the important pas-
sages. Entirely unknown at present are the con-
tents of the more important manuscript of Cues,
Bokhart
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
especially the exposition of the Gospel of John,
which may contain information on many things.
Some deductions, however, can be made. In
the first place, it appears that Eckhart was a true
scholastic, who reflected upon and treated all the
numerous questions which interested scholasticism
in general. That there existed an opposition in
principle between mysticism and scholasticism
is in his case out of the question, because at that
time it did not exist at all, as was
2. School- long ago proved by Engelhardt {Rv-
man and chard von St. Victor und Johannes Buys'
Mystic, broekf Erlangen, 1838, preface). As a
scholastic, as far as sentences and
elegance of description are concerned, Eckhart
seems to be inferior to Thomas Aquinas, whom he
follows for the most part. For the rest it is worthy
of notice that the sphere of subjects, which espe-
cially engaged Eckhart's mind, is limited in his
Latin writings. His thoughts are concentrated on
the divine being in its unity and trinity; on the
relation between God and the creature, especially
between God and the human soul; on the nature
of the soul; on regeneration and union with God,
to which he recurs again and again. But these
objects are the very ones with which mysticism
especially used to concern itself. Even as a scho-
lastic Eckhart shows a predominant leaning toward
mysticism. Eckhart 's sermons are primarily for
monks or nuns, and, indeed, according to Denifle
{ALKGf ii. 641, 652), the German sermon of the
Dominicans in general originated from the care
of the nunneries. But when the sermon was deliv-
ered in the church, other hearers were not ex-
cluded, and Eckhart sometimes refers to them
(Pfeififer, 287, 26). Indeed, his sermons presuppose
a religiously educated and interested congregation.
It is possible that no preacher ever propounded
to his hearers more lofty and profound speculations
on the Deity and the world, on the soul and its life.
But he does it not for the sake of ostentation nor
because of mere pleasure in these speculations,
but because he is convinced that thus he will best
serve his hearers. He knew that not all could
follow him (Pfeififer, 209, 29; 242, 35), and such he
exhorted to piety (310, 1; 498, 18).
3. As a For him these thoughts were most
Preacher, intimately connected with his spiri-
tual life and they are therefore expressed
with a fervor and ardor which could not fail to im-
press the more intelligent of his hearers. He is
convinced that the thoughts which he presents
are found in the Scripture in which he has more
faith than in himself (4, 17). The present custom
of taking a text for the sermon did not restrict him
and in accordance with the use of his time he selects
only a phrase, a " word " from a larger section.
This mode of exposition is such that he can easily
deduce any thought from any text. To us his
method appears like an incredible abuse of Holy
Writ, but Eckhart practised it in good faith; he
followed the custom of his time, and no one took
ofiTense. On the other hand Eckhart is truly great
in the way and manner in which he gave form and
expression to his thoughts. This is clearly to be
seen in spite of the faults of the copies, to which
must be ascribed the disproportion of the executin
and the want of connection. One might say thifc
truth and purity of sentiment, to which he evwj^
where attaches the greatest value, also shapes hk
sermon. He avoids all tinsel, every artificial adoiB-
ment. He speaks in an artless, pleasing and touch-
ing manner. Powerful seriousness and humor m
at his conunand. He often uses parables, b«t
briefly, without detail, and this brevity he aln
applies where the narrative elements prevail (13,
25; 108; 168, 12; 285, 24). While he often es-
livens his discourse by introducing thesis anl
antithesis, his manner is truly German, his senteDoei
are devoid of the influence of Latin phraseoiogj.
Not a few passages of his sermons have a beautj
of language which to this day makes them wortfaj
of commendation as models of German style.
in. System: As has already been stated it ii
impossible to give at present a final decision on
Eckhart's world of ideas. Nevertheless an tA-
tempt may be made to delineate his fimdamental
thoughts, based upon the material at hand. Iti
great need of man is that his soul be united witk
God; for this a knowledge of God and his relatioi
to the world, a knowledge of the sool
I. His Fun- and the way which it must go, an
damental necessary. Eckhart does not doofat
View of that such knowledge Is given in tfal
Deity. traditional faith of the Church, fadt
it is not sufficient for one who is lonffog
for salvation. He must attain to it with his offi
understanding. Eckhart accordingly does not mow
and live in ecclesiastical tradition after the miii-
ner of Bernard of Clairvaux or Hugo of St. Victor;
in his thinking on the highest questions he is indb*
pendent and in this way he arrives at views whick
do not harmonize with the teaching of the Churd^
without, however, as far as can be seen, being ooft*
scious of any opposition. The last and higbert
object of thinking is the Deity, i.e. the divine entUgf
as distinguished from the persons, yet Eckhut
often uses " God " in the sense of " Deity," whew
his thought does not call for accurate definitiii«
(but cf., on the other hand, 180, 14; 181, 7). Tto
Deity is absolute being without distinction of pli»
or manner (ALKG, ii. 439-440). No predicate de-
rived from finite being is applicable to the Deity; but
this is therefore not mere negation or emptfae*
Rather is finite being, as such, negation; and tli0
Deity, as the negation of finite being, is the neg>^
of negation, i.e. the absolute fulness of being (3%
13; 539, 10-27). Dionysius wrongly states: God
is not, he is rather a nonentity. When in othtf
passages (82, 26; 182, 31; 500, 27) Eckhart himself
designates God as non-existent, he only means thit
he has none of the characteristics of finite exist^iM*
The same apparent contradiction is found, whei©
Eckhart on the one hand calls God absolute beingr
and on the other denies that he is a being (319, 4;
659, 1); but he reconciles the two views (268-269)-
The same is the case with occasional seeming
paradoxical expressions, e.g. that God is not good,
etc. (269, 18; 318, 35-319, 3). The essentisl
elements of finite things are present in God, but in
an exalted degree and in a manner that can not b(
comprehended by man (322,20; 540,2-7).
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bokhart
solute, unqualified being of the Deity
ilso c»lls unnatured nature. This un-
skture, however, manifests itself in the
iture, the three persons. The Trinity is
elation of the Deity (540, 31 ; 390, 12-22).
emprises himself. Accordingly, Eckhart
to the Father a sort of genesis; only the
absolutely without any progression and
'erlastin^y in itself. The Father was
ugh himself (534, 17). This self-revela-
id Eckhart designates as a cognition, a
or a demeanor. The Father perceives
fulness of the Deity (6,8); or, what is
be speaks a single word, which comprises
everything (76, 25). He procreates
the Son (284, 12); for the Father is
n father only through the Son. The
Son, however, is in everything like
the Father, only that he procreates
3). The essence of the Father is also
) Son, and the essence in both is no other
>f the Deity. From the pleasure and love
b have for each other springs the Holy
7, 26). Eckhart leaves no doubt that
trinitarian process must not be con-
is a temporal one, but as a process ex-
broughout eternity (254, 10). Preger
lat Eckhart's distinction between Deity
hould be interpreted as a distinction be-
sntiality and actuality. To this inter-
>enifle {ALKO, iL 453 sqq.) has strongly
nd cited Eckhart's Latin writings, in
with Thomas Aquinas and others, desig-
as actu8 punts, thus excluding all poten-
enifle is right, in that Eckhart does not
r and deliberately make any such dis-
>ut it can not be denied that his concep-
to it. Especially significant is Eckhart's
tt in 175, 7 sqq. where he tries to illus-
■elation between the fatherhood as it is
I in the Deity and the paternity of the
the Father by the relation between the
pectiliar to the Virgin as such, and the
which she acquires by bearing. But
ctly the relation of potentiality and ac-
. also the peculiar passage 193, 33). It
admitted that Eckhart here expresses
which can not be harmonized with one
bough the second is not fully developed,
id a wealth of ingenious ideas, but he was
systematize them.
-manifestation of God in the Trinity is
jy his manifestation in his creatures.
g in them that is truly real is God's
ing; but God's being does not manifest
in its entire fulness (101, 34; 173, 26;
In this antithesis may be expressed the
Eckhart's philosophy to pantheism, both
8 similarities and differences. Accord-
ing to Eckhart God's creatures have
in not, as Thomas Aquinas held, merely
• ideal preexistence in God, Le. their
conoeptxial essence {essentia^ quiddiUu)
>m the divine intelligence, but their ex-
«se) being foreign to the divine being,
the true being ni the creatures immanent
in the divine being. On the other hand, every
peculiarity distinguishing creatures from each other
is something negative; and in this sense it is said
that the creatures are a mere nothing. Should
God withdraw from his creatures his being, they
would disappear as the shadow on the wall disap-
pears when the wall is removed (31, 2). Tl^
perishable being is the creature confined within
the limits of space and time (87, 49). On the other
hand, every creature, considered according to its
true entity, is eternal. It is obvious that this neces-
sarily involves a modification of the idea of creation.
Even Augustine and the Schoolmen felt this diffi-
culty. While they did not, like Eckhart connect
the existence of the world with the being of God
they did consider it unallowable to attribute to
God any temporary activity. Albert the Great
tried to avoid the difficulty with the sentence,
'' God created all things from eternity, but things
were not created from eternity "; but this is more
easily said than conceived. According to the bull
of 1329 (p. 2), Eckhart asserted that '' it may be
conceded that the world was from eternity." It
is impossible here to investigate this view further;
but reference must be made to the close relation
into which Eckhart brings the process of the Trinity
and the genesis, or progress, of the world, both of
the real and the ideal world (76, 52; 254, 16; 284,
12; cf. Com. in Genes,, ALKQ, ii. 553, 13-17).
The imqualified Deity, the Trinity (birth of the
Son or of the Eternal Word), and the creation
of the world are to him three immediate moments,
which follow each other in conceptual, not tem-
poral sequence. All creatures have part in the
divine essence; but this is true of the soul in a
higher degree. In the irrational creature there
is something of Crod; but in the soul God is divine
(230, 26; 231, 4). Though God speaks his word in
all creatures, only rational creatures can preserve
it (479, 19). In other words, in the soul, where he
has his resting-place, God is subjective, while in
the rest of creation he is merely objective. The
soul b an image of God, in so far as
4. The Re- its chief powers, memory, reason, and
lation of will, answer to the divine persons
the Soul (319, 1). This accords with the view
to God. of Augustine. Just as there is the
absolute Deity, which is superior to
the persons of the Godhead, so in the soul there is
something that is superior to its own powers. This
is the innermost background of the soul, which
Eckhart frequently calls a " spark," or " little
spark." In its real nature this basis of the soul
is one with the Deity (66, 2). When Eckhart
sometimes speaks of it as uncreated (286, 16; 311,
6), and then again as created, this does not involve
a contradiction. While, on the one hand, it rests
eternally in the Deity, on the other it entered into
the temporal existence of the soul, i.e. was made
or created through grace. But it is not in this orig-
inal unity with God that the soul finds its perfection
and bliss. As it has a subjective being, it must
turn to Crod, in order that the essential principle
implanted in it may be truly realized. It is not
enough that it was made by God; God must come
and be in it. But this ha* taken place without
Eokhart
Ecstasy
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOQ
70
hindrance only in the human soul of Christ (67, 12).
For all other souls sin is an obstacle.
But wherein docs sin consist? Not in the finite-
ness, which is never removed from the soul (387, 3;
500, 11), but in the direction of the will toward
the finite and its pleasure therein (476, 19;
674, 17). The possibility of sin, however, is based
in finit^ness, taken together with the free will of
the creature. If it is the destiny of the soul to be the
resting-place of God, then the direction of the will
toward the finite makes this impossible; and it is
this that constitutes sin. Redemption, therefore,
can take place only when the creature
5. Sin and makes room in his soul for the work
Redemption, of God; and the condition for that is
the turning away from the finite.
For God is ever ready to work in the soul, pro-
vided he is not hindered and the soul is sus-
ceptible to his influence (27, 25; 283, 23; 33, 29;
479, 31). The inner separation from everj'lhing
casual, sensual, earthly and the yielding to the work
of God in the heart, — that is the seclusion or tran-
quillity of which Eckhart speaks again and again.
For him this is the basis of all piety. But what is it
that God accomplishes in the soul? This can be
stated in a word: the birth of the son. As the
soul is an image of the Deity, if it is to fulfil its des-
tiny, then tliat process by which the deity develops
into the three persons must take place in it. The
father procreates in the soul the son (44, 28; 175,
15-20; 479, 10; 13, 12). This takes place during
the life of the soul in time; and, too, not merely at
a particular moment, but rather continuously
and repeatedly. This is not merely a copy or
analogon of that inner divine process, but is in
truth that very process itself, by which it becomes,
through grace, what the Son of God is by nature
(433, 32; 382, 7; 377, 17). From this view of
Eckhart's follow a number of the most striking
statements in which the soul is made to share in
the attributes and works of God, including the
creation (119, 28-40; 267, 4; 283, 37-284, 7).
However, according to Eckhart, a complete fusion
of the soul with the Deity never takes place (387, 3).
He also opposes the doctrine of Apocatastasis (65,
20; 402,34; 470,22).
According to Eckhart sin is not the real cause of
the incarnation (591, 34). God wished rather to
receive the nature of things through grace in time
just as he had them by nature in eternity in himself
(574, 34). Just as a man occupies a
6. The central position in the world, since he
Place of leads all creatures back to God, so
Christ. Christ stands in the center of humanity
(180, 7; 390. 37.) The same thought
is found in Maximus the Confessor and Erigena, but
whence did Eckhart get it? Even at the creation
of the first man Christ was already the end in view
(250, 23); and now after tlie fact of sin, Christ
stands likewise in the center of redemption. After
the fall all creatures worked together to produce a
man who should restore the harmony (497, 11).
This took place when Mary resigned herself so com-
pletely to the divine word that the eternal word
could assume human nature in her. However,
this temporal birth of the son is again included
in his eternal birth as a moment of the same (391,
20). And now God is to be bom in us. In hi
human life Jesus becomes a pattern for man; and
in all that he did and experienced, above all in im
passion and death there is an overwhelming power
that draws man to God (21S-219) and brings about
in us that which first took place in Christ, who
alone is the way to the father (241, 17).
Whatever one may think of Eckhart's philo-
sophical and dogmatic speculations, his ethical viev,
at any rate, is of rare purity and sublimity. The
inner position of man, the disposition of tli^ heart,
is for him the main thing (56, 39; 297,
7. Eck- 11; 444, 8; 560, 43) and with him
hart's this is not a result of reflection. One
Ethics, feels that it comes from the core of hii
personality; and no doubt this mi
the principal reason for the deep impression hii
sermons made. He speaks little of church ceremo-
nies. For liim outward penances have only a limited
value. That man inwardly turn to God and be
led by him, — that is the main purpose of Eckhart's
exhortations. Let no one think because this or
that great saint has done and suffered many thingSi
that he should imitate him. God gives to each
his task, and leaves every one on his way (560 sqq.
177, 26-35). No one can express the fact more
definitely than does Eckhart, that it is not woria
that justify man, but tliat man must first be righteous
in order to do righteous works. Nor does he recom-
mend that one flee from the world, but flee from
oneself, from selfishness, and self-will. Otherwise
one finds as little peace in the cell as outside of it
Though he sees in sufifering the most effective and
most valuable means of iimer purification, still he
does not mean that one should seek sufferings of hie
own choosing, but only bear patiently whatever
God imposes. He recognizes that it is natural
for one to be affected either pleasantly or impleas-
antly by the various sense-impressions; but in the
innermost depths of the soul one must hold fast to
God and allow himself to be moved by nothing
(52, 1 ; 427, 22). It need hardly be added that he
regards higlily works of charity. Even supreme
rapture should not prevent one from rendering a
service to the poor. It is noteworthy that, in the
ninth sermon, he puts Martha higher than Mary,
though by a strange misinterpretation of the text.
While Mary enjoyed only the sweetness of the Lord,
being yet a learner, Martha had passed this stage.
She stood firm in the substance, and no work hin-
dered her, but every work helped her to blessedness.
Future investigations will presumably make pos-
sible a more accurate estimate of the im|x>rtance
of Eckhart ; but it is hardly possible that they will
overthrow the verdict of Suso and Tauler concern-
ing him. S. M. Deutsch.
Bibijooraphy: J. Trittenheim, De tcriptaribua eedetia^
ticia, ch. 537, Basel, 1494; Frani von Baader, Werke,
Leipsic, 1851-60. cf. Index; K. Schmidt, MeUter EckaH
in TSK, xi (1839\ 663 sqq.; H. Martenuen, MeUter
Eckart, Hamburg, 1842; F. Pfeiffer, Deuttche MyMtiker,
vol. ii., Meister Eckart, Stuttgart, 1857; Max MOller,
Theosophie oder paychologiache Religion, pp. 503—518,
Leipsic. 1859; C. Greith, Die detOtche MyUk im Pre-
digerorden, Freiburg, 186i; J. Bach, Meitter Eckhart, der
Voter der deutschen Speculation, Vienna, 1864; W. Precer,
Ein neuer Traktat Mei»ter Eckarta, in ZHT, 1864, 163-
^i
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDU
Bokhart
Bostasy
%^; A. Lueon, MmUf EskaH der Mu^iker. B«r1iii, 1808
{^ jjoptift&at}; W. Preser, Mci^ier Eektxrt und die in-
frntHi^ HuBidtt* VS681 A^ Jirndt, E*»ai imt U mytlicimne
ipk^aHf dt Maitrv EiM&rt. l^traAburg. l^TI (to be con-
■died with Lassoa); W. Pr^gsr, GtMchichts der dtuiMchsn
U^i^ im. MiUektltgr, I, 30&H53, Leip^ie> IS74 (to be
met] wiUi ci,uticin)i:: A, Jumlt. Hltknrt du panthHtme
f$pda\tt au moifen dge^ pp^ 57-93, Pari if, 1875; M* HicKer*
IE W. WackertkAgiil'a AWIiu^i^w Prediiftmn und GehetSf
pp. 3SS-120, Bawl. 1S7@; R. Ullmaim. lUfonmrM bef&rt
Ike ffif/amja/ifln. ii. 23-31, Eiiinburgb. 1877; H. 0.
Euckea. (retohicAle der pkiloaophiMchen TerminoUtffie, pp.
LlS-122, Leip«ic 1S7D; fJ. DeniSe. Mmster Eckurtt taMn-
inikt Sdirifttn und d^ GrundanAdu^uun^f asiner Lthrt jn
ALKG, a ilSm\ 417-015, and iupplernerit, 016-640;
idem, Dw mag-niackm Ej^mplar iaiMniMrher Schfiften
febrtf. ib. 673-€Tli: idem» Di« //«im4f M fitter Eckartt.
lb. T ElgSO), 349-364; E. A. Vs»vhan. Htturm with th«
M^iat, pp, t §8-31 3, Sib ed., Loadoo, ti.d.; Neimd«r,
tkn Chink. Y. 303-30i.
ICKHART THE YOUNGER. See MYiTiciaii,
laECTICISM (from Gk, ekle^n, "to gather"):
A term applied to a system of philosophy or theology
thai itrivefl to incorporata the truth of &U By&ien\Ht
^t&ths method by which etich a aynthesis is made.
h pfailoBOphy tbe best example of eclecticism h
fmnd in the Neopiatouism of the Alexandrine
Sciioolj while among modem eeleeticfl Leibnitz
und Cousin may be mentioned. Since an ecleetic
sygtem la neeessanly a loose piece of mosaic work,
rmther than an origan ]£ed body of original thought ^
tbe term in philosophy has come to be one of re-
proach. In theology eclecticism first appeared at
Alexandria^ Typical e?cample9 of eclectics are
Oement of AJexandria, On gen, and Synesius, who
drew from classical and pagan, aa well as from Chria-
ti^ aourcea.
ECSTAST: A state of mental exaltation in
which tho patient is supposed to be in intimate
cornxDunion with the divine. The term connotes a
large variety of phenomena, real or pretended,
natural or evoked, which occur in connection with
reUgious practices. The external phenomena may
take either of two characters, intense vigor of
physical action in which more than normal en-
durance or strength is shown, or a passivity which
may rea^h the extreme of catalepsy. Not infre-
quently the second condition succeeds the first.
During both stages the patient is inseJisible to pain,
and often maims or wounds hima^lf or perfonna
feats at other times impossible to him. The oon^
dition includes the prophetic freniy
General (tjujniaf see DiviNAno?^) of the Greek
Character- Pythia and of the early Hebrew and
utks* heathen seers, the exaltation of the
Mohamroedan dervishes, the absorbetl
condttion of Hindu devotees, and in its extreme
development takes the form of catalepsy. It may
be an unpremeditated result of strong emotion, or it
m.ay be Induced. In the latter case, among both
primitive and developed peoples, it is sought with-
out intent to deceive or defraud, being prized as an
especial mark of Deity's favor. It is affected by the
shamans, medicine men, and wizards of such tribes
as the Taamanians, Karens, Zulus, Patagonians,
Hawaiians and North American Indians, especially
when engaged in divination; and ako by the lay
members of such tribes during their religious exer-
One of the six ^steins of Hindu philosophy
has as its direct object the attainment of this con-
dition. In Christian lands it is often an accompani-
ment of the religioua excitement attending revivals
and camp-mectingp. When induced by direct
effort, t le chief means are the religious dance or
music, ijr the two combined; bat among more
advanced peoples solitary contemplation or phys-
ical discipline arc also used.
The piienomena of eeetasy have left marked traces
upon Old and New Testament conceptions, ea-
peeially in connection with prophecy, and its mani-
festations are often indicated by the use of the phrase
*' and the spirit of the Lord [Yah wo h] came upon
him." In the Old Testament the passage which
best describes the condition is Num. xxiv*, in which
the staring eye (cf. verses 3, 15 R, V, margin) and
the epileptic or cataleptic fall (vers© 16) tally
closely with the manifestations elsewhere observed.
Balaam's oracles are pictunid as delivered while
he was in the ecstatic state, in accord-
Biblical ance with the usual phase of prophecy
Examples* in primitive religion. Gidoon is repre-
sente<l as coming into this condition
(Judges vi. 34), so also Jcphthah (Judges xi, 29)
and Hamson (Judges xiv. 6, 19, xv. 14), in all these
eases the results being much like thoso of the *' ber-
serker rage " of the early Norsemen. The ecstatic
condition appears to have bet^n normal to the pro-
phetic gilds of the [)eriod of the Judges and th@
early kingdom, and for the first time in 1 Sam- x. b-
10, xLx. 20-24 the contagiousnesa of the condition
comes to light, in the case of SauL Not to be over-
looked here ia the accompaniment of muwic and
dancing which, with the character of the ensuing
phenomena, makes the diagnosis certain. The
Baal-ppophets in I Kings x\iii. 26-28, exhibit
characteristic features of the frenzy of ecstasy.
The prophecy of Elisha recortied in II Kings iii. 14^
19 was given under contlitions like that of Balaam,
induced by music. That '' miwluesg "was ascribed
to the prophets as a class (II Kings ix. 11) shows
what were the characteristic methods of prophecy
at that time. Possibly the '* chirping and mutter-
ing " of Isa. viii. 19 refers to the utterances of ec-
stasy. The phenomena of the New TcHtament at
Pentecost (Acts li. 4), the ca^e of Stephen (Acta
vii. 55-56), and of Paul (Acta ix. 3 sqq.; II Cor. xii.
1-4) are psychologically explicable aa cases of ec^
stasy. See Inspiration, § 1.
In post-Biblical times the high estimato of the
value of the ecstatic state continued. The Neo*
platonic school of philosophy, following Plato him-
self, placed a high value upon tlie condition, and
Plotinus and Porphyry laid emphasb upon its
worth. The Montanistic theory of prophecy neces-
sitated the entire passi\'ity of the prophet in ecstasy*
Mohammed's visions are to be ex-
Post- plained from this standpoint, and it is
Biblical to be noted in his case that epileptic
Cases, symptoms, now regarded by psy-
chologists as a predisposing cause,
were manifested from his childhood. The trans^
missibility of tliia affection was manifested on a
large scale in the Tarantii^m and Dancing Mania of
the Middle Ages (Sec D.^jjcers) which involved a
large area of Central Europe and thousands of suf-
Ecstasy
Edelmann
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOQ
ferers. That the visions of many of the saints, such
as those of St. Francis of Assisi and St. Theresa, are
traceable to this cause is highly probable. Bdhme
claimed the gift. Bonaventura's Itinerarium men-
lis in Deum aims to mark the steps by which the
soul comes in ecstasy into the presence of God.
The story of Joan of Arc, with its details of phe-
nomena which seemed to the times to savor of
witchcraft, becomes intelligible with ecstasy as the
key to the mystery. The unrestrained actions mani-
fested at periods of revival, especially in colored
communities, reveal both the effects of abnormal
excitement on individuals and the communicability
to large numbers of this psychological affection.
It is noticeable that the frequency of the affection
diminishes before the advance of culture, that the
educated are less liable to its attacks, and that
emotional peoples and individuals are the most
exposed. Geo. W. Gilmore.
Originally the word " ecstasy " signified the pas-
sage of the soul from the body, involving as a com-
plementary conception its absorption into the God-
head. A further Greek term employed to express
the state is enthousiasmxis^ and it implies the posses-
sion of man by deity. Early Christian literature uses
several terms to carry the idea, such as theophoros
(Ignatius, Epist. to Ephesians, ix. 2), entheos
(idem, Epist. to Trallians, viii. 2), pneumato-
phoros (Hennas, Mandates, xi. 16). The word " en-
thusiasm " received a bad sense at the
General time of the Reformation, as when
Review. Luther spoke of the papacy as "a
vain enthusiasm " and when he called
Zwingli an enthusiast, and the same term is appUed
in documents of the Reformation to heretics (G.
Arnold, Kirchen- und Ketzerhistorief part ii., index,
and xvi. 357). The phenomena of ecstatic enthu-
siasm were not uncommon in the later Jewish
period, continued from the time of the New Testa-
ment, were frequent in the second century, but
fell into discredit through the excesses of Montan-
ism. The ecstatic state is discussed by early wri-
ters, such as Miltiades, Tertullian, and Augustine.
The last-named defines it as " an alienation of the
mind from the bodily senses, so that the spirit of
man being taken possession of by the divine spirit
is free for taking and receiving visions " {MPL, xl.
129); he was influenced by Neoplatonism in his at-
titude toward it. Dionysius the Areopagite goes
so far as to speak of ecstasy on the part of God
{MPGf iii. 71 2A). The development of monasti-
cism gives frequent examples of the phenomenon.
Tendencies of the same sort api)ear in modem Rus-
sian sects and in the monastic orders of the Eastern
Church. The liistory of the saints and of heretics
affords frequent instances of persons affected by the
tendency who see visions and work w^onders. The
Reformers were finnly opposed to the '* fanati-
cism " which, they claimed, was exhibited among
the Anabaptists, Mennonites, and other sects. The
exhibitions continued in the later Roman Catholic
Church, e.g., Marie Alacoque, and among Protes-
tants, in the case of the Camisards. Although the
eighteenth century was especially unsympathetic
toward any type of irrationalism in reUgion, Goethe
defended " enthusiasm/' and Kant discussed the
subject, while Wieland doubted whether the iikt I
philosophical attitude could be justified (Hempch
ed. of his " Works," xxxii. 369 sqq.). The review
of the subject by Herder and Lessing reached i
rather imfavorable conclusion (Herder's '* Woib,*
XX. 277 sqq.; Lessing's " Works," ed. TArhmana,
xvi. 293 sqq.). The romantic movement of tb
nineteenth centuiy was rather more favorable, «•
pecially in the discussions of about 1830-40. &-
amples were seen in the frequent Madonna mm
and stigmatizations in the Roman Catholic C^urL
Among Protestants they were connected with tb
movements of Pietism and Methodism of the ImI
two centuries, and the record is maintained at ^
present in accounts of visions of Christ, in speakmg
with tongues, and in religious healing of disease.
The internal working of God's spirit in the indi-
vidual soul is a certainty, however it may be inte^
preted in terms of objective reality. It may tate
the position of historic revelation, but in its influ-
ence on the development of the Christian Chuicb
it may be distinguished as a kind of secondaiy xev-
elation. To distinguish between the sound and
the unsound in even the derived fonn is impoflsihk
where the emotional and practical sides of rdigjon
are concerned. The tendency in modem times is
to take an unfavorable view and to label all typei
of enthusiasm as fanaticism. Modem enthuoaan
reveals itself in five particulars: the insistence upon
the necessity for new revelations, in a belief in pre-
dictive powers, in methods of Christian healing aa
by the laying on of hands and prayer, in asoetie
methods of attaining sanctification, and in miDe-
narian views. (Karl Thtemr.)
Biblioorapht: P. Goerres, Die duidliche MyttUc, Mameh,
1836-42; M. Perty, Die mytUeehe Endteinunifen der
menachlichen Natur, Leipsic, 1864; J. H. Fichte. Pty-
cholooie, pp. 588-655. ib. 1864; F. Delitiseh, BibUeal
PtycholoQy, PP. 354-368. 418-433. Edinburgh. 1867;
A. Kuenen, Prophets and Prophecy in Itretel, p. 86. Loo-
don, 1871; E. B. Tylor, PHmiHve Culture, i. 123. 436. ii.
130-131. 410. Boston, 1874; Charbonnier de Batty. Lm
Mcdadiee dee mystiguee, Paris, 1875; H. Schults. Old
Teatament Theology, i. 254, 274 sqq.. Edinbursb* 1892;
W. Walther, Dae Zeugnie dee heiligen Geieiee naeh Lutker
und nach modemer SchteHrmerei, Leipsic, 1890; T. Adie-
lis. Die Ekstase in ihrer kuUurellen Bedeutung, Berlin, 1902;
C. A. BriggH, Messianic Prophecy, %% b, 7. New York,
1902; W. James, Varieties of Religioua Experience, Lon-
don, 1902; E. Murisibr, Les Maladiee du eentiment reiigitmx,
pp. 7-72. Paris, 1903; P. Beck, Die Eketase, Bin Beiinm
zur Psychologie und Volkerkunde, Bad Sachaa. 1906.
ECTENE, ec'ten-i or -4 (late Gk. tktene [euM[,
"earnest prayer"; cf. proseuchi ektenis, "prayer
without ceasing," Acts xii. 5): A prayer in the
form of a litany which occurs in the liturgy and
other public functions of the Eastern Church. It
consists of a varying number of short petitions
said by the deacon, to which the choir or congrega-
tion respond with Kyrie eleison, or in the supplica-
tory one with " Grant us, O Lord." All forms end
with a request for the intercession of the Virgin
and all the saints, followed by an ascription of
praise to the Holy Trinity.
ECUADOR : South American republic, so called
because it is crossed by the equator; area about
120,000 sq. m.; population about 1,400,000, of
which 700,000 are Indians, 500,000 of Spanish
descent, and 200,000 negroes and of mixed blood;
73
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bostasy
Edelxnann
tee are only 100,000 pure whites in the country.
TIk ertablished religion is Roman Catholicism,
which is recognised by the constitution of the re-
public, to the exclusion of every other confession.
Hovever, toleration is shown to foreignere of other
confessions; but these, few in number, have never
founded an independent congregation. The Church
11 oi]ganized into the arohbishopric of Quito (bish-
opric 1545, archbishopric since 1S48), the six
bkoprics of Cuenca (1786), Guayaquil (1837),
SMum (1862), Loja (1866), Porto Vecchio (1871),
and Riobamba (1863), and an apostolical vicariate
•t Nopo. The entire territory is divided into 350
puiBheB, in which are also the cloisters of ten dif-
fcrent cmlerB of monks and eleven orders of nuns.
The rdations of Church to State are regulated by
the ooDCordat of 1862, as changed in 1881, which
abo regulates the receipts of the Church in the
Kvenl provinces. In general, education, though
nomiiially compulsory, is neglected. Besides a
hir number of elementary schools there are nine
oitional colleges, five girls' schools conducted by
DQDB, a number of seminaries of the clergy, and an
qU and unimportant university at Quito, with
fanoches at Cuenca and Guayaquil. The Indians
B the east, among whom many missions were ea-
tabbhed by the Jesuits, also by the Franciscans,
prior to the separation of South America from
8piin,have been allowed to relapse completely into
tbor originai state of barbarity. Their religion is
ittiahian of the crudest variety.
WiLHBLM GOETZ.
On the country: T. C. Dawson. The South
iaoricBfi tUpyblicM, part 2, New York, 1904; A. Simson,
TmiM in the WiUU of Ecuador, London. 1887; T. Wolf.
6«0raMia y tfeoldgia del Ecuador, Leipsic. 1892; W.
Snera, Amerika, ib. 1893. On the relations of the
Cfaunh of Rome: El Conoordato i la eapoHcion del oon-
«/« emlPMl de OuayaquiL, Guayaquil. 1863 (Ck>noordat
between Pius IX. and President Moreno); Nueva veraion
id txmeordaio de 1889 . . . entre . . . Leon Xlll. y el
pmknte . . . del Ecuador, Quito. 1882. Consult also
I Lee, Rdiffioua Liberty in South America toith Special
Stfetitot to Recent Legielaiion in Peru, Ecuador and
Btbio. Oncinnati. 1907.
EDDY, MARY BAKER GLOVER: Founder
of "Christian Science "; b. at Bow, near Concord,
N.H., July 16, 1821. Her maiden name was Mary
Ambrose Morse Baker; she is of Scotch-English
otnction, and numbers among her ancestors a
number of the Provincial Congress and soldiers in
the war of the Revolution. She received her edu-
otioQ at an academy at Tilton, N. H., and from
private tutors. Her first church connection was
vith the Congregational Church at Tilton, which
«he joined July 26, 1838. She married George
Washington Glover, a bricklayer, in Dec., 1843, and
vent with him to his home in Wilmington, S. C,
where she was left a widow in June, 1844, and re-
tamed to New Hampshire soon after, where her
ody child, George Washington Glover, was bom in
Sept. of the same year. In 1853 she married Daniel
Patterson (d. 1896), a dentist, from whom she ob-
tained a divorce in 1873 on the ground of desertion.
From childhood she had been weakly in constitution
and subject at times to violent hysteria, and in
1862 she came into touch with Phineas Parkhiu^t
Qmmbj (d. Jan. 16, 1866)i a healer who after va-
rious experiments believed that he had discovered
in mental control the secret of Christ's power of
healing, and had spoken of his system as " Science
of health (and happiness)," " Science of Christ,"
and once or twice as ** Christian Science." She be-
lieved herself healed, and after 1864 began to prac-
tise his system on herself and others, then to give
instruction in the methods of treatment to others.
The first attempt at an organization to embody her
principles was made at Lynn in 1875. She was
married to Asa Gilbert Eddy Jan. 1, 1877 (d. 1888).
The Church of Christ, Scientist, later known as the
" mother church," was organized by her in Boston
in 1879. She also founded the Massachusetts Meta-
physical College, which received its charter in 1881,
and in 1883 established the Christian Science Jour-
nal. For the wide-spread denomination founded
by her see Science, Christian. She has written
Science and HeaUh with Key to the Scriptures (the
text-book of her system; many subsequent editions;
Boston, 1875); Christian Healing (1886); People's
Idea of God (1886); Unity of Good (1891); Rudi-
mental Divine Science (1891); No and Yes (1891);
Retrospection and Introspection (1892); Manual
(1895); Miscellaneous Writings (1896); Christ and
Christmas (IS97); PulpU and Press (1898); Christian
Science versus Pantheism (1898); Message to the
Mother Church (1900); Our Leader's Message (1901);
and Truth versus Error (1905).
Bibuoorapht: A. Brisbane, Mary Baker O, Eddy^ Bos-
ton. 1908.
EDDY, RICHARD: Universalist; b. at Provi-
dence, R. I., June 21, 1828; d. at Gloucester, Mass.,
Aug. 16, 1906. He was graduated at Clinton
Theological Seminary, Clinton, N. Y., in 1849, be-
came chaplain of the Sixtieth New York State
Volunteers 1861-63, and was lecturer on the history
of Universalism at Tuft's College 1882-83 and on
the dogmatic history of Universalism at the same
institution in 1902 and at St. Lawrence University,
Canton, N.Y., in 1906. In theology he based his be-
lief in universal salvation on the will, purpose, and
pleasure of God and the mission of Christ, as well
as on his acceptance of the doctrine of the remedial
character of punishment and the ever-enduring
freedom of the human will. He edited the Uni-
versalist Quarterly Review 1888-94 and the l/ni-
versalist Register (the year-book of the denomination)
after 1888, and wrote The History of the Sixtieth
Regiment New York Stale Volunteers (Philadelphia,
1864); History of Universalism in America (2 vols.,
Boston, 1883-85); Alcohol in History (New York,
1888); Alcohol in Society (1890); Universalism in
Gloucester, Mass. (Gloucester, Mass., 1894); His'
tory of Universalism (1894); and Life of Thomas
J, Sawyer (Boston, 1904).
EDELMA5N, ^'del-mOn, JOHANN CHRISTIAN:
German rationalist; b. at Weissenfels (20 m. s.w.
of Leipsic) July 9, 1698; d.at Berlin Feb. 15, 1767.
In 1720 he began the study of theology at Kiel, but
even before his examination at Eisenach in 1724
he had secretly determined to renounce the ministry.
His personal experiences among Roman Catholics
and Pietists enlarged his views but turned him more
and more from Christianity. Wherever he went
Bden
Edersheim
THE NEW SCHAFF-HER20G
74
he antagonized those whom he had hoped to win,
and he successively abandoned the Moravians, the
mystic separatists of Berleburg, and the Huguenot
Inspired at Homburghausen, finally living as an
individualistic separatist. His interpretation of the
Johanninc " The Word was God " as ** God is
reason " made his way clear before him. Hence-
forth, financially aided by his friends, he began to
write in propaganda of his convictions, his works
including Moses mit aufgedecktem AngesicfU (Berle-
burg, 1740); Die GoUlichkeit der Vemunft (1741);
Die Begierde nach der vemilnftigen lautem Milch
(Hachenburg, 1744); Glavhensbekenntnis (Neuwied,
1746), and Das Evangelium St. Harenbergs (Altona,
1748). Edelmann met with opposition everywhere,
imtil Frederic XL allowed him to live at Berlin on
condition that he publish nothing more. He ac-
cordingly engaged in private literary work, which
he continued until his death. Denying the validity
of the Bible as a source of religious knowleilge,
Edelmann sought to base religion on nature and
human thought, claiming that the world is a copy
of the supramundane deity. This divinity is not
actually transcendental, but the *' living God is
simply the uninterrupted existence and essence of
all things themselves." He regarded all positive
religions as imperfect forms of man's concept of
his relation to the universe and consequently to
God. Paul Tschackert.
Bibuoorapht: Edelmann's autobiography was edited by
C. R. W. Kloee. Berlin, 1849. Consult: K. Guden.
Johann ChrUtian Edelmann, Hanover, 1870; J. H. Pratje,
Hiatoriaehe Nachrichten von J. C. Edelmanna . . . Leben,
Hamburg, 1765; F. Mdnckeberg, Reimarua und Edel-
mann, ib. 1867; B. Bauer, Einfliua de» engliachen Qud-
kertunu auf die deuUche KuUur, Berlin. 1878; ADB, v.
639-640.
EDEN: According to Gen. ii. 8, Eden was the
coimtry where God " planted a garden," in which he
placed the man " whom he had formed." It is there-
fore called the garden of God (Ezek. xxviii. 13, xxxi.
8, 9) or the garden of Yahweh (Isa. xi. 3), and is
the very symbol of peace, for in it all
The De- animals which God had created lived
scription on terms of friendship (Gen. ii. 19 sqq.)
in Genesis, and the two human beings enjoyed
uninterrupted communion with God
(ii. 16, 22, iii. 8 sqq.). The garden was luxuriously
furnished with vegetation (ii. 9), of which the fig-
tree (iii. 7), the *' tree of life," and the " tree of
knowledge of good and evil " find special mention.
It was man's duty to dress and keep the garden
(ii. 15); here he named the animals (ii. 20), and
here the woman was fashioned out of his " rib "
(or " side," ii. 21, 22). Upon the pair, living in
this felicity, was put but one prohibition, — that
they should not eat of the tree of the knowledge
of good and evil (ii. 17). Through the serpent's
guile the woman was led to disobey this command
(iiL 1-6) and the man yielded to her temptation
and also ate of the fruit (iii. 6). Deprived by this
act of their first innocence, they made for them-
selves aprons of fig leaves, and hid themselves
from God (iii. 7, 8). Thereupon God cursed the
serpent, but promised future victory for the human
race, — the so-called protevangelium (iii. 15). But
man was punished by being driven from the garden,
that he might not eat of the tree of life and bo fin I
forever (iii. 22). At the east of the garden God
placed the cherubim and a flaming sword, tundng
every way by its own motion, to keep the roid to
the tree of life (iii. 24).
Stories of an early period of innocence and hip*
piness in the history of the human race are foimd
among other peoples than the Hebrews. In lufii
and Persia stories with marked 8up»
Other ficial resemblances to the Genen
Similar narrative have been found. When the
Stories. Assyrian and Babylonian litentme
first began to be accessible many hoped
that it would afford still closer parallels, as it ul-
timately did to the creation and flood namti?ei
of Genesis. This hope was quickened by the dis-
covery of a small cylinder seal, now in the Britidi
Museum, upon which were cut the figures of a male
and female on opposite sides of a tree, with handi
stretched toward it, wliile behind the female is an
upright snake. But closer examination makes it
doubtful whether this has any relationship to the
Biblical temptation. The figures are clothed, and
the male figure is certainly intended to represent
a god, as it is provided with horns, and the female
is quite probably intended to represent a goddeas.
What the serpent may mean is doubtful, thougji
Jensen suggests it may represent a guardian. The
meaning of the scene is likely to remain doubtful
until the discovery of some written explanation of
it in Babylonian mythology. The Babylonian
legend of Adapa has been compared with the Bibli-
cal story, but the resemblance is not close. Adapa
is the son of the god Ea, from whom he had re-
ceived wisdom but not everlasting life. Adapa,
who is a sort of half divine being, lives at Erkla
as a local wise man, and priest of Ea's temple, to
which it is his care to supply bread and water.
While fishing one day in the Persian Gulf hia
boat was overturned by the south wind, whose
wings Adapa at once broke in anger, so that
for seven days it was not able to blow. Sum-
moned before the god Anu to answer for this
misdeed, Adapa was warned by Ea that Anu would
offer him water of death and bread of death,
both of which he must decline. Anu, however,
relented and offered him bread of life and water
of life, which Adapa declined and so missed his
chance of eternal life.
The writer of the story of Eden evidently intended
to convey a definite and exact idea of its location.
He has described and named its rivers, and told
what lands lay contiguous to them, and has even
given the characteristics of these lands. But,
explicit as he is, the identification of his details is
so difficult that no consensus of opinion
Attempts has been reached, nor does any seem
to Locate to be in prospect. It would be almost
Eden. safe to say that the views of the loca-
tion of Eden are as numerous as the
scholars who have investigated the problem. The
earlier attempts at a solution may be passed by,
as not conforming to geographical conditions as
recent investigations have made them known;
and the more or less eccentric views which would
find the Biblical Paradise in Atlantis, Lemuria, or
REUGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Accen
Bdarsheim
be Kortb Pole, oeed only be mentioned. The
OgoitloD^ which have found moit approval In
KKktD times are the fckUowing: (1) Eden was in
}m Fmt Ea^t. Thii view idetitifiee the Pmon with
he Indus or Ofoiges^ and Gihon with the Nile.
!be tfaem^r has aev^erai different forms, aod in ino^t
I them can be re^;arded only as holding that Edea
HP in Utopia, the Land of tho Golden Nowhere,
mhf no poiaabilltf ean the Nile and the Indus
w Gmges nrer b&ve been derived from one head.
i of the adhen^nts of this view look upon the
I accounts as based upon ignorance of geo^
piphical facts or a» whoUy ideal. Delitssch and
DiDiiiann may be cited as the chief names in sup-
port of this hypotheais. The former says: '^ The In-
^intion of the Biblical writers did not, in matters
of DAtur&l ioiDwledge, raise them above the levet of
fhi^ife: it need^ therefore, cause no surprise if the
BijUcal representation of Paradise bears marks of
tk imperfect g^eographical knowledge of the an-
dnta,^' (2) Eden was near Eridu in southern
Bibjlonis. This view based partly on the investi-
ptJOQB of Eduard Glaser has been propounded
ud eupport^ with ingenuity and learning by Friti
IttnaieL Be identifies the rivers Pison, Gihon,
tod HJddekel with tliree wai:lies in northern Arabia,
Httd respectively the U'ady Dawaair, the Wady
tmam and the Wady Sirhan. But these are dry
fikji And not riverBf and the identification is in
itempecta not easily feeouciled with the Genesis
Wementa. (3) Eden was in northern Babylonia
•Btt" the city of Babylon. This location was first
^geftted by Friedrich Delitzech in 1JS8L Ac-
swing to him Eden was the whole plain of Baby-
tei, afid Paradise was located where the Tigris
lad Euphrates most nearly approach each otlier.
^ river Pison is the great canal Pallakoptw,
mming west and south of the Euphrates (Assyrian
Cmhw river bed) and the Gihon with the canal
li»tt al-Na, which runs east fiora the Euphrates
mm Babylon and rejoins it near Ur. On the
rhde this theory eeems best to meet the conditions
lid down in Genesis, but its acceptance among
choltm has aot been general. (4) Quite recently
ht view advocated by Gunkel that the original
^deo was in heaven and the rivers are represented
3j tk Milky Way and its four arms has found
«ippcrt among certain scholars. Upon this theory
the earthly Eden is but a reflection and eo may
bait beeo located in several places by difTerent
pieplei, Bs for example in Babylonia, or Arabia.
& Adam, II, Robert W. Rogees.
t: The htermtuTB up to 1S02 it In O. Z5cklAr^
BMadtt w^ ta-d^enhittoritehm Studrnn, v. 3 mm.,
l^iefa, 18B3, >od in most at the oocnmentiLrJei on Gptus^
■^ CoDJuItt Friedrich DeU tench, Wo tag da« Paradittf
I^u. IgSl im book of wide repuiaiioa); F. 3pi«geU
feitoiAf Alkrtkum*kundm, i. 473 aqq,. 522 nqq., ib.
^U W, B&udiiain. Htudien twr Mtmiiisehin. Rtiiawnage-
^i^. 11. t8»-160. lb, IS78; E. Glbaer. EkiMS def Gt^
■*iEyf . . „ Atabief^, ji. 323 »Qq,, 341 nqq.. Berlin,
^ P^ Jemea, ICi»nvils7ii* Stnubure. ISIKI; idem, in
I^ttftfcinftrk:^ Smmlh^, vi. 1. B«riin. 1900: C, H.
Vm«^5L^ m {imi\ 1-10; t, Neatb, Mw^natimn ufid
J[j^*»feii.pp.4-«. TGbifi«*[i, 1SS3: A. H.aayce. " Hioher
^^f^m^im'* amdihg MonummniM, pp, 95 xqq,. London, 1i^94;
iDObuui on Gc!n««ji« in KitrrQffattte* exeoititehe* Mand-
**^ LaEMic 1802, Enff- tran*!,, 2 volf*.. Edinburgh.
W; F. Hosi^el, 4Hci<nl Hdbr*w l^mdition, Lotidun,
1^7: H. Giiiake], on Gooesia in HandkommmUar turn
Attfn Tmtam^nL OL^ftinj^f^n. 1901; £. C. Worwst^r. Qwn€-
tU in the LtflAi of Madttn KmtiBUdot. pp. 148-266, New
York, 1901; Scbrader, KAT, pp. 530-^530^ DB, L ®43-
644: EB, iil 3509^3383; JE, v. 36-39.
EDEIT, GEORGE RODITEY: Church of England
bishop of Wakefield: b. at Sunderland (14 m, n.e.
of Durbam), Durham county, England^ Sept. 9,
1S53. He studied at Pembroke Collegie^ CambHdgo
(B.A., 187B)p and beeame honorary fellow in 1903.
He was ordered deacon in 1878 and ordained prieat
in 1879^ and was asaistant master of Ay^garth
School, Yorkshire, 1878-76, domestic chaplain to
Bishop Light foot of Durham 187U-S3, aud chaplain
toBiihop Ligbtfoot and vicar of Auckland 1883-90.
In 1890 he was consecrated bisihop sufTragan of
Dover, He was alao rural dean of Auckland from
1887 to I800| and archdeacon and canon of Canter
bury^ tu) well as chaplaiji of the Cinque Ports, from
1892 to 1897. He was select preacher at Cam-
bridge in 1886, 1890, 1892, and 1894, and at Oxford
in 1899-1900. In 1897 he was tmualated to the see
of Wakefield. In theology he has sympathy for
many varieties of opinion^High, Broad, and Low
Church— within the Church in 90 far &b they are
compatible with loyalty to the fundamental doc^
trines of Christianity.
EDERSHEIH, ^ders-bnimp ALFRED: Biblical
scholar; b. at Vienna Mar, 7, 1825; d. at Menton,
FraDce« Mar. 16, 1889. He was of Jewiah parent-
age, and reoeived liis earliest education in a gym*
naaium of hh native city and in the talmwi torah
attached to a Viennese synagogue. In 1841 he con-
tinued his studies at the University of Vienna, but
left it before taking his degree on account of the
financial reverses of his father. Going to Festh
as a teacher of languageSp he came under the influ-
ence of John Duncan, a Scotch Presbyterian
chaplain to workmen engaged in constructing a
bridge over the Danube, and was converted to
Christianity. Etlersheim accompanied Duncan on
his return to Scotland and studied theology at New
College, Edinburgh, and at the ITniversity of Berlin.
In 1846 he was ordaiuetl to the minbtry of the Pres*
byterian Church. He was for a year a missionary
to the Jews at Jasey, Rumania, and on his return to
Scotland, after preaching for a time in Aberdeen,
was infitaHed at the Free Cburch, Old Aberd^^n, in
1849. In 1861 failing health forced him to r^ign
and the Ctmrcb of St. Andrew was built for him at
Torquay. In 1872 his hcjdth again obliged bim to
retire, and for four years he lived quietly at Bourne*
mouth. In 1875 he took orders in the Church of
England, and was curate of the Abbey Churchy
Cbristchurcb, Hants, for a year, and from 1876 to
1882 vicar of Lotlcra, Dorsctahirt^, l>ef?ides being
Warburtonian Lecturer at Lincoln's Inn IHSO-S-I.
In 1882 he resigned his Uving and removed to 0.\-
ford. He was select preacher to the University
1884-85 and Grinficld Lecturer on the Septuagint
1886-88 and 1888-90, His works include HiMory
of the Jmmah Nation after tfte Distruction of Jeru-
sakm h}/ TihiA (Edmburgh, 1856); The Temple :
IlM Mini^nf and Sendees alike Time o/ Jeswf ChriM
(London, 1874); BibU History (7 vok, 1876^7);
J e wink 8w:iQt Life in the Da^a of Ctirixt (1870);
Bdmnnd
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
The Life and Times of Jesus the Messiah (2 vols.,
1883; condensation in one volume, 1890), his
greatest work; and Prophecy and History in Rela-
tion to the Messiah (Warburton Lectures for 1880-
1884, 1885); Tohurva-Vohu, *' WUhout form and
Void.** A Collection of fragmentary Thought and
Criticisms, Ed, with a Memoir, by Ella Edersheim
(1890).
EDESSA: An important city of Northern Meso-
potamia. It is located on the Daisan, an eastern
tributary of the Euphrates, nearly midway be-
tween Diarbekir and Aleppo on the straight line
which joins them, in 37'' 21' n. lat., and 39'' 6' e.
long. The Targum of pseudo-Jonathan, Jerome,
and Ephraem Syrus wrongly identified the city
with the Erech of Gen. x. 10, and this may be re-
flected in the Arabic tradition which connects the
place with the death of Abraham, after whom the
principal mosque of the city is called. The early
name is imknown. The city came into historical
prominence as a part of the Greek empire in the
time of Seleucus, who possibly renamed it after the
Macedonian Edessa, though an etymological sug-
gestion is that Edessa is a corruption of the Syriac
lladUha, " New City." By the Greeks it was also
called Callirrhoe (doubtless from its foimtain),
whence came the Syrian name Urhoi, the Arabic
el-Roha, and the Turkish Urfa.
Eklessa remained theoretically a city of the
Seleucid kingdom till 136 B.C., when it became the
capital of the Osrohenic (Chosroenic) kingdom
founded by Osrhoes (Orhoi bar-Khevj'o), among
whose successors was Abgar (q.v.), famous for the al-
leged correspondence with our Lord (Eusebius, Hist,
eccl., I.,xxiii. sqq.). It was plundered by Trajan's
general Lucius Quietus, 116 a.d., and the kingdom
was made tributary to the Romans, though its
independence was restored by Hadrian, probably
the foUowing year. In 217 its autonomy was ended
by Garacalla, and a Roman colony was established
there During the next century it suffered severely
in the wars between Romans and Persians, and it was
visited by Julian, who proposed to distribute the
wealth of the native Christians and churches among
his soldiers. In 609 the Persians were in posses-
sion, and in 641 the Mohonmiedans took it. It
was captured in the crusade under Godfrey of
Bouillon in 1097 and remained in Christian hands
till 1144, when it again became a Moslem possession.
In 1234 it belonged to the Byzantines, Tamerlane
took it in 1393, and the Turks in 1637.
The city was early a seat of Christianity, and an
untrustworthy tradition attributes the introduction
of the religion to Thaddeiis (see Judas) or to Addai,
alleged to be one of the Seventy sent by Thomas the
Apostle (see Abgar, and cf. Ada Thaddcci, Apoc-
rypha, B, II., 12). This Syrian tradition makes
Addai the firat bishop, and his immediate succes-
sors Aggaeus and Barsimseus. The first Christian
church built there is said to have been destroyed by
a flood in 202. a.d., which testifies to the early
estabhshment of Christianity there. In the third
century it was the seat of a bishop, and in the fourth
was a city of monasteries as well as the chief seat
of Syrian Christian learning with its famous schools
whence issued a long line of famous scholars.
Ephraem Syrus made it his hcmie, and Soioma
{Hist, eccl., vi. 18) affirms that in the time of Yaleoi
(363-378) most of the inhabitants were Chnsdau.
The type of Christianity seems to have chanf^
from orthodox to Arian and later to NestotiuL
Under Diocletian it appears to have been the aeeoB
of many martyrdoms, and under Si^r TL of
Persia the Christians there suffered severe pem-
cutions. It is still the seat of an Armenian aidi-
bishop, and it gives the name to a titular Roman
Catholic archbishopric. Its present population is
estimated at between 30,000 and 50,000, neariy
all Mohammedans, with about 2,000 Armeman
Christians and about 500 Jews.
Geo. W. GiufOEE.
Bibliographt: The basal source for the eariy hisUny it Ai
Chronicon Edestenum, ed. I. Guidi, in Syriac and Lstiii.
1903, also in J. S. Asseman, Bildiotheea arierUali»^ i. 38S-
417. Rome. 1719; consult also T. L. Bayer. HiaL 0»-
rhoena et Ede99ena ex numtnit ilhutraia^ St. Petadnoi,
1734. The Christian sources are indicated in the text ii
the ecclesiastical histories of Eusebius, I. ziii. sqq., Soso*
men, iii. 14, 16, and Socrates, iv. 18. Consult hirths:
L. J. Tixeront, Les Originn de Viglim d'6de$m, ?$b»,
1888; A. Buffa. La Uuende d' Abgar ef la arigiim h
ViglxMe d'Sdeaae, Geneva, 1893; F. C. Burkitt. Smki
EoMtem Chriatianity, chap, i, London, 1904.
EDIFICATION (Gk., oikodomi, "building up,"
oikodamein, ekoikodomein, " to build up ")• In i
metaphorical sense a term peculiar to Christianity,
occurring in the New Testament, in Matt. xvL 18;
Acts ix. 31, XX. 32; I Pet. ii. 5; Jude 20, and
especially in Paul. The notion goes back to the
conception of the congregation (Eph. IL 21-22;
I Cor. iii. 9, 16) and the individual Christian (I Cor.
vi. 19; Gal. ii. 20; Eph. iii. 17) as the " temple of
God **; but it transcends the literal significance d
the word in so far as the subject in whom the edi-
fication takes place receives his origin through
edification in the literal sense, but in the meta-
physical sense is already in existence before the
edification (so in I Pet. ii. 5). Pagans are not
*' built up " to a congregation of Christ, nor do in-
dividual Christians by their union " build up "
the congregation, but the existing congregation of
Christ is " built up *' into the congregation of Christ,
a member of the congregation into a member of the
congregation of Christ, by edification the congrega-
tion and the individual Christian becomes that which
it (or he) already is. By faith in Christ the congre-
gation like the individual Christian has entered into
the status perfectionis ; more than the congregation
of Christ it can not become as the individual Chris-
tian can not become more than a child of God.
But the task is to become perfectly that which they
are, and to realize fully the principle of the new life:
the activity by which this is accomplished is " edi-
fication."
According to Matt. xvi. 18 Christ is the subject,
and Christians as a whole are the object of the
" edification" ; according to Eph. iv. 16 Christians as
a whole and according to Rom. xiv. 19 the indi-
vidual congregation are the subject and object of the
** edification; " according to I Cor. xiv. 4, ** he that
prophesieth," according to Eph. iv. 29 every Chris-
tian in every word is the subject and the congre-
gation the object, of the "edification"; according
to Kom. XV. (I Thess. v. 11; I Cor. adv. 17) the
TT
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bdessa
Bdmund
individual is to " edify " the individual; according
to I Cor. xiv. 4, "he that speaketh in a tongue "
•* edificth " himself (only). But whether the con-
gregation edifies itself, or an individual the con-
gregation, or another individual, or himself, the
supreme subject of all " edification " is Christ the
Lord, who exercises his edifying activity through
his Gospel, through the gifts of his Spirit, through
the new life (especially through love, 1 Cor. viii. 1),
^which he has awakened and preserves in his con-
gregation. Christ himself leads his congregation
and its individual members unto perfection.
E. C. ACHELIS.
EDMimD (EADMUin)), SAINT, OF CANTER-
BURY (EDMUND RICH): Archbishop of Can-
terbury; b. at Abingdon (7 m. s. of Oxford), Berk-
shire, c. 1175; d. at Soisy-en-Brie (75 m. s.e. of
Paris), France, Nov. 16. 1240 or 1242. He studied
at the universities of Oxford and Paris and became
a teacher about 1200, or a little earlier. For six
years he lectured on mathematics and dialectics,
apparently dividing his time between Oxford and
Paris, and winning distinction for his part in intro-
ducing the study of Aristotle. Through the influ-
ence of a pious mother he had led from boyhood a
life of singular self-denial and austerity; and it is
not surprising to find him tiring of secular subjects
and ready to go over to theology. Though for
some time he resisted the change, he finally entered
upon his new career between 1205 and 1210. He
received ordination, took a doctorate in divinity,
and soon won fame as a lecturer on theology and as
an extemporaneous preacher. After expounding
the " Lord's Law " for a number of years, Edmund
became disgusted with scholasticism and gave up
his chair at Oxford. Some time between 1219 and
1222 he was appointed treasurer of Salisbury
Cathedral, and held this position for eleven years,
during which time he also engaged in preaching.
In 1227, at the bidding of Innocent III., he preached
the sixth crusade through a large part qf England.
In 1233 came the news of his appointment, by
Gregory IX., to the archbishopric of Canterbury.
The chapter had already made three selections which
the pope had declined to confirm, and Edmund's
name had been proposed as a compromise by
Gregory, perhaps on account of his work for the cru-
sade, and he was consecrated Apr. 2, 1234. Before
his consecration he allied himself with the national
party, whose object was to make the kingdom inde-
pendent, maintain the Great Charter and exclude
foreigners from civil and ecclesiastical office, and in
the name of his fellow bishops he admonished
Henry III. at Westminster, Feb. 2, 1234, to take
warning of his father. King John. A week after
his consecration he again appeared before the king
with the barons and bishops, this time threatening
his sovereign with excommunication, if he re-
fused to dismiss his coimcilors, particularly Peter
des Roches, bishop of Winchester. This threat was
sufficient. The objectionable favorites were dis-
missed; and soon the archbishop was sent to Wales
to negotiate peace with Prince LleweUyn.
In 1237, in order to destroy the authority of
Edmund, Henry induced the pope to send Cardinal
Otto as legate to England. Through numerous
disputes with bishops and monks, not to speak of
the rupture with the king, and the excommunica-
tion of Simon dc Montfort and his bride, Edmund
had already made his position a difficult one. As
the champion of the national Church against the
claims of Rome he now found himself arrayed
against the pope. In Dec, 1237, he set out for
Rome, hoping to enlist the pope on the side of eccle-
siastical reform. From this futile mission he
returned to England in Aug., 1238, to find himself
reduced to a cipher. If he excommunicated his
monks, they appealed to Rome and paid no atten-
tion to his interdict. Finding himself foiled at every
turn he finally submitted to the papal demands;
and early in 1240, hoping to win his cause against
his monks, he paid to the pope's agents one fifth
of his revenue, which had b^n levied for the pope's
war against Emperor Frederick II. Other Eng-
lish prelates followed his example. Then came
the demand that 300 English benefices should
be assigned to as many Romans. This attack
upon the rights of the national Church was more
than Edmund could endure. In the summer
of 1240, broken in spirit, he retired to the abbey
of Pontigny, France, which had been the refuge
of his predecessors, St. Thomas and Stephen
Langton. A few months later he died at the
priory of Soisy. In less than a year after his death
miracles were alleged to be wrought at his grave;
and in 1247 he was canonized.
Edmund is one of the most attractive figures of
medieval history. His life was one of self-sacrifice
and devotion to others. From boyhood he prac-
tised asceticism; and throughout his life he wore
sackcloth next his skin, pressed against his body
by metal plates. After snatching a few hours' sleep
without removing his clothing, he usually spent the
rest of the night in prayer and meditation. Besides
his *' Constitutions," issued in 1236 (printed in W.
Lynwood's Constitutionea Anglice, Oxford, 1679),
he wrote Speculum ecclesicB (London, 1621; Eng.
transL, 1527; reprinted in M. de la Bigne's Btblio-
theca veterum patrum, v., Paris, 1609).
Bibliography: A Vita by Bertrand of Pontigny, with
EpistolcB varioB and other pertinent material is in E. Mar-
t6ne, Theaaxtrua novua aneodotorum, iii. 177&-1826, Paris,
1717; another, by his brother, Robert Rich of Pontigny,
is in L. Surius, Vitee aanctorum, Nov., vi. 366-376, Paris,
1575 and is also in W. Wallace, Lifs of St. Edmund of
Canterbury, London, 1803. Sources of knowledge are
the works of Matthew of Paris, ed. H. R. Luard, no. 57
of the RoJU Series, vols. iii. -v.; AnnaUa momutici, ed.
H. R. Luard. no. 36 of Rolls Series, 4 vols.; Gervase of
Canterbury, ed. W. Stubbs, no. 71 of Rollt Seriet, vol. ii.
MS. material is indicated in T. D. Hardy, Descriptive
Catalooue, no. 26 of RoUs Seriee, iii. 87-96; while documents
of value are given in Haddan and Stubbs, Councils, i.
463, 465. Modem accounts, besides the work of Wal-
lace, ut sup., are: W. F. Hook, Lives of the Archbis?iop»
of Canterbury, vol. iii., 12 vols., London, 1860-76; E.
Jaspar, Notice hiographique sur S. Edmond, Lille, 1872;
L. F. Masse. Tf^e Life of S. Edmond of Canterbury, Lon-
don, 1874; ib. 1897; F. de Paravicini, Life of St. Ed-
mund of Abingdon, ib. 1898; W. R. W. Stephens, The
English [Church 1066-1272, pp. 228-233, 277, ib. 1901;
DNB, xvi. 405-410.
EDMUND (EADMUlfD), SAINT, THE MAR-
TYR: Last king of the East Angles; b.in Nurem-
berg 841, the son of King Alkmund; killed by the
Danes near Hoxne (25 m. n. of Ipswich), Suffolk,
Edom
Edward, Saint
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
78
Nov. 20, 870. As the adopted eon of Offa, the
East Anglian king, he succeeded that monarch
Dec. 25, 855. It was the time of the Danish in-
cursions in England. In 870 a formidable band of
the heathen attacked East Anglia, and according
to the not altogether trustworthy accounts, Edmund
determined to sacrifice himself in the hope of sa-
ving his people. He was bound to a tree, tortured,
and finally beheaded. His remains were interred
at Hoxne for thirty-three years and then deposited
at the town now known as Bury St. Edmunds,
where Canute built a magnificent church and abbey
in his honor in 1020. Whether Edmund was ever
formally canonized is doubtful, but miracles were
attributed to him soon after his death, his shrine
was long one of the most frequented resorts of
English pilgrims, and his sainthood was unques-
tioned in the popular estimation. HLs piety, meek-
ness, and benevolence are highly extolled and it is
said that he shut himself up in his tower at Hun-
stanton in Norfolk for an entire year to memorize
the Psalter.
Bibliography: The PasHo gancti Edmundi, by Abbo., ed.
T. Arnold, is in RolU Series, No. 96, London. 1890. Con-
sult the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, ed. B. Thorpe, in RoUa
Serif, No. 23. ib. 1861; DNB. xvi. 400-401.
EDOM, EDOMITES: The country kno\%Ti in
the Old Testament principally as Edom (Hebr.
^Edhorrtj Assyr. Udumu or Udumiy
The Egyptian Aduma) lay southeast of
Country Palestine, and included the valley
and of the Arabah south of the Dead Sea,
its approximately 100 miles in length.
Names, and the mountain ranges which border
it, with a somewhat indefinite extent
of territory east and west, corresponding to the pres-
ent al-Shera. In its greatest extent it reached
north and south from the Dead Sea to the Gulf of
Akabah, eastward to the Arabian desert, and west-
ward to the desert of Sin (Josh. xv. 1). The name
most probably means '* Red (Land)," from the color
of the sandstone cliffs which are a prominent feature
of the topography. Other possibilities are that
Edom is the name of a deity, or that it means " man
(par excellence)/' hcinfr connected with ** Adam,"
the Bible name for the first man. The country is
also known as Seir and Mount Seir (Heb. Se'ir,
" liairy," possibly from the effect of the wooded
or brushy crests of the mountains as seen from a
distance, Gen. xxv. 25, 30, xxvii. 11, 23, xxxii. 3;
Num. xxiv. 18; Deut. i. 44; and often); and, poet-
ically, " the mountains of Esau " (Obad. 8-9, 19,
21). The later name was Idumea (Isa. xxxiv. 5-6;
Ezok. xxxv. 15, xxxvi. 5; Mark iii. 8). The region
is at present for the most part barren, tho^igh por-
tions in the east are not only tillable but luxuriantly
fertile. The valley has an elevation of 600 feet near
the middle part of its length, and slopes northward
down to the Dead Sea, and south to the eastern arm
of the Red Sea. Among its cities were Maon (Judges
X. 12), the present Ma' an; Punon or Pinon (Num.
xxxiii. 42-43; cf. Gen. xxxvi. 41); Hozrah (Gen.
xxxvi. 33, and often), probably the capital, the
modem Buseirah; Selah or Petra (II Kings xiv. 7).
Possibly Teman (Gen. xxxvi. 34; Jer. xlix. 7, 20;
Amos i. 12; and often) was the name of a district.
not of a city. An important feature of the oountiy
were the trade-routes which cut or skirted it, es-
pecially that from Damascus to the Red Sea, and
the eastern and western road from Babylonia to
Egypt.
The Edomites belonged to the northern bnmdiQf
the Semitic race, with the Moabites, Ammonito,
and Hebrews constituting the Hebraic
The group. The Old Testament makei
People, them descendants of Esau (who is m
eponym given the name Edom becautt
of his coloring; cf. Gen. xxv. 25), the elder brother of
Jacob-Israel. This statement of the relationship of
the two brothers is the expression of the conscious-
ness in Israel of the earlier origin or crystalliEaUin
into nationality of the Edomites. But the latter
appear as the conquering invaders of the countiy,
not as the autochthonous inhabitants, who are called
" sons of Seir the Horite " or " Horites " (Gol
xxxvi. 2, 20; Deut. ii. 12, 22; cf. the Egyptian
Sa'a'ira; ** Horites" probably means troglodytes;
see Gezer; cf. the Egyptian designation of the
people as Haru), who are represented as continuing
in the land, while the E^ptian reports of tiro
peoples as " Beduin from Aduma" and Sa'wa
existing side by side east of Egypt corroborate the
representation. According to Gen. xxxvi. 15-19 the
Edomites were composed of thirteen clans; Gen.
xxxvi. 40-43 implies only eleven. Gen. xxxvi. 31
names eight Edomitic kings ; and Num. xx. 14 and
Judges xi. 17 imply a kingdom as early as Moses.
The people are described as hunters, agriculturists,
and viticulturists, which corresponds to the nature
of the country. Their home on the great roads of
commerce also gave them tribute from that source,
and they may have been carriers. Of their religion
little is known; II Chron. xxv. 14 makes them poly-
theists (cf. I Kings xi. 5-6). Divine names fonn
elements in the names usually borne by Edomites,
and it has been shown to be plausible that the name
Eflom belonged to a deity who became the epony-
mous ancestor of the people (cf. the names Gad and
Asher [q(i.v.]). The name Obededom, " servant of
Edom " (found also in an inscription from Car-
thage) , is much in favor of this hypothesis, while an
Egyptian papyrus knows of a goddess Atuma,
possibly implying a Semitic male deity Atum. The
element Baal in Baalhanan (Gen. xxxvi. 38-39) may
be a mere appellative. Hadad (Hadar, Gen. xxzvL
35-36, 39; I Kings xi. 14 sqq.) may have been an
Aramean loan-god. In the cuneiform inscriptions
a proper name is possibly to be read Malik-nunmu,
the first element of which may be compared with
Moloch in its general meaning of king of his people.
Ye^iish, an Edomite clan name (Gen. xxxvi. 5), may
be the Edomitic form of Ya*uth, the name of an
Arabic deity. Josephus (Ant. XV., vii. 9) knows of
an Edomitic deity Koze, and he is corroborated by
numerous inscriptions in cognate languages and by
the element Kaus appearing in proper names (see
below). Nothing is known of Edomitic civilization,
though the trade-routes passing through the land
must have had results in this direction. One of
Job's friends was Eliphaz of Teman, presumably an
Edomite, and it has been plausibly suggested that
the Book of Job is Edomitic. Not a single inscrip-
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
HdOBH
Edward, Saint
he language has survived, but the tongue
differed only dialectically from Hebrew,
from the early Biblical references (Gen.
\y which credits the Edomites with a victory
over the Midianites), the region and its
J people enter history by the mention in
e Egyptian docimients of the thirteenth
m century of Shasu (Bedouin) from Aduma
L (ut sup.) who were allowed to pasture
their flocks near the E^gyptian frontier,
apyrus states that the Shasu of Sa*aira
ire defeated in battle (c. 1200). Gen. xxxii.
. 8 asserts that E^sau took up his abode on
eir. The story of the Exodus makes Israel
S8 the Edomitic territory, permission being
to pass directly through the region. The
tact of the two peoples appears in the cam-
Saul against them (I Sam. xiv. 47), which
to have had no permanent results, as David
»nfiict with them probably in the valley
the Dead Sea (II Sam. viii. 13-14; cf.
li. 15-16; I Chron. xviii. 11-13), and Joab
have extirpated the males in this campaign
year. At this time probably was laid the
g of that intense enmity between the peoples
sted till the time of Herod the Great. One
>yal house escaped either to Egypt (Heb.
) or to the North Arabian Muzri (see
, VI, §2), where he married and his son
h was brought up, and then proved a thorn
le of Solomon (I Kings xi. 14-22, 25b, where
Ihom instead of ^Aranif " Syrians "). The
x>mmand of the Gulf of Akaba, involving
>f the roads leading thither, shows that the
c territory was imder Hebrew dominion
ix. 26-28). After the division of the king-
om fell to the portion of Judah, and in the
Jehoshaphat (c. 850) must still have been
to Judah (II Kings iii.), since the king of
'as in control of Ezion-geber (I Kings xxii.
is also stated (ver. 47) that the ruler of
t the time was a ** deputy " (cf. II Kings
, 12, 26, where the ruler is called king). In
paign of Jehoram and Jehoshaphat against
he Edomites furnished part of the allied
dmost certainly as a tributary people. In
n of Jehoshaphat 's son Joram they revolted,
least partial success (II Kings viii. 20-22;
n. xxi. 8-10). Amaziah inflicted a severe
c. 790), capturing Selah (II Kings xiv. 7;
1. XXV. 11), and Amaziah 's successor Uzziah
)06session of Elath, one of the ports on the
Akabah (II Kings xiv. 22; II Chron. xxvi.
-Ater the Edomites seem to have been allies
Syrians (II Kings xvi. 6), and were active
Judah (II Chron. xxviii. 17).
figure in the cimeiform inscriptions about
as tributary to Assyria under their king
lik. In 711 Edom was a member of the
astern coalition against Sargon, but rendered
U) the great conqueror. They were also in
ederation of 701 led by Hezekiah, but the
c king Malik-rammu submitted and paid
Kausgabri, king of Edom, was one of the
subject to Esarhaddon (681-668) and to
inipal (668-626). Edomitic representatives
were among those who consulted at Jerusalem,
evidently with the idea of resisting the approach of
Nebuchadrezzar (Jer. xxvii. 3). The Deuteronomic
representation implies friendly relations about 625
(Deut. ii. 4-5, xxiii. 8) . On the capture of Jerusalem
Judean fugitives found refuge in Edom (Jer. xl. 11).
Yet at that period the long hostility between the
two peoples found vent in Edomitic rejoicing which
raised new bitterness in the Hebrew mind (Lam. iv.
21-22; Ezek. xxxv. 3-15; Obad. 10-16). Edomites
seized the territory of southern Judah, including the
region about Hebron, to which the name of Idumea
was given, bearing witness to the fact. A con-
tributing cause for this northward movement was
doubtless the pressure exerted upon Edom by the
Nabatsean wave of migration from Arabia (see
Arabia, III). There is reason to believe that the
Edomites maintained their hold upon the district
and even advanced to the neighborhood of Jeru-
salem, where they appear to have been just before
the time of Ezra and Nehemiah, after which the
strength of the Jews probably restricted them to the
south. Judas the Maccabee fought them (I Mace.
V. 3, 65) and finally drove them from Jewish terri-
tory. John Hyrcanus carried operations into their
own country, conquered them, and compelled them
(c. 109) to adopt Jewish rites and religion (Josephus,
Ant., XIII. ix. 1, XV. vii. 9; War, I. ii. 6, III.
iii. 5), Idumea becoming fully recognized as Jewish
territory. There is reason to believe that they were
amalgamated with the Jews, lost their national
identity, and added one more strain to the much-
mixed blood of the Jews. The people of South Judah
not only gave the dynasty of Herod (see Herod
AND His Family), but took part in the final revolt
of the Jews against the Romans, and suffered with
them in the catastrophe. Geo. W. Gilmore.
Biblioqraphy: F. Buhl, GeachichU der Edomiter, Leipsio,
1893; W. Libbey and F. E. Hoakina, The Jordan Valley
and Petra, New York, 1905; Schradcr, KAT, i. passim;
F. Baethgen, BeitrUge zur temitiechen ReliffionegeachicfUe,
pp. 10 sqq., Berlin, 1889; E. H. Palmer, Desert of the
ExoduB, 429 sqq., Cambridge. 1871; E. Hull, Mount Seir,
etc., pp. 85 sqq., London, 1885; J. F. McCurdy, Hiatory,
Prophecy and the MonumentB, 3 vols.. New York, 1894,
1896; E. Meyer, EnUtehung de» Judentume, pp. 114 nqq.,
Halle, 1896; E. Robinson, Reeearchee, ii. 117 sqq., 168 sqq.,
Ix>ndon, 1841-43; A. Musil, Arabia Petrcta, ii., Edom,
Vienna, 1908.
EDSALL, SAMUEL COOK: Protestant Epis-
copal bishop of Minnesota; b. at Dixon, 111., Mar.
4, 1860. He studied at Racine College (B.A., 1882)
and practised law until 1888, when he was grad-
uated from the Western Theological Seminary,
Chicago. In 1889 he founded St. Peter's, Chicago,
of which he was rector until 1899, when he was
consecrated missionary bishop of North Dakota.
In 1901 he was translated to Minnesota as coadjutor
to Bishop H. B. Whipple, and within the year, on
the death of the aged bishop, assumed full control
of the diocese.
EDUCATION: See Theological Education;
also the articles on the various countries for the
relations of Church and State and popular educa-
tion. For education among the Hebrews, see
Family and Marriage Relations, Hebrew, § 15.
EDWARD (EADWARD), SAINT, THE CON-
FESSOR: King of England 1042-66; b. at Islip
Edwards
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOQ
(5 m, n, of Oxford) c- 1003^ d. at Wentminster, Lon-
don, Jan. 5, 1066* Ho was a son of Ethel red the
Unreaciy (king 071)- 10 16) aiitJ oephew of Edward
t he Martyr [ see Du nj^t an ^ S a int ) . As a cb ild he was
Bent to Normandy, hii mother'i country, and there
he was brought up and lived, whQe the DaneB,
Canute and his sons^ nded England (101(5—42).
The desire of the English to restore tiie kings of
their own race made Edward the general ehoice to
succeed Ha rdi Canute in 1042, and he was crowned
at Winehcstf3r on Easter day, Apr. 3, KM3, As king
the ItQ&t that can be said for him is that he meant
well; he was indolent and willingly left royal chttiea
to others. The great earls really ruled England
and their jealousies and intrigues were protluctive
of disonler. Etlw*ard preferred his Norman friends
to Englmlimc^ and appointed hia favorites in Chureh
and State. The Normans, however, were superior
to the English in arts and leaniitig, and one result
was a closer connection between the English Church
and continental Christendom, English represent-
atives apjx-arcd at papal synods and visited Rome
(1050). Simony was ecandaJously prevalent. Ed-
ward gave much to monasteries. Between 1051
and 1001 he rebuilt the monastery of Thomey
(Westminster), west of London and near his palace,
and then lie crectcHl a new church, which was the
first church in England of the Norman Romanesque
style, and became the king's burial-place nine days
after its consecration. Miracles were soon behei'ed
to be wrought at the tomb; and a mass of legend
gathered about Edward's name, attributing to him
virions and gifts of healing even before he became
king. Ue was canonized by Alexander III. in 1161.
Bmi^innftAFMnr: SourccH: The Vita by Aired or Elfed (d,
llfSti) with athcT materiaL umi prefatory commflnt b in
A^SB, Jan.. i. 2Bt>-3(M. ^nd pitrt of thi» 19 in MPL, etc v.
737-700; the livca &f Edward tk* Ctinfeww. kL H. R.
Limrd for the BtdiM Scriea. no. 3, Loadoii, ISSH^ eontoinft
wvetral works of prtmiify luiport&tiec; other iDaterial may
be fouisd in ChrotiicUa of tht Reigna of Edward t. and if.^
ed. W. Stubbs for the HniU Smg*, no. 76, 2 Toli.. lb,
15I12-S3S jfciKl ^latthpw of Paris, CArwniVo majirra, eU. H. U.
Luard for Rtdh Serit^, no. 57, vol. i., ib. IS72. The best
niCKli*m book ip E. A* Fifecman, Nist. (^ the Norman Con^
qu^t, vol. ii,, Ox fori! H 1879. Furtbcr matflrial la in Liffe
of SaurU Edwarde, London, 1533; J. Porter, Life of Si,
Edward, A'ifh? and C<mfp***w, ib. 1710; J. IL Green, The
Comiu^M ol Enitlnnd. 730-107 L 2 fola,, ib. 1SS0: F. Lle-
b«rmann, L/cfrer dU Ugts Ediranti CunftiimmM^ HaUc, 1896;
J. H. Kamsay, Ths Foundaiiontt of England. . . . B.C.SS-
A.D. //ff4, 2 vob, London. IMS; W. Hunt. Ths Engtitk
Church . . . tS97-imei ih. Ifi99; DjV/J. 3oiL 7-14; unii.
in gentfal, the work* on t\m history of the periotl
EDWARDS, ALFRED GEORGE: Church of Eng-
land bis^hop of St. Asaph; b, at Llanymowddwy
(38 m. w. of Shrewsbury), Wales, Nov. 2, 184S,
He etudietl at Jesus College, Oxford (B.A., 1874),
and was ordained priest in 1875. He waa eurate
of UaniUngiit, warden and headmaster of the
college of Llandovery'- 1875-xH5, and vicar and
niral dean of Carmarthen, as w^W as chaplain
and private secretary to the bishop of St. Davidsp
1885-8S>. In !8S1J he was conseerated bishop of
St. Asaph. He was select preacher to the Univer-
itity of Cambridge in 1891 and to the University
of Oxforti in 1895-06.
EDWARDS^ BEL A BATES: American Iheo-
Jogian; b. at Southampton, Mass., July 4, 1S02;
d, at Athenti, Gft., Apr. 20, 1852. He was gndoited
at Amherst in 1 824 and at Andovi^r Tbeokpil
Seminary in 18.30. From 1828 to 1833 k wu
B&»i^iunt secretary of the Amencan Educttkn
Society. In 1837 he was ordained and appaJirUd
professor of Hebrew in Andover TheologioU Seoa-
nary, Bucceeding Mosea Stimrt aa profe^or of W^
lical literature eleven years later. In lS4G|incoD*
sef^uence of enfeebled health, he made aa extended
tour of Europe, vifiiting England, France, Gemugij,
and Italy; and five years later be wtm ag&ia com*
pellefl to absent himself from Andoreri and spend
the winter in the South, Edwardt originated and
planned many philanthropic institutioafl, &moag
others, that which has resulted in the Coognpp
iional Library at Boston. He was likewise Ktire
in editorial work, and in 1S33 established Ths
A nwrican Quarterly Observer^ took the sole care of it
foF three yean, and then merged it with Tk
American Biblical ReposUory, which be edited from
1835 to 1838. In 1844. together with E. A. Pwk,
he established the Bihlhiheea Sacrm, and teoiaiQed
its eiiitor^in*chief until 1S52. Mainly through hk
in^uenee The Biblical Reposit&ry, then published
in New York^ was merged with the BihllatkM
Sacra in 1851. To all these periodicals he coatHb*
uted numerous articles and reviews. In additiimto
several educational books, he wrote The Mimeffury
Gai^itcer (Boston, 1832), and The Biograj^y 0/
SdJ-Taughl Men US32), besides editing the Memok
of Henry Martyn (1831). A selection of hk ie^
mona and addresses was pubhahed with a memoir
of the author by E. A. Park (2 vob., Boston, IS63).
Bialioohaprt: B«dided the Manair by Putrk. ul nop., «oa-
»uLt: W. H. Sprn^ue. AnnaU of the Amtrimn Ptdpit,u.
735-743, New York, ISflP; L. WoodJi. Mutorw of A^dtm
TKe^loQuxil Stminarw, fioatoiv 1SS4.
EDWARDS, JOHK; English Cal\inipt; b. at
Hertford Feb, 26, 1(337; d. at Cambridge Apr. 16,
1716. He studied at St. John's College^ Cambridge
(B.A., 1657, M.A., 1661, D.D., 1699). In 1664 be
took charge of Trinity Church, Cambridge, but a
few years later had to give up his work on account
of his Calvinistic views. After ha\ing had several
ch.*rge« elsewhere be retired from the ministry in
1687, to devote himself to authorship, and returned
to Cambridge in 1697, apparently for the use of the
library. Though overestimated by his eont^n-
porariea, some of them calling him the St. Paul, or
the St. Augustine, or the Calvin of his age^ etHl he
defter ves high rank aa a Calviiiiit theologian. Of
the forty or more works that he published niay be
mentioned Tlie Sminian Creed (London, 1697);
The Prmcher (3 vols., 1705-^7); TAeo^Ca tefcT-
mata (2 vok, 1713)-
BrauCKjRJvriiTf; Bioffraphia BHiannica: DNB^ iTii, 121-
123 (ra^tilAina full li^t of Edw&iidfl' wc^Icm).
EDWAIiBS, JONATHAIT (THE ELDER): The
founder of the New England theology as a distinct
type of doctrine, considered by many the greatest
theologian America has produced; b. at Windsor
Farms (now East Windsor)^ Conn., Oct
Ancestry. 5, 171)3? d. at Princeton, N. J., Mar.
22, 1758. His father, Rev, Timothy
Edwards, was boni at Hartford, in May, 1669, was
graduated with honor at Harvard in 1591, and
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bdward, Satnt
Bdwards
II ordained pastor of the Congregational Church
1 Windsor Farms, in 1694. He remained pastor
[ this church more than sixty-three years, and
ied Jan. 27, 1758. The mother of Jonathan Ed-
nnk was Esther Stoddard, daughter of Solomon
itoddard, who from 1672 to 1729 was pastor of
be Congregational Church in Northampton, Mass.
lie was a woman of queenly presence and admirable
litiBCter, was bom in 1672, married in 1694, be-
ime the mother of eleven children, and died in 1770.
InhiB early years Jonathan Edwards was instructed
ihkfly at home. He began the study of Latin at the
ip of six, and before he was thirteen had acquired
I good knowledge of Latin, Greek, and Hebrew.
b his childhood he was taught to think with his pen
m liand, and thus learned to think definitely, and
to express his thoughts clearly. When
Eiriy he was about nine he wrote an inteiv
Stndies. esting letter on materialism, and when
CioSkBt. he was about twelve he wrote some
remarkable papers on questions in
Mtonl philosophy. One month before he was
tUrteen he entered Yale College, and was graduated,
fith the highest honors of his class, in 1720. At
the a^ (tf fourteen, one of his college studies was
UAt on the Human Understanding. Not long
before ius death, he remarked to certain friends that
ke fu beyond expression entertained and pleased
vith this book when he read it in his youth at col-
kp; that he '* was as much engaged, and had more
■tirfaction and pleasure in studying it, than the
BMrt greedy miser in gathering up handfuls of silver
ndgoki from some new-discovered treasure."
As a child, his sensibilities were often aroused
ky the truths of religion. He united with the
Qurch, probably at East Windsor, about the time
tf \as gnuiuation at college. After graduation he
pursued his theological studies for
Ikeoiogical nearly two years in New Haven. He
Stndies. was '' approbated " as a preacher in
Eiriy June or July 1722, several months
PWorate. before he was nineteen. From Aug.,
1722, until Apr., 1723, he preached to
iBDall Presbyterian church in New York City.
hm 1724 to 1726 he was tutor at Yale. On Feb.
18, 1727, when in his twenty-fourth year, he was
Adained as colleague with his grandfather, Solomon
Stoddard, and pastor of the Congregational Church
It Korthampton, Mass. On July 27 of that year
lie married Sarah Pierpont, daughter of Rev. James
fepont of New Haven. At the time of her mar-
n^i she was in the eighteenth year of her age,
IM distinguished by her graceful and expressive
features, her vigorous mind, fine culture, and fervent
piety. During her married life she relieved her
bidbtnd of many burdens which are conunonly
hid upon a parish minister, and thus enabled him
to pmsue his studies with comparatively few in-
tenoptwns. As a youthful preacher Edwards
WIS eminent for his weighty thought and fervid
vttoanoe. His voice was not commanding, his
Sntures WCTe few, but many of his sermons were
overwhelming. He wrote some of them in full.
Often he spoke extempore, oftener from brief but
■VgBitive notes. The traditions relating to their
power and influence appear well-nigh f abulotis.
IV.— 6
In 1734-35 there occurred in his parish a
" great awakening " of religious feeling; in 1740-41
occurred another, which extended
The Great through a large part of New England
Awakening, (see Revivalb of Religion). At
Ejected at this time he became associated with
Northamp- Geoi^ge Whitefield (q.v.). During
ton. these exciting scenes, Edwards man-
ifested the rare comprehensiveness
of his mind. He did not favor the extravagances
attending the new measures of the revivalists.
He did more, perhaps, than any other American
clergyman to promote the doctrinal purity, at the
same time quickening the zeal, of the churches. In
process of time he became convinced that his grand-
father, Solomon Stoddard, was wrong in permitting
unconverted persons to partake of the Lord's Sup-
per. A prolonged controversy with the North-
ampton church followed, and Edwards was ejected
in 1750 from the pastorate which he had adorned
for more than twenty-three years.
In Aug., 1751, he was installed pastor of the
small Congregational church in Stockbridge, Mass.,
and missionary of the Housatonic Indians at that
place whom he served with fidelity.
At Stock- On Sept. 26, 1757, he was elected
bridge, president of the college at Princeton,
President of N. J. He was reluctant to accept the
Princeton, office, but finally yielded to the advice
of others, and was dismissed from his
Stockbridge pastorate Jan. 4, 1758. He spent a
part of January and all of February at Princeton,
performing some duties at the college, but was not
inaugurated until Feb. 16, 1758. One week after
his inauguration he was inoculated for the small-
pox. After the ordinary effects of the inoculation
had nearly subsided, a secondary fever supervened,
and he died five weeks after his inauguration.
The more important works of Prebident Edwards
are the following: A Divine and Supernatural Light
Imparted to the Soul by the Spirit of God (Boston,
1734), a sermon noted for its spiritual philosophy;
the hearers of it at Northampton requested it for
the press; A Faithful Narrative of the Surprising
Work of God in the Conversion of many Hundred
Souls in Northampton^ etc. (Boston and London,
1737); Five Discourses on Justification by Faith
(Boston, 1738); Sinners in the Hands of an Angry
God (Boston, 1741), one of his most terrific ser*
mons; frequently republished; se-
Works. verely criticized by some who fail to
regard the character and condition of
the persons to whom it was preached; Distinguish-
ing Marks of a Work of the Spirit of God (1741);
Some Thoughts concerning the Present Revival of
Religion in New-England (1742); A Treatise con-
cerning Religious Affections (1746), one of his most
spiritual and analytical works; An Humble Attempt
to promote Explicit Agreement and Visible Union of
God* 8 People in Extraordinary Prayer (1747); An
Account of the Life of the Late Reverend Mr. David
Brainerd . . . chiefly taken from his own Diary
(1749); An Humble Inquiry into the Rules of the
Word of God^ concerning the Qualificaiions requisite
to a Complete Standing and full Communion in the
Visible Christian Church (1749). His more im-
Bffbmrt, Saint
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
portant works were published after he had left his
first pastorate, some of them not until after his
ri^^th, viz.: A Careful and Strict Enquiry into the
Modem Prevailing Notions of that Freedom of WiU
which is Supposed to he Essential to Moral Agency
n754); The Great Christian Doctrine of Original
Sin Defended (1758); History of Redemption (1772);
DiH/ieriation concerning the End for which God created
the Worldf and Dissertation concerning the Nature
of True Virtue (1788).
T\ni published works of President Edwards were
printed in eight volumes, at Worcester, Mass.,
1H()H"(M) (n»printed, New York). A larger edition
of his writings, in t<?n volumes, including a new
fncinoir and much new material, was published at
New York, in 1829, by Rev. Dr. Sereno Edwards
Dwight. (Edwards A. PARKf) F. H. Foster.
HiiiMfKiRAFiiT: The life ha« been written T)y S. HopkinB,
UtmUm, 17«6: J. Hawk»ley. London, 1815; S. E. Dwight,
\H'M lit Hup.; J. Iverach, in The Etninoelical SuceesHon,
VAMuhumh, 1882: A. V. G. Allen, Bo»ton. 1889; H. N.
(inrdiniT. ih. 1901; and W. Walker, in Ten Nev> Eno-
Innd Lender; pp. 217 i»qq.. New York, 1901. Consult
furthur: J. Hparkn, The Library of American Biography,
v«il. viii., 10 vol«.. New York, 1848-61; W. B. Sprague.
AnnttU of the American PulpU, i. 329-336. ib. 1859; H.
M. I)«ixter, The Congregationaliem of the Last Three Hun-
drett Year* aa aeen in its Literature, ib. 1880; G. P. Fisher,
l)i»nissu>na in liistitry and Theology, ib. 1880; J. A.
HlotiKht<in. Winsitr Farmes, Hartford, 1883; W. Walker,
Creetla and Platfirrms of Congregationalism, pp. 283-285,
N«w York, 1K93; idem, in American Church History
firriea, Vol. iii. pawira, ib. 1894; A. E. Dunning, Congre-
UfHuinuliBls in America, pafwim, ib. 1894; E. C. Smyth,
III I'tiKrethngs of the American Antiquarian Society, 1896,
|f|f 'J\'2 230; L. W. Bacon, The Congregationalists, pas-
■Ifii, Nnw York, 1904; Jonathan Edvpards Bicentenary,
Mitmnrinl Volume of the Proceedings of the Andover Cele-
hmtinn, Oct. tlMKi, Andover, 1904; I. W. Riley. Amencan
Phiioanjthu: the early Schools, pp. 126-191, New York,
liM)7; V. II. FoHt^r, New England Theology, Chicago. 1907.
KI) WARDS, JONATHAN (THE YOUNGER):
Hiu'lMiil Hon and ninth chihl of Jonathan Edwards
thti lOldiT; b. at Northampton, Mass., May 2G,
I7lft; i\. at Hchonoctady, N. Y., Au^. 1, 1801. As
III) rtTciviMl the (h'^HH^ of D.I), from Princeton
i*iMi'\ti', III' in often called "Dr." Edwards, while
hin fill her (who was not a doctor of divinity) is
illrtliiiKniHlied im *' Tn'sident " Edwards. He en-
liwittl I hti j^rainninr-Hchool at Princeton in Feb., 1760,
and was graduated at Princeton Col-
Hlildim lege in 1706. He became a member of
mimI Fimt the ("hurch in 1703, studied theology
|'MiiliirMt«. with Dr. Joseph Bellamy (q.v.) 1765-
170(i, and was "approbated" as a
|<H..H.|iM hi Oct., 1700, by the Litchfield County
S iii.iiiiiit III Connecticut. He was indefatigably
illlltn Ml wliilii lit college, served as tutor, 1767-09,
Mir I M iihiil Jin appointment (which he declined)
(•« M |.H«|i..iniiinliip of languages and logic in the
i.i,||i,ji. nil .hill, fi, I7(i9, he was ordained as pas-
f-.i li I Iii. Miiilrly of White Haven, in the town of
i... ., 11,1, lit, rnmi. lie HMnained in this office
III M Mi'iM l*vniily «i^ years. Several members of
1,1 • liHM )i VMM. lulvoealeM of the Half-way Cove-
HHtl I I . ' ♦>•••• h he opposed. His pastorate was
.,i , ii hiilM<t l«v llin Mpiritual reaction w^hich had
ill.,,. I (III. tiiiut AwaUening" (see Revivals
• If M r>i'<*« I III \( in \'J, and by the demoralizing
•mHu" u' • •< Ml IIh' Mevoliitionary War. The result
was his dismission from his pastorate od the IMi
of May, 1795.
In Jan., 1796, he wasdnstalled pastor of the cbrnik
in Colebrook, Conn. In May, 1799, he was efedei
president of Union CoUege, Scheofr
Pastor at tady, N. Y. As he had declined i
Colebrook professorship at Princeton, so he m
and prompted to decline the presidency tk
President Union College. He applied to a
of Union ecclesiastical council for advice: thi
College, advice was in favor of his remonL
He was therefore dismissed in Jum^
and entered on the duties of his presidency in July,
1 799. He discharged his duties with his accustoniBd
fidelity. His reputation as a philosopher ga^-e
an uncommon influence over his pupils, and hii
skill as a teacher heightened his reputation n a
philosopher. He remained in this office, however,
but a short time. About the middle of July, 1801,
he was attacked by an intermittent fever, and died
Aug. 1.
As a theological teacher Dr. Edwards was emi-
nently successful. He prepared certain of hit
father's writings for the press, and, while at Cole-
brook, published A Dissertation coa-
Works. ceming Liberty and Necessity, in Reptf
to the Rev. Dr. Samuel West (Worcester,
1797). Besides a large number of articles in Tk
New York Theological Magazine, over the signar
tures " I " and " O," he published many sennooB,
among them one on The Injustice and Impolky (^
the Slave4rade (New Haven, 1791; Dr. Edwards,
like his friend Samuel Hopkins, was an early oppo-
nent of the slave system). The most celebrated d
his discourses are the three On the Necessity of Ik
Atonement, and its Consistency with Free Grace ts
Forgiveness, '* preached before his Excellency the
Governor, and a large number of both Houses of
the Legislature of the State of Connecticut, during
their sessions at New Haven, in Oct., 1785, and
published by request the same year." They have
been frequently republished and form the basis of
that theory of the atonement sometimes called the
" Edwardean theory," conmionly adopted by the
** New England school of divines." Closely con-
nected with this was a volume entitled The Salvor
tion of all Men strictly Examined, and the Endlest
Punishment of those who Die Impenitent, Argued ami
Defended against the Reasonings of Dr, Chauncey in
his Book Entitled *' The Salvation of all Men " (1790).
In 1788 he published a paper entitled Of>servatioM
on the Language of the Muhhekaneew Indians, in
which the Extent of that Language in North America
is Shown, its Genius Grammatically Traced, and
Some of its Peculiarities, and Some Instances of
Analogy bettveen that and the Hebrew, are Pointed
out. This was ** communicated to the Connecticut
Society of Arts and Sciences, and published at the
request of the Society."
Nearly all of Dr. Edwards' published writingB
were collected and reprinted, with a Memoir, by
Tryon Edwards, a descendant (Boston, 1842).
(Edward.-^ A. Park!.) F. H. Foster.
Bibliography: Besides the Memoir by Tryon Edwmidi.
ut 8up., consult: Connecticut Evangelical Magatine^ July,
1800; W. B. Sprague. AnnaU of the American PulpU, i.
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDU
B^S^lBidBt
0. New York, 1859; J. A. Stoughton, Wiruor
K, Hartford, 1883; W. Walker. CretdM and PUO-
tf ConifreQatUmalitm, pp. 529-630, New York. 1893;
in American Churth HiMtory Serie$, iii. 293-299. ib.
L. W. Bacon, Ths CononoaiionaliatB, paaaim. ib.
F. H. Foster. New England Theology, Chioaco. 1907.
ARDS, JUSTIN: American Congregation-
. in Westhampton, Mass., Apr. 25, 1787;
ath Alum Springs, Va., July 24, 1853. He
iduated at Williams College in 1810 and
one year at Andover Theological Seminary.
ordained Dec. 2, 1812 and preached in
r 1812-27. In 1821 he became the corre-
g secretary of the New England Tract So-
He was one of the founders of the American
for the Promotion of Temperance in 1826,
its secretary from 1829 to 1836 he traveled
ured extensively in the interest of tempeiv
orm. From 1836 to 1842 he was president
)ver Theological Seminary. In the latter
became secretary of the American and
Sabbath Union, and until 1849 he worked
observance of the Sabbath as he had foiv
one for the cause of temperance. He pub-
umerous sermons and tracts, including a
Manual (New York, 1845), and a Tern-
Manrial (1847). The last years of his life
^nt at Andover in the preparation of a com-
s Bible commentary, which was left un-
apht: W. B. Sprasxie. AnnaU of the American
ii. 572-685. New York. 1859.
IN (BAD WINE): King of Northumbria;
the greatest of the kings of Anglo-Saxon
I and an earnest champion of Christianity;
slain in battle at Heathfield (probably
Chase, 7 m. n.e. of Doncaster, Yorkshire)
633. He was bom a heathen, son of Ella,
Deira, who died when Edwin was three
d, whereupon the Bemician king, Ethelric,
is kingdom. Edwin, during his boyhood
y manhood, was a wanderer, often in dan-
i the unrelenting pursuit of Ethelric and his
lelfrid. In 616 or 617 he was at the court
aid, king of East Anglia, and may have met
th the Roman missionary Paulinus (q.v.).
i refused to deliver him up at the bidding
orthumbrian king, attackeid the latter, and
i and slew him. Edwin now regained his
L He established his capital at York and
i his dominions northward to the city which
is name (Edinburgh), westward to the is-
l Anglesea and Man, and southward over
and with the exception of Kent, with which
in alliance. In 625 he married Ethelburga,
of Kent, a Christian, and thus Paulinus
admission to his court. For the story of
conversion see Paulinus of York. The
jeatness of mind is evident in his tolera-
lis wife's religion, in his reluctance to accept
tlf without due deliberation and conviction,
is conduct when once the decision was made.
'. step was to announce his resolve to his
nd to ask if they would be baptized with
be head priest is said to have been the first
an afl&rmative answer, saying his service
Id gods had profited him nothing. After
a noble had spoken in favor of a trial of the new
religion, the others gave their assent and the priest
led the way in desecrating the heathen temples and
altars. Edwin gave Paulinus full permission to
preach and baptize, and began a stone church at
York. He persuaded Eorpwald of East Anglia to
become a Christian. He ruled so well, says Bede,
that a woman with her newborn infant could cross
his realm from sea to sea without harm. He had
cups placed beside the springs along the highways
for the use of travelers, and such was the love or the
fear of him that no one carried them away. It was
an evil day for England when he was slain by Penda,
the heathen king of Mercia, with the help of the
Britons of Wales, who, though Christians, could not
forget the old animosity against the Saxons.
Bibuographt: Sources to be oonsxilted are: Bede. HieL
9cd., ii. 5, 9-17. 20; Anglo-S€ucon Chronicle, in Monu-
menta hiatoriea Brikinniea, ed. H. Petrie, J. Sharpe, and
T. D. Hardy, London. 1848; Nenniua. Eulogium Bri-
tannia, in Monumenta hietariea Britannica, ut sup.;
Aiouin, Carmen de ponHfieibu9, ed. J. Raine, lin Hitto'
riarn of York, i. 349-398, of. pp. Ixi.-lxv., London, 1879;
Haddan and Stubbs, CounciU, i. 123. iii. 83-86. Con-
sult: J. R. Green, Making of England, London, 1882;
DNB, xvi. 132-134.
EDZARD, EZRA. See Jews, Missions to the.
BELLS, MYRON: Congregationalist; b. at
Walker's Prairie, Wash., Oct. 7, 1843; d. near
Union City, Wash., Jan. 4, 1907. He was gradu-
ated at Pacific University, Forest Grove, Ore., in
1866, and Hartford Theological Seminary in 1871.
He was pastor of the Congregational Church at
Bois6 City, Ida., 1872-74, and after 1874 was a
missionary of the American Missionary Association
among the Indians at Skokomish, Wash. He was
pastor of the Congregational Church at Skokomish,
after 1876, and supplied several churches of his
denomination in Washington. He was president of
the Idaho Bible Society 1872-74, clerk of the Con-
gregational Association of Oregon and Washington
1874-85, and superintendent of the Washington
ethnological exhibit at the World's Fair, Chicago,
in 1893. In theology he was a Congregationalist of
the earlier school. He furnished collections of
words, phrases, and sentences to the Smithsonian
Institution in Chemakum (1878), Clallam (1878),
Twana (1878), Skwaksin (1878), Lower Chehali
I (1882), Upper Chehali (1885), and Chinook Jargon
(1888), and wrote Twana Indiana of Washington
I Territory, in United States Geographical and Geo"
logical Survey (Washington, 1877); Hymns in
Chinook Jargon Language (Portland, Ore., 1878);
; History of the Congregational Assoctalion of Oregon
and Washington (1881); History of Indian Missions
on the Pacific Coast (Philadelphia, 1882); Ten Years
at Skokomish (Boston, 1886); Twana, Clallam, and
Chemakum Indians of the State of Washington
(Washington, 1887); Father Eells (Boston, 1894);
and Reply to Prof, E. G. Bourne on the Whit-
man Question (Walla Walla, Wash., 1902).
EGBERT, SAINT: Early English saint; b. of
noble lineage in Northumbria 639; d. at lona
Easter day, Apr. 24, 729. In his youth he went to
Ireland for study, accompanied by Ceadda (q.v.)
and others. Seized by the plague in 664, he vowed
that, if he recovered, he would never return to
Sffbert of York
Efflinus
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
I
Britain, would recite the Psalter daily, and would
fast a day and a night every week. This vow he
kept faithfully and added to it new austerities. He
became a priest, renowned for humility, kindness,
and learning. He desired to preach the Gospef to
the tribes on the continent from whom the Angles
and Saxons of Britain had sprung, gathered a com-
pany, and set sail (686 or 687); but, warned by
visions, as he supposed, and driven back by a storm,
he returned to Ireland. His interest continued,
however, and about 690 he sent an Englishman,
Witbert, on an unsuccessful mission to the Fris-
ians, and in 692 he despatched Willibrord (q.v.)
and his company. He did much to persuade the
Irish to conform to Rome in regard to Easter and
the tonsure, and in 716 went to lona and worked
successfully and with much tact for the same end
there and on the mainland of Scotland.
Biblioorapht: Bede. HiBt. eccl., iii. 4, 27, iv. 3, v. 9, 10,
22, 23; ASB, April, iii. 313-315, cf. 997; Itettberg, KD,
ii. 613; W. F. Skene. CeUic Scotland, ii. 278-282, Edin-
burgh, 1880; DCB, ii. 49 aqq.; DNB, xvii. 146 aqq.;
Hauck, KD, i. 416-417.
EGBERT OF YORK: First archbishop of York;
d. at York Nov. 19, 766. He was of royal family
and a brother of Edbert, king of Northumbria 737-
758. His childhood and youth were spent in the
monastery of Hexham; then he went to Rome,
where he learned the Roman usages and was or-
dained deacon. He was an intimate friend of Bede,
who wrote him a letter (in Plummer's Bede^ i. 405-
423) when he was made bishop of York. He re-
ceived the pallium from Pope Gregory III. in 735
and thus became independent of Canterbury. For
his great learning he was called armarium omnium
liberalium artium. His greatest achievement, per-
haps, was the founding of a school attached to his
cathedral church and the training of competent
teachers for it; it became for the north of England
what Canterbury was for the south and among its
teachers were Egbert's successor Albert (Ethel-
bert), and the great pupil of the latter, Alcuin. He
esteemed classical learning, promoted grammatical
study, church music, and the recording of contem-
porary history, and collected a library highly
praised by Alcuin (q.v.). The latter and Egbert's
anonymous biographer speak of his admirable quali-
ties in the warmest terms. Boniface applied to the
influential and learned archbishop in two extant
letters (in Haddan and Stubbs, Councils, iii. 358-
360, 388^390), begging him to use his influence with
Ethelbald, the powerful king of Mercia, asking for
certain works of Bede's, and seeking advice in a
question of conscience. Egbert's replies are, un-
fortunately, not preserved. He was buried in his
church in York. Several works of Egbert's are
preserved, but not in original form; they are (1) a
dialogue on the government of the Church and
church discipline (Haddan and Stubbs, iii. 403-413);
(2) a penitential (Haddan and Stubbs, iii. 413-
433); (3) a pontifical (ed. W. Greenwall, Surtees
Society publications, xxvii., Durham, 1853); (4) a
work De jure sacerdotali ; (5) the De remediis peo-
catorum is merely a section of the larger collection.
H. Hahn.
Biblioorapht. Sonroes: VUa Aleuini in Jafftf, BRG, vi.;
Alcuin« De ponHfidbuM et minetU eccUHa Eboraeen' 1
m, in MGH, Poeta, i (1881). 109-206, tnnd. ib 2.
Raine, HiHorian^ of the Church of York, i. Z4&-m, d
preface, Ixi.-lxv., London, 1879; Bede, Eputola ai !%-
hertum in AfPL, xdv.. and in Opera, ed. by J. BboA,
pp. 207-226. London. 1841; Simeon of Dnrfaam. BU
Dunelmeneia ecdeeioB, ed. by T. Arnold, Lcmdon. VSSl,
transl. in J. Stevenson, Churdi Hietoriane of Enoini, r.,
London. 1855; William of Blalmesbury, De rebma ii*
reoum Anglorum in MOH, SaripL. x (1852). 44»-tt4.
tranal. in J. Stevenson, as above, vol. iv.. Londoix. USi;
Boniface. Epietola in MOH, EpUtolantm, iii (18Q1). W
sqq. Consult also FcuH Eboraeenme, ed. by W. H. Dina,
i. 94-100, London. 1863; DCB, ii (1880). 50-52; H. E^
Bonifaz und Ltd, pp. 189 aqq., Leipeie, 1883; DSB, nii
(1889), 147-148.
EGEDE, eg'e-de, HAHS.
Eariy Life (S 1).
Settlements in Greenland (( 2).
Interest in Mission to Greenland (( 3).
Success as a Missionary (( 4).
Royal Support Withdrawn and Restored (S 5).
(Closing Years (fi 6).
Norwegian apostle of Greenland; b. at Tron-
deniis, a village on the island of Senjen (n.w. eoMt
of Norway), Jan. 31, 1686; d. at Stubbekjabiiig
(58 m. s.w. of Copenhagen) in the island of Fakter,
Denmark, Nov. 5, 1758. After completing lui
studies at the University of Copenhagen, he took
charge, about the age of twenty-<ne,
I. Early of the Lutheran par^ of Vaagen, one
Life. of the Lof oden Islands, and soon aft«^
ward married CJertrude Rask. From
his brother-in-law, a whaler of Bergen, he learned
that the southwestern part of Greenland was in-
habited by heathen, and his interest in them was
still further increased by reading old Norse chron-
icles.
During the tenth century pagan Northmen had
migrated from Iceland to Greenland, and had driven
back the aborigines, who were called Skr&llingm;
but about the year 1000 Christianity seems to kAve
taken root among the colonists.
2. Settle- About 1348, however, the "black
ments in death,'' raging throughout Europe,
Greenland, severed conmiunication with the kipg-
dom, and the aborigines seiied the
opportunity to destroy one settlement after another.
For some sixty years the Church survived, but the
year 1410 marks the cessation of all authentic re-
ports concerning the colony and Church. In the
sixteenth and seventeenth centuries the king? of
Denmark and Norway sent a series of expeditions
to regain the province, which faOed, but the enthu-
siasm awakened in Egede's heart and his hope in a
higher goal were destined to win a victory.
Despite the opposition of high and low, as well as
of his nearest kin, he became more and more con-
vinced that he was called to go to these poorest of
his brethren, but the bishops of Bergen and Trond-
hjem, before whom he laid his ** pro-
3. Interest posal for the conversion and enlight-
in Mission enment of the Greenlanders," recoiled
to Green- from the difficulties, and even the
land. missionary college founded at Cop^i-
hagen in 1714 gave him faint sympathy.
In 1717 he resigned his pastorate, and went, in the
autumn of the following year, to Bergen with hia
wife and four children. There he not only tried
to interest friends in his plan of a GreenlaDd m^^rinn
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Sffbert of York
lection with commercial enterprises, but
uired some mechanical and technical Imowl-
Ln the spring of 1719, when peace was made
inclusion of the northern war, Egede went
(nhagen to see King Frederick in person,
ter acceded to his plan, but his assistance
GTectual, and EJgede perceived that he him-
st assimie the entire r^ponsibility. After
i disappointments he found a few friends in
and dsewhere, who formed with him a
land Society " and contributed a fund which
them to buy the ship " Hope." Shortly
rd (1721) the missionary coUege notified
it the king sanctioned the intended expe-
nd appointed Egede missionary and leader
alary of 300 rix-dollars.
ay 3, 1721, the little band of forty-six, in-
Egede's family, left Bergen; on June 12
ne in sight of Statenhuk, the southern point
iland; and on July 3, after much peril, they
a safe haven and promising site for their
on the western coast. The natives, who
d around them, but soon timidly disap-
tumed out to be Eskimos, descendants of
bo had destroyed the earlier Icelandic colo-
rhey were very ignorant, and had few
I ideas, while their unorganic language,
relation to any European tongue, presented
a serious obstacle to missionary en-
:e8B deavor. With the help of his chil-
Ub- dren, however, who quickly made
ry. friends with the aborigines, EJgede
gradually mastered their language,
lich he soon translated the catechism of
He was indefatigable in visiting his
and amid privation and danger he became
ilander to the Greenlanders, winning the
f even the unfriendly Angekoks (sorcerers),
irst colony of Godthaab (" Good Hope ")
special attention to the children; and
1 he was, perhaps, too scrupulous with
0 adults and laid too strict conditions upon
e gladly baptized boys and girls, provided
rents also welcomed the preaching of the
His chief obstacle was his own country-
lo murmured at their hard lot and caused
andal to the natives on account of their evil
rticulariy after the government had trans-
a number of outcasts after his arrival.
cheered, on the other hand, by the con-
ncreasing eagerness of the natives to accept
lity. In 1723 he received the aid of his
league, Albert Topp, who had been ap-
to establish a second colony, and they were
led by two others, as well as by his son Paul
ittle later by his younger son Niels, while a
rs afterward a native assistant was added.
n the Bergen-Greenland company was dis-
dnce it was a commercial failure, and after
ih of Frederick IV. a second blow befell
when, in 1731, the king commanded that the
ihould be entirely abandoned as financially
able. If, however, Egede and others pre-
x> remain, a year's provisions should be
them. Egede, who had at last secured a
tiDg, williDgly yielded to the importunity of
the Greenlanders, who would not let him go, and
he remained with the few courageous souls who
braved privation and danger. At this
5. Royal crisis Count Zinzendorf, who was then
Support at Copenhagen, prevailed upon Chris-
Withdrawn tian VI. to renew his support of Egede
and and to give him a public testimony
Restored, of acknowledgment in addition to grant-
ing him a generous subvention and
indorsing his plans for continuing the mission
(April 4, 1733). An epidemic of smallpox ravaged
the coimtry until June, 1734. The victims num-
bered 3,000, while in the colony of Godthaab, which
contained more than 200 families, all the Green-
landers died with the exception of a boy and a girl.
Egede stood as in a desert. His faithful wife suc-
cumbed to her almost superhuman efforts and he
himself, broken in body and soul determined to
entrust the stricken land to the more robust strength
of his son Paul and to promote the work of his life
henceforth from a more quiet spot.
In 1736 he returned to Copenhagen; became di-
rector of a training-school for missionaries to Green-
land, and in 1740 superintendent of the mission
work there. In 1747 he retired to StubbekjGbing
and henceforth had no official connection with mis-
sion work in Greenland, but his interest continued
and his son Paul was a noted Greenland scholar and
the translator of the New Testament into its lan-
guage. J. Beusheim.
Biblioorapht: The chief sources are Egede's OnutAndelig
ReUUion, Copenhagen, 1738, and his Diary (in Danish),
ed. E. Sundt, Christiania, 1860; A. Q. Rudelbach,
ChrUUiche Biographien, pp. 371-434, Leipsic, 1850; J.
Olaf, in Sonntao* Bibliothek, vi. 2. Bielefeld, 1853; E. M.
Bliss, EncyclopcBdia cf MitHon; i. 332-333, New York,
1801 (2d ed. not so full).
EGLI, EHIL: Swiss theologian; b. at Flaach
(15 m. n.n.e. of Zurich) Jan. 9, 1848; d. in Zurich
Dec. 31, 1908. He was educated at the Univer-
sity of Zurich, held charges in its canton, became
tutor in its university in 1880 and later full pro-
fessor of church history. He was the foremost
Zwingli scholar of his time and made remarkable
contributions to Zwingliana and to Zurich refor-
mation history, e.g., Actensammlung zur Geschichte
der Ziircher Reformation in den Jahren 1619-1633
(Zurich, 1879); Ancdecla ReformaUjriay I. Dokvr-
menu und Abhandlungen zur Geschichte Zwinglis
und seiner Zeit, II. Biographien: Bibliander, Ce-
porin, Johannes Bullinger (2 vols., 1899-1901); his
editorship of Ztvinglianat the semi-annual publica-
tion since 1897 of the Zwingli Museum in Zurich;
and chiefly since 1904, and in conjunction with
Georg pinsler, of the probably final edition of
Zwingli 's Werke (Berlin, vol. i. completed 1905, vol.
ii. 1908; vol. iii. was to begin the correspondence).
EGINHARD. See Einhard.
EGLXNUS (von Goetzen; Lat. Iconiua)^ RA-
PHAEL: Swiss theologian, an advocate of Cal-
vin's doctrines in Hesse; b. at Rtissickon (6 m. s.
of Zurich) Dec. 28, 1569; d. at Marburg Aug. 20,
1622. He was the son of a clergyman, received
instruction in Chur and Chiavenna, studied in
Zurich, then under Beza in Geneva, and under
Grynseus in Basel. His first position was as a
Effllniui
Bflrypt
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOQ
80
teacher at Sondrio in the Valtelline, whence, in
1586, he was compelled to emigrate on account of
measures taken by the Roman Catholics against
the Evangelicals. He stayed a short while in
Winterthur, and in 1588 went to Zurich, where he
filled various positions, at last that of professor of
the New Testament and archdeacon at the minster.
His inclination for theosophy and alchemy was
disastrous, for the latter deranged his finances so
that he had to flee from Zurich on account of debt
in 1601; nevertheless he was helped by his friends,
was enabled to return, and accepted a call of the
Landgrave Maurice to Cassel. Himself a friend of
alchemy, the landgrave made Eglinus a teacher
in the court school there, and in 1606 appointed
him the fourth professor of theology in Marburg, in
1614 creating hkn also court preacher. During this
Hessian period Eglinus did not give up his alchemis-
tic tastes, and was encouraged by the landgmne^
with whom he carried on a lively correspondenei
about his experiments. These interests brouglit ]
him also into connection with the Rosicruciaii^
for whom he published an apology in 1618. h
spite of his occupation with these side-issues E^idqi
had no little influence as a theologian, for the intio-
duction of the (Reformed) Verbesserungspwnklt
(q.v.) by the landgrave occurred during his 8ti|
in Hesse, and he gave important aid, by his Iit>
erary work, as well as through his teaching, in v
tablishing the Reformed confession in that land.
Carl Mirbt.
Biblioorapht: F. W. Stnieder, Orundlage gu einer Ami*
9chen Oelehrtenn und SchrifUUUer-QeadiUhU, iii. 20M1^
Gdttincen, 1783 (contaioB a list of the works of EkUooi).
EGLISE C ATHOLIQUE - FRAIf 9AISE.
ChAtel, Ferdinand Francois.
Sea
I. Ancient Egypt.
1. The Land.
The Names (( 1).
Extent, Boundaries and DivinoBB
(J 2).
Climate and Products (S3).
2. The People.
Ethnology and Language ((1).
Customs (S 2).
Manufactures (S3).
Officials (S 4).
3. Chronology.
EGYPT.
4. History.
Conspectus and Sotiroes (( 1).
Hyksos, Pharaohs and their Sucoeas-
ors to the Exodus ({ 2).
Exodus to the Assyrian Period (( 3).
Period of Assyrian Contact (J 4).
Babylonian and Later Periods ({ 5).
6. Religion.
General Features ($1).
Polytheism Dominant ({ 2).
Religious Texts ($3).
6. Exploration and Excavation.
The First Period. 1798-1830 ( \\\
Private and Tuacan-Pniaman Woi;
1832-50 (J 2).
Mariette, 1851-81 (t 3).
The Recent Period, since 18tt
(J 4).
General Results (( 5).
II. Modem Egypt.
Statistics, General and Relifioai
(Jl).
The Orthodox Greek Church (| 2).
Other Communions (( 3).
I. Ancient Egypt — 1. The Land: The name is
derived from the Greek AigyptoSy which is a possible,
but not a probable, derivative from
Names. °^® °^ *^® native names of Memphis;
the Semitic names, Hebrew, Mi^raim,
Babylonian, Mizri, Assyrian, Mus^ur, all go back
to a common root. The etymology of both sets of
names is uncertain. The native name was Kernel
(km-t), " black,*' in reference to the color of the
arable soil when contrasted with the sand and rock
which border it.
Egypt has a superficial area scarcely equal to that
of Belgium; shaped like a fan with a dispropor-
tionately long handle — the Nile valley, which aver-
ages only about ten miles in width. From the
dawn of its history it was divided into
2. Extent, two parts, indicated in the title of the
Boundaries kings, '^ lord of Upper and Lower
and Divl- Egypt," the point of division being
sions. somewhat south of Cairo. In ancient
times each of these parts was divided
into twenty-two nomoi, districts, recognized for
administrative purposes, but their origin is to be
found in tribal limits. The union of the two parts
into one kingdom was ascribed to Menes, the first
king, and it marked the actual beginning of Egyp-
tian history. The arable ground was formed by
the silt brought down by the Nile, and its fertility
was due to the same agency. This is particularly
true of the northerly portion, the Delta, though the
removal of a few inches of the surface renders the
ground sterile. Within historic times the land
along the coast has been gradually sinking. For-
merly the Nile discharged into the Mediterranean
and the Red Sea by seven mouths, only two of
which now remain, the others being represented
by canals. On the west of Eg3rpt is the Ubyin
desert, from which the sands blow over the arable
land at certain seasons. On the east also it ii
desert in the southerly portion; at the northeast
the (former) Bitter Lakes represent an old arm of
the Red Sea to the north of which was a seriea of
garrison towns intended to guard against the incur*
sions of the Bedouin.
Upper Egypt is a land of almost perpetual sun-
shine; storms and rain occur near the coast. The
preservation of the antiquities of the land is due to
this circumstance, as the dry sand is a great con-
server of even the fragile papyrus. The fertility
of the soil is due to irrigation by the Nile under
natural conditions or when artificially
3. Climate impounded. Reference is made to
and this fertility (Gen. xiii. 10), and to
Products, artificial irrigation (Deut. xi. 10) in
the Old Testament. The seasons are
reckoned as three: beginning with the inundaUon
(about July 20), spring, and harvest, the last begin-
ning toward the end of March. The fauna of
ancient Egypt was very varied, as is evident from
the pictures on tomb walls and in the variety oC
aninial forms utilized for the hieroglyphic writingi
The camel and horse were imported late: the hoiae
(I Kings X. 28) was introduced apparently by the
Hyksos. It was used principally in war, with the
chariot,and was depicted as a hieroglyphic sign after
the New Kingdom only. The camel (Cien. xii. 16;
Ex. ix. 3: J passages) is not mentioned till the
Greek period. The ass has always been the burden*
bearer. The flora was luxuriant, but not greatly
varied, being mainly restricted to the staples,
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
MgUnxm
Bffypt
nkiDg E^ypt the " granary " of the ancient world.
Ik storage of grain products is mentioned in Gen.
£. 35, and is familiar from the remains of the " store
stf" Pithom (Ex. L 11) discovered by Naville,
lod firom the representations upon tomb walls.
Ihektt^ depict structu^^es like a haycock with
in aperture at the top through which the grain was
throinL The usual Oriental method of threshing
111 by the feet of cattle (Deut. xxv. 4), and win-
novizig was done with shovel and fan (Isa. xxx.
S4). Various articles of vegetable food used in
Ilgfpft are mentioned in Num. xi. 5. The papyrus
fhich furnished the writing material of antiquity
ibo flourished, but wood was scarce. Objects as
hiie as a sarcophagus had to be made by joining
pieces with wooden dowels, a process in which the
%ptian acquired great skill. Minerals known to
the Egyptians were gold and iron, from the region
i Syene and the south, copper or bronze from
Snai and C3rprus, and silver in smaller quantities
y foreign import. Silver was scarcer and more
ligfaly valued than gold. Building stone was abun-
iant and varied — limestone in the north, granite
a the south, and sandstone between.
2. The People: No theory of the origin of the
leqtle has found general acceptance, except that
he niling class came from Asia, but whether by way
i Nubia, the Red Sea and Koptos, or Suez, is dis-
juted It has been contended that the language
;xxntfl to an original Semitic stock, that the myth-
3logy indicates a Babylonian parentage, and that the
racial features point southward. It is
1. Sthnol- worthy of note that the inscriptions
Qgyand do not point to or hint at any con-
T^ngnage. sciousness of foreign extraction or
any aboriginal immigration. The lan-
guage has many characteristics of the Semitic group,
mainly in its grammatical features; the vocabulary
shows variations which indicate an entirely diverse
Qng;iiL If it was originally Semitic the relation was
eollateral rather than by way of descent. The
earBest connected texts now extant are the so-
cilkd " pyramid-texts " beginning in the end of
the fifth dynasty (say 2650 b.c.) and strangely
OKWgh these texts are written in a more strictly
phoneUc form than those of later times. Herein
OQosists the difficulty and uncertainty of their in-
topretation. The artistic ability also of this period
>nd the degree of development of religious belief
ind practise are well worthy of remark. The classic
period of the language was in the twelfth dynasty,
«nd later periods attempted to imitate the earlier
oodeL The Coptic was the daughter of the Egyp-
iiaD, and continued to be spoken till the seventeenth
Beotujy A.D. The original system of writing was
Arictly hieroglyphic, variations being due to abbre-
iatioos for the sake of speed and of adaptation
J the writing material employed, papyrus. The
ittracters used for stone sculpture, the hieroglyphic,
ndsted of pictures of objects in natiu^ and domes-
i life executed in greater or less detail and with a
markable degree of accuracy; the '' hieratic *'
m not a " priestly " script, but merely an abbre-
Lted form, the characters being applied to the
pyrua with a brush; and the " demotic " was a
ther and later abbreviation of the hieratic, not
a " popular " chirography. The first two were used
coincidentlyand some mistakes in hieroglyphic texts
can be corrected and understood only upon the
assumption that the stonecutter misread a character
in his hieratic copy. It is evident also in some of
the recensions of the " Book of the Dead ** that the
scribes of the New Kingdom were unable to under-
stand some of the characters and words found in
early copies of the work in the chirography of the
Middle Kingdom, and that their perplexity was as
great as that of modem scholars. The characters
used possess varied powers, some being purely
alphabetic, others syllabic, and others ideographic
or determinative.
Polygamy was practised as in the East generally,
and concubinage was also a recognized institution,
both depending upon the ability of the man to sup-
port a harem. The marriage practises of Egypt
are set forth in great detail in Lev. xviii. and what
is now known bears out the accuracy of the account.
In the royal house, concerning which special oppor-
tunities for knowledge exist, several of the Pharaohs
married their own sisters, following
2, OiLstoma. a divine example supposed to have
been set notably in the case of Osiris
and Isis. Political alliances were cemented by inter-
marriage. The taking of Sarah (Gen. xii. 14, 15)
for the royal harem was an e?cample of a general
custom, and the story of Potiphar's wife finds an
almost exact parallel in the " Tale of Two Brothers ' '
in the D'Orbiney papyrus now in the British Mu-
seum. The statement that the son of Hadad was
brought up with the sons of Pharaoh (I Kings xi.
20) is identical with the cases of many Egyptian
officials who claimed it as a mark of honor that they
were educated among the children of the court.
The case of Moses (Ex. ii. 10) was similar in part
only. The practise of shaving the head, changing
the raiment, washing the feet, bowing in obeisance
(Gen. xli. 14, xliii. 24, 28) were all part of Egyptian
practise. Unfortunately little is known of the
court ceremonial of Egypt, but what is known bears
out the Biblical record. In the Ancient Kingdom
the practise of " kissing the ground " before the
king was so much the practise, that a high priest
of Memphis mentions it as a mark of special favor
that the king did not insist upon the periormance
of this act of submission, but required him to kiss
his foot. But the rigor of this ceremony was re-
laxed in the period of the New Kingdom. Slavery
was imposed upon conquered peoples in accordance
with universal Oriental practise. The abhorrence
of the Egyptian for foreigners (Gen. xliii. 32, xlvi.
34) is to be explained upon the ground of the fun-
damental difference between the two, as emphasized
in the Egyptian conception of their origin. The
great gods had appeared in Egypt only; there the
great sun-god Ra had warred and ruled, and his
posterity still sat upon the throne with the title
" son of the sun," niing over those who alone were
entitled to the name of men, while foreigners were
never men but only negroes, Libyans, or '* miser-
able " Asiatics, who had once rebelled against the
great god Ra, and for their insubordination had
been driven north, south, and west. The special
" abomination " in which shepherds were held
^gypt
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
(Gen. xlvi. 34) was not on account of the fact that
the land had been conquered by '' shepherd kings/'
though this may have made the conquest the more
galling. To the Egyptian the shepherd was an
unshaved, dirty, undressed pariah. His home was
in the swamp, and while a necessary appendage to
a large farm, he received no honor at the hands of
his master. This seems the more strange, since it
was with the utmost pride that the number of cattle,
sheep, oxen, and goats is recounted and portrayed
on the walls of the tombs.
The wagons provided by Joseph (Gen. xlv. 19)
appear to have been carts adapted to the transport
of household goods and of persons incapable of the
prolonged standing required by the ordinary chariot.
Both chariots and carts seem to have been intro-
duced along with the horse in the dark
8. Kann- period assigned to the Hyksos rule.
£ftotnres. Bricks were made of Nile mud, and
were frequently stamped with the
cartouche of the reigning Pharaoh. They were
either baked or sun-dried. Naville reports that the
bricks found at Pithom were of two sorts, mud
mixed with straw and mud alone (Ex. i. 14, v.
7, 18). Unfortunately none of the bricks from
Pithom bear a royal stamp. Linen and broidered
work (Ezek. xxvii. 7) are mentioned specially, and
beautiful specimens of this fabric are preserved in
many museums. Baskets (Gen. xl. 16) for con-
veying small objects are depicted in funerary scenes
of all ages, particularly in carrying grain and sand,
and the same practise has persisted to the present
time.
The title for the king (Gen. xii. 15) which is used
in the Pentateuch, gives no clue to the identity of
any particular individual mentioned. " Pharaoh "
is derived from the native title, which is made up of
the words per-aa, signifying " great house," and is
simaar to the Turkish "Sublime Porte." The
claim of the divine origin of the ruling class is seen
in the ordinary appendage to the coronation name,
" son of Ra." Biblical references to
4. Oi&oials. the officers of the government are few.
The position to which Joseph was
named has approximate parallels. In the Ancient
Kingdom there was a man who boasted the title of
" overseer of the whole land," while officials having
similar charge in later times recognize the geograph-
ical divisions of the land in their titles. In the New
Kingdom we find a man who appears as the mouth-
piece of Pharaoh, and another whose office was that
of " overseer of the granaries," of whom it is said
that his province included not only Egypt but also
Ethiopia and all the territory to the confines of
Naharina (Mesopotamia). Potiphar (Gen. xxxvii.
36, xxxix. 1) is spoken of as captain of the guard
(R. v., margin, " chief of the executioners "). The
latter title is explained by the supposition that ex-
treme punishment was executed by the chief officer
of the body-guard. As this officer lived probably
in the time of the Hyksos, and as very little is known
about this period, little light can be thrown upon
the subject. Later the body-guard was formed of
mercenaries, and the position of chief was one of
great importance. The mention of a chief baker
and a chief butler (Gen. xl.) is exactly in line with
the household service of the upper cUaseB as vdl
as that of the king. Each sort of service hadt
special corps which was charged with it, and mtk
corps had its overseer. Similarly in the fidd eMk
gang of workmen had an overseer or " taskmastar*
(Ex. i. 1 1, iii. 7). Among the insignia of ofifioe mn^
tioned as having been turned over to Joseph mi
the signet ring (Gen. xli. 42). As all legal and tarn*
mercial documents were stamped with a seal, tb
significance of this emblem of office is apparent
8. Ohronoloffy: Egypt, like other Oriental oouB*
tries, used no era in dating the events of its histoix.
All that have been hand^ down to us are paitid
lists of kings such as those of Abydos, Kamak, and
Sakkarah, containing selections of seven^-i^
sixty-one, and forty-seven royal names respecting,
and even the sequence of these is doub^uL lis
only known complete native list, with the yean of
the reign of each king, was contained in the em
to be regretted Turin papyrus which was irrepanb^
damaged during its journey to Europe. In ill
present fragmentary condition it is incapable ofna-
dering much aid in fixing of Egyptian chroDokflr.
The historical work written in Greek by the nalifi
priest Manctho about 250 B.C. has been preserved
only in excerpts of somewhat doubtful aecuney
given by Josephus and Julius Africanus. Mistakai
occur in the figures due both to copyists' nustakei
and to apologetic emendation. Manetho's diviooa
of the entire period into thirty dynasties, howefer,
furnishes a convenient method of indicating tto
relative location of events. Dates approzimatim
exactness can not be assigned back of the Nev
Kingdom, and precise chronology begins with tka
accession of Psammetichus in 663 B.C. It is daimed,
however, that the date of Amenhotep L of tbs
twelfth dynasty, has been fixed astronomically at
2000 B.C., and that the reign of Thothmes IIL es-
tended from May 3, 1501, tiU Mar. 7, 1447. Many
a priori theories and corresponding fiyatems of
chronology have been propounded, but the bert
results are only approximations so far as the earikr
periods are concerned. One notable feature of »•
cent investigation is seen in the tendency to le*
duce the length of the history as a whole. Vak
is evident from the appended chronological tabbi
DyxuMty.
Cham-
poliion.
Brucseh
Petrie.
Meyer.
BnMlii
I.-II.
6867
4400
4777
3180
3400 ■.&
III.
6318
3966
4212
2080**
IV.
6121
3733
3998
2830
2000**
V.
4673
3666
3721
2750-
VI.
4426
3300
3503
2530
2825-
VII.-VIII.
4222
3033
3322
2475-
IX.-X.
4047
2821
2445-
XI.
3762
2985
2160-
XII.
3703
2466
2778
2130
2000 **
XIII.-XVII.
3417
2233
2098
1930
1788-
XVIII.
1822
1700
1687
1680-
XIX.
1473
1400
1376
1530
1350-
XX.
1279
1200
1202
1200-
XXI.
1101
1100
1102
1060
1090-
XXII.
971
966
962
930
945-
XXIII.
861
766
766
746-
XXIV.
762
733
731
718-
XXV.
718
700
721
728
712"
XXVI.
674
666
664
663
663 "
Persians
624
627
625
625
626-
Greeks
331
332-
Romans
30-
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bffsrpt
Tht figures of Brugsch are based on the average
bigth of a human generation; Meyer's on the
imnimnin reign-lengths shown by the records;
MtraDomical calculations depend on eclipses as
idated to the Sothic periods of 1,460 years and the
fariable year of 365 days. The earlier systems
nffefed from insufficient data for the application
rf the method of " dead-reckoning/' which is the
Qoljr system really available,
i History: The predynastic period is little
hawn, but excavations made mainly since the
bfynning of the present century have begun to
tbov light upon the subject. The work of De
Kofgtn and Petrie is of initial importance. The
mm divisions of the history, based upon the thirty
ilfnasties of Manetho are: (1) the Ancient ICing-
(tan, dynasties I.-VL, say 3400-2475 B.C.; (2) the
(fiddle Kingdom, dynasties XI.-XIL, 2160-1788
ic; (3) the New Kingdom, dynasties XVIII.-XX.,
1580-109OB.C.; (4) the period of decline and for-
%ii intervention, dynasties XXI.-XXV., 1090-663
Lc; (5) the period of restoration, dynasty XXVI.,
S63-525B.C.; (6) the Persian and Greek domination,
iynisty XXVII. onward, 525-^30 b.c; for details
as to the history, reference must be
1. Oon- made to the special works on that sub-
iptetns and ject. The gaps in the above list repre-
**"*••• sent dark periods about which little
is known. Dynasties seven to ten
*ere occupied with internal strife resulting in the
removal of the seat of power from Memphis grad-
ually southward to Thebes. D3masties thirteen to
seventeen covered also a period of unrest and of
icnapi domination by the Hyksos, ** Sheiks of the
Bedouin," who were probably of Semito-Hittite
nee. The sources of the history are numerous and
eoosist of antiquities illustrating manners and beliefs ;
teits on stone, leather and papyrus, containing the
bets forming the raw material of historical repre-
mtation; records in the cuneiform character and
in Hebrew tradition as well as the accounts pre-
served by Greek travelers and historians. Aside
from the Turin papyrus and Manetho's work, there
ii no evidence of the compilation of a complete
lilt of the kings which could be called even a com-
prehensive outline or framework of the history.
The annals of some of the kings, and the records of
the separate temples constitute the historical wri-
tiogB c^ the {Egyptians, and these extended scarcely
beyond lists of names and reign-lengths. The
available material is widely scattered, and while
Rinariubly full for some periods, is for the most
part meager and unsatisfactory.
It is probable that the immigration of the sons
d Jacob must be assigned to the period of the
Hyksos (before 1580 B.C.). There are pictures on
tomb-waUs which represent the approach of shep-
herds of peculiarly Semitic features, and a papyrus
tefls of permission granting grazing privileges to
itJiefs of that race. There is also a Ptolemaic
radition of a seven-year dearth in the reign of
oser (2890 B.C.). The journey of Abraham to
^7pt and the resort thither against famine are
[dte in line with known fact. The theory which
ientifies the expulsion of the Hyksos with the
zodus of the Israelites (Josephus) is impossible
chronologically without destroying the historicity of
the latter event. Thothmes III. (1501-1447 b.c.)
was the embodiment of the warlike
2, Hyksos spirit which the Egyptians had acquired
Pharaohs from their conflict with the Hyksos.
and their He pushed his conquests through Pal-
Snooessors estine, leaving a record of the places
to the he had conquered on the walls of
Xxodus. the temple of Amon at Kamak. In
this list were included the names of
Kadesh on the Orontes, Megiddo, Damascus, Ha-
math, Acco, Joppa, Gezer, etc. Later glimpses of
the condition of the Palestinian dependencies of
Egypt are derived from the cuneiform tablets found
at Tell el-Amama (see Amarna Tablets). These
tablets were sent by the local vassals of the Pha-
raohs, and contain items of information, private and
political, written in Babylonian, the language of the
diplomacy of the period. The picture which they
give is of the time just preceding the Exodus. They
were composed for the information of Pharaohs
who are generally supposed to have been largely
under Semitic influence, one of whom made the
only attempt in Egyptian history to introduce a
monotheistic form of religion and worship. The
attempt came to nothing permanent, and the power
of Egypt in Palestine was overthrown soon after-
ward. Not till the time of Rameses II. (1292-1225
B.C.) was the reconquest attempted. He made
his influence felt as far as the Lebanon, and his
twenty-first year was marked by a treaty of peace
with the Hittites. He is commonly regarded as the
Pharaoh of the oppression, and the fact that he
was the builder of Pithom confirms the Hebrew
tradition. The absence of any personal designa-
tion in the title Pharaoh, precludes the possibility of
absolute identification in most cases. The power
of Egypt in Palestine did not long survive Rameses
II., and it must have been during this period that
the Hebrews took possession of the land.
The Exodus is usually assigned to the reign of
Memeptah (1225-1215 b.c.) the successor of Rameses
II. The earliest extant mention of the name of
Israel is in a victory-stele (discovered in 1896)
which this king erected. The name is enumerated
in connection with other places in
8. Bzodus Palestine and Syria as scenes of the
to the Pharaoh's conquests. On its face it is
Assyrian evidence that a tribe bearing this desig-
Period. nation had been defeated in Palestine;
but as it stands alone, an uncorrob-
orated witness to the king's expedition, its value
has been seriously questioned. Nevertheless it
raises interesting and important questions. An
unnamed Pharaoh, who in view of the subsequent
history (I Kings xi. 40) could scarcely have been
Sheshonk I. (Shishak), captured the city of Gezer
and gave it to his daughter, the wife of king Solo-
mon (I Kings ix. 16). This is the first intimation
of Egyptian conquest in Canaan in nearly three
hundred years. Sheshonk I. (945-924 B.C., called
" Shishak," not " Pharaoh " in I Kings xi. 40, being
the first time that the Old Testament gives a per-
sonal name to an Egyptian king) about 926 B.C.
celebrated an expedition in which, among other
places, he pillaged the temple at Jerusalem ( I Kings
Bflrypt
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOO
90
xiv. 25-26). This expedition was not in favor of
Jeroboam whom he had harbored (I Kings xi. 40)
but against all Canaan. A place which he also
ravaged was called ** Field of Abram.'' Again
there was a period in which the internal weakness
of the government caused a cessation of campaigns
in Palestine and Syria. The references of II Chron.
xiv. 9-13 to " Zerah the Ethiopian," and of II Kings
xvii. 4 to '* So " (or Sewe) find no counterparts in
the Egyptian records. If the latter was an Egyp-
tian, he must have been a petty ruler in the North
at the beginning of the Ethiopian domination in
the South. See Assyria, VI., § 10.
With Shabaka (712-700 b.c.) the first kmg of
dynasty XXV began an attempt to ward off the
danger from so powerful a neighbor as Assyria,
and the peoples of Palestine and Syria were induced
to join in an offensive alliance in spite of the realis-
tic prophecy of Isa. xx. Sennacherib, however,
defeated the allied forces at Altaku
4. Period but returned home without reduc-
fLt ^8 Jerusalem. In 688 b.c. Taharka
oJStadt! (" Tirhakah, king of Ethiopia ") suc-
ceeded to the throne. Against him
an expedition was led by Esarhaddon in 674, and
in the following year a battle was fought that
resulted unfavorably to the Assyrian. Again in
670 he returned, and after having reduced Tyre, he
conquered Egypt and received the allegiance of
many petty princes, among whom Necho of Sais
was one. But the withdrawal of Esarhaddon was
the signal for the return of Taharka from Ethiopia
whither he had fled. Asshurbanipal renewed the
expedition and proceeded up the Nile, possibly to
Thebes. After his departure a conspiracy arose in
the Delta, for the restoration of Taharka, and it
was headed by Necho of Sais. When it was sup-
pressed, Necho was sent in chains to Assyria, but
later he was pardoned and sent back as viceroy.
Tanutamen, son of Shabaka and nephew of Taharka,
tried to regain Egypt, and even took possession of
Memphis. Again Asshurbanipal marched against
Egypt and proceeded to Thebes, which he sacked
and destroyeid (Nahum iii. 8-10), and finally ended
the Ethiopian domination (661 B.C.). Psamme-
tichus I., a son of Necho of Sais, was made king by
Asshurbanipal, but after some years, and in con-
sequence of the growing conflict between Baby-
lonia and Assyria, he succeeded in making Egypt
quite independent. During his reign there was a
revival of the ancient models in all the relations and
customs of the land. Necho, his son, in 609, in-
vaded Palestine in an attempt to extend his king-
dom to its ancient northern boundary. In 608
he conquered and killed Josiah at Megiddo (II Kings
xxiii. 29), and took possession of the country as
far as the Euphrates.
After the fall of Assyria the Babylonian conqueror
in the person of Nebuchadrezzar threatened Egyp-
tian supremacy in Syria, and in 605 de-
6. Baby- feated Necho at Carchemish (Jer. xlvi.
1-12). After pursuing Necho to Egypt
he made a compact with him by
which all of Egypt's Asiatic pretensions
were to be abandoned (II Kings xxiv. 7). Necho
and his son, Psammetichus II., devoted them-
lonian and
Later
Periods.
selves to the development of Egypt and to the
imitation of ancient models in art and literatue.
Apries (Hophra, 588 B.C.) instigated a confedei»>
tion of the petty kings of Western Asia which ui*
dertook to throw off the Babylonian yoke, but
unsuccessfully. Nebuchadrezzar took Jerusalem ii
586 B.C., and again in 568 he marched to the Ddti
as had been foretold by the fiigitive Jeremiak
(xliii. 8-13). The details of the expedition, hov-
ever, are unknown. But the country was stroi^
enough to resist the Babylonian forces sucoessfully.
In fact the government was so well established
that it became a dominant power on the Mecfi-
terranean, with varying fortunes till the Peniaa
conquest under Cambyses in 525 b.c. The poiod
from 404 to 342 B.C. saw native rulers again; the
Persians returned and ruled till the conquest of
Alexander the Great in 332 b.c. This b^an the
Ptolemaic period which lasted till the Roman period
beginning in 30 b.c.
6. Beliglon : The Egyptian religion is a lai|^
matter and the subject of much debate. It I^e
been contended by some that it had a monotheistie
basis, and by others that it was merely a fonn of
totemism. The original deity seems to have been
a local god, its bounds being prescribed by the
village, town, city or nomos (county). Such deitj
was the special patron of the particular place, aod
to it appeal was made by those of the town. Each '
such deity took an animal form in which it wn
supposed to exercise its inbereflt
1. General powers. Each locality was believed
Features, to be inhabited by a multitude of in-
ferior spirits, and these spirits wers
subject to a higher divinity. With the growth of
a town or with a change in the capital, a changs
was made in the dignity of the particular deity
under whose protection the city stood. But tlis
most peculiar feature of the Egyptian religion wii
its syncretism. It seems to have been easy to
merge one deity into another, and to attribute th«
powers assigned to one to another similar being. It
is a frequent phenomenon that contradictory quali-
ties are alleged of the same deity in different periods
of the history, later attributes being added without
the elimination of the earlier. Resulting ccmUir
dictions seem not to have been noticed. There
was evident also a gradual tendency to a simplifi-
cation by the merging of many into fewer type^
as in the case of the sun-god, with whom in ths
course of centuries a large number of deities who
had acquired a more than local significance becaniB
identified. Nearly every god in the pantheon had
certain distinguishing characteristics which wers
conventionally denoted by peculiarities of pose, ol
dress, of head, of ornament or other feature. Up-
raised arms and kneeling attitude were charac-
teristic of the god of heaven, Shu; the youthful
Horns was a child with a curled side-lock and a
forefinger at lip. Bes was a dwarf with a large
feather head-dress; Osiris had a royal crown flanked
by feather plumes; Anubis had the head of the
jackal and Horns the head of a hawk; Hathor was
a woman with the ears of a calf, and Sebek had the
head of a crocodile. About each one of a multitude
of such forms there must have been a rich myth-
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bflrypt
logy. The story of Osiris, Isis, and Horns has been
leserved after a fashion by Plutarch, but the great
BIS of the myths has perished. A few, such as the
lUvy d the destruction of mankind, have been
praerved, but for the most part all that remains
■ » collection of references to characteristics in the
BomencUture of the various gods. But the stones
indbdi^s on which these appellations rest have
dJBppeared.
Tbe claim for a monotheistic basis of the Egyp-
Ha religion rests upon dogmatic assumption or
upoD phrases and attributions found in divine
hjam, prayers or religious texts. But to bear
nch an interpretation such phrases must be dis-
located from their context. It is also necessary
to disregard the fact that each city or province had
its special tutelary deity with its
t Polythe- spc<^i^ circle of subordinate deities,
im Domi' and that the triad, or even the ennead,
nant. not the individual without peer or
companion, was the unit. The devel-
pment of the religion up to the time of the pyramid-
ste in the fifth dynasty is largely a matter of con-
icture and debate. Since that time there has been
othing, except the ill-starred attempt of Amen-
otep IV., which bears the slightest resemblance to
bODotbeism, and only such expressions as indicate
ae headship of a particular god in a particular
sgion, or his supremacy over other gods can be
dduced in support. The argument in favor of
•Qtheism is more plausible, but that is too abstract
n idea to find lodgment with the Egyptian; he
rsB too realistic. The whole question is one of
peculation as to what the course of development
V18 in the period preceding the pyramid-texts,
lot is in the period before, say, 4000 b.c, for these
lexts show a form of belief in a multitude of gods
vhieh remained practically unchanged through
thousands of years. The Egyptian idea of divine
eenrice was based upon that of human service. As
the king had attendants who dressed him and made
his toilet, so the gods had priests to perform the
nme, and a large part of the service consisted in
changing the garments of the images. The offerings
pwented were ostensibly for the nourishment of
the god of the temple, but really for the attendants.
"Hiere does not seem to have been any such thing
* a burnt sacrifice, though quarters of beef are
portrayed on the tables of offering along with bread,
^, wine, geese, and other viands. In this may
Se the reason why the Egyptians regarded the
•erifices of the Hebrews as an abomination (Ex.
m26).
The religious texts and books of the Egyptians
•ere quite numerous, the chief place being occupied
y the so-called " Book of the Dead." There were
jvenl recensions of the text, but no stereotyjxjd
irm and no recognized sequence or fixed number
of chapters. The chief purpose of the
I. BsUgi" book was to benefit the dead and to
iu Texts, instruct them in the matters of the
future life and in the use of magical
-mulas for the avoidance of the dangers of the
derworld. One of the notable chapters (usually
mbered cxxv.) contains the " Negative Confes-
Q," coniriffting of forty-two sections each of which
is addressed to a separate deity and contains a
statement that the deceased had not committed
some specified sin or evil deed. The volume is
filled with the names of various deities, places or
persons, and is a thesaurus of information with
regard to the beliefs of the Egyptians. Under-
lying it all was a persistent belief in man's immor-
tality which colored and determined many Egyp-
tian religious practises. The pyramids and the
rock-hewn tombs are witnesses to this faith. In
order to insure the continued existence of the soul,
the body must be preserved intact as a refuge for
the soul, which was believed to possess the power
of independent movement and action. When the
body was destroyed the soul ceased to exist, hence
the necessity for *' everlasting " depositories for the
dead and the embalming of the body.
Charles Ripley Gillett.
6. Exploration and Excavation: Systematic ex-
ploration and excavation and study of the monu-
ments of Egypt began with the Egyptian military
campaign of Napoleon in 1798, which was accom-
panied by a number of competent scientists, artists,
and savants, among whom were MM. Jollois and
Devilliers, who examined the monuments then
accessible. The results were published in memo-
rable form under the auspices of the
1. The First French Academy in Description de
Period, V^gypte, ou recueil dea observations qui
1708-1880. ont it^ faites en 6gypte pendant Vex-
pddition de Vamice fran^uise (37 vols.,
Paris, 1820-1830). These magnificent volumes
first acquainted the world with the existing remains
of the past civilization of the Nile land. Prosper
Jollois' Journal d*un ing^nieur attache u Vexpidition
. . 1798-1802, is published by G. Masp^ro in
Bibliothhque (gyptologique (Paris, 1894) and throws
a definite light upon the work of these scientists,
since most of the sites since excavated with so large
results are mentioned in the Journal. Memorable
among the material results of the expedition was
the Rosetta Stone discovered in Aug., 1799, at
Rosetta, east of Alexandria, inscribed in hiero-
glyphic, hieratic, and Greek, which enabled Cham-
poUion to begin decipherment and make the first great
contributions to Egyptology (see Inscriptions).
Another expedition, under the Tuscan government
supported by Charles X. of France and led by the
French Champollion and the Italian Rosellini, the
latter a professor at Pisa, went out in 1828, studied
anew the monuments in the light of ChampoUion's
achievements with the materials of the first expe-
dition, and carried their researches as far as Nubia.
Champollion died in 1832, but Rosellini stayed some
years, and the results were published in Monumente
dcW Egitto e delta Nubia (3 vols, of plates, 8 of text,
Pisa, 1832 sqq.), the French equivalents in Monu-
ments de V6gypte et de Nubie (4 and 8 vols., Paris,
1835 sqq.).
The next period began in 1832, at first under pri-
vate enterprise, no great official efforts being made.
Among the most notable and useful labors were
those of the English engineer F. E. Perring and
his associate Col. Howard Vyse, who took accurate
measurements of the pyramids, especially those
of Gizeh,and laid the foundations for all subsequent
Effsrpt
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
exact knowledge, verified and completed for the
Gizeh pyramids by Petrie in 1881-82, results being
assured often to one-tenth of an inch.
2. I*riyftte The object of the building of the
pyramids was discovered largely
through the investigations of Perring
and
TuBoan-
^^oriL^ and Vyse. In 1841 Alexander von
1838-60.
Humboldt and Karl Josias von Bun-
sen induced Frederick William IV. of
Prussia to send an expedition headed by Karl
Richard Lepsius and a strong staff, which carried
on work from 1842 into the sixties. Investigation
was begun at the pyramids near Memphis and the
conclusion was reached that these structures vary in
size approximately in proportion to the length of
the reign of the king for whose tomb each was pre-
pared; that the tomb was begun at the beginning
of the reign and increased in size by symmetrical
outside casings as long as the king lived, when a
final casing was added. This theory is denied by
Petrie (Ten Years* Digging in Egypt, New York,
n.d., pp. 141-142) but pronounced substantially
correct by Steindorfif (H. V. Hilprecht, Explorations
in Bible Lands, Philadelphia, 1903, p. 633). Over
130 other tombs were discovered and the materials
from them collected, including the inscriptions, for
an outline history of Egypt. Explorations were
extended southward up the Blue Nile past Khartum,
where attention was paid to Ethiopian civilization,
and eastward to the ancient mines of Sinai. Among
individual achievements was the recovery at Tanis
of a trilingual stele carrying the decree of Ptolemy
III. Euergetes in hieroglyphic, demotic, and Greek,
confirming in general the decipherment begun with
the Rosetta Stone. Results were published by
Lepsius (12 vols., Berlin, 1849 sqq.). The arrange-
ment was not geographical, as had been the case
with previous publications, but historical in the
sequence of development as then understood. Thus
the outlines of a new treatment were struck out
which subsequent work has followed, amended,
and filled out.
With Auguste Mariette a new period began, and
by the discovery near Memphis in Nov., 1851, of
the Serapeum or cemetery of the sacred Apis-bulls
intense interest was created. Sixty-four of these
tombs were found with a vast amount
3. Marl- of cultic, memorial, ornamental, and
ette, historical material, useful in construct-
1861-81. ing a picture of life, history, and belief.
In 1857 Mariette was made director of
the new museum at Cairo, and when permits already
issued for excavations expired, he would not have
them renewed and permitted no one but himself
to dig for antiquities. His own activities were
feverish and his excavations so extensive and so
scattered that they could not be under his per-
sonal supervision. Moreover, the strictly scientific
methods of the present had not come into existence,
consequently through the carelessness or incapacity
of his workmen many objects were irretrievably
lost or ruined. No systematic account of the ex-
cavations was kept, and a record of work done by
Mariette is consequently a desideratum which can
never be supplied. His chief aim was to collect
fine specimens for his museum, and the accom-
plishment of thorough work was a sectxidaryeni
Yet some of his discoveries were notable: astb
statues of the seated scribe, now in the Loitr^
and the Sheikh al-Beled ('* village chief "), in th
Cairo museum; at Abydos the temple of Seti L ui
the Seti list of seventy-six royal ancestors will
their names and titles; at Denderah, the temple rf
Hathor; at Edfu, the fine temple of Horns; and
under his direction many volumes of the xnaei^
tions recovered and copied were issued.
After Mariette's death in 1881 the directioi
remained in the hands of the French, but under
competent and more generous managemmt i
as that of G. Masp^ro, E. Grebaut, J. de Moiipi,
and Victor Loret. Permits to e
4. The ^^^ '^^'^ ^^^ more granted to tepn-
Becent sentatives of other nations and internti,
Period, while for the E^gyptian govenunat
since 1881. researches were conducted at Loxor,
Ombos, and in the Valley of the Kn9»
in which last place a notable fund of lamp-
ledge was accumulated, as it proved to be the
hiding-place of the mummies of the kings of the
seventeenth and eighteenth dynasties. Since 1883
the Egypt Exploration Fund and since 1893 tbe
Egyptian Research Account (qq.v.) have been con-
tinuously at work; both have been favored agendei
and their progress has been one of repeated triumphi
under such brilliant workers as Edouard Navflle,
W. M. FUnders Petrie, F. LI. GriflSths and E
A. Gardner. In 1894 the Swiss scholars F. J.
Gautier and J. J^quier entered upon work on the
pyramids near Dahshur, and the tombs of Amen-
ophis 1. and Usertesen I. were recovered. Am^
neau's work since 1895 has been momentous, in-
cluding the recovery of a famous tomb of Osiiii
and the royal tombs of part of the first dynasty
near Abydos. Meanwhile M. Gayet had begun
work for the Mus6e Guimet. M. de Morgan's
labor for the Cairo Museum at Abydos, Dah-
shur, Sakkareh and elsewhere has been con-
tinuous and important, especially in the investi-
gation of neolithic interments and the discovery
of the tomb of Menes near Nakada. Professor
Spiegelberg has carried on a private enterprise for
Lord Newberry at Memphis and elsewhere. More
recent work has been done for the Germans by
H. Schafer, e.g., at Abusir, where a sun temple of
the fifth dynasty was discovered.
The attempt to state the results of all these
efforts has sdready filled hundreds of volumes.
Here only the most general or most significant
consquences can be given. The general course and
extent of Egyptian history have been determined,
though with many gaps and with
6. General deficiencies sufficiently indicated by
Besults. the differences in the chronology as
determined by different students shown
in the chronological table given above. Yet the
dynasties are few of which definite knowledge is
not at hand, while the gaps are ever being filled iiL
The general course of civilization and of develop-
ment of science, art, and letters in the Nile land is
determined even into the prehistoric period, and
the investigations have fixed within narrow limits
the period of alien civilizations such as the Greek
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
BffTpt
"Hjct' nil' fill and Cretan. With this goes consid-
giamLU. light upon the movements and control of
]Hiediterranean commerce and intercourse prior to
1.000 B.C. New light is continually directed upon
ttie two riddles of the B^gyptian sphinx — the eth-
Vidlogy and language of the valley and delta. The
izterease in the number of monuments and cultic and
twinl implements on the one hand and of inscrip-
Xaaoe and literary remains on the other promise
^Umate solution of these two problems. Single
cimstions of importance settled definitely are: the
relations of Egypt to Palestine in the fifteenth cen-
tury B.C. (see AjkfARNA Tablets); the situation of
the Goshen of the Israelites through the location of
Pithom (1883) and possibly Rameses (1906) alongthe
Tanitic branch of the Nile; the relations of Egypt
to Greece in the use of Greek mercenaries from the
■tventh to the fourth century B.C. by the excava-
tioDs of the sites of Naukratis and Daphne (Tah-
panhes); the character of the cult of Hathor (1906)
through finding an untouched temple of the goddess
with a cow sculptiu^ed in sandstone as the cultic
object — the first discovery of a shrine with its
deity and paraphernalia of worship intact; and
the recovery of the site of the Onias temple (1906).
Among the unexpected results is the recovery of
eariy fragments of classical, Jewish, and Christian
literature, including the famous Logia Jesu (see
Agrapha), early bits of the Greek Old and New
Testaments, new fragments of Sappho, and Menan-
der, the Epitome of Livy covering several lost books;
whfle of Baruch, Hennas, Pindar, Julius Africanus,
Euripides, iEschines, the Iliad and the Odyssey,
Plato, Demosthenes, and others, texts, fragmentary
to be sure, earlier than any before known have been
unearthed. Added to these are a mass of ostraca,
accounts, letters, official docimients, and other
materials of the post-Alexandrine period which
ha0 already required a recasting of the history of the
Greek language. With the last phase of work and
of epoch-making finds the names of Bernard P.
Grenfell, Arthur S. Hunt, David G. Hogarth and
the versatile W. M. Flinders Petrie are indissolubly
connected. See Egypt Exploration Fund.
Geo. W. Gilmore.
n. Modem Egypt: Egypt fell imder the do-
minion of the Turks in 1517, but retained its inde-
pendence in great measure. It is now formally
dependent on the Sultan, although it has its own
prince, who is called Khedive. The present Khe-
dive is Abbas II., crowned 1892. Since 1882 Eng-
land has exercised actual control, which was secured
until further notice by an agreement with France
in 1904. The area of the country, which is now
officially bounded on the south by Wadi Haifa,
amounts, according to Htlbner and Juraschek, to
994,275 square kilometers (somewhat less than
400,000 square miles) or a little over three times
the area of Great Britain, but only one-
1. Statifl- thirtieth is fertile and inhabited. The
tics, C}en- census of 1897, according to the same
eral and authorities, showed a population of
B«li«ioiui. 9,821,045, a number slightly in ex-
cess of that given by the Almanac de
Gotha, which includes about 113,000 foreigners,
conststtng mainly of Greeks, English, French, Aus-
trians, and Himgarians. The majority of the Eng-
lish and Germans belong to the Protestant Church.
HObner and Juraschek give the number of Protes-
tants as 11,894, while the Almanac de Gotha raises
the number, probably with greater correctness, to
24,409. The number of Roman Catholics, accord-
ing to the former, is 56,343; according to the latter,
61,051. By far the greater number of natives are
Mohammedans. The majority of native Christians
belong to the Coptic Church (q.v.), which, accord-
ing to Hiibner and Juraschek, numbers 608,446
members. There are also 53,479 " orthodox
Greeks ''; but no distinction is made between the
members of the Orthodox Church proper, over
which the ecumenical patriarch of Constantinople
presides, and those Christians whom that Church
regards as heretical and schismatic. The latter
are represented by many denominations, especially
the Armenian and Syrian Jacobites.
The Orthodox Church is under the jurisdiction
of the patriarch of Alexandria. Egypt was for
centuries the most splendid seat of the Oriental
Church, but has declined more and more since the
invasion of the Arabs. The most famous patri-
arch of modem times was Cyril Lucar (q.v.), who
lived for the most part at Constantinople, where
he became ecumenical patriarch in 1620. In 1846
the patriarchal residence was restored
8. The ^o Egypt, and is now at Cairo. The
Orthodox present incumbent of the see of Alex-
Greek andria is Photios, a man of energy and
Ohnroh. ambition, who was consecrated in
1900 with the title of " most blessed
and all-holy pope (Gk. papas) and patriarch of the
great city of Alexandria and aU Egypt, of Pentapolis
and Pelusium, of Libya and Ethiopia." Under
him are four titular metropolitans. Formerly the
patriaichate had large estates in Rumania, but
they were sequestrated some decades ago. It must
not be supposed, however, that all the Orthodox
who live in Egypt belong to the Church of Alex-
andria, but only those who settled there long ago,
whose number is not over 10,000. Although the
immigrant Greeks and Russians take part in the
service held by the clergy of the patriarch, they
have no rights concerning it. The most important
privilege vested in the subjects of the patriarchate
is his election, in which the laity take a prominent
part. The congregations in Cairo and Alexandria
are rich, and supply the patriarch with lai^ means.
The first patriarch to return to reside in the country
founded schools and hospitals with ecclesiastical
funds. The patriarch is aided in the government
of the Church by a permanent synod, consisting of
the four metropolitans, and a council, or committee,
for secular and financial affairs. Some important
monasteries belong to the patriarchate, especially
the large cloister of St. George in Cairo; the monas-
tery of Sinai is ecclesiastically independent.
The Roman Catholic Church has an influential
mission in the country, and since the time of the
crusades has nominally a patriarch there, although
he actually resides at Rome, where he has the church
S. Paolo fuori le Mure. The Uniates have a dis-
tinct organization. The Anglican Church is lai^ly
represented in the principal cities, and Presbyterian
BSTPt
Effyptiaxi Besearoh Aooount
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
chapels also exist. German congregations are
found at Cairo and Alexandria, where they include
the Swiss and Evangelical French,
8. Other From 1752 to 1783 the Moravians
Oomznn- worked among the Copts, and since 1 854
nions. the United Presbyterians of the United
States have been engaged in mission
work. The Indian prince Dalip Singh (d. 1893),
who married an Evangelical Coptic woman, sup-
ported the mission, which in 1907 had fifty-three
organized congregations and 140 stations. Fifteen
ordained missionaries, thirteen lay missionaries
(including five medical missionaries), sixteen mis-
sionary sisters, thirty ordained native ministers,
thirty native auxiliary misoionaries, 333 teachers,
and thirty-eight colporteurs are among the number
now at work. There are 25,500 baptized members,
and 6,580 communicants. In 1901 the contribu-
tions for church purposes amounted to about
$31,650. In the 169 schools 13,406 pupils were
taught (including 6,852 Copts and 2,924 Moham-
medans), and S3 1,489 were contributed for educa-
tional work. In 1882 a mission among the Moham-
medans was begun by the Anglican Church
Missionary Society, but its success has not been
great. Since 1892 the North African Mission has
worked in the same direction in the Nile delta. A
small Dutch mission is also at work, as well as the
Egyptian General Mission, which has it^ head-
quarters in Ireland. See also ** Egypt " under title
Africa, vol. i., p. 67. F. Kattenbusch.
Biblioorapht: Articles which cover the whole topic ex-
cept Modem Egypt are DB, i. 653-667; EB, ii. 1203-
1247. The article in KL, i. 256-267 includes Modern
Egypt.
On the archeology consult: A. Erman, Life in Ancient
Egypt. New York, 1894 (supersedes all earlier works);
the various Reports and other publications of the two
societies treated below, which give results Df their
operations; the publications of the Mission archto-
logique francaise au Caire, Paris, 1885 sqq. (a magnifi-
cent series of volumes dealing with various topics); G.
Perrot andC. Chipiez, Hiat. of Art in Ancient Egypt, 2 vols.,
London. 1883; W. M. F. Petrie, Historical Scarabs,
London, 1889; idem. Ten Years' Digging in Egypt, New
York, 1892; idem, Egyptian Decorative Art, ib. 1895; G.
Maspero, Life in Ancient Egypt, ib. 1891; E. A. W. Budge,
The Mummy: Chapters on Egyptian Funeral ArcKce-
ology, Cambridge, 1893; W. Max Miiller, Asien und
Europa nach aitdQyptischen Denkmdlem, Leipsic, 1893;
M. Benson and J. Gourlay, The Temple of Mut in Asher
. . . illustrating the Hist, of Egypt and Vie Main Relig-
ious Ideas of the Egyptians, London, 1899; J. de Morgan,
Recherche sur les origines de I'^gypte; VAge de la pierre
et les mt'^tauz, Paris, 1895-96; H. Wallis, Egyptian Pot-
tery, London, 1898; M. Brodrick and A. A. Morton, Con-
cise Dictionary of Egyptian Archceology, ib. 1901; J. Ca-
part, />e« Debuts de Vart en ^gypte, Brussels. 1904. Eng.
transl.. Primitive Art in Egypt, Philadelphia, 1905; F.
W. von Bessing, Monuments of Egyptian Sculpture, New
York, 1906 (typical examples of art arranged chrono-
logically): T. M. Davis, E. Naville. H. Carter, Theodore
M. Davis* Excavations, New York, 1906; A. H. Gardiner,
Inscription of Mes: Study of Egyptian Judicial Procedure,
ib. 1906; G. Maspero, Manual of Egyptian Archceology,
ib. 1906; P. E. Newberry. Scarabs: Introduction to the
Study of Egyptian Seals and Signet Rings, London, 1906;
H. Schneider, Kultur und Denken der alten Aegypter, Leip-
sic, 1907; E. A. W. Budge, The Egi/ptian Sudan, its His-
tory and Monuments, 2 vols., London, 1907.
On the history it is to be remarked that the earlier works
are superseded and should be used only with the greatest
care. Consult J. H. Breasted. A Hist, ol Egypt, New
York, 1905 (in connection with this may be employed
Breasted 'Silnctenl Records of Egypt, including the Historicai
DocumenU, 6 vols., Chieago, 1906-06); idem, ffirtory if lb ]
Ancient Egyptians, New York. 1906(abrief andhiady ■» I
ual) : A. Wiedemann, A e(nfpti»cheGs9ekUhte, Gotha, 18Si &
Meyer. Oeschichte des A Uertuma, vol. i .. Stutlcart, 18S4; dm,
GeschichU des alien Aegypten; Beriin, 1887; W. H. F.
Petrie, A Hist, of Egypt from f^ Earliest Times Is h ■
Thirtieth Dynasty, 6 vols.. New York, 1804-1906; A. H.
Sayoe. The Egypt of the Hebrew and of Herodstst, ik.
1895; F. G. Fleay. Egyptian Chronology, ib. 1809; a
Maspero, History of the Ancient Peoples of As CImm
East, 3 vols., ib. 1897-1900; E. A. W. Budce. A ffiA4
Egypt, 8 vols., ib. 1902. On the Gteek period, bwki
the appropriate sections in works mentioDed abore, cqa*
suit: J. P. Mahaffy, The Empire of the Ptolemiu, Lot*
don, 1895: M. C. Strack, Die Dynaatie der Ptolemtm,
Berlin, 1897. For the Roman period. J. G. Milne. Bis-
tory of Egypt under Roman Rule, London. 1899. Oa thi
external relations of Eg31>t, consult W. M. MOlls, it
sup., and the literature under Amarna Tablets.
On the religion: A. Wiedemann. ReUoion of Ike Awami
Egyptians, New York, 1897 (the best single work); a
SteindorfT. The Religion of the Ancient Egyptians, ib. 1901
(covers the subject, but largely on the basis of Herado*
tus); M. Brimmer. Egypt: Three Eaaaya on the R^igieu,
Hist, and Art, Boston. 1891; G. Maspero. itmis^ di
mythologie et d'ardiMogie, 4 vols.. Paris. 189a-19Q0(
G. St. Clair, Creation Records in Egypt. Studies in Ai
Book of the Dead, London. 1898; W. M. F. Petrie, ReHfism
and Conscience in Ancient Egypt, ib. 1898; E. A W.
Budge, Egyptian Ideas of a Future Life, Oxfoni, 1809;
idem, Egyptian Magic, ib. 1899; idem. The Gods ef Ai
Egyptians, 3 vols.. London, 1905 (sumptuous and mesly);
idem. Egyptian Heaven and Hell, ib. 1906; A. H. Saycs.
Religions of Ancient Egypt and Babylonia, New Yock.
1903; A. Erman. Die Agyptisehe Relioum, Beriin, 1906,
Eng. transl.. Handbook ajf Egyptian Religion^ London,
1907; E. Naville, La Retigion des aneiens 6gyptiens, Pui^
1906; DB, Extra volume, pp. 176-197.
On the literature: For the Book of the Dead, the re-
cension of the British Museum copy was reprodueed in
color by Griggs, London, 1889; that of the Turin Papy-
rus was edited by R. Lepsius. Leipsic, 1842; The Book
of the Dead was translated in part by Le P. Renouf for
the Society of Biblical Archseology, parts i.-iv^ London,
1893-95. completed by E. NaviUe. 1907; it has been
translated into English by C. H. S. Davis. New York.
1894, and by E. A. W. Budge, 3 vols.. London. 1896
(text, vocabulary, and translation). An excellent Fr.
transl. is by P. Pierret, Paris, 1882. Collections sxti
K. Piehl. Inscriptions hieroglyphiques, 3 vols., Leipeie.
1886-1903; Corpus papyrorum ^gypti, ed. R. Revilteut
and A. Eisenlohr, Paris, 1894 sqq.; Urkunden des aegvpti'
schen Altertums, ed. G. Steindorff, Leipsic, 1903 sqq.
Egyptian Tales from the Papyri, 2 series, ed. and tranaL
by W. M. F. Petrie, New York, 1894-95 is of great in-
terest psychologically and from the point of view of fdk-
lore. Consult also: Untersw^ungen tur Geschichte und
Altertumskunde Aegyptens, ed. K. Sethe. 4 vols.. Leipae,
1896 sqq.; R. Lepsius, Denkmdler aus Aegypten und Aelhia-
pien, Leipsic, 1897 sqq. (4 voU. issued); G. Ebers. Papih
rus Ebers, 2 vols., ib. 1875; I. Myer, The Oldest Books in
the World, London. 1900; A. EIrman, Aegyptieehe Chrss-
tomathie. New York, 1895.
On exploration and excavation consult: G. Steindorff,
in H. V. Hilprecht, Explorations in Bible Lands, Phila-
delphia, 1903; W. M. F. Petrie, Ten Years' Digging in
Egypt, London, 1892; the Annual Archteological Reports
of the Egypt Exploration Fimd, 1890 sqq., furnish ac-
counts not only of the work of that association but of
the discoveries made by other investigators; Bihlioih^que
egyptologique, Paris, 1893 sqq., contains many memoirs of
a historical nature concerning exploration and excavation.
On Modern Egypt: De Chabroe, Essai sur les maurs
des habitarUs modemes de I'/tgypte, in Description de
V^gypte, ii. 2, pp. 361-526, Paris. 1822; J. Silbemacl
Verfassung und gegeniocbrtiger Bestand sdmmtlicher Kirthen
des Orients, Landshut, 1907; H. Stephan, Das heutigs
Aegypten, Leipsic, 1872; M. LUttke, Aegyptens neue ZeU,
Leipsic, 1873 (the most comprehensive book for ecclesias-
tical matters); O. Schneider, Beitr&ge sur Kenntniss der
griechisch-orthodoxen Kirche Aegyptens, Dresden, 1874
(important); O. Werner, Or6ts terrarum catholicus, pp.
195 sqq.. Freiburg, 1890; F. Kattenbusch. Lehrbuch der
vergleichenden Confessionskunde, i. 170 sqq.. Freiburs*
REUOIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
SS^
itian B— 6>roh Aooount
3U Salih* Churdie§ and MontuterieB of Egyvi^
1895: A. von Fireks, Aegyvten, Berlin, 1895;
[tcher. Story of the Church of Egypt, London, 1897
>r the modem period); A. Watson, American
in Egypt, 1854-96, Pittflburg. 1898; A. B. Ed-
*karaoha, Fellaha and Explorers, New York, 1891;
er. Ckriatian Egypt, London. 1901; K. Baedeker,
ondon, 1902; K. Beth. Die orientaliache Ckrieten-
MiUdmeerUtnder, Berlin. 1902; H. Gundert. Die
the Mieaion, ikre LOnder, ViUcer und Arbeiten,
sqq.. Stuttgart. 1903; O. Habner. OoographiMch-
i$ TabelU oiler LOnder der Erde, ed. F. von Jura-
ranklort, 1907; Oothaiacher genealogieeher Kalen-
la. 1906; C. R. Wataon. Egypt and the Chrittian
Philadelphia. 1907, and the literature under Coptic
' EXPLORATION FUlf D : A society
in 1882 by Miss Amelia B. Edwards, Sir
Wilson, and others to carry on system-
scientific research of ancient Egypt. The
f the undertaking was assured when the
s obtained tho services of the well-known
yptologist, £douard Naville, and the dis-
d explorer, W. H. Flinders Petrie (since
wards professor of Egjrptology, Univer-
!ge, London). The results achieved may
d imder three heads* (1) Biblical, that is
light on the Old-Testament narrative;
deal, showing the connection between
id E^gypt at a very early period; (3) purely
I, illustrating the history, religion, arts,
iture of ancient Egypt. During the season
J3 M. Naville excavated the site of Pithom-
and determined the starting-point of the
the city was built in the reign of Rameses
t, the oppressor of the Hebrews. In 1883-
Petrie excavated Zoan (cf. Num. xiii. 22),
not reach the Biblical city, as many cen-
later builders had buried it so deep that
and labor of reaching it was prohibitive,
ollowing season Prof. Petrie excavated at
fenneh (the Biblical Tahpanhes), "The
f the Jew's Daughter," and found traces of
ment before the entry of Pharaoh's house
xliiL 8-10). In 1885 M. Naville identified
ion of the Land of Goshen at Saft el-Henneh
viii. 22). The three chief classical sites
B of Naucratis, Tanis, and Tell Defenneh
phnai). Naucratis was the city in which
tichus II. allowed his Greek mercenaries to
^t Tanis remains of many Roman houses
nd; that of a lawyer named Bak-akhiu of
as especially rich in papyri and objects of
o-Roman period. At Tell Defenneh traces
imp of the Greek mercenaries were found,
es excavated have been: the city of Onias
I el-Yehudiyeh (" Mound of the Jew ");
t temple of Bubastis, where monuments of
SOS, the shepherd kings who ruled in the
Joseph (see Egypt), were found; Ahnas
eh, Deir el-Bahari, the great temple of
atshepsu, and the eleventh-dynasty temple
uhetep adjoining; Deshasheh, Dendereh,
dos.
are two auxiliary branches of the Fund,
Archeological Survey, which copies wall
s and the like which have been uncovered
1 are liable to injury; and (2) the Greco-
Branch, established to search for papyri.
The Archeological Survey has done excellent work
at Beni Hasan, el-Bersheh, Saqqareh, Sheikh Said,
Deir el-Gebrawi, and el-Amama. To the excava-
tors of the Greco-Roman Branch, Drs. Grenfell
and Himt, are due the recovery of the " sayings of
Jesus " (see Aorapha), many portions of the Gos-
pels, as well as invaluable Greek papyri. The
principal site worked by the Greco-Roman Branch
has been Oxyrhjmchus. Emily Paterson.
Bibuoorapht: The following ia a list of the publications
of the Fund: I. The Memoirs: 1, for 1883-84. by E.
Naville. The Store City of Pithom and the Route of the
Exodue; 2. for 1884-85. by W. M. F. Petrie. Tanie, part
i.; 3. for 1885-86. by W. M. F. Petrie, Naukratie, part
i.; 4. for 1886-87. by £. Naville, Gothen and the ShHne of
Saft-et^Henneh; 6, for 1887-88, by W. M. F. Petrie, F.
LI. Griffith and A. 8. Murray, Tanie, part ii.. Tell De-
fenneh, and TeU Nebeeheh: 6, for 1888-89. by E. A.
Gardiner and F. LI. Griffith, NaukraHa, part ii.; 7, extra
volume, by E. Naville and F. LI. Griffith, The City of
Oniae and the Mound of the Jew; 8, for 1889-90, by E.
Naville. Bubaetie; 9. extra volume, by F. LI. Griffith
and W. M. F. Petrie. Two Hieroglyphic Papyri from
Tanie ; 10. for 1890-91. by E. Naville. The Fealival HaU
of Oeorkon II. iBukaetU); U, for 1891-92, by E. Naville.
J. J. Tylor and F. LI. Griffith, Ahnae d-Afedin^, and
The Tomb of Paheri at el-Kab; 12-14, 16. 19 and 27. for
1892-95. 1896-97. 1899-1900 and 1904-05. by E. Naville.
Deir H-Bahari, Introductory and parts i.-v.; 16, for
1895-96, by W. M. F. Petrie. Deehaeheh ; 17, for 1897-98.
by W. M. F. Petrie. Dendereh; 18. for 1898-99. by W.
M. F. Petrie, Royal Tombe of the Firel Dynasty; 20. ex-
tra volume, by W. M. F. Petrie. Dioepolie Parva; 21, for
1900-01. by W. M. F. Petrie. The Royal Tombt of the
Earliest Dynasties, part ii.; 22 and 24, for 1901-03 by
W. M. F. Petrie, Abydoe, parts i.-ii.; 23, extra volume,
by D. Randall-Maclver, A. C. Mace and F. LI. Griffith.
EUAmrah and Abydos; 25, extra volume, by C. T. Cur-
relly. E. R. Ayrton and A. E. P. Weigall. Abydos, part
iii.; 26. for 1903-04. by W. M. F. Petrie. Ehnaeya; 28.
for 1905-06. by E. Naville and H. R. Hall. The Eleventh
Dynasty Temple of Deir el Bahari.
II. The Archeological Survey: 1-2. for 1890-92. by
P. E. Newberry and G. W. Fraser. Beni Hasan, parts
I.-ii.; 3. for 1892-93, by P. E. Newberry, El-Bersheh,
part i.; 4. for 1893-94. by F. LI. Griffith and P. E. New-
berry. EUBersheh, part ii.; 5 and 7. for 1894-95 and
1896-97, by F. LI. Griffith, Beni Hasan, parts iii.-iv.;
6. for 1895-96, by F. LI. Griffith. Hieroglyphs from the
Collections of the Egypt Exploration Fund; 8-9, for 1897-
99. by N. de G. Davies and F. LI. Griffith. The Mastabah
of Ptahhetep and Akhethetep at Saqqareh, parts i.-ii.; 10.
for 1899-1900, by N. de G. Davies. The Rock Tombs of
Sheikh Said; 11-12. for 1900-02. by N. de G. Davies.
The Rock Tombs of Deir el-Oebraun, parts i.-ii.; 13-16.
for 1902-05. The Rock Tombs of el-Amama, parts i.-iii.
III. Greco-Roman Branch: 1. 2. 5. 6, 8. for 1897-
99. 1902-04. 1906-07, by B. P. Grenfell and A. S. Hunt.
The Oxyrhynchus Papyri, parts i.-v.; 3. for 1899-1900,
by D. G. Hogarth, B. P. Grenfell and A. S. Hunt. Fayum
Towns and their Papyri; 4, 1900-02, by B. P. Grenfell,
A. 8. Hunt and J. G. Smyly. The Tebtunis Papyn; 7,
for 1904-06. The Hibeh PapyH.
IV. Anniial Archeological Reports on the seasons'
work, running from 1890-91 to date.
V. Special publications: B. P. Grenfell and A. 8.
Hunt. AOriA IHSOY ; " Sayings of Our Lord " and
New Sayings of Jeeus and Fragment of a Lost Gospel;
Atlas of Ancient Egypt; Guide to Temple of Deir el^Ba-
hari; W. E. Crum, Coptic Ostraca.
EGYPTIAN RESEARCH ACCOUNT: A society
carrying on archeological research in Egypt, which
had its beginnings about 1893, when through the
exertions of Prof. W. M. Flinders Petrie a fund was
collected to assist students in Egypt. For eleven
years the fimd (the " Research Account "), con-
tinued by subscriptions, was administered by Profes-
sor Petrie as a personal trust, and the students who
^
0ru
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOQ
m «(!*
shared in it worked in accord witb his exeavations
latterly conducted for tlie Egypt Exploit tion Fund
(q.vO- In 1Q05 a difTerent baais was found desir^
able, and tho work was orgaiii^d and expanded
at a public meeting of fiubaeribera and friends held
in London. RegulationB wer^ adopted stating the
name of tbe new association to be the " Egyptian
Research Account and British School of Archeology
in Egypt*" The office was appointed at University
OlkgG, London. Tbe objects were defined as
follows:
a. To fjonduct cxcaTatJoQii &tid pay all ttxpenseii tnei'
dent&t thereto*
b. To discover and aoquira aatiquitlea mud. to cii«tribute
the samn to public museums
t. To pubLiiih worki.
d. To ho]d ejcbibitiona,
e. To promole Che training and aRfnnt&ncfl of students.
All of these QbJ«cti9 to be carried an in tielation to Egiypt,
meaEunff In eco^raJ the NiJe valJey, but with occa^onaJ ex-
teamoa to any part of tbe former luDgdoiD of Egypt.
AU receipts from snbacriptions^ bequest, or sale
of books are applied solely to the objects mentioned
above^ and no expenses are incurred for offices or
management. Antiquities not claimed by the
Egyptian government are divided among esubscribers
and among public museums in proportion to the
amounta contributed in tlieir resi>ective localities.
The management of the stxsiety k in the bands of
an executive committee appointed by a general
committee^ which in turn is appointed by the sub-
scribers at an annual general meeting held in
London. A director has charge of the work in the
field and the work of students. He is the professor
of Egyptology in University College, London, if
he choose to fill the position; if not^ appointment
is made by the general committee on nomination of
tho executive eommittee. Prrjfessor Petrie has con-
tinued a^ dtrcctor. Late work of the society has
been excavation at Tell el-Yohudiyehj twenty miles
north of Cairo, where it is thought the celebrated
Hyksos capital Avari^ has been discovered, and also
the town and temple of Onias, the Jewish high prieiit
who fled to Egypt about 150 B.C. The exploration
of Memphis is now in progress, and it is estimated
that fully fifteen years will be required to excavate
the temple sites alone, apart from the city. The
following 13 the coniplete list of the society's pub-
lications, and indicates the locality and character
of the work done since its beginning:
i. 1S95. J. E. Qiiibell. BnUat.
11. 18f>n. J. E, QuibeU, The Bametxeum.
ill. 1897. J. E. Quibell, El Kab.
Iv. ISM. W, M, FJinderB Petri©, merahtntop&liti, I
V, 1890. F, W. Gra«ti and J. E. Qiubell. HieFokoniop-
olia. \L
vi. 1900. J- G*rBt*nff. El Arfihah.
vii. 1901. J. Garatang, Makaana.
via, 1902. A. St. G. Caulfeild, The Temple of thv Kingt.
i%. 1903. M, A, MtirrE^, Thir QwirHon.
JC, l&CM. M, A. Murray, ^dq^Ofct Maatabaa, l.
L. I>oat. Gureb,
xj, 19DS. Hilda FctrieH SfMjtiiirn MoMtabait, IL
xit 1900. W. M. FlinJeni Petrie, H^kaoa and /anwHto
xiii 1907. W. M. Flintlera Petrie. Gueh ami Rifeh.
xiv. 190S. W. M. Fliadijfs Petrie, Athrmfand Mtmphi§. L
EHRENFEUCHTER, ^"rcn-foin'ter, FRIEDRICH
AUGUST ED0AFID: German mediating theolo-
gian; b, at Leopoldfihafen (near Carlsruhe) Dec.
15, IS14; d. at G6ttingen Mar. 20, 187SL
was educated at Mannheim and Heidelberg,
from 1835 to 1839 was instructor in religion it
Mannheim, In IS41 he was appointfed xie^ u
Weinheim^ and then became court and municipil
\dcar at Carkruhe, He attracted attention hj hii
Theorie dm christli^hen KuJtus (Hamburg, 1840]
and Enttcicklungsfjmchichte der Mmsf:hheii (Heide^
berg^ 1S45), and in 1845 accepted a call to G^tting^
where he remained until his death, despite ealla lo
Heidelberg^ Leipsic, Carlamhe, and DresdeiL li ^
1849 he became full professor of theolo^, in 18S6
abbot of Bursfelde^ and in 1859 counselor of the
BUpreme consistory and menvl>er of the Haaovenu
council for religion and education. The chief eub-
jeet of his lecturea woa practical theology in ill Hi
branches^ although he also taught theological intro
duct ion, the philosophy of religion, apologetics, tbe
life of Jesus, interpretation of the Pastoral Epislla^
modem church hbtory, and similar toptcs* Botb
as a lecturer and preacher, he was extremely popit
lar. Distinctly irenic in temp>eratDent and uoaye
to conceive of a conflict between science aJid tk
Church, theory and p^Lctise, or ecclesiastical politf
and academic teaching, Ehrenfeuchter wa^ expOBcd
to attacks both from conaervati^'es and wlialii,
particularly in the neo-Lutheran contra vcray whidi
raged in Hanover in 1853 and the following yeais,
He was a prolific writer, his principal works, in
addition to those already mentioned, being: Zeu^
nifise aus dem akudemUchen OoUmdUn^ in GMingm
(Gottingcn, 1M9-52); Zur GeRchichie d&j Kd^
chwmus (1857); Die prakiigdis Theologie (185fl);
Die Kaieehimtusfragt in der hanrwverechen Ltmda^
kirche (1862); and ChTiistmttum und modems Wdim'
sehauung (1S76). He was one of the foundeii d
the Jixhrbiicher furdeutache Theologie (Stutt^ lid ^
Gotha, 1856^78), (J. A, WAOENiLumt)
EICHHORW, oiH'hem, JOHAini ALBIECIT
FRIEDRICH: Prussian minister of worship; b, rt
Wertheim (20 m, w. of WQrzburg) Mar, 2, IWl
d. at Berlin Jan. 16, 1856. He aerved as an annj-
officer in the war of liberation in 1813, and after
ward took an active part in promoting the welliK
of his country. Ho soon occupied various promJ*
nent pt>BitionEi, and when Frederick WUliajn IV*
ascended the throne of Pruesia in 1840^ Eiclihora
was appointed minister of worehip and educaticra-
As the state governed the universities and reguUtt<i
the appointment of its teachers, the influence of the
ruling policy ufK>n the destinies of scientific efforti
wa^ inevitable, and showed itself especially in phi-
losophy and theology. The tendency to suhstituii
a positive philosophy in place of the negative be^
came a great (Jtumbling-bloek to theological eaflr
didates and miniatera. The result of this po&y
wa^ an oppodtion which in 1842 nourished two
hostile parties.
In ISA'l Eichhom undertook the formation of
eynoda in the eastern provinces, and these distritJt-
synods, composed only of ministers and meeting in
1843, advocated an increase of pastoral forces, better
preparation of the candidates^ the formation d
presbyteries, greater interest of the congregations
in the election of minister, and a inoi? definite
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDU SSffi^
Besearoh Aooonnt
idherence on the part of the clergy to the Augsburg
Coofession. In 1844 the six eastern provincial
tpnodB were convened and advocated the restora-
tkn of consistories in their ecclesiastical quality
nd the establishment of other synodical institu-
tno. In 1846 at the instance of Prussia, confer-
oees, represented by delegates from all the twenty-
ox Protestant governments, were held (Berlin,
ha. 3), but they accomplished little except to
erve as preludes for the Eisenach conferences (see
•Ibenach Conference).
In regard to the universities, Eichhom declined
> favor any particular doctrine, although he
tieeked pantheistic speculation and deistic natural-
m; moderate tendencies, on the other hand, were
tven free scope. He formed many plans, and
forts were made to acquaint the public through
ie press with the intentions of the government,
tot the revolution of Mar., 1848, made an end of all
hese plans and Eichhom withdrew from public
(fe. In his administration a special section was
onned for Roman Catholic interests, and the
M^iops were permitted to commxmicate freely with
GUme. (W. HOLLENBEROf.)
Bouogkapht: Q. Eilers, Zvr BeurteUung de% Miniaieriuma
£ieUom, Berlin, 1849; O. Mejer. in PreiuMche Jahr-
Ueker, 1$77. parts 2 and 3; H. von Trdtschke, DtuUche
(ktAixkU im 19. Jakrhundert, v. 229 sqq., Leipric, 1894.
EICHHORir, JOHAIVN GOTTFRIED: BibUcal
ahobr; b. at Ddrrenzimmem (near Kdnzelsau,
24 m. n.e. of Heilbronn) in the principality of
Bgheolohe-Oehringen, Oct. 16, 1752; d. at Gdt-
ta^ June 14, 1827. His father was pastor at
Donenzimmem. After preparatory studies in the
town school at Weikersheim and the gymnasium at
Balbroim, he studied at Gdttingen, 1770-74, under
Xkhaelis, Walch, Miller, Schldzer, and Heyne. He
became rector of the gymnasium at OhrdrufT, near
Gctha, in 1774. The next year he was appointed
oniinary professor of Oriental languages at Jena.
In this period he published a number of treatises
« the fcdstory and literature of the Orient, as well
18 of particular Mohammedan dominions. In the
Dab, however, he devoted himself to the Biblical
Wttces. In the Repertortum fur biblische und
9/irjenl&ndische lAtteratur (Leipsic, 1777-86), edited
by himself, he did much which was preliminary
VDik to his Einleihmg ins AUe Testament (3 vols.,
Lapsic, 1780-83). This work, which is distin-
giOBhed alike by youthful enthusiasm, synoptical
vnogement, comprehensive scholarship, and solid
bvestigation, gained universal acceptance, and
appeared in the fourth edition (5 vols., 1823-26).
ill it Eichhom made Introduction a Uteraiy-lus-
toric science. A proof of the lively interest with
viiich he pursued the study of Biblical literature
is furnished by AUgemeine Bibliothek der biblischen
LiUnatur (10 vols., Leipsic, 1787-1803).
In 1788 he went to Gdttingen as ordinary pro-
esBor of philosophy; and here he exhibited until
bortly before his death an exceedingly diversifieil
ctivity, combined with rare powers of labor and
idefatigable industry. His numerous lectures em-
raced not only the Biblical sciences, but also the
istory and literary life of ancient and modem
mes. At the same time he embodied the material
IV.— 7
of his lectures in extensive works issued in rapid
succession (cf. Hauck-Herzog, RE, v. 235 for list of
his historical works). Nevertheless, the principal
part of his activity was directed to Biblical science.
Of his additional theological writings may be men-
tioned: Commentarius in Apocalypstn Joannis
(2 vols., Gdttingen, 1791); Einleitung in die apa-
kryphischen Schriften des Alten Testaments (Leipsic,
1796); Einleitung in das Neue Testament (2 vols.,
Leipsic, 1804-12), containing detailed researches
with reference to the origin of the Gospels; Die
hebrdischen Propheten (3 vols., Gdttingen, 1816-19);
and a metrical translation of the Book of Job (Leip-
sic, 1800; 2d ed., 1824). His lectures in the Gdt-
tingen Society of Sciences are also noteworthy.
After Heyne's death (1812) he edited the Gottinger
geUhrten Ameigen, for which he wrote many literary
notices.
The verdict upon Eichhom and his works be-
came less favorable not long after his death; his
historical writings, which were really mere sketches,
were found wanting in thorough investigation and
painstaking conscientiousness. Still more sharply
were his theological works censured, because the
more accurate knowledge of the characteristics of
this or that particular composition was lacking;
and his research was not sufficiently free from
prejudice. It may likewise be said against his
exegesis that it neglected the psychologic element,
and frequently explained away the profound con-
tent of the Biblical records by means of so called
" natural " elucidation. His merit remains, how-
ever, in the fact that he not only vindicated the
Bible against the ridicule of its enemies, but that
far and wide he awakened love for the Biblical
writings, especially the Old-Testament Scriptures,
and the zeal to examine them carefully.
Carl Bertheau.
Bibuoorapht: F. Saalfeld, Qeachiehte der Univerntat Ofit-
Ungen, pp. 332 sqq., Hanover, 1820; H. Doerinic, Die
gelehrten Theolooen DetUtchlands, i. 356 Bqq.. Neuntadt,
1831; H. Ewald. JahrbOcher der bibliachen Witsenechaft,
i. 26 eqq., Gdttingen, 1849; ADB, v. 731 eqq.; C. H. IL
Wright, Introduction to O. T., London, 1890; C. A. IJriggs,
Study of Holy Scripture, passim. New York, 1899.
EICHHORir, KARL FRIEDRICH: German
jurist; son of Johann Gottfried Eichhom, b. at Jena
Nov. 20, 1781; d. at Cologne July 6, 1854. He
studied law at Gdttingen, Wetzlar and Vienna. In
1803 he commenced his academic activity at Gdt-
tingen, was appointed professor of law at Frank-
fort-on-the-Oder in 1805, and was called in 1811
to Berlin. He served in the war of 1813, and four
years later, at the wish of his father, accepted a
call to Gdttingen. He retired on account of ill-
health in 1829, but in 1831 returned to Berlin,
lectured for a year, then devoted his time partly to
his high offices in civil administration, and partly
to literary pursuits. He withdrew entirely from
public life in 1847, and, after resitiing four years on
his estate at Ammem (near Tubingen), removed
to Cologne, where he spent the remainder of his
life. Eichhom was regarded as the foremost of the
historical school of German jurists, and wrote a
number of legal works which still take high rank.
In the domain of canon law he wrote Grundndtze
des Kirchenrechls der kaiholischen und der evange"
Eiohstaett
Eisenaoh Oonferenoa
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOO
lischen Rcligionspartei in Deutschland (2 vols.,
Gottingen, 1831-33); GutachJten fur die Domge-
meindc zu Bremen (Hanover, 1831); and Ueber die
spanische Sammlung der Quellen dea Kirchenrechis
in the Abhandlungen der Berliner Akademie (Berlin,
1833-34) and in the Zeitschrift ftir geschichtliche
Rechtswissenschaftf xi. (C. T. G. von Scheurl.)
Bibliography: F. von Schulte, Karl Friedrich Eichhom^
»ein Lehen und Wirken, Stuttgart. 1884: J. C. BlunUschli
and K. Brater, StacU»-\V Orterbuch, iii. 237 »qq., ib. 1868;
Preussische Jahrbikcher, xxxvi (1875), 22 eqq.; ADB^
vi. 469 eqq.
EICHSTAETT, ain'stat. BISHOPRIC OF: A
German bishopric named from a city of Germany, 42
m. w.s.w. of Regensburg. The diocese was evstab-
lished by St. Boniface, and in 740 liad a monastery
on the wooded height above the Altmiihl. On Oct.
22, 741, the Anglo-Saxon Willibald (q.v.), who was
the abbot of this cloister, was consecrated bishop
by Boniface, primarily for missionary work among
the neighboring Wends. The actual diocese, how-
ever, first came into existence two years later, when
Odilo of Bavaria was obliged to cede the northern
j)ortion of his domains to Karlman and Pepin,
whereupon, to secure the incorporation of the new
possession in Prankish t<^rritory, the Prankish dis-
trict of Suala was united with it to form a bishopric.
The diocese lost a small portion of its territory
when the see of Bamberg was established (1015),
but the modem diocese practically corresponds to
the ancient. (A. Hauck. )
Bishop Gebhani I. (1042-57) became first an
imperial minister of great force, and then pope as
Victor II., still, however, retaining his German
bishopric and for a time, as administrator of the
Empire aft^r the death of Henry III., uniting the
highest temporal and spiritual power. Pew events
of general interest occurred until the episcopate of
William of Reichenau (1464-96), whose achieve-
ments in statesmanship, economic and intellectual
improvements, and building were notable; the
University of Ingolstadt was now founded, with
William for its first chancellor. The Reformation
made marked headway in the diocese in spite of the
stalwart opposition of Bishop Martin of Schaum-
berg (1560-90), who founded at Eichstiitt the first
seminary in Germany as prescribed by the Council
of Trent. A period of great prosperity for the
diocese was the episcopate of Conrad of Gemmingen
(1593-1612), but the Swedish army laid it in ruins
and bunied the see city in 1634. The secularization
of 1S02 divided the diocese between Bavaria,
Prussia, and Duke Ferdinand of Tuscany, until in
1805 the fragments were reunited imder Bavarian
rule. Bishop Joseph von Stul)enl3erg (1790-1824),
though no longer a temporal magnate, recovered
the full extent of his diocese in the Concordat of
1817, and many evidences of spiritual life were
shown during the remainder of the nineteenth
century.
BinuodRAPHY: Sources for histoo* are: Gundechari, Liher
futntifiraliH Kichntetensis, ?4l-i074, cd. L. C. Bethmann
in Man, Script., vii (184H). 239 h<1(i.; the same volume.
pp. 253 s<](|.. cfmtains Atumi/mus Ha«ereTui« dt episcopis
Kirhstftettsihu«, 741-106'i: Grata epitcupiirum Kichste-
Unnum 1 279-1 44^. \fGH, Script., xxv a8S0). 590-609.
Consult: M. Li'fTlail, RegtMten der Bischofe von EichttOU
741-1997, Eichst&tt. 1871-74; J. Sax, GuAiAk ^ J
HochaHfU und der Stadt EiehaUUt, ib. 1858; HMek. Q^ \
i. 518-519.
EINHARD, oinliOrt (EGUfHARD): Fnntii
historian and ecclesiastic; b. in the district o(tk
Main, Lower Franconia, about 770; d. at Sdig»
stadt (15 m. e.s.e. of Frankfort) Bfar. 14, Stti
He received his earliest education in the monast
of Pulda, and was presented by the abbot Baugol
(779-802) at the court of Charlemagne, where h
enjoyed the instruction of Alcuin, devoting hiih
self especially to mathematics and architectve,
and being appointed inspector of the royal build-
ings. He was likewise one of the trusted couDseko
of Charlemagne, and in 806 was sent to Rome to
secure the po[)e's sanction of the division of the
realm as proposed by the emperor. He retained
his position with Charlemagne's son and succeanr,
Louis, who entrusted him with the education of hk
son Lothair, although he later became a Strang
opponent of the evil influence of the empress Juditk
In 829 he fell seriously ill, and in the foUowing
year left the court. He then retired to Seligenstadt,
but in 833 he was at the court of Lothair to do him
homage. His chief interest, however, was the
development of Mtihlheim on the Main, which he
renamed SeUgenstadt on account of the relics of
Saints Marcellinus and Peter, which he brouglit
thither from Rome in 827.
The importance of Einhard as a historian has been
much overrated, his perfection of form and dictkA
concealing his inaccuracies. His Vita Caroli Magid
(Eng. transl. by W. Glaister, London, 1877), wfaick
is modeled on Suetonius, and draws its poUtieil
portions from the Annales Einhardi, was written
shortly after the death of the emperor, and was at
once most widely circulated. His letters, which
extend only from 825 to 840 and are for the most
part undated, are valuable historical documents
and are characterized by clarity and simplicity,
but his Transhitio sanctorum Marcellini et Petri is
filled with incredible miracles, though it is not
without importance as a source for culture-history.
(WiLHEUtf Altmann.)
Bibliography: NA, xi (1886). 235-238 oontaiiu his Ik
adoranda cnux, and xii (1887), 263 eqq. his EpUtela, the
latter also in MPL, dv.; the Vita KaroU, ed. Q. H.
Perts. is in MGH, Script., ii (1829). 426-463. thenoe im-
printed in MPL, xcvii. and was also edited by A. Holder,
Freiburg. 1882. A rich bibliography is given in A. Pott-
hast, Bibliotheca hiatorica medii ctri, pp. 395-397, Berlin,
1896; also in J. C. F. B&hr, Gtschichl» der rdmisdkra
Literatur, pp. 163-166, 200-216, Carlsruhe. 184a Con-
sult: J. Frese, De Einhardi vita et aariptie, Berlin, 1846;
H. Schneider, Daa Leben Eginharde, Bamberg, 1861;
E. Danselmann. Einhard und aeine Werke, in NA, ut supi,
ii (1877). 491-499; M. Boudois. La Translation dea aaimia
Marcellinet Pierre. £tude aur Einhard et ea vie polHiqim
3*7-831,, Paris, 1907; DCB, ii. 64-66.
EmSIEDELN, Qin'zi-dehi (MARIA EINSIEDELir):
A to\\Ti of Svsitzerland (9 m. e.n.e. of Schwyi),
containing (1900) about 4,0(X) inhabitants, and
famous as a place of Roman Catholic pilgrim-
age. Monastic life there dates back to the ninth
century, and is connected with the legend of St
Meginrad or Meinrad, who is said to have come from
the region near Rottenburg or Hechingen.- He
first lived in a cell, perhaps at Bollingen near Rap-
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDU
Xiohsta«tt
BUenaoh (
Ooxiferenoe
penweil, but yielding to his desire for a hermit's
lie, is said to have gone to the summit of Mount
Dud, and thence to the still more impenetrable
li&derDeBS of the mountain forests. There he is
■id to have tamed two ravens, which, when he was
mrdered by robbers in 861, followed the criminals
to Zurich and convicted them of the crime. It
Hi not until the tenth century, however, that a
r BODastery was erected in this region, when Benno
ad Eberhard are said to have made the first at-
tempts to gather monks about the deserted cell of
leinnid. Authentic history begins with 947, when
Otto I. granted immunity to the cell and to Eber-
krd, and allowed the free choice of an abbot. Otto
1, Otto IL, and Henry II. gave rich gifts to the
ekister, and until the thirteenth century the control
vas in the hands of the counts of Rappersweil.
After the time of Rudolf, on the other hand, it was
controlled by the house of Austria, and was accord-
ing involved in the struggles between the Swiss
OoDfederacy and the Hapsburgs. The Sempach
var broke all bonds which held Einsiedeln to Aus-
tria, and after the end of the fourteenth century
the monastery belonged to the Canton of Schwyz,
although it was decaying rapidly when Zwingli was
Ma parish priest.
The Zurich Reformation depopulated Einsiedeln,
bat under the administration of the first civil abbot,
Joachim Eichhom (1544-69), it revived, and in the
Kventeenth century, during the rule of Placidus
Bejmann, the DocumerUa archivii Einsidlensis
iWB printed, while the librarian of the monastery,
Chriiiof Hartmann, wrote its history in his Annales
Etreni (Freiburg, 1612). The monastery was
temed repeatedly, but underwent no essential
cbnge until 1798, when it was entirely destroyed
bf the invasion of the French and the establish-
■ent of the Helvetian Republic. In 1801 its
Mtoratbn was begun and its importance steadily
Boeaeed, until at its millennial celebration in 1861,
it contained nearly 100 monks, and a daughter
koae was founded in the United States by Abbot
Bdnrich at St. Meinrad, Ind., in 1854.
DiDsiedeln is especially famous as a center of
piigrima^ from Switzerland, the neighboring dis-
trieto of Crermany, and from France and Austria.
These pilgrimages began in the tenth century, and
B 1895 reached the number of 210,000. The
diief day is Sept. 14, regarded as the date of the
difiiie dedication of the church in 948. The center
tf devotion is a statue of the Virgin, originally fiesh-
eokred, but blackened by the smoke of the lights
aod lamps which bum continually. It stands in
a miail chapel in the church of the cloister, which,
fike all the buildings, was erected in the eighteenth
(G. Meter von Knonau.)
BteJOGKAPHT: O. Rlnghols, WaUfahriaoetchidUe unurer
MAem Frau wm Einnedeln, Freiburg, 1806; idem, Oe-
mkitkte dea fOratUehen Benediktinerttiftea . . . von Ein-
witdein, Etnaiedeln, 1002 sqq. (in progress); A. Kuho,
Jkr jtiaige SUftabau MaHa-Einnedeln, ib. 1885. Earlier
Bstaials will be found in T. von Mohr's Regtaten der
Arekum in der Si^noeiMerischen Eidoenoaaenadiafl, vol. i.,
Benu 1848; Liber Heremi, ed. G. Morel, in QeechichU"
fnmud, voL 1., Einsiedeln, 1843; G. von Wyss, Ueber die
Amiiqtmkiiea manaaUrii . . . Einndlenaie und den Liher
Heremi, in Jahrbudi fOr edtweiMeriache Oeaehichtet vol. x..
EISENACH CONFERENCE (KONFERENZ,
EVANGEUSCH-KIRCHLICHE) : A gathering of
German Protestants which has met at Eisenach,
usually every other year shortly after Whitsuntide,
since 1852, forming at present the
Origin only official bond between the Evan-
and gelical State Churches of Germany.
Purpose. The corporate name of the conference
is Evangelisch-Kirchliche Konferenz.
As early as 1846 at the instance of the king of
Wtirttemberg a conference of delegates from the
German State Churches met in Berlin to find ways
and means for establishing a more intimate con-
nection. Owing to the disturbances of 1848, the
cause made little progress, but it was revived in
1850 and 1851. The church authorities agreed
upon an order of business for a periodically recur-
ring conference of delegates " to discuss freely,
upon the basis of the Ck)nfes8ion, the more important
questions of church life and to form a bond of union,
without interfering with the independence of each
individual State CJhurch, and to promote the uni-
form development of their conditions." The con-
ference met for the first time at Eisenach June 3,
1852, under the presidency of Court Preacher Carl
(von GrQneisen q.v.) of Stuttgart to whose efforts
chiefly it owed its existence. Twenty-four church
governments were presented. In later meetings
the authorities of all German State Churches have
taken part, including Austria. The conference
lasts about eight days and is usually opened on
Thursday in Trinity week by a service in the chapel
of the Wartburg. The archives used to be in the
Luther room of the Wartburg, but are now in the
grand-ducal castle in Eisenach. The expenses are
met by contributions from the different states which
take part.
Although originally the purpose of the confer-
ence was to aim at harmony in principles of church
administration by purely advisory measures, in
the course of time it has imdertaken executive
functions with the tacit approval of
Topics the church authorities. A revision of
of Dis- the liturgies was advocated as early
cuBsion. as 1852, but was found impracticable
on a large scale owing to the difference
of confession. Questions which touch the church
service were discussed, however, as the introduc-
tion of passion-services in I^ent (1855) and the
restitution and revival of oatechization (1865).
Attention was also given to the education of clergy-
men and the administration of their office, as in the
discussions concerning the order of promotion in
1857 and 1859, pastors' colloquies in 1863, and
other similar questions. Consultations were also
held on the inspection of the administration and
life of clergymen (1852 and 1853), the secret of the
confessional (1857 and 1859), and the cooperation
of congregations in filling clerical positions (1855).
Other subjects of discussion have been: the advi-
sability of supplementing the episcopal form of
government with presbyteries and synods (1852,
1874, 1878, 1880); the question of marriages be-
tween Evangelicals and Roman Catholics (1853);
marriage and divorce (1855, 1857, 1868); the atti-
tude of the church authorities to the protectorate
32378^?B
Blsenaoh OonflMr«no«
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
100
of the nobility (1861); the taxation of congrega-
tions (1874); church discipline (1857); the treat-
ment of sects (1852, 1855, 1884); religious instruc-
tion in secondary schools (1868); the introduction
of a Biblical text-book instead of the whole Bible
in primary and secondary schools (1898); and the
inspection of religious instruction in secondary
schools (19(X)). The topic of Christian charity was
brought up in discussions on aid for emigrants
(1855, 1872, and 1894), the organization of chari-
ties (1865), Christian work in war (1868 and 1870),
furtherance of foreign and home missions (1872),
and care of dismissed prisoners (1892). As a result
of a recommendation of the conference a collection
for German Evangelicals in foreign countries is now
taken up every other year in most of the German
State churches.
The resolutions following all these discussions
were, of course, not legally binding; but the opin-
ions of the most prominent theologians and jurists,
as expressed in the papers and reports
Practical of the conference, had a permanent
Results, value; and still more valuable was the
p>er9onal intercourse of men charged
with church administration from all parts of the
country. And the conference was not satisfied with
mere theoretical discussions; it was drawn by an
inner necessity to productive work for the common
interests of Evangelical Germany. In this con-
nection may be mentioned the practical impulse
given in 1859 to the oi*ganization of associations
for the cultivation of religious art, the regulations
for the building of Evangelical chiutihes (1861 and
1898), the propositions for getting up a uniform
almanac for the German Evangelical Church (1868,
1870) and selecting daily lectionaries from the
Bible for use at home and in the Church (1868).
Deutsches Evangelisches Institnt in Jerusalem, an
enterprise of the German Evangehcal Churches
that had its inception in the conference of 1900,
may also be mentioned.
The desire to publish the results of its discus-
sions soon led to the founding of the Allgemeines
Kirchenblatt fiir das evangelische DeutecWan/f, which,
besides the protocols of the conference, compiles
the laws and regulations of general interest enacted
by the German Evangelical Church authorities. It
forms the most complete collection of docimients
for modem church law in the German Evangelical
Church. The question of church statistics was
discussed in 1859. and resulted in the volume Zur
kirchlichcn Statistik des evangel ischen Deutschlands
im Jahrc 1862 (Stuttgart. I860). Since 1880such sta-
tistics have btHin published regularly. In 1S61 the re-
vision of Luther's translation of the Bible was advo-
cated. It was decid»^d to procure a uniform text on
the basis of a received text of the Canstein Bbile In-
stitute, with due rej.':ard to tlie originnl editions of
Luther's Bible, and to nio<lorn scholarship. The
n»vis<*d New Testament apjH'arcd in 1867 and was
appro\'eil by the ct^nforiMice in 1S6S. In 1S70 the
n»vision of the OKI Test anient was undertaken and
in 1SS3 apiH»ared the so-called Probtbibel. The
entire work was completed and accepted by the
confen^nce in 1892. At its first meeting the con-
ferenoo decided upon a selection of the best hymns,
and the execution of the plan was entnisted to sndi
hymnologists as Vilmar, BShr, Wackenugel, Daoid,
and Geffken. Their work, consisting of 150 Kenk-
liedeTf was approved by the conference in 1SS3, aad
generally appreciated, but the hymns have wA
come into conmion use, principally because the
selection confined itself too exclusively to older
periods. In 1878 the conference again took up Ht
matter and appointed a oommittee to revise tb
Prussian M ilUdr-K irchenbuch. This revision, wfaicfa
was finished in 1880, has contributed greatly to
uniformity in the use of hymns in the church, i
the school, and in the home. It has been introdiued
in the army and navy. In 1880 a committee wu
appointed to collate and revise the melodies. Their
work was published in 1890. Another committee
was appointed to revise the old pisricopes and to
supplement them by a second series of Epistles and
Gospels. Its work was finished and approved in
1896. In 1880 the conference took up the dis-
cussion of Luther's smaller catechism which was
then used in sixty different versions, and in 1SH4
there appeared a revision that quickly supplanted
earher imperfect editions.
The work of the conference has proved that the
need of a closer connection between the German
State churches is steadily growing.
Unification and that this need may be met witb-
of the Na- out interfering with the independence
tional of the individual State churches^
Churches, either in confession and order of wor-
ship, or in constitution and govern-
ment. A permanent commission of six members
was appointed in 1900, with the president of the
conference as chairman, to further a uniform devel-
opment in the different State churches. The com-
mission, which was increased to fifteen members
in 1903, is empowered to commtmicate directly
with the church authorities and to report its com-
munications to the conference. It will depend upon
further developments whether this conference offers
the proper basis for the effective unification of the
German State churches. The Eisenach Confer-
ence must either he entrusted with greater authority
by the church governments, or it must make way
for some new body to be agreed upon by the state
rulers and empowered with sufficient initiative and
executive power for the fulfilment of its duties.
(H. VON DER GOLTZf.)
Bibliography: The organ is the AUffemeine» KirtkeMaU
fQr da* evanQtlUche DeuUehland, Stuttgart. 1852 sqq. For
statistical material consult: P. Pieper. KirdUieke StaHalik
DeuUcKUxnd; TQbingen« 1890; J. Schneider, KirtkUekM
Jahrbndt, 1907, Gatersloh, 1907.
EISENMENGER, oiz'en-meng'er, JOHANll AH-
DREAS: German Orientalist; b. at Mannheim
1G54; d. at Heidelberg Dec. 20, 1704. He studied
nt the Collegium sapientice at Heidelberg, where his
knowledge of Hebrew attracted the attention of
Prince Karl Ludwig, who granted him a traveling
stifx^nti enabling him to visit England and Holland.
Tlio conversion of three Christians to Judaism
while he was at Amsterdam made him decide to
collect all available anti-Jewish data for a work
wliich should prove a warning to Christians, and at
the same time shame the Jews. Returning from
1.01
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Eisenaoh Oonfer«noe
Elaffabaliui
bis travels he continued his studies for nineteen
Ifean, first at Heidelberg and later at Frankfort-on-
fche-Main, availing himself of the services of Jews
little suspected the purpose for which they
! engaged as his tutors. In 1700 he published
his Entdecktea Judenthum, styling it '' a truthful
■ad authentic account of the horrible manner in
which the obdurate Jews blaspheme and dishonor the
most Holy Trinity, God the Father, Son, and Holy
Ghost; insult the holy mother of Christ, the New
I\e8tament, the Evangelists and Apostles; mock-
bg^y traduce the Christian Religion, and disdain
■ad curse all Christianity to the utmost: where
■bo are shown many other things and great errors
of Jewish religion and theology hitherto either not
lA all or only partially known to the Christians, as
well as numerous ridiculous and merry fables and
fdiies." Prince Johann Wilhelm approved of
Eisenmenger's book, and appointed him professor
of Oriental languages at Heidelberg, but at the
request of the Jews the imperial government con-
fiscated the work, lest its publication cause dis-
turbances. Eisenmenger found that he might be
able to publish his book in Holland. The Jews
offered him 12,000 florins for the edition of 2,000
copies, but he asked 30,000, and died while nego-
tiations were still in progress. His heirs appealed to
Frederick I. of Prussia, who carried their cause be-
fore the emperors Leopold and Joseph, but without
niocess. At length Frederick I. (1711) decided to
bave the work published " outside the kingdom,"
ostensibly in Kdnigsberg but in reality in Berlin,
Bod presented half the edition to Eisenmenger's
heiiB. Forty years later the Frankfort edition
appeared. The Entdecktea Judenthum did not meet
irith the success which its author had hoped since
it could no more be called a faithful representation
of Judaism than an indiscriminate collection of
everything superstitious and repulsive within Chris-
tian literature could be termed characteristic of
Christianity. During recent decades August Roh-
ling and others have used the work in anti-Semitic
propaganda, and a reprint of the portions most
available for that purpose has been made by F. X.
Sehieferl (Dresden, 1893). Eisenmenger collab-
orated with Johann Leusden in the preparation of
an edition of the impointed Hebrew text of the
Old Testament (Amsterdam, 1694), and also wrote
a Lexicum OrientaU Harmonicum, which is still
unpublished. (G. Dalman.)
Bibuoobafht: J. J. Sehudt. jQdtBdie MerkwQrdiokeiten,
L 426-438, iU. 1-^, iv. 286-287, Frankfort, 1714; H.
Graetz. Oeadndite der Juden, z. 273. 276, 281. Leiptio,
1897: KL, iv. 343-346; JE, v. 80-82.
EKKEHARD, ekHce-hdrt, OF AURA (Ekke-
hardut Uraugenaia): Frankish Benedictine abbot
of Aura (near Kissingen, 30 m. n.n.e. of WUrzburg);
b. in the eleventh century; d. Feb. 25 of some year
after 1125. He was apparently a monk of the
Bamberg monastery of Michelsberg, and in 1113
received benediction as abbot of Aura, which had
been founded according to the rule of Hirschau,
from Otto of Bamberg, who later became the apostle
of the Pomeranians. He had previously lived
in the monastery of Corv^, had visited Jerusalem
as a pilgrim in 1101, and had attended the Lateran
Council of April, 1102. He accompanied Otto of
Bamberg on his visit to the pope in 1 106, and was
present at the Council of Guastalla. He apparently
left his monastery in 1116, and attended the Lat-
eran Council held in March. Ekkehard was the
author of a universal chronicle, which he afterward
revised four times. The original work extends to
1099, and is based on a similar work which orig-
inated in WQrzburg, although he amplified it from
other authors, such as Einhard, Widukind, Liut-
prand, and Richer, as well as from oral tradition
and his own knowledge. He subsequently ex-
tended it to 1106, when he revised it twice, the last
time on the basis of the chronicle of Sigibert of
Gembloux, and carried it successively to 1114 and
1125. His work, which is not a mere compilation,
is the most complete of all the medieval chronicles,
although he is surpassed in depth and insight by
Otto of Freising. (Wilhelm Altmann.)
Biblioorapht: Ekkehard 's Chronicon and Hieratolimitat
ed. G. Waits, ara in MOH, vi (1844). 1-267. An excel-
lent list of literature is given in Potthast, Wegufeiter, pp.
400-401. cf. Wattenbaoh. DOQ, ii (1894). 189-108. Ck>n.
suit N. Reininger. in Archiv deM hUtori$ehen Vereina von
Unterfranken und Aachaffenburg, zvi. 1-96, WQrsburg.
1862; Q. Buehhols. Ekkehard von Aiwa, Leipsie. 1888;
J. Teasier. in Revue hiatarique, xlvii (1891). 267-277.
EKKEHARD OF SAINT GALL. See Saint
Gall, Monastery of.
ELAGABALUS, el"a-gab'a-lus (Varius Avitus
Bassianns): Roman emperor; b. at Emesa, Syria,
c. 201; killed by the pretorians in Rome, 222. He
was a son of the senator Varius Marcellus and Julia
Sosemias, and a grandson of Julia Meesa (see Alex-
ander Severus). Both mother and grandmother
had retired to Emesa, and here they inculcated in
the boy that Oriental religious fanaticism which
was later to be the chief characteristic of the em-
peror. He was early consecrated as a priest of the
sun-god at Emesa and later appropriated hb name
(Elagabalus = Syriac El gabal, ''mountain [?]
god ''; by popular Greek etymologizing the name
became HeUogabalus, from helios, " sun ")• The
intrigues of his mother and the fall of Macrinus
brought him to the throne in 218. His personal
beauty impressed the soldiers, and his claim to be
the son of Caracalla won their respect. He did not
enter Rome till 219. Unnerved by indulgence of
his passions and crazed by his practise of super-
stitious sorcery, he had now only two aims in life,
to follow his own pleasure and to introduce into
Rome the worship of the sun-god as the one su-
preme deity ruling throughout the whole world.
All the attributes of other gods, even the aacra of the
city, in so far as these were not profaned and put
aside, were to be transferred to this one god.
This was the dream of a crazy boy in the year
219. Ninety years later the Church had to take
account of a religious speculation essentially related
to the views of this dissipated youth: viz. the idea
of the oneness of God, as held by the emperor
Alexander Severus (q.v.), and as represented in
Neoplatonism (q.v.). At first Christianity was
inclined to be peaceable toward this Neoplatonic
speculation; but at the beginning of the fourth
century it assumed an aggressive attitude and called
Elah
Elders in Israel
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
Ul
its adherents out for the conflict, until Constantino
(q.v.) and his followers adopted a religious policy
of which, it must be admitted, the boy Elagabalus
was the forerunner. As Elagabalus did not have
time to carry out his plans, his reign was one of
peace for the Church. (Adolf Harnack.)
Biblioorqpht: The sources are: Dion Ca»aiu8, " Roman
History," Ixxvii. 30-41, Ixxix.; Herodian, ** History of
the Kings," v. 4-23; Lampridius, Elaoabalus; Aurelius
Victor, De Ccaaribut, xxiii.; idem. Epitome, xxiii. Mod-
em accounts are: W. Smith, Dictionary cf Greek and Ro-
man Biography, ii. 6-7, London, 1890; V. Duniy, Hiatory
of Rome, VII. 1, pp. 102-118, Boston, 1890; Gibbon,
Decline and FaU, i. 141-148; KL, v. 1748-60.
ELAH, I'lfl: Fourth king of Israel, son and
successor of Baasha. According to the sources in
I Kings xvi. 6-14 (cf. Josephus, Ant.f VIII. xii. 4)
he reigned parts of two years, and his dates accord-
ing to the old chronology are 930-929, according to
Duncker 901-900, according to Hommel 886-885,
according to Kamphausen 891-890, and according
to Mahler 889-888. He was assassinated while
intoxicated by Zimri, one of his generals, who
usurped the throne.
Bibuographt: Consult the literature given under Ahab.
ELAM, i'lam: The name of a country known
to the Assyrians as Elamtu (the " t " being a femi-
nine termination), called in Greek Elymais, though
part of its territory was known as Susiana in later
times. Herodotus calls the country Kissia. The
Assyrian name is usually explained as meaning
" highland," but Jensen's explanation as *' east-
land " (that is, east of Babylonia), may be correct.
Geographically the ancient Elam may be defined
as lying east of the Tigris and north of the Persian
Gulf and comprising not only the lowlands of the
modem Khuzistan, but also the mountainous chains
surrounding them on the north and east. Elam
is classed in the Old Testament among the sons of
Shem (Gen. x. 22; I Chron. i. 17) and this led
early investigators to enumerate the Elamites among
the Semitic peoples. The classification in the Old
Testament must now be considered as geographical
rather than ethnological, for it is quite clear that
the Elamites are not Semitic either linguistically
or ethnologically. Their language is agglutinative
in character, and though difficult to classify with
certainty is not in any way to be identified with the
Semitic group.
The origin of the Elamite stock is veiled in ob-
scurity. The true Elamites occupied the more
mountainous parts of the country, while the lower
levels near Babylonia even in very early times had
a Semitic intermixture, whose nomenclature ap-
pears in certain place names near the river Tigris.
The earliest mention of Elam known appears in an
inscription of the Babylonian King Alusharshid
(see Babylonia, VI, 2, § 5) about 38(X) B.C., who de-
clares that he had conquered Elam and Bara'se. The
capital of Elam, Susa, was henceforward accounted
by the Babylonians as in their sphere of influ-
ence. It had to be reconquered from time to time.
Gudea (see Babylonia, VI., 3, § 3) conquered
Anahan, henceforth regarded as the southern divi-
sion of Elam, and furnishing the title of its greatest
kings in later centuries. Later Babylonian princes
built temples in Susa, made marriage aUianees itt j
its princes and gave other evidences of their inl
ence upon Elam. The ruler of Elam for iboH
seven hundred years is caUed patesi (see Ba»* \
LONLA, VI., 2, $ 1, note), and they seem all to htn ;
acknowledged Babylonian overlordship. AU th«
inscriptions are written in Semitic Babylooisn.
About 2285 B.C. Babylonia was ovemin t^
conquered by Kudui^Nahunte, King of Elam, wfa»
name is Elamitic, not Semitic, and who bdon^to
the true Elamite stock, whose language appetn m
numerous inscriptions from this time onwaid. Ttii-
teen years later Kudui^Mabug (see Babtlonu, VI,
4, § 1), king of Elam, established his rule oversoutk
em Babylonia, and his son Rim-Sin became Img
of Larsa, the Biblical Ellasar, in Babjrkmia. To
this same line of princes belongs Chedoriaomer (Knl-
urlagamaru; Gen. xiv. 1). The Elamite ascendeocj
in Babylonia was broken by Hammurabi (—Ama-
phelof Gen. xiv. 1; see Hammurabi and hib Coot)
and from this time onward Elam and Babyknia
pursued separate lines of development, though fre-
quently at war with each other. About 640 bx.
Elam was conquered by Asshurbanipal ( "- Asnapper
or Osnappar, Ezra ii. 10), king of Assyria, and iti
power broken forever. Soon afterward arose the
princes of Anshan, who were the forebears of Cyrai
the Great (553-529 B.C.) who calls himself ku^ of
Anshan, and later king of Persia. He bebngi to
Indo-Germanic stock and it is therefore probable
that Elam had already been overrun by some mi-
gration of these people. Robert W. Rogebs.
Biblioorapht: W. K. Loftus, CtuddcM and Suaiama, Laa>
don, 1857; F. DeUtssch. Wo lag daa ParadiMf |». 2S7,
Leipsic. 1881; A. H. Sayoe. in TranmuHona of Legim.
Oriental Congreu, 1885; M. Dieulafoy, L*AeropoU dr
Sxiaa, Paris, 1890; A. Billerbeck. Suaa, FreieDwald, ISOt;
DB, i. 674-676; EB, ii. 1253-^54; JB, ▼. 88-«9; and
the articles Assyria and Babylonia, with the wcntIci ob
history cited there.
ELATH, i'lath (ELOTH), EZION-GEBER (EZI-
ON-GABER): Elath is the Old-Testament name
of a place on the eastern arm of the Red Sea, and in
the land of Edom. In the Septnagint it appears as
Ailathf Axiom y AUam ; in Josephus as /Zofiii,
Ailaniy Elaihoits; in other Greek writers as Aeilan,
Ailana; in Pliny as Aelana. These variations are
explained by the different forms in Hebrew and
Aramaic. It lb clear that the name is derived from
that of a holy tree or grove, and the original foim
may be found in the El-paran of Gen. xiv. 6 (M.T.
*eyl paWan, " oak [or some other large tree] of
Paran "). The form Elah is found only in Gen.
xxxvi. 41 as the name of a district of which Elath
was the center.
The location is clearly given in I Kings iz. 26,
and with this Eusebius agrees (Onamasticon, cczzviL
40), placing it on the Red Sea, in Edom, three days'
journey from Paran. It was known to the Arabic
writers, but owing to its inaccessibility it was first
\'isited in modem times by E. Rilppell in 1822,
later by Laborde, E. Robinson and others; in 1884
the Palestine Exploration Fund sent out Professor
Hull and Major Kitchener, and they explored thor-
oughly the region between the Dead Sea and the
Gulf of Akabah. Their reports describe the situation
as follows: The eastern arm of the Red Sea ends
LOS
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Elah
Elders in Israel
4311 the northeast in a bay about four miles wide
'^vith an irregular beach of sand, mussel shells, and
^ietritus from the neighboring hills. On the east
^liflFs of porphyritic rock rise to a height of 4,000 feet,
en the west are porphyritic rocks, interrupted by
strata of sandstone and limestone about 2,500
feet in height. In the northeast is a depres-
Mon continuing for about twenty miles at a height
of about 210 feet above sea level, which is the
eontinuation of the depression in which lies the
Dead Sea and is known as the Wadi al-Arabah.
The drainage of the rainy season from the hills
empties along the west side though much is lost in
the sand. By digging, water is easily found (cf.
II Kings iii. 16-17), at first brackish, afterward
fresh and potable. Nearly the entire region is
covered with a growth of thorn-bush. In a bight
of the Gulf not far from the east side are heaps of
ruins, and a little farther south is a square fort
with thick walls and a tower at each comer, which
bears the name of (Kalat al-) Akabah, " Fort of
the Declivity." The Arabic geographer Idrisi
(1154) speaks of the *Akab€t Aila, in which may be
recognized the fuller form of the present name.
At the northeastern comer of the bight is a beauti-
ful palm grove containing both date-palms and the
African variety. This circumstance has given rise
to the conjecture that the name came not from the
oak (as the form of the name would suggest) but from
the grove of palms. The cultivated area is small,
though the ground is not unfmitful. The tempera-
ture averages high, especiaUy in summer. The
water of the bay is very clear and abounds in fish,
and sharks are numerous. Corals are plentiful.
The heaps of ruins mentioned above belong prob-
ably to the Aila of the Middle Ages, the fUath of
the Old Testament probably was situated on the
hills hi^er up. The Old Testament knows of
two places in the region, Elath and Ezion-geber
(cf. I Kings ix. 26 and II Chron. viii. 17), the latter
probably north of the former. Ezion-geber has
been located at Ladyan, about twenty-four miles
north of the present coast line, but formerly on the
coast when the sea extended farther inland.
Elath and Ezion-geber are brought into connec-
tion with the desert wandering of the Hebrews
(Deut. ii. 8), and David made the region a part of
his realm (II Sam. viii. 14). From Elath and
Ezion-geber Solomon sent his ships to Ophir (q.v.;
I Kings ix. 26,28); but after the death of Je-
hoshaphat they were retaken by the Edomites
(II Kings viii. 20), and were for only a short
time in the possession of Judah, during the reign
of Uzziah (II Kings xiv. 22, xvi. 6). Under
the Romans Elath was still an important mercan-
tile place, the station of a legion, and the seat of a
bishop. Under the Mohammedans it lost its trade.
About 1300, at the time of Abulfeda, It was com-
pletely deserted. H. Guthe.
Bin.icx2RAPHT: E. Hull, MourU Seir, Sinai and Western
Palestine^ pp. 71 aqq., London. 1889; idem, Memoir on
Ae Otology and Oeograj^y of Arabia Petrtea, ib.,
1880; £. RQppell. Reieen in , . . dem Petr&iachen Arabien,
pp. 248 aqq.. 385-386. Frankfort. 1829; L. de Laborde.
Voyage deVArabie Pitrie, Pari8.1880; E. Robinson. Biblical
ReeearekeB, i. 280, Bo«ton. 1866; C. M. Doughty. Travel*
in Arabia Dtterla, London, 1888; G. le Strange. PaUetine
under the Moeletne, ib. 1890; H. C. Hart, Fauna and Flora
of Sinai, Petra and Wady Arabah, ib. 1891; F. Buhl,
Oeechichte der Edomiter, Leipaic. 1893.
ELDAD AND MODAD, BOOK OF. See Pbeud-
EPioRAPHA, Old Testament, III, 31.
ELDERS III THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. See
Presbyter.
ELDERS IN ISRAEL: The patriarchal and
later officers, whose position was due to their status
as heads of families. Till the establishment of the
kingdom the Israelites had a tribal organization
the characteristic feature of which was that the
constituents (families) of the tribe as well as the
individuals were fully independent. There was no
organized government. The Sheik of a tril^e or
encampment among the Arabs has no formal au-
thority. He may lead in war, locate the camp In
times of peace, and the like; he may advise but can
enjoin nothing of importance without consulting
the prominent men of the aggregation. As a judge
he has moral influence, but no power to carry out
a sentence or to inflict punishment. The elders
had similar functions, as is indicated
Before the in the narrative of the desert-journey
Settlement in E. They appear not as though
in Canaan, instituted in Mosaic times, but as
existing ever since there was a ** people
of Israel " (Ex. iii. 16 sqq., iv. 29). They are also
presupposed among other nations (Josh. ix. 11;
Num. xxii. 4, 7). They had no special office, but
as the most prominent individuals (Ex. xviii. 21)
were called to represent the people on special oc-
casions (Ex. xvi. 12; Num. xvi. 25; Josh. vii. 6);
their decision had weight (Ex. xvii. 5; Deut. xxxi.
9); and they were leaders in war (Josh. viii. 10).
By virtue of this position they mediated between
Moses and the people; according to E, Moses often
communicated Yahweh's behests first to the elders
(Ex. iv. 29; Deut. xxxi. 9); what was commanded
to them was also commanded to the j>eople, whose
representatives they were by station and birth.
Their connection with the family constitution is
evident from Ex. xii. 21 sqq.; while the gloss on
Deut. i. 15 designates the elders correctly as the
family heads of the tribes called also " heads of
the people " (Num. xxv. 4).
The settlement in the West-Jordan country
caused many changes among the tribes, but not in
the organization. The tribe was organized early
for war; the family-heads remained the persons in
authority. The elders of the tribe of Gilead made
Jephthah captain (Judges xi. 1 sqq.); by presents
David sought to win over the elders of Judah, of
the Jerahmeelites, Kenites and others
From the (I Sam. xxx. 26 sqq.); the elders of
Settlement Israel led in the war against the Phi-
to the Exile, listines and decided to have the ark of
the covenant brought to the camp
(I Sam. iv. 3). In the name of the people the elders
asked a king of Samuel (I Sam. viii.). The word is
used always in the plural. When the people settled
in a locality the elders became the heads of the local
communities (Judges viii. 4 sqq.; I Sam. xi. 3 sqq.,
xvi. 4). Gradually the heads of the communities
took the character of magistrates, and their influence
Elders in IatmI
BllasLeTita
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
104
lasted till the time of Solomon (I Kings riii. 1, 3).
In proportion as the royal power developed, that of
the elders declined. The case of Ahab (I Kings
XX. 7 sqq.) was an exception. In the administra-
tion the elders had no part since the royal officers
were the executives (I Kings iv. 1 sqq., xx. 15);
but they constituted a part of the nobility. That
they retained such influence was due to the fact that
the royal government was satisfied with receiving
the revenues and did not otherwise interfere with
the affairs of the communities.
During the exile, the genealogical register was
preserved; the settlement seems to have been by
families, and the heads of the families took their
places at the head of the settlements and acted for
the families and the community (Ezek. xxi. 1 sqq.,
viii. 1; Jer. xxix. 1). The return from the exile
was by families (Ezra ii.; Neh. vii.). At the head
of the families stood the chief of the fathers (Ezra
i. 5, ii. 68; Neh. vii. 70). The new commonwealth
was organized along those lines; the
After elders of the Jews formed the national
the Exile, government; they directed the build-
ing of the temple; with them the
Persian governor treated (Ezra v. 3 sqq., vi. 7 sqq.).
In the time of Ezra and Nehemiah the organization
consisted of twelve " princes," representatives of
the tribes, who dwelt at Jerusalem (Neh. xi. 1),
whereas the local government of the country-com-
munities was in the hands of city-elders and judges
(Ezra X. 14). The Jerusalem college of aarim
became afterward the aristocratic senate of the
Gerousia, first mentioned in the time of Antiochus
the Great (Josephus, Ant. XII., iii. 3; cf. I Mace,
vii. 33). FVom I Mace. xii. 6, xiv. 20 it is clear that
the " Gerousia of the nation " and '' the elders of
Israel " were identical. The term synedrion was
first used in Herod's time, it became the common
designation (Matt. v. 22; xxvi. 59) alongside of
presbyterion (Luke xxii. 66; Acts xxii. 5) and
bouU (Acts V. 21). (I. Benzinqer.)
Bibuoorapht: O. Seesemann, Die Aelteaten im A. 7.,
Leipsic, 1805; Benzinger, Archdologie, pp. 296-329;
Nowack, ArchQolooie, i. 300 sqq., 320 sqq.; J. F.
McCurdy, History, Prophecy and the MonumenU, vol. ii.,
New York, 1896; Amram, in JBL, 1900; E. Day, Social
Life of the Hebrewa, ib. 1901; A. BQehler, Dae Synedrion
in Jenualem, Vienna, 1902; SchOrer. Oeechichte, ii. 176
eqq., Eng. transl., II., ii. passim; DB, i. 676-677; EB,
ii. 1906-07, iii. 2717-18; JE, v. 92.
ELECT, ELECTION. See Predestination.
ELEUTHERUS, eriQ-th^'rus: Pope, c. 174-
189. He is first heard of as deacon to Pope Anicetus
(c. 154-169); from his name it is probable that he
was a Greek. During his pontificate the Church at
Rome was little molested by the government, there
being but one martyrdom (that of Apollonius,
q.v.). It was much troubled, however, by heresy.
Marcionites, Valentinians, and other sectaries
formed influential congregations by the side of the
true Church, and Eleutherus had to continue the
struggle against the Montanists begun by his pred-
ecessor, Soter. Gallic Christians about 178 sent
him letters on the subject by the hand of Irenaeus,
then a presbyter of Lyons, whom they commend
warmly. Their aim was probably to exhort the
pope to be steadfast against Montanism (of. Salmon
in DCB, iii. 937-938), and their admonition mty
have had the more weight as the Churches of Lyooi
and Viennewere then undergoing severe perBecutioi
(Eusebius, Hist eccl., v. 1-2). The Liber jm-
tificalia gives much detailed but worthless infoniift>
tion about Eleutherus. It includes the statement
that he received a letter from a British king, Locm
by name, ** that he might be made a Christian hf
his mandate,'' which is generally admitted to be «
fabrication of the seventh century, devised to wsp'
port the claims of the Roman party in Engiand
against the British Church (see Celtic Chubch or
Britain and Ireland). Bede knew of the state-
ment and refers to it in three places {De temporum
ratione, 331 ; Hist ecd., i. 4, v. 24), and it was often
repeated and much elaborated in later times.
The first mention of the Lucius legend is in the i
of the LAber pontificalia known aa the Catalogue
written about 530. It is not in the earlier Catalooue, wH^
ten shortly after 353. Gildas knows nothing of it Tit
more important of Bede's references {HieL ecd., i. 4) if ii
follows: ** In the hundred and fifty-sizth year of the ia*
carnation of the Lord« Marcus Antoninua Verus bwMi
emperor, the fourteenth from Augustus, with his brotiMi;
Aurelius Commodus. In their time, while Eleathona^ •
holy man, held the pontificate of the Roman ChaNl^
Lucius, king of the Britons, sent to him a letter, adifag
that he might be made a Christian by his command. Airi
presently he attained his pious request, and the BritoM
retained the faith which they received, unoomipted vd
entire, in peace and tranquillity, until the time of ths Ml*
peror Diocletian." The Hietoria BriUmum (end of ttl
eighth centiuy; see Nennius) reads Eucharistus for Etal*
therufl and has all the chieftains of Britain b^tiaed wUk
Lucius. The Liber Landaveneie (twelfth century) bhmi
the messengers of Lucius and locates the narrative in Walft
At about the same time William of Malmesbury loesliM
it at Glastonbury, (jeoffrey of Monmouth names the ni^
sionaries sent and makes them found three arefabidMpritf
and twenty-eight bishoprics. The Welsh triads (of mua^
tain date) connect the story with Llandaff. A eonapflt*
tion of the time of Edward II. gives a letter from Eto*
thenis to Lucius. Later Lucius became a bene&dar tt
the Church and the schools, and, being confused wiUi a eoa*
tinental teacher of the same name, was represented if
missionary and martyr.
Bibliooraphy: Eusebius, Hiet, ecd., it. 22; y.
3-6. 22. Liber pontifiealie, ed. Duchesne, i. 4-6. 1361
Paris. 1886, cf. pp. cii.-civ.; J. Langen. GeadkioUt dr
rdmiMhen Kirche hie eum Pontifikate Leo*e /., i. 157'lA
Bonn. 1881; Hamack. LiUeratur, IL i. 144^146; Bomt,
Popee, i. 16-17. For the Lucius Legend, W. Brigk^
Chaptere of Early Englieh Church Hietory, pp. 3-5, Oi-
ford. 1897; Haddan and Stubbs, Coundle, i. 2&-3B; L
Duchesne, in Revue CelHque, vi (1870), 491-483; Chnmm
minora^ ed. T. Mommsen in MOH, iii., Aud. out. ^
(1898). 11&-116. 164; Plummer, note to Bede's ffiit teti.
i. 4; H. Zimmer, Nenniue vindicaiuB, pp. 141-164, Bedii
1893.
ELEVATION OF THE HOST. See Mass.
ELI: A (high) priest at Shiloh near the doM
of the period of the Judges, among whom he is alio
reckoned. Descent from Aaron is claimed for him
through Ithamar (I Sam. ii. 27 sqq.; I Chron. xxhr.
6). It was Eli who promised the granting of her
petition to the praying Hannah (I Sam. i. 9, 138qq.)i
to whom she afterward entrusted Samuel, the objeck
of that petition (verse 25 sqq.), to become hisi
ter in his old age and then his successor. Eli s
to have been a mild, gentle bearer of the office, who
had the interests of the sanctuary at heart; but hi
was lax in the discipline of his sons, Hophni and
Phinehas, who shamelessly abused their priefltiy
xw
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Elders in Israel
Ellas Levita
imition (I Sam. ii. 12 8qq.). For this reason
% IRophet first foretold to EHi God's judgment in
tlie sudden death of his two sons, a curse upon
tbe entire family, the members of which were
to die early, after failing in preferment to their
hereditary office. Finally Samuel announced to
llM master the near fulfilment of his doom (I Sam.
fit). In a war with the PhUistines, Israel was
Completely overcome, both sons of Eli were killed
mud Eli, ninety-eight years of age, fell from his
mui and died. The narrative relates the fulfil-
iDeot of the doom on Eli's house during the reign
cf Solomon. C. von Obxlli.
ELL6 (HEL6ESEN), PAULUS: Danish hu-
manist; b. at Varberg (on the Cattegat, 40 m. s. of
Gothenburg), Holland, then a Danish province,
about 1480; d. in 1535 (7). Educated in Skara,
VestergOtland, he appears in 1517 as a monk in the
Cannelite monastery in Elsinore, and it was prob-
ably from the patron saint of the Carmelites —
the prophet Elijah — ^that he chose the name
" Paulus Helie " (Heli®, Eli»). Imbued with the
tpuit of humanism, he hailed with joy the appear^
ance of Luther, but when the latter broke com-
pletely with the Roman Church, he looked upon
bun as a dangerous revolutionist. In 1519 Elise
was i4>pointed lecturer in the Carmelite college at
CopenluLgen, and also lecturer in theology at the
university there. In the beginning of his career
he sympathized with King Christian II., who dis-
played an active interest in the promotion of public
schools, but the massacre of Stockholm changed his
opinion of this king and he came to regard him as a
godless tyrant. When, therefore, the king sent him
a Latin pamphlet with a request to translate it, and
he found it to be " an evil book, more calculated to
teach sin than to improve mankind," he substitu-
ted for it Erasmus' writing on the duties of a Chris-
tian monarch, which he sent to the king. The
result of this act as well as of his subsequent bold
sermons in the royal chapel, taking Herod for his
text, was that the king became enraged and Elise
was compelled to flee to Jutland. Here he pre-
pared a Latin pamphlet setting forth his accusations
against the king (cf. Man. hist. Dan., i. 121 sqq.),
and this was used later for framing the obligations
to be assumed by King Frederick II.
After the flight of Christian II. Eli» again became
lecturer at the imiversity, and for a time he offi-
ciated as provincial of the Carmelites as the suc-
cessor of Anders Christensen. In 1526 he pub-
lished a Danish translation of Luther's prayer-book,
in the preface to which he defends himself against
the accusation of having been a pupil of Luther,
and he also states his opinion of the German Re-
former. During the following years Elise proceeded
with great zeal against the Reformation, publishing
pamphlet upon pamphlet against those who had
joined that movement, including several of his foi>
mer colleagues from the Carmelite college. In
1530 he began an attack upon Hans Tausen and
had to leave Copenhagen in consequence; three
years later, however, he returned and renewed his
attacks, causing Tausen to be branded as a heretic
on account of his t^wchings regarding the Lord's
Supper. Having accomplished this, Elise went to
Roskilde where he published his aforementioned
pamphlet on the duties of Christian rulers. During
the feud among the nobility he endeavored to medi-
ate between the factions by publishing a " Brief
Instruction in Christian Union and Reconcilia-
tion," which was partly an adaptation of Erasmus'
commentary on Psalm Ixxxiii {De amabili ecclesice
Concordia). Besides a brief Latin history of the
Danish kings, Elise wrote a chronicle of the first
four kings of the house of Oldenburg, generally
called the " Skibby-^hronicle." It is a remarkable
attempt in the pragmatic method of historiography,
and is filled with bitter one-sided opinions of the
opponents of the Roman Church. This work
closes in the middle of a sentence (Dum hcBC agun-
tur . . .), from which it would appear that its
author lived until the end of 1534 or the beginning
of 1535. An unconfirmed report says that Elise
joined the reform party and became pastor some-
where. Schmitt is of the opinion that he may
have fallen victim to violence, but this is highly im-
probable; it is more likely that he fled to Holland,
to the birthplace of his beloved Erasmus.
(F. NlELSENf.)
Biblioorapht: The " Skibby-Chronicle " and some of the
letters of EIi» were published in H. Roerdam, Monutnenta
hutoria Danice, vol. i., Copenhagen, 1873. Consult
further: C. Olivarius, De vita et Bcriptia PatUi Slice, Copen-
hagen. 1741; L. Schmitt. Der Karmeliter Paul Elia,
Freiburg, 1803.
ELIAS OF CORTONA. See Francis, Saint,
OF ASSISI, AND THE FRANCISCAN OrDER, I., § 4,
III., §§ 1-3.
ELIAS LEVITA (EUjah ben Asher ha-Levi):
Rabbi; b. at Neustadt-on-the-Aisch (20 m. n.w.
of Nuremberg) 1469; d. at Venice Jan. 28, 1549.
His German birth is explicitly declared in the first
preface to his Massoret, a statement corroborated
by Kimchi and by Sebastian Mtinster. But Italy
became his second home, hence he could state at the
end of the Methurgemanf that he ** wished to
return to Italy, the land whence he came, and die in
his city of Venice." He taught Hebrew at Padua
1504-09, lost his property there at the sack of that
city by the French, removed to Venice, thence to
Rome (in 1512), where he was under the protec-
tion of Egidio of Viterbo. When Rome was taken
by Charles V. (1527) a second time he lost his prop-
erty. He removed to Venice, which became his
permanent home, with the exception of a few
intervals spent at Isny and in a visit to Germany,
1640-43.
Elias Levita would occupy an honorable place
among Hebrew grammarians, even if an extraoi^
dinary significance had not been attached to his
labor by the historical conditions under which it was
accomplished. His work became a factor of that
historical advancement by which Christendom re-
turned to the documentary sources of its doctrines.
To this new beginm'ng of linguistic and historical
studies Elias Levita rendered important services.
After Reuchlin under the direction of the physician
Jacob Jehiel Loans (L. Geiger, ut inf., pp. 24, 26) had
mastered Hebrew, and after Matthias Adrianus, a
XUaaLeTita
Blijah
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOQ
106
converted Jew from SpaSjip bad been the teacher of
PclHcno (Goiger, p, 43), Levita, through the media-
tion of Sebastian Mdnster nnd Paul Fagius, exer-
cised a much i^tronger and more lasting influence
Mpon the tFanafcrence of Hebrew knowledge to the
Christians. Still greater than in the department
of gfammatieaS and lexical inquiries was the im-
pulse which Elias Levita by his ^fm&orelh kamfna^
soreth gave to the text-eritical treatment of the Old
Testament* He brought his children up in the
Jewish faith in spite of hi a intimate ititercovinee with
Christian scholars; but to the greatest sorrow of
one of his daughters her two sons, Eliano and 8oL
Romano embraced the Christian faith (Graetf , ix,
335). EUas Levita was a picking example of a
scholar who knew how to keep free from partisan
entanglements the interest in the subject of \m
inquiry.
Kift WTidngfl H-re: (a) TextnrritiG< JlffUunBtA AamnuuK
KJTttk (Venioe» 1638; Gemuui traDi^tAtinD by C, G. Meyer
with annot&tione by EcmLerp Holle, 17721, in Uebmw and
Ktmliflh by D. GinsbiiTK. London, imi): (b) GrammiticaJ:
P^TU*hal Pethm^ Dabaray {&sctihvd ta Id oars Kiroebi [q.v.K
Peaaj-o, 1507); Biur ai Mahaktkh tSfbhil^ ha-daaih (" Elud-
dntions on Kimcbl's gT&tnmiLr MahaiaJk,** Pemra, 1508; tb«
Mohalakh with a Latin vvraion by S. Maiiat«r, B&ae], 1527);
Bephtr kabbaJjLur (tn-atin^ of Hebrew grammar, Itome. ISIS,
revljied 0dltioai Isny, 1S42; Hebrew And I^Un by M Ouster
under the title of DikdiJe, Basel, 1518: with peholia, 1537»
1542); Stpher ha-harkfthho-h (eluc^idJiLtinn of words oomponecl
of di^erent formn, Rome, 1510); SephrF htb-ta'am (on
Hebrew &coenti), Venice, 1538. aIbq Lfttinjjted by MllnAter):
NimmukMm (remiurka on D. Kimchi'ft AfiX-hlSl «jid printed
with it, Venice, IMS), tc) Le:dcn1; ii^kbi (an expbn^
tion of 712 wordn from Jewish literature, Biwsel, 1527);
Mrthurffeman (n lexicon of Tarsfumic and Taltnudjc worda,
lany, 1541); ShemuHh dehharim (a Rloasu-yof Hobrew worda,
Isny, 1542); Nimmujfim (nnnot&tionfl to D^ Kimcbi's *'Book
of Bootii,'* printed together, Venice, 1646); <<!) Exegetical:
" The PflaLmfl with Kimchi'a oommeatAiy and oi:>iTectiona
by the editnr " (I say, 1542): " The Pialm* faithfully tnins-
lated into Judeo-German ■" "* the Tiu^um to the Froverba
with Gloaws " (Isny, 1541 )j " Thu B<Jok of Job in Rimea "
CVeniee, 1544); (e) Literary: Eeph^ habbahhah (imrrative of
Ihe wonderful eventa of prinra Buovo iJ'Antona, a. novel),
Shirim, " Hymns " (Venice, 1545). E. Ko^to.
BiBLiOQRApffr: J. C. Wolf, BihUnthtaxi H^wa. i, 153^161,
iii. &7-102, i\% 182, Hainburs. 1715-33; J. F. Hirt, Ori-
tnUilUche und ejtgttUcke Bibliath^k, vii. 50 ftfjq., Jena,
1776; J. Ffirflt. HiblioOuea i^tdaial. ii. 239-242, Leipsic,
1849^63; L. Geiger, Daa Studium d-er hebraitcJuin ^SprfteM
in DmiUtchhind, ib. 1S70; J. Uvi, Elm I^^ta und adw
L^aiungen al* Grammatik^, Breslau. IKgS; Huher, in
ZDMG, im9, 20C-272: H. Gmeti, Ge*chu^te dW Jwi^n^
vol. ix. paiwim, I^ipwc, ISHl; C. A. ItrtgRa, Stvdu fl/ ffoitf
SfTipture, passiiHt New York, 1890; JE. viii. 46-49,
ELIAS MIKIATIS: Greek bishop: b. at LixuH
(5 m- n, of Ar^ostoh, on the island of Cephalonm)
1669; d. in the Morea 1714, He was educated at
Venice, where he wm ordained deacon and ap-
pointeci notaty of the metropolis of Philadelphia,
whoae bishops then resided at Venice, After acting
as a teacher in Cephalonia, Zantc, Corfu, and Con-
stant iiiople, and after serving in various diplomat ic
miseionS; he was consecrated bishop of ICernike
and Kakbryta in the Morea, but held office only
three years.
Of his rtTorks only two are known, both edited
posthumously by hii father. The firsft of these,
" Teachings for the High and Holy Qmidragesima
and Other Sundays and Chief Feasts of the Year,"
was first published, according to Sathan, in 1727,
although it seems actually to have appe&m) mujrlk
earlier. The book went through many editbo?,
and in its compteteat form (the edition of A, U$m^
rakis, 1S43), contains twenty-tine sermom Iv
isEts and twenty for Sundays and f^tivuliL In Ms
doctrines Elias was orthodox. He emphasized tb
freedom of the will and the twofold nature of Chrid,
while in his concept of the atonement be lecq^
niied a sort of satisfaction, which shodd recoiijeai
the justice and love of God. He also postJtiLatdi
the interc^sion of the mother of God with Ghrisi
the judge. The second work was the " Roek d
Offense " (17!8), which was a poLemie a^^inst tk
Roman Catholic Church, treating in its first book
the history of the schism, and in the second the
Buprentxacy of the popc^ the pi^ceasion of the Hoi]
OhoHt, unleavened bread, and dmilar topics.
(PmUFP MXTIB.)
BiBLioGftAi^frr: The M&urmlds «ytion of the " TcuIudci'*
contains a ekfttch of tbe Ufe^ C^^i&siaJt ftbo: J. A. F«bd>
efm, Bibtiothem Gr^sm. «d. G. C. HArleii, xi. 787, Him-
bun?, 1S08; A. Pidiier, GuchidU* der kvxkUdim Tnm-
niin^ wwiat^ien dem Orient und O^eidtni^ i, 4Sl K|Qn
Muiueli, lg64.
EUGHJS (ELOYSmS, ELOI), SADTT: Bishop d
Noyon (67 m. n Ji.e. of Paris) , and the patron saint d
goldsmiths; b. at Cadillac near Limoges in theeaify
part of the reign of Clotaire II, (5S4-629); d. at Noyon
Nov. 30, 659. He leanied t he goldsmith 's tiade under
Abbo, the master of the royal mint at Limoges, ■nd
held a simUar office himself under Dagobert L
(629-439) and Clovis 11. (639-657), as is ghownhj
the coins beAring his name. IXtring Dagobert's
reign he was probably one of the moet tniluential
persons at the court. He was influenced by the
religious movement promoted by the Celtie m»-
sionary Columban, whom he \isited at LuxeuH,
and whose rule he introduced into the abb^ d
Solignae. Soon after Dagolitert'e death he left the
court with hta influential friend Audoen^ also a
disciple of Colum ban's. Both became bbhope—
Audoen of Rouen and Eligius of Noyon; they are
said to have been consecrated together on May 13,
641. Tlie diocese of Eligiua included , besides Noyon,
Vermandois, Doornik, Kortrijkj Ghent, and Flan-
ders. The inhabitants, mainly Franks with some
Frisians, were still for the most part heathen.
According to the Viiu, Eligius had great success in
his missionary work among them; but the only
certain fact in his career as bishop is his participa-
tion in the Synods of Chfilone-sur-Seine (G39 and
651), The authenticity of the homilies which have
been lianded down under his name has been long eon-
tested; E. Vacaudard has proved the spunoa^tness
{Revue des questiojts hijiiori^^ies, 1898, pp, 471 sqq.)
(A. Hauck.)
hiBLioGRA^PHYi The Vita by Dado or Audoenua Ib in MPL,
]xxxvil, Fr. tr&npl. byC. B&rthelemy, Paris. 1847, ami by
Pai^fity. ib, 1870 (cf, O. Reich. Udter AudpgnM Ltbtn^
heacJtreihung det . . . Elitriwi, HaJle. 1882). The Uter»-
ture in givpn by Potthast. W^ewiMr, pp. 13S3-S4, and
in Wottenbftch. DGQ. i (1803). 114. Tbe life Iti TtbhA
bus been written by IlonneU Carpc*ntra.% 1855; J. F.
Godeatcflj^, tlouen, 1863; P. JouhaQne&ud, Lidoees.
ISeS: H. DeJassiia. Pwi«. 189^: and F. Arbellot, ib. 1S97.
GonaiiU aiw C. F. dp T* Moutalembert. i** Moine9
tf orri^rni. it. mi, ib. 1S60^7; Q, F. Madesr, Ap<mSm of
Midii^al £urppf , Loadoa, ISSS*
l€7
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
BUasljavita
Blijah
ELIJAH.
Prediction of Drought (S 1).
Oontest with Baal-Prophets (S 2).
Flight from Jeiebel (S 3)-
Varied Activities (f 4).
Gbaraeter and Miracles (( 5).
Elijah (" My God is Yahweh ") was perhaps the
IgRstest of the prophets of the northern kingdom,
fie was of Tishbeh in Gilead (I Kings xvii. 1 accord-
ing to the correct reading; cf. the Septuagint).
lie narrative concerning him (I Kings xvii.-xix.
31; II Kings i., ii.) is taken from a separate source
and eontains the tradition of the prophetical com-
jMiiies. It is possible that the last sections belong
to another Elisha-source.
The public appearance of Elijah occurred during
the reign of Ahab (now placed about 876-854) and
Ahaaah (854-853). Ahab suffered himself to be
unhappOy influenced in his domestic
z. Fredic- life and in religious matters by his
txm of queen Jezebel, the daughter of Eth-
Dnraght. baal, king of Tyre, a priest of Astarte
and a regicide (Josephus, Contra
Apiofij I. xviii.). Fanatical, scheming, and ener-
getic, she procured the establishment of her native
cult in Israel, and had erected in Samaria a grand
temple of Baal of Tyre. When heathenish con-
fusion had become dominant in the country and
the faithful among the Yahweh-prophets were
■ilenced by persecution, Elijah appeared and an-
nounced in the name of Yaihweh a long drought,
and then suddenly disappeared. He dwelt mean-
while by the brook Cherith (Wadi Kelt near Jericho,
or an eastern tributary of the Jordan 7), where he
" was fed by the ravens "; after the brook dried up
he lived at Zarephath (now Sarfend) in the terri-
tory of Zidon in the house of a widow. For two
yeaiB no rain fell. Menander (Josephus, Ant. V III,,
ziii. 2) knew of an extraordinary drought which
lasted one year under the Tyrian king Ithobal
(Le., Ethbaal, father of Jezebel), and this accords
well with the Hebrew mode of computing time.
The later Jewish tradition, however, differs (Luke
iv. 25 and Jas. v. 17), stating that the heaven was
sfaat up three years and six months.
At last Elijah came again before the king, who
like his people had been humbled by the famine.
He aaked of him an ordeal to decide which God
ahould rule the country. The outcome of this
ordeal is described in full, I Kings
3. Contest xviiL 20 sqq. The scene of this act
with Baal- was most likely a place on the south-
Prophets, eastern height of mount Carmel (now
called el Mohraka, " place of fire ")•
In spite of all their penances and ecstatic dances
"the prophets of Baal,'' whom we may conceive
as like the modem dervishes or fakirs, were unable
to elicit a sign of life from their god, whereas in
answer to the simple prayer of Elijah a fire from
heaven consumed the sacrifice, so that the assembled
people did homage to the God of Israel. The 450
ministers of the false god received the punishment
merited according to the strict principle of theocracy
(cf. Ex. XX. 3; Deut. v. 7, xvii. 2-7). Having thus
expiated the guilt, Elijah could promise rain and
went as forerunner (I Kings xviii. 46) before the royal
chariot to show that he was no rebel but was ready
to render the smallest service to the king as soon as
he obeyed his God.
Soon, however, EUijah had to escape from the
vengeance of Jezebel. This time he went to mount
Horeb (I Kings xix.). There he witnessed a grand
theophany after the manner of Ex. xxxiii. 20-21,
xxxiv. 5 sqq. It is significant that the zealous
prophet did not find the presence of
3. Flight God in storm, earthquake, or fire, but
from in the still small voice. Those were
Jezebel, only signs, his innermost nature is
grace. In the second place it was im-
portant that God should comfort the discouraged
prophet, who imagined himself the last, the only
one remaining faithful, by the announcement that
there were still 7,000 in the country whom God
knew. Finally he received three commissions;
Hazael was to become king over Syria, Jehu over
Israel, and Elisha was to be Elijah's successor in
the prophetical office. These three were to carry
out GcNd's judgment. But the Elijah-narrative
tells only how Elijah called Elisha as bis successor,
while the anointing of Hazael and Jehu was brought
about by Elisha. Some have seen often in this a con-
tradiction between the Elijah- and the Elisha-source.
But as the records are only fragmentary, a trans-
ference of those acts from Elijah to his disciple
may have taken place, especially as it concerned
political acts for which the proper time had to be
awaited.
Elijah, whose residence was then in the wilderness
of Damascus (I Kings xix. 15), appeared only at in-
tervals in the land of Israel, as avenger of a misdeed
of Jezebel and her husband (I Kings xxi.), again
as bearer of ill tidings to their son
4. Varied Ahaziah (II Kings i.). Finally II
Activities. Kings ii. tells of his translation, on
which occasion he left hb prophet's
mantle to his companion Elisha. The Chronicler,
who otherwise passes over the stories of Elijah and
Elisha, mentions (II CJhron. xxi. 12 sqq.) a threaten-
ing letter written by Elijah to King Jehoram of
Judah, the son-in-law of Jezebel. But Elijah hardly
lived to see the rule of this king. It is possible that
a disciple of the prophet composed the letter with
reference to analogous sayings of Elijah against
the king.
Elij£^ appears as the most heroic form among
the prophets. Each of his brief words is an effect-
ive deed. The awful apostasy of his people forced
him to appear as an avenger. His elements were
fire and storm. But though he was obliged to
oppose the seducers, kind traits are not wanting
in his history (see I Kings xvii. 20
5. Charac- and II Kings ii. 12). By his faithful
ter and zeal for God's law he saved the people
Miracles, and reconciled the rising generation
with the fathers (cf. Mai. iv. 6).
From the theological point of view, very noticeable
is the conscious monotheism contained in his
mockery (I Kings xviii. 27) which, however, is not
a new trait in him. That Elijah and Elisha took
no offense at Israel's calf-worship, as some modem
writers assert, can not be inferred from their silence
about it. Neither Elijah nor Elisha had any con-
aujah
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
IQ
nection with the sanctuary at Bethel; they as-
sembled the people at some other place for worship,
and the manner in which Elijah on Carmel ignored
the royal clergy at Bethel, and on Horeb represents
himself as the only one remaining faithful is suffi-
ciently eloquent. The story of Elijah is rich in
the miraculous and has on this account often been
called legend. It can not be denied that the miracu-
lous is intentionally emphasized and colored by the
narrator. It is sdso possible that, through oral
transmission in prophetical circles, the account of
the deeds of the great master laid undue stress upon
externals. Yet by his extraordinary powers he
wrought great changes in the land. The principal
miracles which he wrought before the people (the
announcement of the drought and the ordeal on
Carmel) admit no rationalistic explanation. The
person and history of the prophet stand or fall with
them. Elijah produced an indelible impression
upon his contemporaries and upon posterity. On
the basis of Mai. iv. 5 the Jews in the time of Jesus
expected his return before the Messiah (Matt. xvii.
10, xi. 14, cf. J. Lightfoot, Hora Hebraicce on Matt,
xvii. 10; C. Schoettgen, HorcB HebraiccB et TdLmvr
dic€B, Dresden, 1742, ii. 533 sqq.). On the legendary
appearances of Elijah in the Talmud cf. J. A. Eisen-
menger, Entdecktes JuderUwn, 12 parts, Dresden,
1892-93, i. 11, ii. 212, 402-404. There also existed
apocryphal writings under his name; the oldest, the
" Apocalypse of Elijah," is first mentioned by Origen
(onMatt.xxvii. 9), and from it according to him the
quotation in I Cot. ii. 9 is said to have been taken.
Among the Mohammedans Elijah became the hero
of many legends; he was blended among them
with the heathenish mythical form El-khidr.
Elijah appears as the name of other Israelites,
I Chron. viii. 27; Ezra x. 21, 26.
(C. VON Orelli.)
Biblioobapht: Besides the literature on the History of
Israel cited under Ahab. consult: T. K. Cheyne. HaUoto-
ing of CriUcism, London, 1888; E. Renan, History of the
People of lerael, ii. 229-242. ib. 1888; R. Kittel. Oeechichte
der HOfr&er, ii., Gotha, 1892. Eng. transl.. London. 1895;
C. H. Comill, Provhete of Itrael, Chicago. 1897; H. Gunkel.
in Preuseieche JahrbUcher, 1898. pp. 18-51; idem. Eliae,
Jahve und Baal, Tabingen. 1906 (critical reconstruc-
tion); W. Erbt, UrUereiichungen gur Qeechichte der He-
brOer, part i.. F.lia, Eliea, Jona, Leipsic. 1907; Cler-
mont-Ganneau, in Revue arehiolooique, xxxii. 388 sqq.;
SchOrer. Oeechichte, ii. 35. 267-271. 344. 351-352.
524-525, Eng. transl., II. ii. 156-157, iii. 129 sqq.; Smith,
OTJC, pp. 236-237; idem, Propheta, pp. 76 sqq.. 116
sqq.; DB, i. 687-692; EB, ii. 1270-74; JE, v. 121-
128 (gives literature on Mohammedan and medieval
legend). A homiletical classic is F. W. Krummacher,
Eliaa der ThiOnter, Elberfeld, 1828 and often. Eng. transl.
Cheltenham, 1838 and often.
ELIJAH, APOCALYPSE OF. See PBeudepig-
RAPHA, Old Testament, II., 12.
ELIOT, JOHN: The Apostle to the North
American Indians; b. either at Widford (20 m. n. of
London), Hertfordshire, or at Nazing (15 m. n.n.e.
of London), Essex, 1604 (baptized Aug. 5); d. at
Roxbury, Mass., May 20, 1690. He studied at
Jesus College, Cambridge, taking his degree in
1622; then for some years was usher in the grammar-
school of the Rev. Thomas Hooker (q.v.), at Little
Baddow, near Chelmsford in Essex. Eliot's con-
nection with thia rigid Puritan formed a turning-
point in his spiritual history. " When I came totb
blessed family," said he, " I then saw, and never bi
fore, the power of godliness in its M^
Early Life vigor and efficacy." He resolved li
and Emi- devote himself to the ministxy of th
gration to Gospel; and as his non-conformist pifti
America, ciples hindered his advancement imdi
Archbishop Laud, he sought AiDeriei|
arriving at Boston Nov. 4, 1631. In Nov., 1632^ l|
was settled as teacher of the Church of Chriit U
Roxbury and continued in that office until Mi
death, — a period of nearly sixty years. He mtuM
in the same year. With his colleague Thow
Weld, and Richard Mather of Dorchester, he pil»'
pared for the press a new metrical version of Ikft
Psalms, which was the first book printed in tii
English colonies in America, being issued at OHi»
bridge by Stephen Daye in 1640, and known na Ai
Bay Psalm Book (see Bay Psalm Book).
Soon after his settlement in Roxbuiy, Efat
became deeply interested in the Indians, and ii'
length resolved to preach the GoipdL
Ministry to them. Having prepared hinMl
to the by two years' study of their languift
Indians, he preached for the first time to n
assembly of Indians at NoDantm^
in the present town of Newton, Oct. 28, 1646. Hs
was opposed by the sachems and powwow^ or
juggling priests, but prosecuted his mission wilk'
apostolic energy, until villages of " praying Indiani'-
began to appear in different parts of ti^e ociaof.
In 1660, at Natick, the first Indian church WMa^
ganized; it existed till the death of the last naftht
pastor in 1716. Eliot tried also to civilize as «iA
as convert the Indians, thinking it "absolutd^
necessary to carry on civility with religion." Il
time he came to be regarded by them as their M
friend. His influence over them was strong; ui,
he exerted it for their temporal and spiritual gooi
with rare wisdom and sagacity.
In 1653 he published a catechism in the Indin
language, and by Sept., 1661, the entire New Tatar
ment was printed at Cambridge; the whole Bibb
was completed two years later, and Cotton MafthBT
wrote of it: " Behold, ye Americans, the great**
honor that ever ye were partakers of, — ^the Bibto
printed here at our Cambridge; and it is the oo^y
Bible that ever was printed in all
Transla- America, from the very foundation of
tions into the world." Seventeen years later^
the Indian with the help of Rev. John Cottoo
Language, (q.v.) of Plymouth, Eliot prepared •
second edition, which was printed at
Cambridge between 1680 and 1685. Both editiooi
are now rare and valuable, and no one ib living
who understands their language. Baxter's CaU
to the Unconverted and other reli^ous treatises msB
also translated, and, assisted by his sons, John ao4
Joseph, Eliot prepared The Indian Grammar Be^Mf
or an Essay to bring the Indian Language into Buiki
(1666; ed. P. S. du Ponceau, Boston, 1822). In
his last years, when weighed down by bodily ift-
firmities, and unable longer to preach or to visit thi
Indians, he induced several families to send thflb
negro servants to him once a week, that he mifjU
instruct them in the truths of the GospeL His ok
X09
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
EUjAh
r
Other
Pnblica-
tkms.
)iras adorned with the siinplicity and artlessness
a little child, with wonderful humility, and a
^/^Imiity that never failed.
Hbt's work excited much interest in England,
^taoDd funds for carrying it on were supplied by a
■ *■ Cnporation for the Promoting and Propagating
^^he Gospel among the Indians of New England/'
'ftoititut^ by ordinance of parliament in July,
4US^, and reestablished after the Restoration by
'tlfte exertions of Robert Boyle (q.v.). He also had
%«Pport in the colonies and gave liberally of his own
'property. In 1674 the number of " praying
IbdiaDs " was estimated at 3,600; they fought with
^tbe English during King Philip's War (167&-76),
Int received a blow at this time from which they
aever recovered; after Eliot's death their e^inc-
tkm proceeded rapidly.
Eliot kept his friends in England informed of the
pragresB of his work by letters (cf. Proceedings of
ike Massachusetts Historical Society ^ Nov., 1879), and
a detailed history of his labors and those of his
aasistants is given in a series of " Indian tracts,"
between 1624 and 1705. A list of these
tracts may be found in the article
" EUot, John," by H. R. Tedder in
DNB, xvii. 189-194, where Eliot's
publications are also enumerated.
The more important not already men-
tioned were The Christian CommonweaUh (London,
1659 )y which the authorities in New England found
"full of seditious principles and notions"; Eliot
recanted and the book was suppressed; Commu-
nion of Churches f or the divine Management of Gospel
Churches by the Ordinance of Councils, constituted
in order according to the Scriptures (Cambridge, 1665)
the first book privately printed in America; The
Harmony of the Gospels (Boston, 1678).
Bibuookapht: A number of the publications of Eliot have
been republished in the Collectioru of the Mauachtuettt
Hiatarieal Society, Boston, 1792, aqq. The most complete
life is by Convers Francis in Sparks's Library of American
Bioffraphy, vol. v., Boston, 1836; there are later sketches
by H. A. 8. Dearborn, Roxbury, 1860, J. 8. Stevens,
Cbeehunt, 1874. R. B. Caverly, Boston. 1882. Consult
also G. Fritschel. Gesdiichte der dirisUichen Mission unter
den Indianem Nord Amerikae, Nuremberg, 1870; J. Win-
aor** Memorial HiHory of Boeton, vol. i., Boston, 1880;
W. Eames. Bil>lioaraphie Notee on Eliof§ Indian Bible
and on hia other TranelaHone and Worke in the Indian
Lanffuoffe of MaeeachuaeUa, Washington, 1890.
ELIPAin>US: Bishop of Toledo. See Aoop-
TIONI8M, § 2.
ELISHA.
His Call. Length of His Activity (§1).
His Character Compared with Elijah's (( 2).
His Patriotism (§ 3).
His Miracles and Prophecy ({ 4).
Elisha (" My God is Salvation ") was a prophet
of the Northern Kingdom, and succcessor of Elijah.
According to I Kings xix. 16, 19, he was bom at
Abelmeholah and was the son of a wealthy land-
owner. He was called by Elijah from the plow
to the prophetical work, and willingly left his home,
requesting only to be allowed to take leave of his
family. He then followed his master, whom he
accompanied some time as an attendant (II Kings
ill 11), whose faithful and active disciple he proved
himself until the latter's death. Thereafter he was
the leader of the companies of prophets and was
universally acknowledged as heir of the dignity of
Elijah. His activity lasted for more than half
a century; for according to II Kings
I. His Call, ii.-ix., xiii. he was active from the be-
Length ginning of the reign of Jehoram
of His to the beginning of that of Joash of
Activity. Israel (895-840 or 855-798). The
stories of Elisha's work are largely
involved in the history of King Jehoram, and this
period seems to have been the palmy days of his
activity. But even if his labors began in the first
year of that king, not all of his deeds recorded up to
II Kings viii. 6 find room in that reign. Moreover,
that Elisha was inactive during the twenty-eight
years of Jehu's reign and the seventeen years of that
of Jehoahaz b precluded by II Kings xiii. 14. The
tipie of some events, however, can not be fixed with
certainty.
The powerful championship of Elijah had effected
a great change in the disposition of the people; the
God whom he worshiped became again generally
honored. True, Jezebel was still alive and had
surrounded herself with priests of Baal, and the
companions of Jehoram, the so-called Yahweh-
prophets, were still less filled with God's spirit.
But Jehoram had forbidden the worship of Baal
(iii. 2) and treated Elisha with respect (II Kings iv.
13). Thus the prophet could await the issue till
he became certain that the execution of the divine
judgment on Ahab's house enjoined on him by his
master could be accomplished. That done, Elisha's
relation to Jehu, the avenger appointed by him,
and to his son and grandson, could be more friendly
(II Kings xiii. 14). In some places
2. His the soil had become fit for the divine
Character gifts of grace, and Elisha, in keeping
Compared with his name, could appear as a medi-
with ator of divine salvation and blessing.
Elijah's. Severity was indeed one trait of his
character (cf. II Kings ii. 23, v. 26,
ix. 2 sqq.). But as compared with the militant
Elijah, Elisha had the more peaceful mission as
mediator to the faithful in Israel to bring to them
the assistance and blessing of their God. This
difference between the activities of Elijah and Elisha
depended in part upon the changed attitude of the
people and aJso upon the personalities of the two
men. Elisha dwelt more among the people and was
more intimate with them than was Elijah. Though
he sometimes lived in the solitude of Carmel, he
was often in the colonies of the young prophets
near Jericho and by the Jordan, at Gilgal and
Bethel, and even had a permanent residence in
Samaria.
He appeared as a philanthropist, a benefactor of
the poor, a helper in distress, manifesting a tender
solicitude for even the little needs of domestic life.
As a healer of the sick, so the story goes, he became
known even in Syria, and the Syrian captain Naa-
man, suflFering from leprosy, came to Israel where
he was healed by the prophet. The punishment of
Gehazi, servant of Elisha, represents the penalty
due to covetousness, and belongs with the last-
named episode.
bath, Saint
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
110
Elisha was not only a private benefactor, he was
also the good genius of the country, so that even
King Jehoram when in distress was
3. His not deprived of his help, though he was
Patriotism, unworthy of it. Having been suc-
cessful, through Elisha's assistance, in
a campaign against tlie Moabites (II Kings iii. 11
sqq.)» when distress was caused by the Syrians he
relied on the advice of the prophet. So accurately
did Elisha inform him of the plans of the Syrians
that their king imagined the existence of traitors
in his own camp. The Syrian attempt made to
capture the prophet was a failure, and resulted only
in the capture of the Syrian force, which, by the
humanity of the prophet, was spared the fate of
prisoners of war (II Kings vi. 8 sqq.). Elisha's
power was so manifest that Jehoram attempted
to make him responsible for the horrors of a Syrian
siege of Samaria (II Kings \'i. 24 sqq., vii.). Be-
cause of the king's contumacy, invohing also the
people in divine punishment, Elisha was the chan-
nel of the announcement of the coming chastise-
ment of the royal house and of the people. With
sorrow Elisha announced to Hazacl his elevation to
the throne of Syria (II Kings viii. 7 sqq.) and the
consequent devastation of the kingdom of Israel.
Turning his attention to the affairs of his own
people, Elisha caused the anointing of the energetic
Jehu (q.v.) who, Iwing an unrighteous instrument
of righteous vengeance, destroyed the house of
Ahab with unholy impetuosity (II Kings ix.-x.).
Only by a complete misjudging of the dependence
of the true prophet upon a higher will
4. His Mir- can Elisha be reproached on account
acles and of these acts of ol^edience to his Ood.
Prophecy. The authority among the people which
he enjoyed for decades, the testimony
at his death of a king who lamented him as a father
and as Israel's protection, and his last utterances
against the enemy threatening in the North (I
Kings xiii. 14 sqq.) prove how much he had at heart
the welfare of his country. Thus Elisha worthily
followed the footstep>s of his predecessor. He was
not his equal in his unique spiritual power, but in
him was embodied the lovelier grace and providence '
of God in the minutia? of life. The miracles ac-
credited to him resemble on a smaller scale those of
Elijah. Whether those miracles, which as in the
case of Elijah are recorded with intentional em-
phasis upon the supernatural, are to be considered
historical will dci)cnd upon one's attitude to the
miraculous in general. The knowledge of future
events or of things which are removed from the
limited view of ordinary mortals can not be denied
the prophet, since it muvst be conceded in the secular
domain to the chiirvoyant. It must not be forgot-
ten that a childlike faith, especially that of a man
of God, may discern as in a higher light things which
take place in the sphere of tlie ordinary (cf. II Kings
ii. 19 sqq., iv. 3S sqq., vi. 6 sqq.). In the case of
Elisha it would be imi)Ossible to ascribe everything
to onlinary earthly hapiK'nings. Whoever acknowl-
edges in th(» life of the Son of Go<l analogous deeds
which transccnde<l natural ability will not be able to
deny tnem to liLs Old-Testament antetype or to credit
the story to poetical legend. C. von Orelli.
Biblioorapht: The aetiTity of EImIia is ImtMl in At
works on the history of Israel, for which ooosult the iil
under Ahab; cf. also the commentaries 00 the BookiaC
Kings. Consult further: P. Cassel, Der FraphU Ekm»
Berlin, 1860; A. Kuenen, Prophets and Propksev » Imwi,
London, 1877 (valuable): C G. Montefiore. HMert £».
hire; pp. 94-05. ib. 1893; C. H. Comill PrvpkOt ^fllami,
Chicago. 1897; R. C. Dodds. EUaha tke Mam o/(M. Wi-
nona. 1904; W. Erbt. UfUerauekunffn sur Otsekidik dr
HehrOer, part i.. Elia, Elua, Jona, LeipsJc, 1907; Sinlk,
PropheU, passim; Z>B. i. 093-«06; BB, ii. 127^78; JM,
V. 13&-138.
ELIZABETH, ALBERTIlfE: CounteflB-paUtiiii
and abbess of Herford; b. at Heidelberg Dee. 26^
1618; d. at Herford (16 m. 8.w. of Minden), Weil-
phalia, Feb. 1 1, 1680. She was a daughter of Fred-
erick v., elector of the Palatinate and long of Bohe-
mia, and Elizabeth Stuart, a daughter of James L
of England. After the overthrow of her father, her
earliest youth was spent at Berlin, under the care
of her grandmother Juliana, a daughter of WlDiim
of Orange, who gave her thoughts a lofty and |hoiii
direction. In her ninth or tenth year ^ was sent
to The Hague where her parents kept a quiet caart
surrounded by a select circle of noble and educated
men. Here Elizabeth was taught classic and mod*
em languages, art and literature, and shoved
especial inclinations toward philosophical studies.
She early decided to remain unmarried and devote
her life to study. The many misfortunes that befdl
her family may have confirmed her decision. In
1639 she entered into correspondence with Anna
Maria von Schilrmann, a learned woman, caDed the
Dutch Minerva. A little later she became ac-
quainted with Descartes, who, at her request, was
made her teacher in philosophy and morals, and
in 1644 he dedicated to her his Principia, In
1649 Descartes followed an invitation of Quem
Christine of Sweden, but continued in correspond-
ence with Elizabeth until he died in the following
year. At this time Elizabeth returned to Heidel-
berg with her brother Karl Ludwig who was now
elector, but his conjugal troubles induced her to
leave Heitlelberg. During a visit to an aunt at
KroRsen she became acquainted with Cocoeius who
later entered into correspondence with her and dedi-
cated to her his exp>08ition of the Song of Songs.
Through him she was led to the study of the Bible.
In 1607 she became abbess of the institution of
Herford where she distinguished herself by faith-
fulness in the performance of her duties, by her
modesty and philanthropy, and especially t^ her
kind hospitality to all who were oppressed for the
sake of conscience. In 1670 she received the follow-
ers of Jean do Labadie (q.v.), by whose piety she was
attracted, and when the congregation left in 1672,
retained a small body of like-minded souls under
her protection. The Labadists were followed in
1676 by the Quakers. In 1677 Penn himself arrived
together with Barclay, and remained three days,
holding meetings which made a deep impression upon
the countess. Her friendship with Penn lasted
until her death in 1680, and he celebrated her mem-
ory in the second edition of his book No Cross, No
Crown (1682), praising her piety and virtue, her
simplicity, her care as ruler, her justice, humility
and charitable love. Leibnitz visited her in 1678.
(J. SCBNEIDKR-)
ail
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Ellsh*
EllMbeth, Saint
'Xduogbapht: G. E. Guhrsuer, in HiatortMchea TaacKen-
hmek, ed. F. von Raumer, series 3, voL iii., Leipsic, 1851 ;
M. Goebel, Ge»ehicfUe dea diriaaichen Lebena .... vol.
ii., II 9. 11. Coblena, 1862 (both of the foregoing contain
ImCb of literature): Foucher de Careil, Deacartea at la
prineeaaa palatine, Paris, 1862; idem, Deacartea, la prin^
«MSS Eliaabeth et la reine Chriatine, ib. 1879; C. J. Jean-
nd, Deacartea et la princeaae palatine, ib. 1869; H. Heppe,
GaaducKU dea Pietiamua und der My§tik, pp. 321-341.
heydtn, 1879; T. Wille, in Neuere HeidalbergarJahrbiicher,
JO. 106 sqq.; ADB, vi. 22 sqq.
ELIZABETH, QUEEN OF ENGLAND, EXCOM-
MUNICATION OF. See Fblton, John.
ELIZABETH OF SCHOENAU: German mystic;
b. about 1129; d. at SchOnau (6 m. n.e. of Heidel-
berg) Jime 18, 1164. When twelve years of age,
•be entered the monastery at Schdnau in Nassau,
and in 1152 she began to see visions which are fully
described in her three books of Visionea (cf . the edi-
tioQ by F. W. E. Roth, BrQnn, 1884, and the earlier
editions noted in the bibliography). They com-
menced with a feeling of heavy oppression and with
eoQvulsions, ending in unconsciousness. In this
state she saw heavenly forms which she was able
to describe when she awoke. The visions later
became more frequent and lasting, so that she could
converse with the celestial apparitions and question
them. It was usually either the saint of the day
or the Virgin who appeared to her, but the visions
seldom transcended the horizon of a simple soul,
which remained childlike amid monastic surround-
ings. Her interests were limited to questions con-
nected with monastic piety, as when she asked
Mary for a true description of her assumption, or
sought from the angels a confirmation of the authen-
ticity of the relics of the 11,000 virgins which had
been found at Cologne. Ecbert's description of her
death shows that to the last she remained a child-
like, pure, lovely, and humble soul, and despite all
visionary eccentricity her religious nature remained
in the main simple and healthy. Her own writings
were supplemented by Ecbert as seemed best to
him. The first book of the Visiones and the Liber
victntm Dei were much read during the Middle
R. ScHMlDf.
Exbliograpbt: J. Faber Stapulenris, lAber trium virorum
et triwn virginum apirOualium, Paris, 1513 (contains the
Visions, reprinted in RevelaHonea aanctarum vtroinum
HUdegardia et Elizabethee, Cologne, 1628 and in MPL,
excY. Consult: W. Preger, OeKhichte der deutachen Myatik,
i. 37 sqq.. Leipsic, 1874.
ELIZABETH, SAINT, SISTERS OF: 1. A name
often given to the nuns of the third order of St.
Francis. Their origin is uncertain, but was not
due to St. Elizabeth of Thuringia (q.v.). Angelina
di Corbara, Countess of Civitella (d. 1435), founded
a commimity of Franciscan tertiaries at Foligno
(in Umbria, 20 m. e.s.e. of Perugia) in 1395, which
in 1428 became a congregation with several houses,
and was confirmed by Pope Eugenius IV. in 1436;
that they bore the name of St. Elizabeth, however,
can not be confidently asserted. Toward the end
of the fifteenth century there was a considerable
number of Elizabeth-houses in Italy, Germany,
and France, partly subject to the Franciscan Ob-
servants, and in part to the diocesan bishops. The
latter were given the rule of the th?.rd order of St.
Francis by Leo X. in 1521, while the former received
the revised constitution of the Poor Clares. They
wore a gray dress (gray scapulary, five-knotted
girdle, and black veil), whence the popular name
" gray sisters." There were also " brown sisters";
8cnLr8 de la taille (who wore cloaks and gathered
alms); " cell-sisters," who went out as nurses;
hospital nurses, etc. At the middle of the six-
teenth century the order had 4,000 members and
135 convents; in 1900 there were one house in
France, one in Belgium, three houses in Bavaria,
four in Prussia, and eleven in Austria.
2. Distinct from the above is the St. Elizabeth
Society or Gray Sisters of St. Elizabeth, founded at
Neisse in Upper Silesia in 1842 by Maria Merkert
(d. 1872), with the help of her sister, Mathilde, and
two other young women of the Roman Catholic
Church. They take simple vows for three years
and devote themselves to the work of nursing the
sick, helping the poor, caring for children, and the
like. Pius IX. in 1871 accorded them the status
of a religious society. In 1892 they had about 140
establishments with more than 800 members.
(O. ZdCKLERf.)
Biblioorapht: Helyot, Ordrea monaatigtiea, vii. 301-312;
Heimbucher, Orden und Kongregationen, ii. 604-605, 626,
iii. 389 sqq.; Currier, Religioua Ordert, p. 263; R. Bunge,
Deutache Samariterinnen, Leipsic, 1883 (with life of Maria
Merkert); J. Jungnits, Die Kongregationen der grauen
Schv?eatem von der heiligen Elitabeth, Breslau, 1802;
Currier, Religioua Order§, p. 660.
ELIZABETH, SAINT, OF THURINOIA.
Early Life and Marriage (S !)•
Subjection to Franciscan Influence (f 2).
Life of Charity at Marburg ($3).
Estimate of Her Character (§ 4).
Saint Elizabeth, landgravine of Thuringia, was
bom at Pressburg, Hungary, 1207; d. at Mar-
burg Nov. 19, 1231. The leading facts of her
brief life are historically established, though a halo
of legend early surrounded her. She was the daugh-
ter of King Andrew II. of Hungary (1205-35) and
his queen, Gertrude, of the house of
I. Early Meran-Andechs. When not yet four
Life and years of age, she was betrothed to
Marriage. Louis, son of Hermann, landgrave
of Thuringia (so the common tradition,
but cf. Wenck, 221 sqq.), to whom she was married
in 1221, certainly not " against her heart's deeire,"
for she devoted herself to her husband with all the
love of which a young woman is capable and Louis
was a lovable husband. He did not oppose her
in her devotional exercises, and even provided for
her benevolence which sometimes was very lavish.
She became the mother of four children, her
youngest daughter being bom after the father's
death.
About this time the Franciscans came to Gei>
many, and Jordan of Giano asserts that Rodeger,
for a long time Elizabeth's confessor, was a Fran-
ciscan; the influence of the Franciscans upon
Elizabeth can be clearly perceived. Her later life
was dominated by Conrad of Marburg (q.v.), who
was admitted to the Wartburg two years before the
death of the landgrave, about 1225. He obtained
the confidence of the landgrave to a high degree,
BllMbeth, Saint
BUioU
THE NEW 8CHAFF-HERZ0Q
lU
and Elizabeth came into complete spiritual depend-
ence on him. In 1227, following his religious
sentiment as well as the summons
2. Subjec- of the emperor, the landgrave took
tion to the cross. She accompanied him
Franciscan on the way two days beyond the
Influence, frontier of his territory, although his
mother turned back there, and could
hanily be persuaded to return. When she learned
of her husband's death (of fever at Otranto, Sept.
11, 1227), her first exclamation was: "now the
world is dead to me with all its joys." Her life
at this point is ol>scure. Some claim, following
the older notices, that her brother-in-law, Heinrich
Raspe, drove her from the Wartburg; others that
she voluntarily left the castle. At any rate she
spent some time at the castle Pottenstoin in Fran-
conia, which belonged to her uncle, the bishop of
Bamberg. Afterwartl she returned to Thuringia
with the remains of her husband and was present
at their solemn burial in the monastery of Rein-
hartsbrunn. She wishetl to enter a monastery or
to beg for bread from door to door. But as Conrad
rudely refused to sanction this, she vowed to re-
nounce all glory of this world, parents and children,
and her own will.
Some time afterward she went to Marburg, which
had l)een conceded to her for life with all its priv-
ileges and revenues, in order to live there under
Conrad's immediate guidance. She joined the
Tertiarics of the Franciscans, wore the poorest
dress and lived on the scantiest food, spending all
her income in works of charity; with great (lelight
she took care of the sick, esi)ecially those afflicted
with the worst diseases. At Conrad's behest she
gave up her children, one after the other, dismissed
two of her friends dear to her from
3. Life of early childhood, and took in their
Charity at place two unlovable servants selected
Marburg, by Conrad, while she so far submitted
to him as to receive physical chas-
tisement at his hands. While she was lying in
state after her death the people crowded in large
numbers about her bier and in the mania for relics,
which no feeling of piety could restrain, mutilated
the corpse. The news soon spread that miracles
took place at her grave and witnesses were examined
for the purpose of her canonization, which was
accomplished Perugia, May 27, 1235, by Gregory
IX. The Teutonic knights, to whom her brother-
in-law Conrad had belonged since 1234, promoted
her veneration. In 1235 they laid the founda-
tion of the beautiful Elizabeth-church at Mai burg
which was finished in 1284, where a sumptuous
monument became the receptacle of her bones.
Eliza l)eth belongs to the sweetest female char-
acters of the Middle Ages. With a loving heart,
capable as well as desirous of absolute devotion,
she early felt the drawing from on
4. Estimate high and followed it. Deep and sin-
of Her core piety AIUmI her life and she is not
Character, to l)e blamed U»cause its manifestation
was determined by the tendency of
her time. Some extravagance and want of true
understanding in the exercise of her benevolence
can not be denied, but these defects are intimately
connected with her excellencies. That in lite
years she forgot her duty to be a mother to \m
children, was indeed an aberration, but she mM
in obedience to her spiritual adviser and bdievd
that she was fulfilling her highest duty toward Goi
S. M. Deutkb.
Biblioorapht: The literature is voluminouB; for t ki|
lint of aouroM and treatises cf. Potthast» Wttmm,
pp. 1284-87. The chief souroes are: LtMfau d» Uk
quathufr ancittamm mmda EUxabttka, in J. B. McMtai,
aaript. rtr. Qerm., ii. 2007-34. Leipsie. 1729; Cant
of Marburg's EpUtola {ad Orwaorium /X.), in A. Wji^
Heni9che9 UrkundenbucK pp. 31-35, Leipsie, ISTtt (b
bull of canonisation of Gregory IX., in Wja, ift
sup., pp. 85-53; the Vita by Conrad is in Mcnte
ut sup., p. 2012; that by Theodore of ApoUt ii
in H. Canisius, LecUonu aniigutt, ▼. 2» 143-227. hff^
etadt, 1604; Chronica ReinhartabrunnetuU, in MGE,
Saripl., XXX (1806), 515-658. Out of the nM)deni Kts-
ature, for the most part uncritical, may bemcntioBid:
K. W. JusU. EliMbeth die Heilioe, Ifarburs. 1836; C F.
Montalembert. Hiatoin dm Ste, Elimtbdh de H^Hni,
Paris, 1835, En«. transl., London, 1830 (a pictwe of s
saint, but uncritical); F. X. Wecele, in Sybds HukHi-
9ch€ ZeitathrifU ▼ (1861), 375 eqq.; G. Boemer, in JVi.
xiii (1888). 433-515; C. Wenck, in Hiaionaeke ZeiitdmH,
Ixix (1802). 200-244; idem. Die EnUtehung der Bnnkmlk-
brunner OetchiehUbUcher, Halle, 187&
ELKESATTES, ellce-eoits: The name of a see-
tion of syncretistic Jewish Christianity. They were
mentioned by Epiphanius (Hcer., xix., xxx., liiL),
Origen (Eusebius, Hist, ecd., vL 38) and Hippolytui
(PhiloaophoumenOf ix. 13 sqq.). The derivation of
the name has led to many conjectures. Delitadi
derived it from a hamlet EHkesi, in Galilee. The
Church Fathers derived it from the name of a sup-
posititious founder, Elxai, which name, according
to Epiphanius, denotes " a hidden power." Elzai
is probably not the name of a person, but the name
of a book which was the chief authority for this sect
At all events, the sect held in the highest esteem a
work which was brought into connection with
Ebcai. This book, which appears to have been the
chief authority for all the Jewish-Christian Gnostic
sects, was known to Origen (Eusebius, HitL eccL,
vi. 38), and the Syrian Alcibiades of Apamea
brought it with him to Rome (about 220 a.d.).
As Origen reports, this book was believed to have
fallen from heaven; according to an account in the
Philo8ophoumena, it was revealed by an angel who
was the Son of God. Elxai is said to have received
it in the third year of Trajan (101 a.d.), and its
contents were communicated to no one except under
oath of secrecy. The work itself contains a laige
element of natural religion mingled with Judaistie
and Christian ideas. The pagan element shows
itself in particular in ablutions. Remission of sins
is proclaimed upon the ground of a new baptism,
consisting without doubt of oft-repeated washings,
which were also used against sickness, and were
made in the name of the Father and the Son. In
connection with these ablutions appear seven wit-
nesses— the five elements, and oil and salt — (also
bread), — the latter two symbolizing baptism and the
Lord's Supi)er. The same pagan element appears
in the use made by the Elkesaites of astronomy and
magic; baptismal days were fixed in accordance
with the position of the stars. The Jewish element
appears in the obligatory character of the law, and
in circumcision. They rejected sacrifices, and also
X18
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bllzabeth, Saint
BUiott
«ewm] parU of the Old and the New Testament
{ti the UttcT, the Pauline epmties). What their
\rkvs of Ohrtet were is not certain. On the one
laidtbey described him as an angel; on the other
t])^ tiught a repeated or continuous incarnation
<3fChriit> although the virgin-hirth aeemg to have
liKzi retained. The Lord's Supper waa celebrated
"yplih bread and ealt; the eating of meat waa for-
liiden; marriage waa highly esteemed; renuneia-
timaf the faith in time of persecution was allowed.
A prayer, wliich is presen'ed by Epiphanius (xix.
ij, is enlinely unintelligible. Much aa the Clem-
mtine Homilies agree with the doctrinal system of
t^ Klxai-book, there are dilferencea which prove
that the latter represents the otderi the Homilies
Um later form of the doctrinal syartera. Ritachl
regards the Elke^^itee as the antipodes of the Mon*
tAQist^p and aaeertjs a^i their chief peculiarity the
aelting forth of a new theory of remission of eina
by a new baptism. Gieselcr has wrongly identified
tbem with the Ebionitee iKirchtngetckichUt I. i.
134, 279). The Elkesait^?^ were not a distinct »eet,
but rather a aciiool scattered among aU parties of
ibm Judeo-Ohriatian Church. This syncretiistic-
gnostic Judatam contributed to the origin of Islam ^
(G. UHLHORNf.)
BxBLJCKiaAPST: A. RitMliJ. in ZHT, 1553, part i; idem,
En£tittkufb0 dwf aUkaikolitehen Kirch€. pp. 234, Bonn,
1S57; A. Hilcvn/eld^ Ktis€ra€M€kich4e> pp. 43.'! nqq., hmp-
ric 1^4; id«ta, Jud^ntMm und J udtmchriai^ntum. pp.
AS aqq.. lb. ISSQi NPNF. smee 2, L 280. not««<: Har-
BBck, {h^hidtt^, 1. 2fy7-2mi idem. Doffma, L 240« 246.
a04 sqq., ii. llO, iii. 320, 331: Meander. ChrifHan Church,
L 352- Sclmn. ChrUtian ChurtJi, U. 430 «at(4 DCB, ii,
UMPS; Am) the lit^raLiur^ under CLEArEKTiifA.
ILLER, ELIAS. See RoNsnonr Skct,
ELLICOTT, CHARLES JOHH; Bishop of Glou^
oester; b. at Whitwell (21 m. e. of Leiceitar),
Butlandahire, Apr. 25, 1819; d. at Blrehington-on-
Sea (IT m. n. of Dover), Ktnt, Oct. 15, 1«)U5. He
studied at St. John's College, Cambridge (B*A,,
1841), where he was fellow 1S45-48, and was or-
dered deacon in iS45 and ordained priest in 1846.
From IMS to 1861 he was professor of divinity in
King'i College, London, and also rector of Pilton,
Rutlandshire, until 185S. In ISGO he was nppointerl
Hulsean professor of thvinity at Cambridge, but in
the following year resigned both professorBhips on
being appointed dean of Exeter. In 1863 he waa
consecrated bishop of Gloueester and Bristol, and
on the diviaion of the aee in 1897 l>ecame bishop of
Gloucesieri reaigning his diocese in 1904. He was
Hnljean lecturer at Cambridge in 1858, a member
of the royal commission on ritual and the rubrics
in 1867. and was chairman of the British New Testa-
ment Revision Company 1870-81, He wrote The
Hilary and ObligaHim of the Sabbath (Cambridge,
1S44); TreaHae &n Analytkal Statist ka (1851);
CrUijsal and Grammatical Commentary an Gala^
fwm* {London, 1S54); Ephe^iaws (1865); Fhilip-
puififl, CalosmmiBf €md Philemon (1857); Thessa-
hmiims (1858); Pa&tofal Epistles (1858); Historical
Leciur€9 <m tk$ Life of out Lord JemiS Chrui
(Hubean Leeturee for 1859; 1860); €oTmdm'<dion3
Mr the Bemsion of iJhB English Veraion of the New
Tm^tmmi (1870); Modem Unbeliefs its Frintiple^
md CharaderiaikM (1876); The Frmmt Dangers of
the Church of England (1878); The Being of God
(1880); Are toe to modifi^ Fundamenial Doctrine f
(Bristol, 1885); / Corinthians^ wiih a Critic^ Com-
fnerUary (London, 1887); Spiritual Needs in Coun-
try Farish^^ (1888); Christm Comprobalor (1891);
Saa-ed Studjf (2 vob,, 1892-94); Our Reformed
Church and its Present Troubles (1897); TheR^mstd
Version of Holg Scripture (1901); and Simons at
Gloucester (1905). He also edited A New Testament
Commentary far English Readers (.3 vols.^ London^
I877--82) and An Old TestameM Commentary for
English Renders (5 vols., 1882-84),
ELLINWOOD, FRANK FIELD; Presbyterian;
b, at CUnton, N\ J.^ June 20, 1S2G; d, at C<irnwall,
Conn., Sept. 30, 1908, He studied at Hamilton
College (B,A„ 1849) and Auburn and Princeton
theological senunaries^ being graduated from the
latter in 1852. He was ordained in 18.^3, and held
pastorates at Belvedere^ N, J,, 1853-54, the Cen-
tral Church, Rochester, N. Y., 1854-65. He was
secretary of the Presbyterian Committee of Church
Erection 1866-70 and of the Memorial Fund Com-
mittee 1870^71. Since 1871 he wasj corresponding
iceretary of the Prej^byterian Board of Foreign
Missjona and from 1886 till 1904 was professor of
comparative religion in New York University. He
wrote Oriental Religions ovd Christianihj (New
York, 1892) and Questiom and Phases of Modem
Missions (1899).
ELLIOTT, CHARLES: Methodist Episcopal
elergy^an; b, at Kiilyhegs (14 ra. w. of Donegal),
County Donegal, Ireland, May 15, 1792; d, at
Mount Pleasant, Iowa, Jan. 6, 1869. After having
been denied atUnisHion to the University of Dublin
for refuflal to take the prescribed test oath, he
pursued advanced studies privately and emigrated
to America in 1815. He joined the Ohio Confer-
ence in 1818, and during the next twelve years
served successively as traveling preacher, superin-
tendent of the mission among the Wyandotte
Indians, presiding elder of the Ohio district, and
professor of modern languages in Madison College,
at Union town, Penn, Later he was presiding elder
of the Pitt-aburg district and editor of the Pim-
burg Conference Journal (1833-36). He also edited
the Western Christian Advocate (1836-^8^ and 1852-
1856). As editor of the Central Christian Advoca^
of St. Louis, Mo. (1860-64), he strongly aupported
the cause of the Union. From 1857 to 1860 he was
professor of Biblical literature and president of the
Iowa Wesley an University at Mount Pleasant, and
again from 1864 to 1S67. Hb principal workfl were
Delineation of Ramanism (2 vols., New York, 1841;
London, 1851); The Great SeK:msion from the Meth-
odist Episcopal Church (Cincinnati, 1855); and
South-western Me^hodistn^ a Historg of the M. E.
Church in Missouri (New York, 1868).
BrFLiooBA^HT: J* M. Buckley, History &f Me&tiiditm in
tha UnUed Stales, pu»sim» New York. 18»7.
ELLIOTT, CHARLOTTE 1 EngUsh hymn-wri-
ter; b. at Brighton Mar. 17, 1789; d. there
Sept. 22, 1871, She lived with her father at Clap-
ham, a suburb of London, till 1845, then at Torquay
till 1857, returning then to Brighton. In 1822 she
met Q^sar M&I&ei (q.v.), who iniuenced her strongly.
BUiott
Blohlm
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOQ
lU
During the last fifty years of her life she was an
invalid. Of her 1 5() hymns some are still in common
use, e.g., " Just as I am without one plea," and
'* My God, my Father, while 1 stray." Selections
from her poems, with a memoir by her sister, Mrs.
Babington, were published in 1873.
Hidlioorapht: 8. W. Duffield, Enolish Hymn; p. 309 et
passim. New York, 1886; Julian, Hymnoloffy, p. 328;
N. Smith, Hymna hiatorically Famous, pp. 15^166,
Chicago, 1901 (on " Just as I am ").
ELLIOTT, DAVID: American Presbyterian; b.
m Sherman's Valley, Perry Co., Penn., Feb. 6, 1787;
d. at Allegheny, Penn., Mar. 18, 1874. After his
graduation from Dickinson College in 1808 he
studied theology for three years and was licensed to
preach as a probationer by the presbytery of Car-
lyle Sept. 26, ISll. He was pastor at Mercers-
burg, Penn., from Feb. 19, 1812, to Oct. 28, 1829,
and at Washington from 1820 to 18^i6, and was also
acting president of Washington College from 1829
to 1832, when he completely reorganized and re-
vived that institution. He declined the appoint-
ment as permanent president, but was president of
the board of trustees for thirty-three years. From
1836 to 1854 lie was professor of theology in the
Western Theological Seminary, at Allegheny, Penn.,
and from 1854 till his death professor of polemic,
history, and pastoral theology in the same institu-
tion, becoming professor emeritus in 1870. He
was often a member of the General Assembly, and
as moderator of that body in 1837, when the
Chureh was divided, he distinguished himself by
the fairness and accuracy of his decisions.
ELLIS, GEORGE EDWARD: Unitarian; b. at
Boston Aug. 8, 1814; d. there Dec. 20, 1894. He
was graduated at Harvard College in 1833, and the
Harvard Di\4nity School in 1836. He then devoted
four years to travel and study in Europe, was or-
dained in 1840 and was pastor of the Harvard
Unitarian Society, Cambridge, Mass., 1840-69.
From 1857 to 1S63 he was professor of systematic
theology in Harvartl Divinity School. For several
years he was editor of the Chrustian Register and
later of The Christian Examiner, He vrrote A Half-
Century of the Unitarian Controversy ^ with Par-
ticular Reference to its Origin ^ its Course, and its
Prominent Subjects among the Congregationalists of
Massachusetts (Boston, 1857); Aims and Purposes
of the Founders of Massachusetts^ and their Treat-
ment of Intruders and Dissentients (1869); Intro-
duction to the History of the First Church in Boston,
16SO-1880 (1882); The Red Man and the White
Man in Xorth America (1882); and The Puritan
Age and Rule in the Colony of Massachusetts Bay
(ISv^).
ELLIS, WILLIAM: English missionary: b. in
London Aug. 29, 1794; d. at Hoddesdon (,4 m. s.e.
of Hertford^ Hertfordshire, June 9, 1S72. He was
sent by the London Missionary- Society to the South
Sea islands in 1816 and labored there till 1822,
when he removed to C>ahu. Hawaiian Islands (q.v.).
He assu<ted the American missionaries in the con-
version of the people and reduce<l the Hawaiian
language to a written form. In 1825 the state of
his wife's health compelled him to return to Eng-
land. On the way he spent three months in On I
United States, lecturing on conditions in B&iii.
He now entered the home-work of the Sooekf,
became ajssistant foreign secretaiy in 1830 and noi
afterward chief foreign secretary, retiring inlM
on account of ill health. In 1837 he married nlfli
second wife. Miss Sarah Stickney, a lady of Bone
literary fame. In 1853 he was sent to ^^^^e^iy
to revive the mission there (see Africa, IIL,
Madagascar), but not tUl his third ^p m 18S6
was he allowed to enter the capital, and then oo^
for a month. In 1861, after the death tA Qaem
Ranavalona I. he made his fourth, and mort sitb-
factory, visit to the island, not returning to Englud
till 1865. By his tact and seal he placed ChriBtl-
anity upon a firm basis in the island, and his woik
was crowned in 1868 by the accession of a Christian
queen to the throne.
As a missionary Mr. Ellis was thoroughly pner
tical, being bent upon providing for the temponl,
as well as for the spiritual, welfare of his converts.
He had been bred a gardener; and the year before
he went to the South Sea Islands he learned print-
ing and bookbinding. Thus he was able to intro-
duce many valuable plants and fruits and he Ki
up the first printing-press in the archipdapi^
Through his books he won for missionaries, as a
class, a respect they had not often enjoyed. Wri-
ting in the Quarterly Review Southey said of hii
Polynesian Researches (2 vols., London, 1829),
** A more interesting book ... we have never
perused.'' Hb books were not merely faithful
records of missionary labor but real contributiooi
to science. Other works that may be mentioned
are, Missionary Xarrative of a Tour through Hawaii
(London, 1826); History of Madagaecar (2 vols.,
1838); History of the London Missionary Societff
(not completed, vol. L, 1844); Tliree Visits to Mada-
gascar (1858); Madagascar Revisited (1867); The
Martyr Church of Madagascar (1870).
Bxbuographt: J. £. Ellis, Memoir of Rev. WiUiam EKa,
London, 1873 (by hia son); DNB, xvii. 296-297.
ELLWOOD, THOMAS: English Quaker, friend
of Milton; b. at Crowell (15 m. e.s.e. of Oxford),
Oxfordshire, Oct., 1639; d. at Hunger Hill, Amer-
sham (25 m. e.s.e. of Oxford), Buckinghamshire,
Mar. 1, 1714. He joined the Quakers in 1659,
against his father's will, and subsequently suffered
frequent arrest and imprisonment for his religioas
views. He is remembered chiefly in connection
with Milton. For a few months in 1662 he was
Latin reader to the blind poet in London; and in
1665 Milton lent him the manuscript of Parodist
Lost. In returning the work Ellwood remarked,
" Thou hast said much of * Paradise Lost,' but what
hast thou to say of ' Paradise Found ' ? " Upon
Milton's own admission Paradise Regained was a
result of this remark. Ellwood was also a friend
of William Penn, George Fox, and other Quaker
leaders; and to him we are indebted for much
information about the Quakers, as well as about
Milton. Of his numerous works may be mentioned.
An Alarm to the Priests (London, 1660); Forgery
no Christianity (1674); The Foundation of Tithes
Shaken (1678); Sacred History (2 pts., 1705-09);
X15
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
SUlott
Elohlm
%nd his autobiography, under the title The History
^ the Life of Thomas EUwood (1714; Teprinted,
Soitoii, 1877).
^Bduoobapht: D. Maason, Lt/« and Time* of John Milton,
6 Tols.. London, 1850-80; Maria Webb, 7A« Penna and
it Penninatana of the 17th Century, ib. 1867; A. C. Bick-
iqr, George Fox and the Early Quakere, ib. 1884; DNB,
xriL 303-305 (contains full list of his works); his auto-
htogrKphy was republished in the original spelling, Lon-
don, 1906.
ELMER, JOHN. See Atlmer, John.
ELMOy SAIRT. See Helpers in Need, the
Fourteen.
ELOHDI, ero-him". (Hebr.^^^tm): The most
eommon designation for God in the Old Testament,
Applied both to the heathen gods and to the one true
God, whose proper name is Yahweh.
Con- The term most nearly related to Ehhim
nected as a designation of God, though occur-
IVames. ring rarely and only in poetry, is its
singular in the form Eloahy likewise
the short and frequently used word El. The ques-
tion of the derivation and significance of Ehhim
must take into consideration these related words.
For a long time the derivation of Elohim received
with the most deserved approval was that of Flei-
scher (in Delitzsch's Genesis, Leipsic, 1872, 57-58)
from a root aliha not current in Hebrew but found
in Arabic, signifying ''to be amazed, to fear.''
This derivation does not satisfy because it does not
account for the singular form El, and the Arabic word
is itself probably a secondary formation from the
word for God (cf. Dillmann, AlUestamentliche The-
oUfgie, Leipsic, 1895, 210). H. Schultz
Btymol- (AUteslamenUiche Theologie, Gdttingen,
c^y. 1896, 405, note 10) derives El from id
"to be strong." El signifies then
" the strong," " the mighty," and is conceived as
a verbal notm. Many objections can be brought
to this derivation both in regard to the significance
of the name and with respect to the original short-
ness of the e in El (cf. Dillmann, ut sup. Theodor
Xdldeke derives El from a verbal stem tU or il
signifying " to be in front " {Monatsberichte der
Berliner Akademie, 1880, 760 sqq.). God is then to
be thought of as ** the leader," " the foremost
one." This derivation demands the long e in El
and is not satisfactory to the scholarship of to-
day. Lagarde {U^)ersicht Ober die Nominalhildung,
Gdttingen, 1889, 170; cf. G. Kerber, Hebrdische
Eigennamen, Freiburg, 1897, 83; B&thgen, Bei-
trdge zur semiiischen Religionsgeschichte, Berlin,
1889, 272 sqq.) has sought to derive the word from
the root alah to which the preposition el, " to," be-
longs. El — God would then indicate " the end of
all human seeking " and " the object of all human
striving." This receives some support from analo-
gous usage in the Assyrian. But the idea is too
abstract to express the original first impressions of
divinity among any people. The authority of the
philologist has very little weight either in the history
or philosophy of religion. It is not safe to build
historical or philosophical theories concerning the
original conception of divinity on etymological
sp^nilations. Nevertheless one can not deny that
the concept of " might," or " mighty one," has a con-
tent which, on the one hand, bears in it the essential
mark of the concept of divinity, and, on the other,
is sufficiently concrete to serve as a foundation for
a root so ancient and original as EL If it be possible
to remove the objections to the derivation from alah,
" to be strong," this etymology will be the most
probable.
The next question concerns the relationship of
Eloah and Elohim to El, and scholars are virtually
agreed that Elohim is an old plural of El, while
Eloah is a secondary formation from Elohim. As
to the significance of this plural the main question
is, does it now or did it originally signify plurality
of divine being? The data are confined to the Old
Testament and the text in several instances is not
beyond question (cf. Strack's Genesis, 68). If one
looks at the instances where Elohim must be plural,
because it signifies a plurality of (heathen) gods,
there yet remain a great and preponderating num-
ber of passages where it can mean only the (one)
God of Israel. In these instances, it is
Use in the rule that Elohim, where it is sub-
Sing^ular ject and where it has an attribute,
and Plural, takes the singular of the predicate
as well as of the attribute. But there
are not lacking cases in which this rule will not
apply in which Elohim takes both the attribute and
the verbal predicate in the plural. The most
apparent explanation is that these are traces of a
previous general manner of expression and con-
sequently a proof of an old Israelitic polytheism
(Baudissin, Studien zur semiHschen Religionsge-
schichte, Leipsic, 1876, 55-56; Meyer, Geschichte
des Alterthums, i., Stuttgart, 1884, 376). But this
argument is offset by the fact that the Hebrews
used this manner of expression in later times where,
considering all circumstances, polytheism can not be
implied. The Hebrews used many collective nouns
and many plural formations which referred to one
person, the plural signifying a mass of abstractions
collected from single phenomena of like character.
If the Hebrew writer wished to indicate his feeling
of unity in the plural, he would express it by means
of the singular of the attribute or predicate. If
exceptions to this rule occur, they are exceptions and
, not remains of an old rule. The singular of the
predicate or attribute along with a plural subject
is absolute proof for the monotheistic view, while
the plural of the attribute and predicate is not in
the same manner a proof for the polytheistic view.
A plural subject with a singular predicate or attri-
bute could only be chosen by a decision consciously
made to depart from grammatical rules of speech,
but if the sf>eaker thought of God as one being,
singular attributes and predicates could easily come
into usage because it would be understood that the
plural subject was really a collective singular.
Extra-Biblical sources afford no help. The
analogy of the Phenician which possesses a plural
word for a unitary God, is not significant b^ause
no Phenician document reaches back to Old-Testa-
ment times. There is the possibility that the plural
Elohim has come in early times from the experience
of many divine beings (Smith, Rel. of Sem., 445),
but this is not more than an abstract possibility.
It may be claimed that the experience of many reve-
BltsholtB
Emanation
THE NEW 8CHAFF-HERZ0G
116
lations of one being could also give the thought of
plurality of divine beings. The latter is probable
certainly from the way in which Adhonim and
Baalim are used, referring only to one Lord.
(R. KiTTEL.)
Biblioorapht: Consult, beddee the literature mentioned
in the text: H. L. Fleischer, Kleinere Schriften, i. 154
sqq., Leipsic. 1885; DB, ii. 198-199; EB, iii. 3323-25.
ELTZHOLTZ, CARL FREDERICK: Methodist
Episcopalian; b. at Brahetrolleborg (35 m. s.e. of
Fredericia), Denmark, Oct. 10, 1840. He was
graduated at the nautical institute at Svenborg,
Denmark, in 1861. In 1867 he became a clerg3rman
of the Methodist Episcopal Church, and has held
charges in Wisconsin, Chicago, Denmark, and Cali-
fornia. For six years he was presiding elder among
the Norwegians and Danes in the Omaha District,
and since 1898 has been editor of Den Kristelige
TaUmandf a Dano-Norwegian organ of his denomi-
nation. He was the founder, in 1878, of the Danish
temperance movement. He has written Livabilleder
afJohn TTestey (Chicago, 1903); LivsbiUeder af O. P.
Petersen (1903); Afy Brother's Keeper (1908); and
J. Wesley's Conversion and Sanctification (1908).
ELVENICH, PETER JOSEF. See Hermes,
Georo.
ELVIRA, SYNOD OF: A synod held at Iliber-
ris (Elvira) or Municipium Florentinum, the mod-
em Granada, on May 15, shortly before 303 (?)
or about 310 (7). It was attended by nineteen
bishops and twenty-four presbyters, mostly from
southern Spain, Bsctica, and Carthago Nova; of
the northern dioceses, Legio (Leon) and Csesar-
augusta (Saragossa) were represented, but not
Tarragona. It takes rank among the more impor-
tant provincial synods. Its broad outlook over the
whole field of Christian life and attempt to codify
the rules for it may have been due to the influence of
Hosius of Cordova (q.v.), who was present, although
the presidency was held not by him but (presu-
mably on the ground of seniority) by Felix, bishop
of Accis (Guadix). The canons, numbering eighty-
one, were proclaimed by the bishops. At least
at the outset, a systematic treatment seems to have
been attempted; canons i.-iv. dealt with idolatry,
v.-vi. with homicide, and vii.-x. with unchastity;
xi. on prohibited marriages being a supplement
to these. All of them breathe a spirit of great
strictness, almost of Novatianism. In a large num-
ber of cases exclusion from conmiimion is imposed
as a penalty, while in others an exactly graduated
system of penance is worked out with the allowance
of restoration after a number of years varying from
one to ten; the synod seems, following the earliest
Christian practise, to deny the possibility of res-
toration after a second fall. Mitigations are con-
templated only in case of mortal illness and for
women who marry the partner of their guilt; but
practise was probably milder than theory. The
synod permitted the traditional civil and religious
ordinances to stand, but made an earnest effort to
guard the Christian flock from any public partici-
pation in action contrary to the faith, especially
from active or passive assistance at heathen sacri-
fices, which were still performed in all the larger
cities of Spain. The whole attitude points to i
time of peace, not to one immediately foDoinm
a persecution; the complete absence of any pa^
visions as to the case of the lapsed is enough t*
exclude the modem theory as to the date. Hit
synod can thus not have been held in 305 or 308;
but must have taken place either before the Dio-
cletian persecution (in 300, as the oldest inveiti-
gators and Duchesne say), or several yean bUt,
though before 316, in which year Bishop ValeriDi
is known to have been dead. It is probable that it
occurred after oflficial toleration of Christianity m
an equal footing with other religions had beoi
proclaimed by Constantine in the other parts of thi
Western empire, or was at least in contemplatioiH-
i.e., about 310. The work of the synod suggeili
the attempt to draw up, under the guidance of t
distinguished adviser of the emperor, a sketch of
Christian principles applied to the limits of a pio*
vincial church, which might serve as a modd ki
the carrying out of a similar program on a laigv
scale. According to this view, its work is in thi
main the prelude to a greater and more uniTONl
poh'cy, and its aim is more political and moral tin
purely spiritual. (Edoab Henneol)
Bibliography: Hefele, C<meUienoe9diichie^ i. 149-lflt
Bng. transl., i. 131-138; P. B. Gams, Kirdunpetdiiik
von Spanien, ii. 1-136, Regensburg. 1864; A. W. W,
Dale. The Synod of Elvira, London, 1882; L. DwehiB^
Le ConcUe d'Elvire, in MHangf Renter, pp. 159-174
Paris. 1887; Mansi, ConcUia, ii. 57-397; Neander. CM-
tian Church, i. 198 et passim; SchafF, Ckriatian Ckmdit
ii. 180-181; Haraack, Litteratur, i. 803; idem, Dogm,
ii., iii. 123-124, v. 26.
ELWERT, el'vOrt, EDUARD: Lutheran theo-
logian; b. at Cannstadt (4 m. n.e. of Stuttgart),
Wiirttemberg, Feb. 22, 1805; d. there June 9, 1865.
He studied at Maulbronn and Tdbingen. In 1890
he became repetent at Tubingen and lectured on the
history of Protestant doctrines, publishing at the
same time several of his most important essays ift
theological periodicals. From 1832 to 1836 he wee
deacon at Nagold. In 1836 he became profenor
of theology at Zurich where he lectured on chordi
history and the history of dogmas. His ddieate
health soon compelled him to give up this positkiB
and live in retirement as country pastor in MdtiiB-
gen. Here he remained twelve years (1838-SO)
with the exception of two years which he spefl*
as professor of theology at Tiibingen (1839-41)-
He was superintendent of the seminary of Sch(^
thai, 1850-64, teaching New-Testament exegesisi
Biblical history, dogmatics, ethics, and chuioli
history. In 1865 his health again forced him to
resign. Elwert was spiritually related to Schkier
macher, as may be seen especially from his luaoe
of a sincere inward piety with a clear peroeptkn d
the practical conditions of Ufe, from his union d
regard for each individual with love of fellow men,
and of a thorough classical education with a simpk
Christian faith. He was saved from Schkkf
macher's dualism between faith and knowledge fa;
his faithfulness to the Biblical record, and eal
jectivism was coimterbalanced in him by a fin
grasp of the objective revelation of God as an acta
fact. Of his literary works, his Zurich diaBertatio
De anttnomia Johannis AgrioolcB (1836), is a n
17
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bltsholts
Bmanation
nimportant work in the sphere of historical the-
kff. Important in exegesis are his Annotationea
a locum G<d, tt. 1-W (Schdnthaler Programm,
1852) and Quasiumes et obsenfcUiones ad phUologiam
menm Novi TestamenH pertinerUes (TQbingen,
1860). (Robert KeBELf.)
ELT: A small town of England in Cambridge-
ikan (16 m. n.n.e. of Cambridge). It is the seat
of an important bishopric, erected in 1107, which
for a long time, owing to its remote situation amid
tlie marsh-lands of East England, enjoyed a qnasi-
paktine authority second only to that of the see
d Durham (q.v.). A convent was foimded on
the Island of Ely in 673 by Etheldreda, queen of
Northambria (see Etheldreda, Saint), who con-
tinoed abbess till her death. In 1070 Ethel-
foU, bishop of Winchester, restored the buildings
after the ravages of the Danes and filled them with
Doob instead of nuns. In 1083 Abbot Simeon
eoBunenced the conventual church, which Henry
yni made the cathedral. The present buildings
date from the eleventh to the sixteenth centuries,
affording examples of every period of English
Gothic, and especially as restored in the nineteenth
eentuxy, with the beautiful painting executed as a
kbor of love by Mr. Gambler Parry, are among
tk prmcipal attractions of English ecclesiastical
ndutecture.
BoLXKnAFHT: W. E. Diekaon, Ely CafKtdral, London,
1»T: C. W. Stubbs. Ui&torical MemoridU of Ely Cath^-
M. ib. 1897; Handbook to the Cathedral, Ely, 1808; Ely
DiMmm Retmembraneer, Cambridge, 1886 sqq.; W. D.
Svcetioc. Caikedral Ckurdi of Ely, London* 1901.
EMANATION.
Definition and Distinctions (f 1).
Hindu, Persian, and Greek Phases (12).
FhikMuc and Early Christian Doctrine (f 3).
Dionysiui, Sdiolaatio, and Mystic Doctrine (f 4).
Tbe doctrine of emanation holds that all derived
fffleeondaiy things proceed or flow from the more
primaiy. It is distinguished from the doctrine
of creation by its elimination of a definite will in
tile first cause, from which all things are made to
BDaoate according to natural laws and without
nueiouB volition. It differs from the theory of
formation at the hands of a supreme
I. Defini- artizan who finds his matter ready
tbnand to his hand, in teaching that all
Biitmc- things, whether actually or only ap-
tbas. parently material, flow from the primal
principle. Unlike evolution, again,
viocb includes the entire principle of the world,
Material and spiritual, in the process of develop-
ment, emanation holds to the immutability of
tbe first principle as to both quality and quantity,
nd also in the tendency of the development —
rroiotion implying one which goes from less to
lore perfect, while emanation involves a series of
Bioending stages. Evolution may be classed
xJer the general head of pantheism; emanation
Q not, since its primary essence does not enter
to the world. The vagueness prevalent in the
finition of emanation is due partly to the con-
LDt use of metaphors in describing it; indeed the
m emanatbn itself is a metaphor taken from the
flowing of liquid. Of these analogies perhaps the
best is that taken from light, the beams of which
go out continually without any diminution of the
original source, and become more feeble the further
they get away from it.
In the Upanishads of the Veda there are not a few
passages which point, if obscurely, to this doctrine.
One frequently quoted passage asserts that " From
this Atman originated space, and from space the
wind, and from the wind the fire, and from fire
water, and from water the earth, and from the
earth plants, and from plants food, and from
food the seed of man, and from the seed of man
himself." This, however, does not
2. Hindu, clearly assert an emanation, but
Persian, merely marks the stages of descent
and Greek that separate man from the Atman.
Phases. Attempts have often been made to
derive the Gnostic doctrine of emana-
tion from the Avesta, but with doubtful success.
Even if we may assume another higher power ante-
cedent to the two hostile powers set forth in this
dualistic system and comprising them both, still
the independence of these two, as well as of the
angels or half-divine beings who surround them,
is not clearly asserted as owing to their emanation
from the primal principle. In the ancient Egyptian
religion, in which polytheism early appeared, there
is no question of either emanation or evolution.
In Greek philosophy emanations {aporrlioiai) occur
at an early period, as in Empedoclcs, who accounts
for sensual perceptions as emanations or efiluxes
proceeding from the objects perceived. Similarly
Democritus spoke of efiluxes of atoms from the
thing perceived, by which images (eidola) are pro-
duced, which strike our senses. But these views
do not come under the general head of emanation,
since they do not touch the origin of the atoms.
Nor does the teaching of the Hylozoists, like Hera-
clitus, with his doctrine of the transformation of
all things into fire, and then of fire into all other
things. The same is true of the Stoics; some of the
later ones, like Marcus Aurelius, speak of the soul
as an aporrhoia of God, but this means a part of
God, not an emanation from an undiminished
source. The first real mention of the doctrine in
Greek or Hellenistic philosophy is ir. the Wisdom of
Solomon, where wisdom is described as " the breath
of the power of God, and a pure influence (apor-
rhoia) flowing from the glory of the Almighty."
These and the following expressions may, indeed,
be poetical, not involving a personification of wis-
dom apart from the Godhead; but the way in
which wisdom is spoken of throughout the book
makes for the conception of an independent cosmic
power which is an efflux from the Godhead.
The doctrine of emanation is a little more ex-
plicit in Philo, though he does not teach it clearly
and consciously, still less purely and logically. It
assumes its most definite form for Greek philosophy
in the works of the Neoplatonists — though their
speculations are largely derived from the Gnostic
mythological systems of Basilides and Valentinus,
in which emanation played a prominent part.
According to Basilides, a whole series of eons
emanated in successive stages from the imbegotten
xsmanauon
Bmi^rranta
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
lis
Father; and the Valentinians spoke of the primal
essence as " throwing ofif " (proballein), without
diminution, that which was derived from it
(see Valentinus; Basiudbs). In
3« Philonic the Neoplatonist system, the highest
and Early principle, the One, overflows without
Christian a conscious act, merely by a law of its
Doctrine, nature, losing nothing of its fulness
and this process has no end in time.
It goes from more perfect to less perfect, and the
ineffable Unity is the source of all plurality. The
N<m8 (intellect), the first stage in the process,
thinks, and thus from it emanate the soul and the
logos (word). So the process goes on xmtil the
lowest stage is reached in essenceless matter. The
notion of emanation was frequently used by the
early Christian writers in the attempt to express
the relation of the Son and the Holy Spirit to the
Father, though the symbolism is not pressed too
far. The pfajrase used of the Son in Heb. i. 3 re-
min is of the Book of Wisdom. The idea is similarly
used by Athenagoras, Origen, and Amobius; Ter-
tullian even ventures to employ the Valentinian
term proboU for the relation of the Son to the
Father, while repudiating the separation which
Valentinus had taught between his eons. In the
final establishment of the Trinitarian doctrine the
idea of emanation undoubtedly played a part, as
in the emphasis laid upon the Son's being ** begot-
ten, not made " (Nicene Creed), and the " pro-
cession " of the Holy Ghost; but the idea of
descent to imperfection is lacking.
A common misunderstanding regards Dionysius
the Areopagite as of importance in the history
of the doctrine of emanation. He does teach an
eflflux from God; but the heavenly hierarchy, with
its various grades of perfection, does not arise by
an emanation of one from the other; all have
their origin directly from God, or the Highest
Good. Erigena, referring much of his
4. DionjTS- doctrine to Dionysius, makes use of
ian, Scholas- a kind of creation which resembles
tic, and the Neoplatonist emanation. His
Mystic world of cauacp primordiales is eternal.
Doctrine, though not with God's eternity, but
eternally created by or proceeding
from God. Creation is a processio through these
to the visible and invisible creatures; it too is
eternal; God ia in the creation, and the creation
in God. From Erigena the custom passed over
to scholasticism of considering creation as a sort
of emanation; but in the passage of Thomas
Aquinas most frequently quoted in this connection
(I.,qu. xlv., art. 1) the specific character of emana-
tion is so weakened as to be perceptible only in the
fact that he does not draw a sharp dividing line
between God and his powers and the world. In
the mystics, despite their connection with scholas-
ticism, the doctrine of emanation can scarcely be
discovered in its pure form. But in the Jewish
Cabala (q.v.)the emanationistic origin of the world
is distinctly taught; the connection with Christian
Gnosticism, with the Neoplatonists, and with
Dionysius is evident. With the founders of modem
metaphysics, Descartes and Spinoza, emanation
plays no prominent part; but the logicians of the
sixteenth and seventeenth oepturies make use of tb
term caiLsa emanativa in contradistinction to emni
activa. In the newer philosophy the old view d
emanation is disappearing, though it is foond it
Leibnitz's conception of the relation between God
and single monads; God is the primal unity, tb
mortar primitiva, which produces the created aod
derived monads " par des ftUffurations eontinudlm
de la DiviniU de moment d moment." But BiiMB
the time of Leibnitz it has been found impoanbii
to combine the doctrine with the clearer riem
prevalent on cosmology, to say nothing of the*
ology and metaphysics; and its place has been takoi
by the doctrine of evolution. (M. HxiNn,)
Btblioorapht: The literature cited under Gnomics^
Neoplatonibm, Philo, Mandaeans, and MAXiCHiai
contains much that is pertinent. On Indian FmtntliflM
consult: R. Garbe, PhUoaophy of Ancient India, C3uci|ib
1897; F. Max MOller. Six Syttema of Indian PJUiswpIt
London, 1899. For discussion of the subject in thsOt-
ddent consult the works on the Hiaiory of PkUomiit
by J. E. Erdmann, vol. i., London. 1880, and W. Wiadrf*
band, New York, 1893.
EMBER-DAYS: Days of special fasting and
prayer occurring quarterly (Lat. jejunia quaUmr
temporum), on the Wednesday, Friday, and Sttta^
day after the first Sunday in Lent, Penteeoi^
Sept. 14, and Dec. 14. They seem to have ben
originally instituted for the purpose of asking GoA%
blessing on the several seasons of the year (Bing-
ham, OrigineSf xxi. 2); but later they aasumad
more importance as the seasons specially appointed
for ordination. See Fasting, II.
EMBER, PAULUS: Hungarian Reformed clmnh
historian; b. at Debreczen c. 1660; d. at linb
(on the Bodrog, 50 m. n. of Debrecxen) 1710.
He studied in the Reformed College of Debne-
zcn and became teacher at Patak (6 m. n.e. of
Liszka). After a visit to Franeker and Leyden
(1684-86) he returned to Patak as pastor, butwtf
soon driven away by the Jesuits. Thenceforth hii
life was a wandering one; its happiest and most
productive period was a residence at Losonci from
1695 till 1701. He suffered in the war followingthe
revolution of Francis Rdk6czy and had to flee from
Szatmar, where he was then pastor. A place was
made for him in his native town, but the advanee
of the Austrian army drove him thence in ITOi
His works were Garizim 68 Ebal (Kolozsvar, 1702),
a defense of the Calvinistic doctrine of predestinr
tion, which provoked a fiery attack from a Luthena
writer, Martinus Regis (Wittenberg, 1708); and
Historia ecclesicB reformatce in Hungaria et TnOfr
sylvania. The material for this work was collected
during his wanderings and it was written at the
request of the Prussian court-preacher, E. D. Jtb-
lonsky. After Ember's death it was sent to UtredA
and was published there (1728) with alteration
and additions by F. A. Lampe, who mentioned the
author on the title page only as vir quidam doo-
tissimus. It is still a valuable and indispensabk
work for the history of the Reformation in Huik'
gary. F. Bau>oh.
Bibuoorapht: [Michal Kotaridea,] Hi^oria Htmgann
liUeraria lineamenta, pp. 49, 55-57, 179, Altona, 174C
Other literature (in Hungarian) is given in HaudL-Ha
sog, RE, V. 336.
L19
REUQIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
BmanatioB
Bmiffrants
KMBOUSMnS ("Thrown in" or "Interca-
lated"): The name of the prayer following the
I/nd's Prayer in the mass, Libera nos, quceaumuSf
diamine f ab omnibus malts f etc. (" Free us, we be-
«eedi thee, O Lord, from all evils/' etc.)-
EMBURY, PHILIP: The first Methodist preacher
h America; b. at Ballygaran near Ruthkeale
(16 m. 8.W. of Limerick), Ireland, c Sept. 1,
1728; d. at Camden, Washington Co., N. Y., Aug.,
1775. His parents were members of a colony of
Mitines who settled in Ireland. He learned the
arpenter's trade, was converted under Wesley's
preaching in 1752, and began to preach soon after-
ward. Accompanied by Peter Sweitser, Paul and
Barbara Heck, and others, he emigrated to America,
landing at New York Aug. 10, 1760. Here he
foDowed his trade and did not begin preaching
again till 1766, being moved to do so then by the
reproaches of his cousin Barbara Heck. The
fint services were held in his own house in Burrack
Street, now Park Place. In 1768 the meetings
were transferred to the famous " rigging loft "
in what is now William Street. This was the first
Methodist congregation in the United States of
which there is record. In 1768, under Em-
bury's direction, the first Methodist church w^
built on the site of the present John Street church.
It was a stone structure forty-two by sixty feet.
Embury himself worked on the building as a car-
penter, and preached the dedicatory sermon Oct.
30, 1768. After serving the church gratuitously
as pastor, trustee, and treasurer, Embury removed
to Camden in the spring of 1770, shortly after the
arrival in New York of the first missionaries sent
out by Wesley. Here he continued to follow his
trade during the week and preach every Sunday.
At Ashgrove, near Camden, he organized the first
Methodist society in what is now the Troy con-
ference. His remains were first interred on a farm
Dear Camden, then at Ashgrove, and finally (1866)
in Woodland Cemetery, Cambridge, N. Y., where
a monument to him was unveiled by Bishop
Simpson in 1873.
BnuoaaAPHT: N. Bangs, Hiatory of the Methoditt Epiaeo-
jtal Chvrek. vol. i.. New York. 1832; W. B. Sprague,
AnnaU of the American Pulpit, vii. 1-3. ib. 1861; J. M.
Buckley, Hiatory of Methodiete in the United Statee, paaaim,
ib.l8e«.
EMERTONy EPHRADf: Unitarian; b. at Sa-
lem, Mass., Feb. 18, 1851. He studied at Harvard
(B.A., 1871) and the imiversities of Berlin and
Leipsic (Ph.D., 1877), and became instructor in
history and German in Harvard University (1876),
instructor in history (1878), and (1882) Winn pro-
fessor of ecclesiastical history. He has written
Introduction to the Study of the Middle Ages (Boston,
1888); Mediawd Europe, SIJ^ISOO (1894); and
DeMtriuB Erasmus (New York, 1899).
EMIGRAHTS AKD IMMIGRANTS, MISSION
WORK AMONG.— I. In Germany: Both the Evan-
gelical and the Roman Catholic Churches in Cer-
many have established missions whose twofold
object 18 to provide emigrants with the means of
spiritual improvement in the harbors of departure
and arrival, and to protect them against UDscrupu-
lous agents and lodging-house keepers on both sides
of the ocean. Aid rendered in European ports
takes the form of assistance in making purchases,
exchange of money, the care of baggage, etc., as
well as the furnishing of cards of recommendation
to those in charge of the mission work in the cities
to which emigrants are going. Before departure
religious services are held, communion being ad-
ministered to those who desire it. Bibles and works
of devotion are distributed. Aid in the form of
money loans for the purpose of securing passage
is invariably refused. In Hamburg a harbor
mission was established some time after 1870, and
the work in its present form was organized in 1882.
It is carried on under the authority of all the Ger-
man Lutheran Churches, without regard to the
internal divisions within the Evangelical Church in
the United States. Bremen has a general mission
for all Lutheran emigrants and a minor organiza-
tion for adherents of the Missouri Synod. There
are other missions at Stettin, Antwerp, Rotterdam,
and Amsterdam.
Work among Roman Catholic emigrants is
carried on by the St. Raphael Society, organized
in 1868, through the efforts of Peter Paul Cahensly,
a merchant of Limburg on the Lahn, where the
society has its headquarters. It has obtained
wide influence and has its agents among the Roman
Catholic clergy and laity in many American sea-
ports. Its organ is the St. Raphaels- BlaU, pub-
lished at Limburg. It also has an Italian branch
the organ of which is L'Emigranto ItalianOf pub-
lished at Treviso. (Theodor SchAfer.)
n. In the United States: Provision for the
welcome, protection, and guidance of foreigners
arriving in the United States, has grown with the
growing volume of immigration. At New York,
the chief port of entry, more than thirty religious
societies and homes are represented at Ellis Mand
by devoted agents and missionaries who are pres-
ent qn the arrival of every immigrant steamship.
The following list of these agencies has been pre-
pared by Dr. Walter Laidlaw, Secretary of the
Federation of Churches and Christian Organiza-
tions in New York City.
Austrian Society, 170 £^t Elightieth Street; Bulgarian
Society; American Bible Society, Bible House; Clara de
Hirsch Home for Immigrant Giris, 375 £^t Tenth Street;
Daniiih Mission Home, 130 Prospect Avenue, Brooklyn;
Danish Church, 195 Ninth Street, Brooklyn; German Bap-
tist Home Mission, Brooklyn; German Society, 13 Broad-
way; Deutsches Lutherisches Emigranten-Haus, 4 State
Street; Greek Society, 8 Oak Street; Hebrew Immigrant
Aid Society, 232 East Broadway; Hungarian Home, 3
State Street; Irish Elmigrant Society, 51 Chambers Street;
Immigrant Girls' Home (Methodist Episcopal Church),
9 State Street; Lutheran Pilger House. 8 State Street;
Mission of Our Lady of the Rosary (Irish immigrant girls),
7 State Street; Norsk Lutherescke Church. 216 Twenty-
seventh Street. Brooklyn; Presbyterian Board of Home
Missions, 156 Fifth Avenue; Protestant Episcopal Church
Mission, 29 Vesey Street; Polish Society, 117 Broad Street;
Reformed Church of North America. Ellis Island; Swedish
Missionary, 24 Greenwich Street; St. Raphael Italian So-
ciety, 8-10 Charlton Street; Swedish Baptist Home Mis-
sionary, 22 Greenwich Street; Scandinavian Immigrant
Home, 22 Greenwich Street; Svenska Lutheran Immigra-
tion Hemmett. 5 Water Street; St. Raphael Society. I.ieo
House, 6 State Street; Society for Protection of Italian
Immigrants, 17 Pearl Street; American Tract Society, 150
Nassau Street; United Hebrew Charities, 356 Second
Ayenue; Women's Chriatian Temperanoe Union.
^ts
donffress of
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
110
The missionaries and agents of these homes
and societies command, altogether, the use of more
than twelve foreign tongues or dialects, while
interpreters employed by the government supply
any lack that may still exist; it is seldom that an
incoming alien fails of receiving a welcome to
America in his mother tongue. Representatives
of Churches and denominational societies soon
find their own at Ellis Island, and are ready not
only to supply them with literature in their native
tongue, but to comfort them in distress, to minister
to their immediate needs, to protect them against
imposture, to assist them in making necessary
appeals to the government, to supply them with
fmancial help, if needed in reaching their ultimate
destination, and in many cases to furnish them
letters of introduction to friends at the West,
whither they are bound. The American Bible
Society, the American Tract Society, and the
Women's Temperance Union are generous in their
distribution of literature. The New York City
Bible Society has a large and special opportunity
in connection with immigrants and is improving
it with energy. The distribution of literature by
this society alone during 1906 at Ellis Island was
44,368 volumes. Of these only 2,713 were in
English. The Polish language ranks first in the
nmnber of Scriptures called for, with 10,056 vol-
umes, and the next largest niunber of Scriptures
distributed was in Italian, 4,674. The value of
these various agencies is warmly appreciated by
the Ellb Island authorities, who heartily second
their humane endeavors.
At the port of Boston, the same general methods
are repeated, though on a somewhat smaller scale.
Yet nearly a score of societies, homes and other
institutions are engaged in the work at that point.
For twenty years the Boston Young Women's
Christian Association has maintained what is
known as a Travelers' Aid Department, in connec-
tion, especially, with provincial and foreign steam-
ships. In the busy season a hundred boats per
month are met. In a single year often three thou-
sand travelers, many of them improtected girls,
coming to the States for work have been safeguarded
and assisted. The St. Vincent de Paul Society also
employs a woman missionary to watch over the
Roman Catholic girl immigrants. Not a small
part of the Travelers' Aid is that of bringing safely
together the incoming immigrant and her American
relatives, who perhaps have been carelessly noti-
fied, .and not seldom wholly iminformed, of her
arrival.
At the p)ort of Baltimore, four distinct agencies
cooperate for the care and comfort of the immigrant,
chief of which is the German Evangelical Immigrant
Home. This mission was established more than
twenty years ago by the German Evangelical Synod
of North America, and within two years has built
a fine immigrant home near the landing-pier at
Locust Point. It is imdenominational, taking
care of all good immigrants, welcoming the friend-
less and finding work for the willing. It provides
religious instruction as well, and regularly holds
a short service of prayer every morning and evening.
For a score of years it has done a most valuable
rbooi 1
frieodi 1
0N8 m *
humane work. The Lutheran Mission Synod alii
employs a missionary, but as yet has no hoai.
The Bohemian Presbyterian Church sends a ma*,
sionary to meet every incoming steamship and hii
recently opened a little home of its own. Hi
German Baptist Church supports two lady vamoan
aries who supply much needed help.
At the port of New Orleans, immigrant nfief :
is not yet distinctly organized. The only foreipai
arriving direct from Europe are Italians, who
quickly taken in charge by relatives and
See Home Missions, § 2; Slavic Missions m
THE United States. J. B. Clark.
Bibliography: For Germany: A. SchrGter, IHi fcink
liche Veraorguno der Aumoandtrer, Gotha. 1890; H. S,
Schneider, AOanUa Oermanica, Leipaic, 1883; P. Mtihi;
Die lutherisdie Aunoanderermisnon und ihn Stdbuit m
den kirdUidien Aufgahen der Zeit, Hamburg. 1880; t
Sch&fer, Leitfaden der inneren Miaaion, pp. 142 aqq^ fk
1894. There is no literature bearing upon work dov
in the United States.
EMH^IAin, GIROLAMO. See Somabchiaiib.
EMH^IE JULIANE, COUNTESS OF SCHWABt.
BURG: Hymn-writer; b. at the Heideckabox
near Rudolstadt (18 m. s. of Weimar), Aug. 11^
1637; d. at Rudolstadt Dec. 3, 1706. Her paioli
died while she was a child, and her relatives, thi
Count and Countess of Schwarzburg, brought \m
up in strict orthodox fashion. In 1665 she in
married to her cousin, Count Albert Anton of
Schwarzburg. Her husband's former tutor, thi
learned but pietistic Ahasverus Fritsch, won gral
influence over her, which appears in the pietktit
character of many of her religious songs. Most cf
these are too subjective and diffuse for congrogi*
tional use; but a few like " Bis hierher hatmiiih
Gott gebracht " (" Thus far the Lord has Isi
me on ") and " Wer weiss, wie nahe mir meii
Ende ? " ('* Who knows how near my end maybe? **)
have found a permanent place in Gennan hymn-
books. Her songs were published at Rudolstadt
in various collections from 1683 to 1770. A selee- ''
tion may be found in J. L. Pasig, Der Ordfin EmSk
Jvliane von Schwarzburg-RudoUtadt geistliche Lidf
(Halle, 1866), accompanied by a biography.
(Ferdinand CoHsa.)
EMMERAM: An early missionary, said to
have been bishop of Poitiers; d. about 715. Afr
cording to the biography of Aribo (second half dt
the eighth century), the sole source of infonnatiOD,
soon after his consecration as bishop he determined
to devote himself to the conversion of the heatheft
in Pannonia. He apf>ointed his successor it
Poitiers, took with him a priest named VitaHi
who was a good linguist, and went eastward acro0
the Rhine. Passing through Radaspona (Regeot"
burg), the residence of Theodo, duke of Bavaiiii
he was told that the country beyond the Enns had
been laid waste, ^d that the newly converted
Bavarians needed his care as much as the Avari to
whom he had been going. Theodo b^ged him to
remain, either as bishop or as abbot of all the mon-
asteries. He stayed three years, and busied hhn-
self in spreading and strengthening Christianity in
Bavaria; then he started for Rome, but was mur-
dered on the way, at Helfendorf, three dayi^
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bmiflrrants
Bzns, Oonsreas of
"om RegensbuTg, by Lantbert, the duke's
accused bini of seduciug hia fikter Ota^
Hm fftorj is that Ota had cotifessed her
knmeram, and that he^ to shield her, per-
BT to cati the blame on him; she was
to Italy, but Etmneram's mnocenee
ivered when too late, by the testbnony
it to whom he had given the true facts
death, Tbeodo had his remaina brought
ibtuig in solemn state, and interred in the
St, GeoTge« There is no evidence for
I'a episeopate at Poitiers^ nor for his ex«
bdnnaiy plans. It b probable that he %:is
mi monk who possessed episcopal eotiBe-
Be may have worked in Regensburg as
of a monastic fraternity, out of whose
the monaateiy of Bt. Kmmeram grew,
lot unlikely that Theodo made use of him
[>rming plans. The cause of hii murder
^luble riddle, since Aribo's story is ob*
tt»niance, (A. Hauck.)
St: Tbe VUa by AHbo i« Iq Analecia Botlan-
ii 211 mq.. cL pp. 350-357. Fadi, ISm (cf.
KD, iL 189); Hauck. KB, L tm.
IS, ITATHANAEL: New England Con-
dist; h. at Mdlington, East Haddam
Conn., Apr. 20, 1745; d. at Franklin,
yL 23, 1840. He was graduated at Yale
md studied for the ministry under Rev.
trong of Coventiy, Conn,, and Dr. John
i Berlin, Conn, In 1769 he was ''appro-
B a preacher and on Apn 21 ^ 1773, was
pastor at Franklin, Mass. This position
for fifty-four years, resigning Blay 28,
1 replying to the renionstrances of his
*ra that he wished to retire while he etjU
aough to do BO.'* It may be remarked
!tained his faculties to a Eurprising degree
ath,
imons was a typical Hew England cler^*
le old school and probably no one exerted
infiuence. His house was a theological
The number of young men whom he
tt* the ministry can not be exactly aacer-
it was probably not less than a hundred.
LS pupila nine became presidents or pro-
colleges or theological seminaries, foui^
n important agency in establishing literary
ttable institutioos, forty ^ix are noticed
graphical dictionaries of eminent men.
iQons was an original thinker, and formed
i^cal system with rare independence of
'm was one of the fathers of the Ma^sa-
iinionary Society, and for the first twelve
Hb exifftenoe was its president. He was
le original editora of The Massuchu»dU
■y Magamne. When the masotiic fra-
-as jno^t popular, he was a pronounced
L When antislavery was most generally
df he was an active abolitionist. In
e was an outspoken Federabat.
^logical system of Dr. Emmons is ofteo
sd with that of Dr, Samuel Hopkins (q.v.).
wing statement of the two systems was
EknmoQs himself, and will explain the dlf-
I w^ ai the agreement, between the two:
The difltinctive teti&t» of Hopkiiuiiamsm are: (1) All
r«a] hoUa^a» cxyasi^tti in dl^iitere»tad b«ti«vo]ciioe; {2} All
SID Gonsieits in aelflHliriefl^; (3) Thero &re no proiol«M of
rcjq^etoemlin^ gjam marie to the doings of tlw imresBDeimte;
(4> The juipotency of ninners wi(h reiip&et to believiog in
Chrint 11 ncit nutural, but EnoTmL; {5) A .^nner ia f^quired
to HfipmviQ in hiH heart of the divine £*on4uctt even thoiii^h
it should <Aat liim oB forever- (0) God ham exerted bSa
pQw^T m ftucti & murmcr an he purpOBed would he foUowvd
hy tbe «LKl«t«Q<to of fkin; {!) The introduction, of ixiorai evil
into tho uDiTerw is mo overruJed by God jui to promote tbe
genfsntl Rood;. (8) Repeatarice la before faith in Cbriat;
(0) Though med beotme ninneni by Adam^ oc-conling to »
divine 4M>a»titutioQ, yet they have and itre a^countuble for
no Bios but persona] ; (IO]i Though behevem are jujftificid
throtigfa Oiriet'A dgbteotisneoR* yet hia richt«oiianesa is not
tFannferred to them.
The diBtinelive Umeta of EmroooB' system are: (I) Holi-
nevg and niti aatisi^t in free, voluntary ejcerdses; (2) Jileo
act freely Under tbe divine ageney; (3) The least tram-'
ereaBion of the divine law de«erve« etemai puniwhruept;
(4) Right and wrorif bjc founded in tbe nature of thiuipi;
(5) God eseerdjaea txiere er«oe in pardonioc or justifyinji
penitent believen through the atonemcDi o| Christ, AUd
luere coodnoM in rewarding them for thetr good workjt;
(6) Notwithatandiag the total depravity of sionen, God
hai' a right to require them to turn from sin to holiness;
(7) Freacheni of tbe Gospel ought to exhort Aiimer^ to love
God. rapent of niii, and believe in Chj-isl immediately;
{H) Blea are active, not passive, in regeneration^ Dr^ Em-
mons believed that tbeaa eight Htatements are Involved in
the ayAtem of Dr. Hopkini^; that ttiey are envtlnvd from that
flystem, rather than add^ to it. ^(ill they eharacteriie
Emmonism ai it ia srafted upon HopklastauisBi.
Dr, Emmonfl published more than two hundred
articles in various periodicals. In 1842 many of
his iermona were published in m uniform edition,
with memoir by hia eon-in-law, Rev. Jacob Ide
(6 vok., Boston). In 1S60-61 a new collected
edition of hia works appeoned (6 vola., Boston),
with memoir by E. A. Park. F. H. Fosteb,
Bt^uooiUFHV: CbBault, beoidee the Memoir by Mr. Ide,
W. B. Spraeue, AnnalM &f £hd Amenean Puipit^ i, SQ3-
706» New Yorlt, 18^; A. E. Oun«i4ng, CongrtQati^tyalut*
In America^ ib, 1804; W. Walker, HisL of C&n^tgaiiQnai
€kvrcfu9, pp. 280-303 et panxim, ib. lSa4; L. W. Bacon,
Th4 Confif^igahionaliMtM, ib. 1604,
EMORTi JOHH: Methodist Episcopal bishop ;
b. in Queen Anne County, Maryland, Apr, 11,
17S9; d. m Reisterstown, Md., I>ec. 16, 1835. From
1824 to 1835 he was book-agent and editor for
the Methodist Church at New York, during which
time he paid ofT all the debta of the book concern.
He founded the Methodist Qnnrterly Eeview^ and
nearly all of the original art idea in the fint two
volumes are by him. In 1S32 he waa elected
bishop. He was one of the foundera of the University
of New York, Wealeyan Univomity, and Dickinson
College* He waa an abb controversiallat in be-
half of hi» Church, and wrot« Defense of tmr Father 9
(New York, 1824); The Episcopal Controversy
Uemewed (New York, 1838).
BraLiooRAFBT: Li fa of John Emory^ by iiifl auti, Ikiben
Emory, New Yprk, l&ll.
EMS, CONGRESS OF.
Papal Nunciature is Muoicb (ft 1).
Tbe Em* AirrHetflant (Emaar Puaetatioa) ti 2).
F^irther Complicatiooa (| 3).
The Outopme (I *).
The Congress of Ems wbs a meeting of repre-
sent atives of the archbishops of Mainz, Treves,
Cologne, and Salzburg held at Ems (or Bad Ema,
a watering-place of Hess^Kassau, 5 m, s.e. of
Ems, OonffrsMi of
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
lai
Coblenz) in 1786, prompted by the prevalent
desire of the higher clergy in Germany to shake ofif
their depressing dependence on the curia. This
desire was stimulated to new life in 1763 by the
book of Johann Nikolaus von Hontheim (q.v.)y
suffragan bishop of Treves, published imder the
pseudonym of Justinus Febronius, and a tendency
to dction manifested itself in 1764 in a document
of the spiritual electors of Mainz, Treves, and
Cologne, in which they besought the imperial pro-
tection. Fiulher n^otiations followed and in
1770 they addressed new requests to Joseph II.
(the so-called "Coblenz Articles"; cf. Stigloher,
ut inf. 257-260), aiming at a decided restriction of
papal power in German affairs. When, however,
the emperor refused to intervene in Rome, the
whole matter came to a standstill, only to be taken
up again with livelier interest when a plan of estab-
lishing a papal nunciature in Munich came out.
From 1771 Elector Karl Theodor united imder
his rule Bavaria, the Palatinate, and the duchies
of JQlich and Berg, which are situated on the
Lower Rhine. As these territories were subject in
ecclesiastical matters to different bishops, who as
estates of the empire were coordinate with the
elector, the condition of affairs was disagreeable
to him; and as the resultant difficulties could be
obviated in no other way, he applied to the Roman
curia, which conceded in 1786 the establishment
of a permanent nunciature in Munich. The news
of this made an extraordinary sensation, because
the existing nunciatures in Vienna (since 1581),
Cologne (1582), and Luzerne (1586) had proved
troublesome because of their inter-
I. Papal ference with episcopal jurisdiction,
Nunciature and because the bishops formerly
in Munich, competent in Bavaria and the Palat-
inate suffered serious encroachments
by the new step. These bishops were: Prince
Bishop Count CoUoredo of Salzburg; Prince
Bishop Baron von Welden of Freising; the Elector
of Mainz, Friedrich von Erthal, who at the same time
administered the Prince bishopric of Worms; the
Elector of Treves, Prince Wenzeslaus of Saxony,
who was also Prince Bishop of Augsburg; and
finally the Elector of Cologne, Franz of Austria,
the brother of the Emperor Joseph II. After
unsuccessfully petitioning the curia, the elector of
Mainz, with the consent of the other archbishops,
handed in a complaint to the emperor as the su-
preme protector of the Church, and the latter
caused a declaration to be made in Rome, that he
could not permit that the archbishops and bishops
of the German empire should be disturbed in the
diocesan rights which had been given to them by
God and by the Church; in other words, that he
would recognize the papal nuncios merely as dele-
gates for political affairs and matters pertaining
to the pope aa the supreme head of the Church,
but that he could concede to them no jurisdiction
whatever. But the curia did not allow itself to be
put off by this protest; in May, 1786, there appeared
as nuncio in Munich Count Zoglio, Archbishop of
Athens; at the same time the nunciature at Co-
logne was newly filled with Bartholomspus Pacca,
archbbhop of Damiate, in the place of Monsignor
Bellisomi. Zoglio was brilliantly received at thi
Bavarian Court; Pacca was not even given a
audience by the elector of Cologne. All the Geram
archbishops refused to recognize the two nunciQ^
but nevertheless the latter began at once to maki
use of their commissions.
The archbishops of Mainz, Treves, and Cokgoi
did not remain inactive. The Congress of &w i
followed, and its result was tl»'
2. The Ems " Ems Agreement " {ErMtr PvA-
Agreement tation, cf. Mirbt, QueUen, 326-32%
(Emser which was signed on Aug. 25, 1788;
Punctation). and at once ratified by the '
and sent to Joseph II. The sub-
scribers declared therein:
The Roman Pope is and alwa3r8 remains the iwuiiiM
overaeer {Oberauf$eher) and primate of the whole Chnn^
the center of unity, and has been equipped by God iriA
the jurisdiction requisite thereto. All Roman Cathofifli
must always yield him canonical obedience with fuU wm^
enoe. But all the other advantages and reservations wUA
were not connected with this primacy in the first CHitorii^
but arose from the later Isidorian Decretals to the mil*
fest detriment of the bishops, can no longer be indudidlit
the sphere of this jurisdiction, because the forged natondl'
the Decretals is now universally recognised. These an to
be classed rather as usurpations on the part of the
curia, and, specially because none of the
hitherto made at the Roman curia has been of ^foet,
bishops are authorized to reinstate themselves,
supreme protection of his Imperial Majesty, in the
of the power committed to them by God.
Then the archbishops made the following propoatiaM
for reform: all persons living within the limits of a diooM
should henceforward without exception be subject to ill
bishop. Therefore appeals to Rome which neglect tit
bishop should no longer be allowed; exemptions, wi^MP*
tain stated exceptions, should cease; the monastic daV
should be forbidden to render obedience to foreign feiMnb
and superiors. The bishop should have the right to pHl
dispensations from commandments of alMtinence and tam.
matrimonial impediments, and also to absolve the mottth
tic clergy from their vows. At the same time limitstioBrf
the impediments to marriage and poetponemMit of tbt ap
for taldng vows was proposed. The bishop should alio fet
empowered to modify philanthropic trusts. In '
jacuUateM quinquennale* should no longer be sought of
Roman court. The bulls, briefs, and other papal
tions, as well aa the decisions of the Roman
should not have binding force until accepted by the
The nimciatures in the form in which they had Uteti
existed should cease. It was further attempted to iiMn
the independence of the bishop in filling ecclesiastical pori<^:
tions. The procedure in regard to the " infonnatka"
{proeeMUM informativua) of new bishops should be altmii
the oath which the bishop had formerly rendered to tti
pope as his vassal should be replaced by a formula ia at*.
cordanoe with episcopal rights. The annates and tht
moneys paid on receipt of the pallium should be rednorfi
and if the pope shoiild therefore refuse his oonfiimatiM^
the archbishops and bishops should nevertheless pofoA
the fimctions of office. In spiritual jurisdiction tbs oool
of first instance is that of the bishop, the second thai 4
the archbishop, the third is the Roman See. the nunciataM
being entirely left out; provision is made, moreover, tiNA.!j
national judges should pronounce the verdict even ia |
Rome. At the close, the archbishops declare that, as
as they are put in possession of the rights whidi ~
to them, they will take up the improvement of
discipline, and better organization for the cure of sodaaBl
for religious establishments and cloisters. Moreorer, ttl. -j
emperor, as the supreme head of the empire, is lunuuitdl ,
to demand of the curia that the council which had h&tt \
promised in the Concordat of Aschaffenburg (aae CkMK ;
coRDATs and DELiMrriNo Bulls, III, 1, § 2) or allaaiAa
national council, should be convened.
The answer of the emperor was kindly; he <
showed readiness to help; but he advised the arah*
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bzns, Confess of
above all to come to an understanding
e bishops under them. This advice was
adopted, but it was too late. The German
felt aggrieved because they had not been
d to the consultation at Ems, and even
some of them were won over, a part held
aloof. This opposition of the bishops
18 leader and spokesman in Coimt Limburg-
, prince bishop of Speyer, who came out in
nith his criticism of the resolutions of Ems
sreby started lengthy literary discussions
I sides,
contest between the archbishops and the
had broken out at the close of 1786. Zo-
1 appointed a provost in Dfisseldorf, inter-
nuncio for JQlich and Berg; and Pacca
ler granted a matrimonial dispensation
ca« regardless of an objection made by
the elector of Cologne. As the latter,
like the electors of Treves and Mainz,
certain matrimonial dispensations in
not covered by their quinquennial facul-
»i sent on Nov. 30, 1786, a circular to all
and general vicariates, declaring the in-
of these dispensations. Then the arch-
of Cologne, Treves, and Mainz gave all
iests the command to return this circular
mder. In this they were supported by the
. The Imperial Council in Vienna pub-
wo decrees in which Pacca's action was
ed as unseemly and improper and his
wajs formally declared invalid. The
f the Palatinate was, moreover, directed not
5de any jurisdiction to the nuncio Zoglio,
> to prohibit the internuncio appointed by
n executing the orders given by the nuncio.
elector of the Palatinate objected strongly
censure, and demanded of the priests of the
of Worms that, under penalty of confisca-
.heir temf>oralia, they should at once return
liepiscopal order which had demanded their
back the circular of the nuncio. He also
i that they should accept no directions
be archiepiscopal vicariate without his
, and laid claim to the f>ower to receive a
as one of his rights as sovereign and made
n to the emperor that his territorial rights
e limited by imperial legislation but not by
of the Imperial Council. Zoglio now
ed, with the encouragement of the elector,
legate in Heidelberg.
greater dangers for the German arch-
arose among themselves. In 1785 the
I " League of Princes " {Furstenbund) had
mned. Its existence was in danger, if on
kth of the aged and invalid archbishop of
Friedrich von Erthal, his successor did not
his policy. Under these circumstances
undertook to play the part of mediator
contest between the elector of Mainz and
ia, and a secret arrangement was made that
r von Dalberg, the candidate preferred by
and agreeable to the cathedral chapter of
should be recognized by the pope as the
IT of the elector. This agreement also
hat both the elector and Dalberg promised
to remain true to the imion; but both took upon
themselves as well the obligation of not putting
the resolution of the Congress of Ems into execu-
tion. On June 6, 1787, Dalberg was chosen coadju-
tor archbishop of Mainz. In pursuance of this
arrangement he openly abandoned the ground
taken in the Ems agreement, petitioned in Rome
for the renewal of the quinquennial faculties, and
raised no objection when the nuncio in Cologne
was commissioned to undertake his episcopal
examination {proceasiis informativus).
The other bishops also appeared to be more peace-
ably inclined. Then Pius VI. adopted a measure
which provoked great excitement; in a brief of
Nov. 6, 1787, he granted the petition of the elector
of the Bavarian Palatinate to take a tithe of the
incomes of the ecclesiastical property throughout
the whole extent of his territories. This concession
was all the more important because it was to last
ten years and the nuncio in Munich was ordered to
collect the tithe and commissioned to punish with
all censures, and even with excommunication,
those who refused the payment, and, if necessary,
to depose them from their offices and benefices.
All the German archbishops were affected by this
order; Mainz, in the diocese of Worms; Cologne,
in the duchies of Jtilich and Berg; Treves, in Augs-
burg; Salzburg, in his Bavarian territories.
This procedure on the part of the curia, to bo
sure, caused the elector of Mainz to return to the
side of the other archbishops, and induced them
to approach the emperor again in order to obtain
action against the nuncios. With their assent
an imperial court decree was issued, which referred
to the Diet of Regensburg the controverted ques-
tion whether nuncios with jurisdiction should be
tolerated in Germany. But not even the arch-
bishops earnestly intended to bring about a de-
cision at the diet; they only wished to put pressure
on the curia. The negotiations were without
issue and finally the archbishops decided to take
the advice which had been given them and pref-
erably to reach an understanding with the curia
directly; but their efforts in Rome met with no
success. The answer which finally came to them,
dated Nov. 14, 1789, was in the form of a brief,
which was a memorial filling three hundred and
thirty-six quarto pages. Therein the pope in-
sisted upon all his demands in their full scope.
The curia had made no mistake in its calcula-
tions. Under the pressure of the revolutionary
trend of the times, which proceeded
4. The from France, the opposition of the
Outcome. German archbishops collapsed. The
electors fled from their capitals in
1792 when the French General Custine drew near.
The abolition of the ecclesiastical principalities,
ordered in 1803, together with the still more po-
tent factor of the rise of Ultramontanism, have
saved the nineteenth-century papacy from a resur-
rection in power of the ideas of 1786.
The defeat of the German archbishops may be
explained on many grounds. It was disadvanta-
geous for them that public opinion, which backed
them at the start, soon turned from them and be-
came interested in other things; but the lament-
Saiser
Bnoydopedia
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOQ
W\
able issue of the controversy was chiefly the result
of the character of the opposition movement itself.
To be sure, motives of religion and of ecclesiastical
reform were not entirely wanting; considerations
of German national feeling were not lacking; but
primarily the archbishops most heartily desired to
benefit their own interests as archbishops and
territorial sovereigns — interests in the assertion of
which they were hindered by the extension of the
papal f>ower. As a result the contest soon took on
essentially the character of f)olitics or of church
politics. Thereby they lost the support which the
sympathy of the Roman Catholic f>opulation and
clergy might have given them; thereby the har-
mony of the archbishops themselves suffered.
The curia owed its victory to the attitude of the
German bishops, who felt themselves threatened
by an increase of archiepiscopal power, to the ener-
getic action of the Bavarian Palatinate, and to the
emperor's inadequate support of the archbishops;
and last, not least, to the commencement of the
revolutionary period and to the circumstance that
the entire development of post-Reformation Cathol-
icism was on the side of the curia. Carl Mirbt.
Biblioorapht: Reaultat det Enuer Kongreuet, Frankfort,
1787; F. K. von Moser, Ge»ehichte der p/lp$Uidien Nun-
Hen in DetUachland, ib. 1788; Histariiche DenkwHrdio-
keiUn de» KardinaU . . . Paeea, AugsburK. 1832; E. von
MOnch, OemJiichte de» Emaer Konorfe; CarlBruhe. 1840;
M. Stigloher, Die ErridUung der p/lpetiidun Nuntiatur
in Miknchen und der Emaer Kongreae, RegeuBbiug, 1867;
O. Mejer. Febroniue, TQbingen. 1880; H. Brfick, Ge-
ediithte der katholiechen Kirche im 19. Jahrhundert, part
i., Blainx. 1902.
EMSER, HIERONYMUS: Literary opponent of
Luther; b. at Ulm, Mar. 16 (26?), 1478 (1477?);
d. at Dresden Nov. 8, 1527. He studied at Tubing-
en (1493-97) and at Basel, where he received his
first and second degrees; in consequence of certain
satirical verses, which offended the Swiss, he was
driven from the latter city. As secretary and chap-
lain he accompanied the papal legate, Cardinal
Raymund Peraudi, on a tour of visitation in Ger-
many (1502 sqq.), and thus came to know a great
part of the land and its famous men. At the re-
quest of the cardinal he published (1503) a treatise
De cmcibuSf attesting certain alleged miracles in
the course of the war against the Turks. In 1504
he edited the works of Pico della Mirandola at
Strasburg, taught at Erfurt, where he had Luther
among his hearers, and went to Leipsic, where he
became bachelor of theology in Jan., 1505. Duke
George of Saxony had already chosen him secre-
tary and this post called him to Dresden. For
some years he was occupied with the effort
to secure canonization for Benno, bishop of
Meissen (q.v.), which took him to Rome in 1506-
07. He received rich benefices and led a very com-
fortable life at Dresden and Leipsic. A Latin
treatise on the origin of the custom of drinking
healths, an uncritical and fantastic life of Benno,
an essay on the best way of keeping wine, numerous
light verses, and new editions of the works of others
belong to this period.
When the Reformation came Emser naturally
took sides against Luther, having no true appre-
ciation of the dangers of the Church and sharing
in the jealousy which the Saxon court felt toward
Wittenberg. He considered Luther a Hunte,!^
revolutionist, one who, contrary to the BUi^ I
rejected the utterances of traditional aiithorii}; I
sacrificed the ** ecclesiastical " priesthood to tb \
*' laical,'' uprooted the papacy, and stirred op tb
common people against the cleigy and nden
After the Leipsic Disputation (1519) an openni^
ture took place and a controversy began, by m
means edifying and without profit to the cum.
It is sufficiently characterised by stating that do^
ing its progress Luther called Emser the ht^oA
of Dresden, ¥rith reference to his escutcheon, aad
Emser called Luther the bull of Wittei^Mg.
After a time Luther gave up the contest, but £m«r
continued to issue original works and transUtioBi
or new editions of the works of others against Lutho^
writing generally in German and often in doggeni
verse to catch the ear of the people. He critkued
Luther's translation of the New Testament, coe-
horted the bishops to provide a better, and uttl-
mately imdertook the task himself; in Aug., 1527,
his work appeared, made to resemble Luther's fofio
edition as much as possible, with illustratioiis faj
Cranach and his scholar, Gottfried Leigel, which
had already been used in Luther's ** December "
Bible of 1522. Introductions and notes are added;
but at the end Emser warns the laity against
Bible-reading. The work at once became popular,
and in its original form and worked over by Jo-
hann Dietenberger and by Eck, it appeared m
more than one hundred editions during the sixteenth,
seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries. Luther criti-
cized it sharply as stolen from his text.
Gf the earlier literary opponents of the Refor-
mation Eknser was the most indefatigable. He
published his writings at no small personal exfiense.
He was well read in the fathers and had gpod
humanistic training. But he was uncritically
and blindly devoted to tradition, and quite unaUe
to appreciate the motives which influenced Luther.
His hatred for the latter steadily increased and
he wished more and more earnestly to have him
silenced by force. (G. Kawerau.)
Biblioorapht: G. E. Waldau. Naekrieht von H. Ewmr'i
Leben, Anspach. 1783; P. Moaen, H. Emeer, der Ver-
kHmpfer Rome gegen die Reformation, Halle, 1890; G.
Kawerau, Hieronymue Emeer, Halle, 1898. On his New
Testament, consult G. W. Panier. Verauek einer hutm
GeachichU der rOmiach-kaiholiad^en deuiacken BibeUAet-
aettungen, pp. 16 sqq., Nuremberg, 1781.
ENC^NIA (Gk. enkainia): A dedication fes-
tival; applied particularly to the Jewish festival
conunemorating the rededication of the Temple
(see Synagogue), and to the anniversarieB of
church dedications (see Coksecration).
ENCRATITES, en'cra-toite ("the Self-disci-
plined," " the Continent "): A name given in the
Christian heretic-histories to certain sectaries, who
abstained from animal food, intoxicating drinks,
and sexual intercourse. Strictly speaking there
was no sect of Encratites, nor did they have a
particular founder, though Eusebius {HisL ecd.,
iv. 28) first mentions Tatian as such. Nor can
they be lumped together with the Gnostics, which,
however, does not mean that Encratites here and
there may not have represented Gnostic teachiogs.
1S6
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
oyolopedla
XDlppolytus {Philosophumena, viii. 20) says expressly
%||gt tbe views of Encratites about God and Christ
^ «H6Qrded with those of the Church. Clement of
ittiandria states that Julius Cassianus, whom he
9dk the foimder of the heresy of the Docetae (see
Ddcetibm) wrote " about continence or about
^mochism *' and quotes three passages from this
imk of Encratitic content (Strom., iii. 13). En-
oititic tendencies were no doubt shown also by
fte Gospel according to the Egyptians (see Apoc-
BTPHA, B, I., 8). Epiphanius devoted an entire
metkm of his history of heresies (xlvii.) to
the Encratites; he speaks of their dualism, says
tint they reckon the Acts of Andrew, John, Thomas,
and other apocrypha among their Scriptures, and
that they use water instead of wine at the Lord's
ftipper Gike the Aquarii and Hydroparastatse,
qq.v.). Encratism is not confined to Christianity;
Cfement {Strom., i. 15) compares them with the
Indian gymnosophists, and Hippolytus {Philoso-
pkumena, viiL 20) ¥nth the Qniics. The Nazi-
rite's vow and the usages of the Essenes may also
be brought into comparison, although no genetic
eonnection can be shown. G. KrCoer.
BiBLiOGaAPHT: A. Hilsenfeld, KeUerge^chichte det Ur-
€kriatgniums, Leipaic, 1884; Neander, Chrittian Chureht
i. 456-458, 505; Schaff, Chri9tian Church, ii. 495; DCB,
iL 118-120; and the literature under Tertullian.
EHCTCLICAL LETTERS: Circular letters,
which in the ancient Church were often sent by a
church or council to the churches of a certain dis-
trict. The name is now applied to letters of the
pope, relating to the entire Church, sent to all his
subordinate bishops.
ENCYCLOPEDIA, THEOLOGICAL.
Coooeption and Purpoee (f 1).
Theological Sdenoe in the Primitive Church (S 2).
In the Byxantine and Middle Aged (f 3).
In Hnmanimn and the Reformation (14).
Pietiom and Rationalism Influential (S 5).
Sehleiermacher and his Influence (f 6).
Modem Problems (i 7).
Dereloimient Outside oermany (f 8).
In tbe Roman Catholic Church (f 9).
Theological Encyclopedia is the branch of learn-
ing which sets forth the order and contents of theo-
logical science. The word encyclopedia, in its
technical sense, is derived from the pl^osophic
realm of Alexandrine study, and back of that from
Greek antiquity. Since the time of Aristotle
enkykHos paideia meant the circle of education
whichf according to Quintilian {InatUuHones, I.,x.
101), included grammar, rhetoric, music, geometry,
and astronomy. The idea which philosophy took
up was appropriated by theology. The comf>oimded
expression as a single word occurs first in a dis-
course by the Jesuit Tarquin Gallucci (b. 1574)
entitled De encyclopcBdia comparanda (J. Lami,
De eruditione aposuiorum, Florence, 1738, p. 215)
and next in J. H. Alstedt's Cursus philosophici
encydopcBdia (Herbom, 1620), in which
I. Concep- Alstedt refers to the EncyclopcBdia of
tioii and Bfatthias Martin (1649) as his source.
Pnrpote. The meaning of " Encyclopedia '' in
these cases is an orderly exposition
ci knowledge. The works just named were the
forenmnen of the great encyclopedic collec-
tions which have set forth either the material of
science as a whole or that of individual sciences.
So that the word encyclopedia has become fully
naturalized. It was first applied to theology by
S. Mursinna in Prima! linea encyclopcedia; theo-
logiccB (Halle, 1764-94). The idea of a formal
encyclopedia of sciences was first put forward by
Hegel (Encyklopddie der phUosophiachen Wisaen-
schaften, Heidelberg, 1827, § 16), who limited it
to the setting forth of the beginnings and the
fundamental conceptions of special sciences. So
theological encyclopedia sets forth the fundamental
conceptions and methods of theological science.
In doing this it takes cognizance of the genius of
the Christian religion, of the causes which have
built up a theology, of the historical and system-
atic relationship of the parts to the whole, and,
above all, of the relationship of the science to life
and of theology as the science of religion to the
Church which is held together by this religion.
Inasmuch as this science is always in a state of
flux — new materials always being added, new ques-
tions arising — the best that can be done is to
describe it historically and in relation to the present.
The history of theological encyclopedia is not
to be separated from the history of teaching and
of the science. Christian theology grew out of the
proclamation of the Gospel according to the com-
mand of Jesus (Matt, xxviii. 19-20). The com-
mimities of believers, instead of at-
2. Theolog- tempting to satisfy their religious
leal Science needs with cultic organizations or
in the wasting their enei^es in social pei^
Primitive formances, sought through instruc-
Church. tion an assured and unified con-
viction of the groimds of their faith
as members of the body of Jesus Christ. And just
as in the religion of the Old Testament priesthood
and prophecy strove together, and in Greco-
Roman culture religion and philosophy, so in Chris-
tianity revelation and philosophy were the two
factors out of which a developing theology drew its
materials. There was an inherent tendency to a
unification of all the elements which could serve
the nourishment of the soul and the support of
Christian activities. Catechetics, systematic in-
troduction into the Christian rites, were the motives
for the collection of the reports about the work of
Jesus and his relation to salvation (Luke i. 4; I
Cor. xiv. 19; Gal. vi. 6; Heb. vi. 1-2). Thus with
the development of the organization of the Church
grew up a literature of instruction. While direct
testimony to the existence of such a body of material
in the early Church is not immediately attainable, it
can not be doubted that in such centers of Chris-
tianity as Alexandria, Antioch, and Constanti-
nople during the second century such technical
material existed. Indirect testimony to this is
found in the technical terms existing in patristic
works which have their roots and their analogies
in the terminology of rhetoric, philology, and phi-
losophy. Instruction in the form of question and
answer is suggested by the InstitiUa regrdaria
divinas legia of Jimilius at Antioch, the Sacra
parallela of John of Damascus, the Qucutiones
AmphilochioB of Photius, and the Hupomniatikon
Bncyolopedia
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
196
biblion of Josephus {MPG, cvi. 14-177). For
other varieties of instruction the homilies, corre-
sponding to the Diatribes of the Cynic-Stoic schools,
and scholia and commentaries are evidence. These
are the roots of the system of instruction in dog-
matic and practical theology. There soon followed
the encyclopedic productions of Chrysostom {Peri
hierosynes), of Ambrosius (De ofjunis ministrorum)^
and of Augustine (De doctrina Christiana^ De cate-
chizandis nidibuSf Enchciridion ad Laurentium).
During the Byzantine period and the Middle
Ages the pedagogic methods of patristic times passed
over into the Western Church where the influx of
new peoples made necessary the use of these means
of instruction. In Byzantine literature heathenism
and Christianity remained in a relation of easy
sociability of which the Myrohiblion of Photius
(d. 891) is an example. Philosophical activity
was concerned with Catenas (q.v.) which set forth
authoritative traditions of exegesis,
3. In the faith, and conduct of service. In
Byzantine the West the concern was for a prac-
and Middle tical use of the material of science.
Ages. and in this direction Augustine was
the leader. Under his influence Cas-
siodorus wrote his Institutionea divinarum litterarum,
which was followed by the more systematic seventh
and eighth books " On God, Angels and the Orders
of the Faithful " of Isidor's Originum sive etymo-
logiarum. In the Middle Ages the monastic schools
and universities arose, the latter with their trivium
(grammar, rhetoric, and dialectic) and qxuidrivium
(geometry, arithmetic, astronomy, and music).
The De institutione clericorum of Rabanus Maurus
(c. 850), the CapittUa ad presbyteroa of Hincmar,
and the Capitulare of Hatto of Basel are specimens
of the work done for the schools of the monasteries,
when the monks and clergy were the leaders in the
Western world. During the heyday of scholasti-
cism appeared the Speculum doctrinale of Vincent
of Beauvais, part of an Omnium scientiarum en-
cyclopedia (4 vols., Douai, 1624). In opposition
to this dialectic discipline arose a mystical type
of instruction which partook more of the theo-
logical than the philosophical, illustrated by such
works as the DidascaHon of Hugo of St. Victor
(d. 1141), the Epistolw of Jean Gerson (d. 1429),
and the De studio theologico of Nicholas of Cldmenge
(d. 1437).
The Reformation and Humanism created a new
science through the study of linguistics and of
history. Study of language gave to theology firm
standing-ground and new forms and purposes, the
first results of which were attention to Scripture.
Erasmus (Ratio seu methodus perveniendi ad veram
theologiam), Mclanchthon {Brevis dis-
4. In Hu- cendce theologice ratio) ^ and Luther
manism and (in his maxim: oratio, m4^dilatio,
the Refor- tentatio faciunt theohgum) showed the
mation. way, followed by Theobald Thamer
(Adiiortatio ad theologian studium,
1543), David Chytrajus (De studio theologico ^ 1557),
and John Gerhard {Methodus studii theologidj
1617). Interest in questions of encyclopedia was
livelier in the Lutheran Church than in the Re-
formed, as shown by Bullinger's Ratio studii theo-
hgici and Konrad Gessner's Pandecta untKrwiei
(154^-49). Nevertheless the father of a sygtem-
atic and thorough encyclopedia was the (Reforaxd)
professor Andreas Gerhard of Marburg in hk Ai
theologo seu de ratione studii theologici {Stntjaai^,
1562-82), in which the division of tbedo^
science into exegetical, historical, dogmatic, and
practical theology was first made. But the devel-
opment of theological encyclopedia proceeded with-
out well-formed plans; materials and methods
were not carefully distinguished. Polemia too
had its influence in the unfolding, and the adenoe
divided into exegetical, didactic, and pokmiol
theology. Historical criticism had not yet come
to its own, the linguistic methods of Humaiuim
were yet dominant, and the contests between ex-
ternals and internals dragged dogmatic, practical,
and polemic interests into the foreground. Meao-
while philosophy, which among the Reformers had
remained wedded to theology, received new im-
petus from Bacon and Descartes, and a new idea
of the world came into existence through Coperni-
cus and Kepler. For Bacon, theology is a positive
science, independent of reason, which, however,
it takes into its service. A great step had been
taken toward insight into religion and toward tiie
formation of a new basis.
The factors which next entered into conflict with
rigid scholasticism were Pietism and rationalism,
different in origin and purpose, yet united in
emphasis upon individualism. 'Under Pietiam
theology took on a practical-ascetic phase, it be-
came piety. Spener gave direction to thii in
his Pia desideria (1675) and in the preface
to his De impedimentis studii tkuh
5. Pietism logici. Study of the Bible is the
and Ration- foundation of all theology, interpre-
alism In- tation is the mistress who orders all
fluential. the parts and affords the basis; dog-
matics and ethics are to come from
Scripture. Historical development was lost to
sight, church history simply furnished a bounding
line. The orthodox cultivation of homiletics
seemed to Spener the greatest hindrance to theo-
logical study, while catechetics is especially im-
portant. A. H. Franke took up Spener's thesis in
Idea studiosi theologici (Halle, 1718) and Methods
studii theologici (1723), as did J. J. Breithaupt in
Exercitationes de studio theologico (1702), J. Lange
in Institutiones studii theologici (1723), and J. J.
Rambach in Studiosus theologice (Franldort, 1723).
Related spirits were Franz Buddeus (Jsagogt
historico-theologicaf Leipsic, 1727) and C. M. PfafiF
{Introductio in historiam theologiag litterariam, 3
vols., Tubingen, 1723), who reinstated the division
into exegetical, historical, dogmatic, and practical
theology. To the filling in of these outlines L
Mosheim contributed in his Kurze Anweisung, dii
Gottesgelehrtheit vemiinftig zu erkennen (ed. Wind-
heim, Helmstadt, 1756-63). Through the preva-
lence of the Wolffian philosophy rationalism had its
influence, and the works of J. S. Semler rapidly
succeeded each other (1767-80). J. A. NOsseK
united a view of the materials and the literature
of theology in his Anweisung zur Kenntnisa da
besseren Biicher in der Theologie (Leipdc, 1800).
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bnoyolopedla
r lines were followed in the text-books of G. S.
e {Theologisctie Enqfklopddie, vol. i., Altona,
K. F. Staudlin (Ejicyklopddie und Metho-
f, Hanover, 1821), and J. T. L. Dan* {Ency-
\i€ und Methoddogie, Weimar, 1832).
ew start was made ¥ntli Schleiermacher, who
x)6ition to rationalism in religion wished to
T for religion its own province in a philo-
: consideration of the self-consciousness of
ians. It was he who first discerned the
e of theology as subject to scientific treatment
;ave to the science organic form. In this
t his Kurze Darstellung des theologischen
ans (Berlin, 1811, enlarged, 1830) made an
. He showed that theology had developed
' the needs of the Church and by those needs
) be oriented. He produced a clear demarca-
)etween philosophy and the history of relig-
mt he divided the science into the parts,
ethical, historical, and practical. The first
oed apologetical and polemic theology;
dc^matics and ethics were assigned
hleier- to historical theology; and practical
cher theology dealt with church govem-
his ment and church service. The oper-
lence. ation of Schleiermacher's principles was
for a time thwarted by the entrance of
^lian philosophy which regarded religion and
ults as transitional in the march of evolution,
th the help of the growing historical and lin-
j criticism it established itself ever more firmly,
rhile there appeared the contrast between em-
upon the historical (Strauss's Leben Jesu) and
an opposition between pantheism and athe-
problem to the solution of which F. C. Baur
d himself in the history of early Christianity.
to appear was the " Mediating theology,"
ndamental thought of which was that a view
world which includes supematuralism is not
stacle to scientific work. Recognizable here
influence of Schleiermacher and Neander in
cknowledgment of a revealed character in
ianity, and of Hegel and Schelling in the tend-
to speculation. The writing which best ex-
this character is A. F. L. Pelt's Theologiache
hpddie (Hamburg, 1843), which makes
ical theology take precedence of dogmatic
•racticaL Noteworthy are E. L. T. Henke's
!riM fur Vorlesungen zur Einleiiung in das
]ische Shuiium (Marburg, 1869), J. P. Lange's
!riM der theologischen Enq^klopddie und
dologie (Heidelberg, 1877) which xmites
natic and practical theology, and K. Rosen-
's Encyklopddie der theologischen Wissen-
(Halle, 1831) which seeks to use Hegel's
ophy in the construction of theological
e. The " mediating theology " was left
i by K. R, Hagenbach in the work which long
oed the standard {Encyklopddie der theo-
yen Wissenschaft, Leipsic, 1833, 9th ed. with
Jp of E. SchQrer, 1874, 11th ed. by Kautzsch,
12th ed. by Reischle, 1889). J. F. Rabiger's
lopddie der Theologie (1880) differs from
)the's Theologische Encyklopddie (ed. Rup-
Wittenberg, 1880) in that it uses the his-
rtandpoint of the Tubingen school, while
Rothe gives the preference to a speculative tend-
ency. The Encyklopddie of J. C. K. Hofmann
(ed. Bestmann, Ndrdlingien, 1879) closely follows
Schleiermacher in emphasizing the personal rela-
tionship of man to God, in which he was preceded
by G. (5. A. Harless (Nuremberg, 1837). More in the
direction which Hengstenberg gave to theology is
the series issued under the editorship of O. Z5ckler
(6 vols., NftrdUngen, 1881-90) under the title
Handbucher der theologischen Wissenschaften in en-
cyklopddischer DarsteUung.
The question what the present condition of
theological work demands has been answered by
Ritschl, who asserts as the starting-point of the-
ology the Gospel as it lies in Scripture. This Gospel
is essentially a revelation, set forth, however, in
historical relations and imder historic conditions.
So that there results a double field of investigation,
philosophical history and the internal develop-
ments of church life. On this basis, investigation
of theology without reference to the
7. Modem Church which developed it is out of the
Problems, question; it would make the Bible
simply a part of the world's religious
literature, deprive it of the interest derived from
churchly relations, separate it from its accompany-
ing conceptions of canon, symbol, and dogma.
Yet the tendency is strong in modem times in this
way to seek a universal theology. In this direction
look the methodological proposals of G. KrOger
{Was heisst und zu welchem Ende studiert man
Dogmengeschichtef Freiburg, 1895; Das Dogma
vom neuen Testament^ Giessen, 1896) and W. Wrede
(Ueber Aufgabe und Methode der sogenannten
neutestamerUlichen Theologie^ GSttingen, 1897);
the former would do away with the distinction
between canonical Scripture and the early patristic
writings, and the latter would put the theology of
the New Testament into a philosophy of religion.
Another advocate of this method is C. A. Beraouilli
{Die wissenschaftliche und die kirchliche Methode
in der Theologie, Tubingen, 1897), who takes the
position that the true theology is something apart
from the Church and that *' religion is history."
This school calls its method the " purely historical."
Yet can that be " purely historical " which disre-
gards the historical fact of him who is come to save
the lost? which attempts a vivisection between
Church and theology which is possible only in the-
ory? The latest development analyzes the situation
into a necessity for investigation of three points:
the conception of the Church, of science, and the
view of the world which Christianity would set forth.
The Roman Catholic conception of the Church as
a sanatorium excludes the action of science, the
Lutheran conception of it as a community of faith
requires that action for its own good. The con-
ception of the world as set forth by the physicist is
different from that reached by the theologian and
is reached by different methods. The decision
upon the worth of the Scriptures of the New Testa-
ment as compared with early patristic writings
in the construction of a history of dogma is helped
by the consideration that the former are the classi-
cal expression from the earliest generations of Chris-
tians of the faith which had been transmitted to
Enoydopedia
Enflrelbreoht
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
UB
them, while in the history of dogma Biblical science
can not maintain itself as a separate entity over
against church history and as a dogmatic fact.
The history of Christianity involves the connection
of the external and the internal, the latter the
facts of Church life.
In countries other than Germany the develop-
ment of the encyclopedia of theology runs nearly
parallel with the German. In Holland the two
conflicting tendencies are the Reformed and the
historical schools, with a " mediating theology "
between. Representative of these are for the
Reformed A. Kuypcr (Encyklopedie der heilige
godgeleerdheid, 3 vols., Amsterdam, 1894); for the
historical school J. T. Doedes (Encyklopedie der
christelijke theologie, Utrecht, 1876);
8. Develop- and for the mediating school J. Cla-
mant risse {Encyclopccdice theological epitome^
outside Leyden, 1832) and H. de Groot and
Germany. L. G. Pareau (Encyclopccdia theologi
Chnstiani, 3d ed., Utrecht, 1861).
In England the historical school is represented by
the Unitarian J. Drummond (Introduction to the
Study of Theology^ London, 1884), the Evangehcal
by A. Cave (An Introduction to Theology , its
Principles, its Branches, its Results, and its Litera-
ture, 2d ed., Edinburgh, 1896). In America the
mediating school is represented by P. Schaff (Theo-
logical Propedeutic, a general Introduction to the
Study of Theology . . . , New York, 1893), whose
results are not unlike those of Hagenbach. France
is represented by H. G. Kienlen (EncyclopMie
. . . de la th/ologie chrftiennc, Strasburg, 1845)
and E. Martin (Introduction h VHude de la th^ologie
protestante, Geneva, 1883). Schleiermacher has
found a follower in Sweden in Reuterdahl, whose
work was published 1837. Hagenbach's work was
reproduced in Hungary by Imre R6v6sz (1857)
and practically reproduced in America by G. K.
Crooks and J. F. Hurst (New York, 2d ed., 1894).
The Roman Catholic Church, while not unmoved
by the movements of Humanism and the Refor-
mation, was yet not driven from the methods of
scholasticism, and its development of theological
encyclopedia was in the direction of polemic and
apologetics (N. J. Laforet's Dissertatio historico-
dogmatica de methodo theologiw sii^c de authoritate
ecclesioi catholica tanqunm regxda fidei christians,
Louvain, 1849). The key-note was struck by
Melchior Cano (De Ion's thcologicis, Louvain, 1564),
taking the Scriptures and tradition
Q. In the as the starting-point. The Jesuit
Roman Posse vinus (Bibliotheca selecta de
Catholic ratione studiorum, Rome, 1593) fol-
Church. lowed a revived scholasticism. Much
material was furnished by the work
of the Benedictines in patristics, and J. Mabillon
produced an encyclopedic work in his De studiis
monasticis (Venice, 1705). E. Du Pin's MHhode
pour ctudicr la thrologie (Paris, 1716, 1768, often
translated) exhibited something of the breadth of
Galilean ism, though the influence of the Jesuits
did much to restrain this tendency. The work
of P. Annato (Apparatus ad positivam theologiam
methodicus, 2 vols., Paris, 1700, 7th ed., 1744),
exhibiting a tendency toward agreement with
Protestantism, was put on the Index. Under tk I
stimulus of Protestant work after the middle d
the eighteenth century a host of books by Roooi
Catholics appeared in Germany, and at tbebegindai I
of the nineteenth century, under the influence qf
the philosophy of Schelling, Baader, and Gva&a '
there were contributions by J. S. Drey (181ft
H. Klee (1832), F. A. Staudenmaier (1834, 1840),
A. Gengler (1834), A. Buchner (1837), andJL?ai
Sieger (1839). Under the influence of the new dog-
ma of infallibility J. B. Wirthmuller produced Ui
EncyJdopddie der katholtschen Theotogie (Landsbik,
1873), and the scientific method was employed bf
H. Kihn (Freiburg, 1892). The former digtn-
guishes between an Ideal- and a Real-Enq^cbpd^
the latter includes imder ** formal " theology the
" ideal " and the " instrumental/' and under "n
terial " theology the departments of historietl,
doctrinal and ethical, and practical theology.
(G. Heinricl)
Bibmoorapht: Zyro, VernuJi einer Reviaion der dbiil>
lidi theologUchen EncyddopOdi*, in TSK, 1837. pp. 681^
681; W. Grimm, in ZWT, 1882, pp. 1-28; M. Kihlii;
Wi—enacKaii der chrUUichen Lthre^ pp. 1-42, LopM^
1893. All the later and best works mentioned in thetaoEti
such as Cave, Schaff, Kusrper, and Hagenbach, diicM
the subject. An excellent handbook to Roman Gatholte
literature is D. Gla, Repertorium der kaJQioliuk Mk
giachen Litteratur, Paderbom, 1895. Consult abo: A.
Doraer, OrundrUa der EncydopQdie der Tlieologit, B«>
lin, 1901; L. Emery, IntrodttcHon d Vihide de la OMm
proteatarUe, pp. 1-65, Paris, 1904; £. D. Davies, Ttm-
logical EncyclapcBdia, London, 1905.
ENCYCLOPEDISTS: The name usually applied
to the group of French philosophers and n^n of
letters who collaborated in the production of the
famous EncyclopMie, or were in sympathy with
its principles. The work was planned by Denis
Diderot (q.v.), and was announced as a Didim-
naire raisonni des sciences, des arts, et des miHen,
The intention was to provide a complete alphabeti-
cal treatment of the whole field of human knowled^
from the standpoint of the " Enlightenment " (q.v.).
The contributors included a number of remaik-
able men. First in importance, acting with Diderot
on equal terms, was D'Alembert. A large part of
the work was done by the Chevab'er de Jauoourt, a
man of encyclopedic learning. Montesquieu when
he died in 1755 left behind an unfinished article
on " Taste." Voltaire wrote some articles, and
constantly advised on the development of the plan.
Rousseau contributed articles on music, but ulti-
mately quarreled with the editors, whose plan
was so different from his. Turgot wrote on eco-
nomic subjects, and in the latter part of the work
Haller, the physiologist, and Condorcet were en-
gaged.
The first volume appeared in 1751, the second
in the following January, and inmiediately excited
the antagonism of the Church and the conservatives.
On Feb. 12, 1752, the two volumes were suppressed
by the Council, as containing m^-rima contrary to
royal authority and to religion. Further publica-
tion was susp>ended for eighteen months, but from
1753 to 1757 it went on without interruption.
After the seventh volume the forces of conservatism
rallied to a fresh attack. The sale of the volumes
already printed, as well as the printing of any more.
199
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
JsnoyoxopMua
Bnflrelbracht
m forbiddeD. Diderot^ horwever, made hk pLanfi
to eoQttiiue prh'ately to prepare the remaining
D'Alembert withdrew, but Diderot
I on and completed the work (28 voIb,, Paris,
1751-72). Andr^ Fran9ois Lebreton acquired a
bjp int^rert in the uedertaking and all the con-
Iributipiks w«f« set up as the^ were written, but
dbv Diderot had corfect^ed the last proof, Lebreton
■d Ms foreman^ without informing his partners,
Mred^ cut out euch parts from each article as he
Apilglit too radical or Iikel3r to give ofTense. In
4ii wftf maoy of the be&t articles were mutilated,
ttd to prevent the restoration of the eliminated
■iIIb', Lebreton burned the original manuscripts.
Unquestly & mipplement was publiahed (5 vols.,
iMleiiJmm [Paris], 1 776-77 )» also im index (2 vols,,
mi
The Encyciapidte waa at once a t^poaitory of
Uormation and a polemical arsen&L It waa an
ifes of the editors that if civilization should be
ntirely destroyed, mankind might turn to their
mloiDefl to learn to reconstruct it. No other
BAetkm of general information so large and so
Mrfiil was then in existence. Yet mere learning
■ii ncrt what lay nea.re^ to the hearts of Diderot
lid his fellows; they prided themselves even more
m Ibe firm and bold pbiloiophy of some of the
■ntcn. The metaphysics is founded chiefly on
Lodce, who " may be said to have created meta-
pfay»» as Newton created physics," by reducing
Ills (rience to '* what in fact it should be, the ex-
perimental physics of the soul." Beyond this there
b Bttk unity of opinion ^ though the same epirit
mki through out , 1 1 include a prej udice in favor of
dBHOcra^, as the ideal form of government, and
lim worship of theoretical equality, but contempt
far the populace » ** which discerns nothing " ; the
tcdndioD of religion to sentiments of morality and
Inei^olence, and great dislike for its ministers,
Ry the religious orders. By its generous
of philosophic tolerance, and apparent
in what for the moment it was too
icik to o^rerpower, the philosophic school won a
htmg for doctrines which were esientially mib-
mme of the eotablkhed order of things in both
Ckndi and State, and prepared the way for overt
itiotutbn. See DEiau, H.
ittLKKij.r'ffTt J. f]« La Port*. Brprii d* t'entytiopMit^
hn^ L768- F, 3C. A. de Vott&ire, Qu^mant iur l*€nn/-
4pM«. ib. 1770; W. Vwi Mildert, Vi€w of th« fttw and
fnmm of infidtlity, i. 378, Oxford, 1339; C, U»rtbo]-
amk J9ul. miiqum d^ ^ociHnei r^i4fitu*e* m&drfnat
teiiiMini. 1S55: a A. SAJnto BeuifW* PortmUm litUroirt§,
] vok. FKri«, 186&; A. S. Farru-^ Criiiml Hi»t. of fre«
ftsMA pp. 1 IMS- ITS. Londoa, lgfi2; E, Fa(niet> Le
IH^u££flMf Sii^. WmfiB, 1S90. Coiuult alfla the litem-
m>k (KTHA), SAnrr, of ARAH: Founder of
thr €ift of the great Irish monaMic schools, at
Kifl^ay (** Church of Enna"), on the largest of
Ibe Aran Islands (Iniahmore), off Gal way Bay;
L e. 540, According to his fourteenth-century
lit be was of royal descent and a mighty warrior
a his youth; converted by a pious sister, he be-
ime a monk. He studied in Britain (probably
t Candida Casa; i^ Ninian^ Saint), and founded
mona^ery on the Continent (aceortling to some at
e, according to otheiB in Brittany). Retum-
IV.— 9
ing to Ireland he established himself on InishmorCr
where Ciaran of Clonmacnoise, Brendan^ Finnian
of Moville, Columba, and other famous abbots and
bishops were amoag his pupik. Bo many resorted
to the island that it rticeived the name of Aran of
the Saiats. It is stiU full of highly interesting
remains of both pagan and early Christian tim^.
BEsuoaoAPSY: Lamptiui. Ecel. FiUt., i. 396-400; J. Healy^
/fwuia mnriiirum. pp, 183-187, Dublin, ISQO,
EITOERS, EIUfST LtJDWlG; German Luther-
an; b, at Fnmkfort Doc. 27, 1833. He studied
in Heidelberg, Erlangen, and Ttibingcn (1852-55),
and since 18Ij5 has been pastor at Obcrrad nearly
oppoeite to Frankfort, lie prepared the second
Eriangen edition of Luther's works (25 vols,,
Frankfort, 1862-84), and edited Luthtr und Emscr,
ihre Sireihchriften aus tlem Jahre iBiBf (2 vols.,
Halte, 1891); Atts dcm Kampfe der Schymrm^
^^n Luiher, drci Flug^rhHften (1894); and Johann
Eberlin I'on Gimzbergf awsgemihilr. Schrijien (2 vob.,
1895-1900), He is a collaborator on the complete
edition of Luther's works in course of preparation
by J. K. Irmischcr, C S. T, Eh^perger, and H.
Schmidt, to which he has contributed Or, MaHin
Lnthers Brief wecJatel (2 vols., covering the period
from May, 1534, to July, I53fi; Calw, 1903).
ENBURA. See New MANicH&ANfi,
ENERGUMEH: See Demoniac, J 5,
ElfGELBRECHT, en"gel"bpeH% HAHS; German
mystic; b. at Brunswick Easter Day, 1591); d-
there 1642. In his youth he was an apprentice to
a weaver, and had little education. Even at an
early age he was of a melancholy diaposition, and
in 1622 fell serioiiEily ill, his disease culminating
in spasms accompanied with hallucinations. Ex-
communicatetl as holding heretical doctrines of
the Lord*s Supper, he fled from Brunswick in 1626,
and sought to work in Winsen-an-dcr-Aller, Liine-
burg, Hamburg, and Holland, but was everywhere
persecuted, although comforted by new visions
and converse with the angels. Returning to
Brunswick in 1631, he vainly endeavored to be-
come reconciled witli tin* clergy and again left the
city. At Hamburg he had himAcLf imprisoned to
prove liis divine power by fasting for a week. He
was driven from Gluckstadt by troopB, and shortly
before his death returned to Brunswick, His
writings^ based on his visions, are as follows: Eine
fimhrhafftige GenchicM und Gesicht vom Himmel
und der Hdkn (Brunswick, 1625); Gmlkh und
himTniisch Mandat (Bremen, 1625); Brte/ an M,
Hartkopf^ Seniorem in Hamburg (1640); Ein
chrisHlch Sehreiben an die Gtlahrt^n ; Ein Gemcht
t"om nsuen Him met und Erde ; and Aniwort, wie
man G^U im Netmi TtBt^ment frag^n boU (1641);
Omehl van den drey 8t^nd«n; G^stchl von dem
Berg dea Heih und dem Wasaer der Siinden ; and
SchFtiben un Popke Poj^fec*. A complete edition of
the works of Engelbrecht appeared at Brunswick
in 1686 (Eng. transl. by F, t)kely, Northampton,
1 780 ) . (FEUntK AND CoURS. )
BtBLiooRJLPHT: P, J, R£!itniey«r, BrauradiwHO Kirdkfn*
Mimiijfit, iv. 417 pqq., 472 «qc|., BruiiHwiek, 171 fi; O.
Arnold. XtrMen- und KtUier'Hutorw. U'l. 217 aqq,, Frmnk-
fort. 1729; W. Bettc, in ZtiT, 1844» pp. 122,
Bnirelbardt ^ ^
England, Ohuroh of
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOa
tn
ENGELHARDT, en"gel"hart', GUSTAV MORTTZ
KONSTANTIN VON: Lutheran theologian; b. at
Dorpat July 8, 1828; d. there Dec. 5, 1881. His
education was begun in Werro, a small town in
Livonia, in a private institution, where he was
influenced by a teacher educated in the faith of
Hermhut. From 1846 to 1849 he studied theology
in Dorpat, where he came under the instruction of
Philippi. In 1850 he continued his studies in
Erlangen under Hofmann in whom he found a man
endowed with the historic spirit.
Life. developing the course of salvation
in its historical growth. In the sum-
mer of 1851 he studied at Bonn, and in 1858 he
became professor of church history in Dorpat, in
which position he became one of the most effective
teachers of the Church in the nineteenth century.
The impression which he produced rested both
upon his personality, and upon his ability to sym-
pathisse with the needs and struggles of youth.
He did not merely impart knowledge, he educated
theological students for their practical office as
well as for their academic calling.
Engelhardt's eminence showed itself especially
in the science of apologetics to which he was led
in 1858 by his study of Nagelsbach's books on the
Homeric and post-Homeric theology. The essence
of paganism lay for him in its dualistic view of the
world, and he considered it the task of apologetics
to investigate and discuss critically the relation
of Christianity to every system of natural religion.
Christian apologetics, according to him, is successful
in the degree in, which the uniqueness of Christi-
anity is shown over against the common qualities
of all other modes of thought; in the
Engelhardt next place, the inner consistency of
as an Christianity over against the contra-
Apologist. dictions and indcfensibleness of all
other systems should be expounded;
and finally the universality of Christianity should
be brought out by showing that the religious and
ethical ideals of the non-Christian world are real-
ized in Christianity. Engelhardt 's conception of
apologetics led him to measure faith with faith,
since every non-Christian mode of thought in-
cludes within itself a system of faith which agrees
in its essential points with the others. .Every
departure from genuine Christianity, he thought,
must have been occasioned by the influence of pagan
thoughts. Such paf]^an elements Engelhardt found,
for instance, in Romanism. The knowledge of
grace as the merciful love of God toward the sinner
he considered the fundamental principle of Luther-
anism, while the fundamental conception of the
spiritual and imperishable substance of God on
tiie part of the Roman Catholics leads, according
to him, to all errors of Romanism. [Tiie contrast
intended seems to be betwcon the personal and
somewhat anthropomorphic conception of God and
the metai)hysical (•(ma^ption of him as the abso-
lute being, which latt(T tended to discourage men
from seeking dinvt communion with him and to
foster Mariolatry, saint-worship, and the like.
A. H. N.]
The opposition of an ethical to a metaphysical
conception of God shows Engelhardt's point of
contact with Ritschl's views, and he was indeei i
greatly influenced by Ritschl's works, espedil^ ■]
after the second edition of the Uttei'i
HisReU- AWcatholische Kirche (1857). Hen
tions with he found his strongest weapon
Ritschlian- against Baur's repreaentation of primi-
ism. tive Christianity; for Ritsdil beU
that old catholic Christianity in iti
departure from the fundamental views of Paul hid
not proceeded from a compromise between Judaie
and pagan Christianity, but from a degenente
Paulinism which proceeded from an inadequate
comprehension by pagan Christians of the Old-
Testament basis of Pauline doctrine. Engelhardt
has been mistakenly considered dogmatically de-
pendent uf>on Ritschl. The two had indeed many
points in common; but Engelhardt felt the lad
in Ritschl 's system of a full acknowledgment oC
sin and a corresf>onding holiness of God reacting
against it, and of the necessity of blotting out the
guilt contracted by this sin, as well as of a fuU
appreciation of the value of God's salvation and
of Christianity in particular as being a sup^natuial
religion in the exclusive sense.
Engelhardt's activities included an interest in
the religious instruction in secondary schools, and
he wrote a treatise on its problems. He gave in-
struction in schools for girls, and on Sunday afte^
noons taught the children in a charitable institu-
tion. He also delivered public lectures, and was
one of the most powerful preachers of his day.
He was president of the ecclesiastical council of
the university and took an active part in the Synod
of Livonia and in the annual pastoral conferenoei
which met at Dorpat.
Of his literary works may be mentioned Der 5eii/-
komglaube nach den Evanffdien dargestdU (Dorpat,
1861); Die Bergprcdigt nach MaOh&us,
Works, eine Studie zur biblischen Gesckiehk
( 1 864 ) ; Schenkd und Strattsa, iwei Zeugen
der Wahrheit (1864). His studies in apologetics occa-
sioned several essays which appeared in the DorpaJter
Zeitschrift fur Theologie und Kirche and the indepen-
dent publication Celsus oder die dUeste Kritik bibHscher
Geschichte und christlicher Lehre vom Standpunkt da
II eidentums ilS69). An important work in connec-
tion with his studies of primitive Christianity is D<u
Christenium Justina des MdrtyrerSj eine dogmenhiMor-
ische Untersuchung iiber die Anfdnge des katkolischen
Christentums (Erlangen, 1878).
(N. BONWETSCH.)
Bibliography: Zur Erinnerung an MoriU von EnodKardt,
Dorpat, 1881; Mitteilunffen und Nadtricht fOr die eMM-
gelische Kirche in Russland, 1882, pp. 137 Kiq., 1883, pp.
209 8qq.; A. von OettinRer, M. von En(felhardi'» chri$t'
lich-theologischer Entwicketuno^gang^ Dorpat. 1883.
ENGELHARDT, JOHANN GEORG VEIT: Ger-
man theologian and church historian; b. at Neu-
stadt-an-der-Aisch (20 m. n.n.e. of Anspach)
Nov. 12, 1791; d. at Erlangen Sept. 13, 1855. He
was educated in his native town, in Baireuth, and
at the I' niversity of Erlangen, and became deacon
at the Altstadter Kirche and professor at the gym-
nasium in 1817. Three years later he entered the
faculty of the university as privat-docent, was ap-
pointed associate professor of theology in 1821 and
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Buff land, Ohoroh of
8or in the following year, holding this
ntfl his death. From 1845 to 1848 he
i his university in the House of Deputies,
t's early plan of preparing a history of
heolc^y was never carried out, although
borough preliminary studies of Plotinus,
the Areopagite, and Richard of St.
[e also devoted himself to Irenaeus,
the entire field of patristics, and to
'al and dogmatic history. In addition
tus programs and studies in the ZHT,
»al works were as follows: DiaaertoHo de
DionyHo ploHnizante (Erlangen, 1820); Die angeb-
lichen Schriften dee Areopaffiten Dionyeitte (2 parts,
1823); LeUfademuVarlesungenHber Patrietik (1823);
KirchengeechichUiche Abhandlungen (1832); Hand'
buck der Kirchengeechichte (4 vols., 1833-34); Richard
von St. Viktor undJohannRuyebroek (1838)*, AtLsleg^
ung dee epekidativen Teile dee Evangeliume Johannie
durch einen deutechen myetiechen Theologen dee vier-
zehnten Jakrhundertet aue einer deutechen Handechrift
der kfmiglichen Bibliothek in Milnchen (Neustadt-an-
der-Aisch, 1839) )B;sidDogmengeechichte (2 vols., 1830).
(J. J. HERZOGf.)
rmation Period.
nd Saxon Periods ({ 1).
nan Period (J 2).
rmation Resistance
(§3).
From the Reformation.
III. (§ 1).
VI. and Mary ({ 2).
ENGLAND, CHURCH OF.
EUsabeth ({ 3).
Struggle Between Anglicanism and
Puritanism ({ 4).
Triumph of High-church Principles
Under Stuarts (S 5)
The Commonwealth, the Restora-
tion, the House of Hanover ({ 6).
Deism, Rise of Methodism ({ 7).
Later History ({ 8).
III. Theology, Liturgy, Clergy, Govern-
ment.
Theology (J 1).
Liturgy ({ 2).
Th«i Clergy ({ 3).
Government ({ 4).
Relation of Church and SUte ({ 6).
irch of England, the national Church of
s by law established, may be regarded as
of the Protestant Reformation; and from
of view its history is held to begin with
. of Henry VIII. to own further allegiance
«, and the resultant declaration that the
:he head of the Church in his dominions,
sy it is in general harmony with Protes-
>ut in government it claims to have re-
unbroken succession from the Apostles,
5 from Christ himself, the three major
bishop, priest, and deacon. In ritual and
maintains a uniform order of church serv-
)f which are derived immediately from an-
medieval rituals. It occupies an interme-
tion between the Latin communion and the
of the Reformation. Many Anglican wri-
d the Reformation as merely an incident
tory of the Church of England, which did
■upt its historic continuity, which is held
rom Augustine, and even from the old
urch. A considerable niunber, particu-
le High-chiuxh party, look upon the Ref-
as a serious mistake, if not as a crime.
Reformation Period: The first reliable
on regarding the introduction of Christi-
anity into Britain comes from Ter-
sh tullian, who, early in the third century,
on ^Tote (Adv. Jurf., vii.; ANF, iii. 158)
L that Christianity had penetrated into
regions of Britain inaccessible to the
The history of the British Church was
th that of early Christianity everywhere. It
victims to persecution, one of whom, Alban
n (q.v.), was early canonized; it sent repre-
; to councils, for example, that of Aries
id it produced the heretic Pelagius (q.v.;
jntire period see Celtic Church). The
riod dates from the arrival, in 597, of the
igustine, who had been despatched by
[. (see Anglo-Saxons, Ojnversion of
Augustine, Saint, op Canterbury). As
p of Canterbury Augustine came into
ith the bishops of the old British, or Celtic,
but the Roman type of Christianity pre-
vailed over the Oltic, and crowded it out. The
differences concerned the date of Easter, the mode
of the tonsure, and allegiance to Rome, the Britons
being determined to remain independent of the
Roman rule. Augustine called the British bishops
to a colloquy on the Severn, but they refused to
acknowledge his authority and Augustine invoked
and predicted judgment upon them. Christianity
spread rapidly in southern England, and was intro-
duced into Northumbria by Paulinus, and made
the permanent religion by the labors of St. Aidan
of Ireland. Under Theodore of Tarsus (conse-
crated archbishop of Canterbury in 668) the
English episcopate was more fully organized, and
the dioceses were grouped around Canterbury as
the central and superior see. Theodore held synods
and treated the British d^ristians in a high-handed
way. During this period monasteries were founded;
and here and there a solitary form, like Csd-
mon, the monk of Whitby; or Bede, " the father
of learning ''; or Alcuin the scholar, called to the
Court of Charlemagne; or Alfred, the Christian
king and patron of letters, stands out prominently.
The Danish invaders of the eighth and ninth cen-
turies interrupted the services, and devastated the
property of churches and monastic orders. But
the judicious wisdom and enlightened zeal of Dun-
stan (959-988), the first of many English eccle-
siastical statesmen, repaired their ravages and
effected a severer discipline and a more compact
organization of the clergy. He guided the State
during the nine years' reign of the invalid Eld red.
During the Anglo-Saxon period papal rule won
acknowledgment in increasing measure. Mem-
bere of the royal family went to Rome, and Peter's
pence was paid to the Roman treasury. Under
the later Saxon kings the Church sank into igno-
rance and corruption. There were no synods; the
priests were married or lived in concubinage; and
simony was freely practised.
The Norman period dates from the conquest of
Elngland by William the Conqueror in 1066 under
a banner blessed by Alexander II. It is distin-
guished by the complete vassalage into which the
Church went to the papal see, the subjection of
EnirlAnd, Ohuroh of
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
m
the State to ecclesiastical domination, and the
growing corruption of the clergy. But the State
in turn struggled to emancipate itself
2. The from ecclesiastical fetters by legisla-
Norman tion, and the people to rid tliemselves
Period, of clerical incomj)etcncy and scandal
by a reform in tlie life and doctrine of
the Church. William the Conquemr removed all
the Saxon bishops excei)t Wulfstan of Worcester
and replaced them witli Norman prelates. He
practically chose all ecclesiastical dignitaries him-
self, and insisted upon tlie right of investiture as
his royal prerogative. He wit list ood the claims
of Gregory VIII. to rights over England as his fief.
I^m franc (q.v.), archbishop of Canterbury (1070-
10S9\ secured theinstitutionofsjHicial ecclesiastical
courts, in whicli all ecclesiastical cases were tried.
After Lanfranc, archbishop after arclibishop con-
tended with royalty, now for the su^xirior rights of
the Church and papal investiture, now for the
liberties of the people, lanfranc 's successor
Anselm (q.v.; 1093-1109), appointed by AVilliam
Rufus, fought the battle of investiture and went
into exile rather than receive it from the king.
Under his primacy the canons against clerical
marriage and concubinajre (1102, 1107, 1108) were
renewed by synodal action, but Eadmer reports
that " almost the greater and the better part of
tlie English clergy " were the sons of priests. The
next great archbishop Thomas Becket (q.v.; 1162-
1170), contended with Henry II., who sought to
reform the abuses growing out of clerical exemp-
tion from civil jurisdiction. Becket 's attitude
called forth the famous Constitutions of Clarendon
in 11G4, which forbade papal briefs to 1x3 received
in England without the royal consent, or prelates
to go to Rome without the s:une consent. Though
Becket was murdered, victorj' did not rest with
the king. It remained for the State as a national
b(Kly to come into subjection to the ecclesiastical
IK)wer of Rome. This was accomplished during
the reign of John (see Langtox, Stephen; and
Innocent III.).
A new era seemed to have dawned with the
earnest and plain preaching of the Dominican
(1221) and F'ranciscan friars (1224);
3. Pre-Ref- but, l>ecoming fat with lands, they
ormation lost their hold on the popular mind.
Resistance Here and there a great bishop, hke
to Rome. Grosseteste (q.v.; 123')-53), hfted up
his voice against the comiption of the
clergy, dared to resist the po|>c's assum])tion to
force appointments within his diocese, and insisted
upon the authority and preacliing of the Scrij)-
tures. The great ICnglish chronicler Matthew
Paris, in the middle of the thirtci'nth century,
voices the protest of the people against the mone-
tary' exactions of the po\xi and his agents. The
State was not completely paralyzed, but sought
to meet ecclesiastical domination and abuses with
remedial legislation. Two gR»at acts stand out as
protests against them. The statute of mortmain
(1279) forbade the alienation of lands to religious
con)orations in such wise as to be exempt from
taxation, while the statutes of praemunire and
provisors (1351, 1391, etc.) made a royal license
necessary to the validity of papal appointmniti
and bulls within the realm. [The statute of jn^
munire forbade resort to foreign tribunals (tb
curia include<]) for the adjudication of ecclesiistt*
cal causes without express permission from tb
crown. The statute of provisors was aimed aguist
the reservation by the pope for himself or idib-
vorites of English benefices, with the coUeetiooof
the revenues without equivalent service. In ctfe
endowed positions were kept vacant with soA
intent, the revenues were to go into the roril
exchequer. A. H. N.] Neither of these actiM*
complished much at the time, but the latter vii
u-sed effectively by Henry VIII. In 1366, a paziii-
ment of Edward III. definitely refused to pay the
annual tribute of a thousand marks promised bf
John to the apostolic see. In the fourteenth en-
tury loud protests began to be heard from tk
Ix?o})le and the clergy. John Wyclif (q.v.; 1324-
13S4), " the morning star of the ReforamtioD,"
translated the Scriptures and asserted the ri{^
of the State and the individual conscience. He
published in 1381 twelve theses against transub-
stantiation, and declared that the Lord was in the
sacrament as a king is in his realm. He insisted
upon the practise of preacliing. denounced the
itlleness and ignorance of the monks, defined the
(^hurch as "the organization of the elect," and
called ujwn the pope to give up his pride and wealth.
William Longland, without Erasmus' schobrship,
but in a more |X)pular and earnest vein than he,
ridiculed the friars in rimes. The Ix)llards (q-v.)
were so numerous that, according to the chronicler
Knighton, every other person on the road was one.
But the energetic opposition of Church and State
was effective in silencing them or inducing them to
recant. The statute ** for burning heretics " was
enacted in 1401. By the order of the CouncQ of
Constance (1415), Wyclif*s ashes were disinterred
and scattered in the Swift. The Church slumbered
on for more than a century longer, but the great
movement finally came, out of which Christianity
in England, again crystallized in a distinctly national
Church of England, started fon*'ard on a career of
renewed life and achievement.
n. History From the Reformation: The same
general principle of protest against ecclesiastical
corruption was involved in the Refor-
I. Henry mat ion movement in England that
Vin. inspired the Reformation on the
Continent. Nevertheless, the move-
ment in England had its own salient and distin-
guishing features, preserving in unbroken conti-
nuity the ecclesiastical orders and succession of the
catholic Church. dHrcumstances had been pre-
paring the way for the Reformation in England.
The signs of the times in the early part of the six-
teenth century indicated a mighty movement of
men's minds in England as well as on the Continent,
as shoA^Ti by the revival of classical learning with
huch names as Erasmus, Colet, and Thomas More,
the bold satires upon clerical abuses, the independ-
ence of thought ns shown in Erasmud* appeal to
the CI reek NVw Testament in the preface of his
edition (Basel, 1516), and More's dreams of im-
provement in Church and State in his Uiojna,
a»^
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Enirland, Ohuroh of
^^pen revolt was declared in the translation of the
^e^ Testament by Tyndale (1526) and its circu-
^tioD, in spite of ecclesiastical disapproval. Lu-
'^Ibbt's words from across the sea, declaring papal
^ocnioAtion to be the Babylonian captivity of the
^^urch (1520) found an eager audience in England,
fi0r eould the public burning of his tracts by Wolsey
(1521) check the growing movement against Ro-
man Catholic rule. Henry VIII., the ** defender of
the faith,'' was then a loyal son of Rome and set
luiDself against reform in doctrine or in ritual.
The aid which his attitude came to give to the
Reformation was brought about with no deliberate
intention on his part. The open rupture between
Rome and England, which might not inconceiv-
ably have come to pass in any case, was actually
forced, not as the protest of religious principles
against ecclesiastical abuses, but as a political
expedient to which Henry VIII. resorted to ao-
eomplish and to justify his divorce from Catherine
of Aragon and his marriage with Anne Boleyn. In
1531 Henry charged the clergy with a violation of
the statute of prsemunire for being accomplices
with Cardinal Wolsey, who had exercised the func-
tioos of a legate without the royal consent. The
two convocations compounded by the payment of
£118,000; but the king, not satisfied with this
evidence of a submissive temper, demanded that
he should be recognized as " chief protector, the
only supreme lord and head of the Church and clergy
in England." The Convocation of Canterbury
accepted the title, but added the limiting clause:
"so far as the law of Christ will allow.'' In 1533
a parliamentary statute forbade all ecclesiastical
appeals beyond the kingdom. The year following,
impelled by the pope's conmiand to take back
CSatherine, Henry secured the passage of the Act
of Supremacy, which made all papal appointments
within the realm illegal, and vested unlimited
authority in the crown to reform and redress eccle-
siastical abuses. The English Church was thus
severed from the papal communion and became an
independent body. It was not long before the king,
in 1536-39, made a bold use of his new authority
by abolisbdng the monastic establishments and
confiscating their wealth, amounting to £38,000,000.
In Thomas Cranmer (q.v.), who had helped him in
his eflForts to divorce Catherine, Henry found an
able primate. He was a strong friend of the new
views, married to a Lutheran wife, and in his
earlier life was strongly Lutheran in doctrine.
The king, however, had httle or no sympathy with
the Continental Reformation. He attacked Luther
in a tract on the seven sacraments, and Luther's
rude reply confirmed Henry's mind against the
Reformation. The articles adopted by Convoca-
tion in 1536 retained the doctrine of the Real
Presence, the use of images, prayers to saints,
purgatory, and auricular confession, and only
divested these practises of some gross superstitions.
The king seemed to take higher ground when he
gave his sanction to the translation of the Scrip-
tures known as the Great Bible (1539). But all
hopes of a thorough doctrinal reformation were
doomed to disappointment. The six so-called
" Bloody Articles " of 1539 denounced all denial of
transubstantiation as heresy, and declared strongly
in favor of auricular confession, the celibacy of the
clergy, and the sacrif ce of private masses. The pun-
ishment for denying transubstantiation was burning.
Under Edward VI. (1548-53), the doctrinal ref-
ormation was accomplished. The six articles were
repealed, and sjrmpathy with the Con-
2. Edward tinental Reformers was shown in the
VI. and call of Butzer and Fagius to Cam-
Mary, bridge, and of Peter Martyr and
Ochino to Oxford. A Prayer-Book
was issued in 1549, the Forty-Two Articles were
drawn up in 1552. They declared that ** the
Church of Rome hath eijred not only in its living
and manner of ceremonies, but also in matters of
faith " (xix.); expressly denied transubstantiation;
permitted the marriage of the clergy: discontinued
auricular confession; and approved of the com-
munion in both kinds. With their adoption the
formative period of the Church of England closes.
The reign of Mary (1553-58), a firm adherent of
the Roman Catholic faith, checked the Reforma-
tion for the moment, but did not crush it, though
a determined effort was made to restore papal
control over the English Church, the intolerance
of the age being freely employed. Hooper, Lati-
mer, Ridley, and Cranmer were brought to the
stake, and many refugees fled to Basel and Geneva;
but these persecutions, which were attributed
largely to Spanish influence, Mary being married
to Philip II., only awakened dogged resistance.
The number of certified executions for religious
reasons during her reign was 286, of which forty-six
were of women.
The accession of Elizabeth restored the inde-
pendence of the Church of England, which, in spite
of occasional resistance from within and
3. Elizabeth, papal opposition from without (1570),
became the permanent religious home
of the large majority in the land, and was firmly
established by the defeat of the Spanish Armada
in 1588. Two periods stand out in the history of
the Church under Elizabeth. In the early part of
her reign the separation of the National Church
from the Roman Catholic see was completed, and
in the latter part the conflict between Anglicanism
and Puritanism deepened and resulted in the vic-
tory of the Anglican school. The queen was no
zealous reformer, but directed the affairs of the
Church with the keen sagacity of a statesmanship
which placed national unity and the peace of the
realm above every other consideration. In the
first year of her reign the Act of Supremacy was
renewed and the Act of Uniformity (q.v.) was
passed. By the former all allegiance to foreign
princes or prelates was forbidden; by the latter
the use of the liturgy was enforced. The royal
title of ** Defender of the Faith and Supreme Head
of the Church " was retained, with the slight alter-
ation of " Head " to " Governor "; but the depre-
cation was struck out of the Litany which read,
" From the tyranny of the Bishop of Rome and all
his detestable enormities, good Lord, deliver us."
The queen retained, against the protest of bishops,
an altar, crucifix, and lighted candles in her own
chapel, disapproved of the marriage of the clergy,
Bn gland, Ohuroh of
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
184
interrupted the preacher who spoke disparagingly
of the sign of the cross, and imperiously forced her
wishes upon unwilling prelates. But in spite of
seeming to approximate the Church of Rome in
points of ritual, Elizabeth did not interfere by any
public measures with the results of the Reforma-
tion of Edward VI. The reduction of the Forty-
two Articles to thirty-nine (1563), the form which
they have ever since retained, did not impair their
Protestant character.
The independence of the National Church being
thus permanently settled, it remained only to settle
disputes within her own pale. The great question
was whether Puritanism should be tolerated. This
was a question not of doctrine, for the prevailing
doctrinal views were Calvinistic, and
4. Struggle Elizabeth's bishops, almost without
Between exception, were QJvinists. It was
Anglican- a question of ecclesiastical polity,
ism and ritual, and vestments. Many of the
Puritanism, refugees who had fled to the Continent
in Mary*s reign returned strongly prej-
udiced against an elaborate ritual, and in favor of
the Genevan form of government. Thomas Cart-
wright (q.v.), Margaret professor of divinity at
Cambridge, was the ablest exponent of these views
(1570). There was no uniformity practised in the
conduct of public services and the dress of the
clergy. Hooper, bishop of Gloucester, who had
died at the stake in 1555, for a long time refused
to be consecrated from conscientious scruples
against the usual episcopal robes, and Bishop Jewel
pronounced the clerical garb a stage dress and a
" relic of the Amorites." It is noteworthy that
two of Elizabeth's archbishops, Matthew Parker
and Edmund Grindal (qq.v.), were averse to enfor-
cing uniformity in these matters. The latter, ^ith
Bishops Parkhurst and Ponet, not only would
have allowed a coordinate authority to the presby-
terian system of Geneva, but would have gone
even farther. Grindal incurred susf>ension from his
office as primate by disobeying the queen's com-
mand to suppress the Puritan " prophesyings," or
informal religious harangues. By a royal procla-
mation these were suppressed, and a royal proc-
lamation had already required the use of clerical
vestments. It thus was decided that no unre-
stricted license in the conduct of public worsliip
and clerical dress was to be tolerated. These acts
made many of the Puritan clergy see fit to resign
their benefices. In Grindal 's successor, John Whit-
gift (q.v.), Ehzabeth had a prelate to her hand.
The breach between the two parties became wider;
and if tlie Churcli, on her part, refused to counte-
nance any dissidence, the Puritans, on their part,
became coarse, as in the so-called Marprelate
controversy (1588), when they issued scurrilous
libels against the queen and bishops (see Mar-
prelate Tracts). The controversy was closed in
1593 by an act of Parliament wliich made Puritan-
ism an oflFense against the statute law. After the
defeat of the Spanish Armada, some Puritans were
put to death and others took refuge in Holland,
and later in America. See Purftans, Puritanism.
The history of the seventeenth century is marked
by the consolidation of the Church of England in
spite of a temporary triumph of Puritanism, and
by the development of the doctrine of the divine
appointment of episcopacy, the fint
5. Triumph indications of which showed them-
of High- selves in the Puritan controversies of
church the Ehzabethan period, with a coo-
Principles sequent uncompromising resistaoee
Under to all dissent in ritual and docttino,
Stuarts, culminating in the repressive kgiiria-
tion of Charies II. Under James L
(1603-25), who came from Scotland to EngM
i^ith a cordial hatred of Presbjrterianism, the
Puritan party was completely humiliated. AH
the Puritan hopes expressed in the famous Mill^
nary Petition, signed by eight hundred deigy-
men, and asking for the removal of " superstitioui
usages " from the Prayer-Book, ete., were doomed
to disappointment; although James won the
approval of Churchmen and dissenters alike by
the preparation, under his auspices, of the au-
thorized version of the English Bible which ap-
peared in 1611 (see Hampton Court Confes-
ence). James retained relations with the Refonned
Churches of the Continent, and sent five commis-
sioners to represent the Church of England at the
Synod of Dort, with instructions to " favor no
innovations in doctrine, and to conform to the con-
fessions of the neighboring Reformed churches."
But full sympathy with the Continental churches
was hereafter impracticable, and recognition of
their orders (as was the case under Elizabeth)
impossible, by the High-church views of episcopacy
which were spreading, and which, under Charies 1.
(1625-49) and Archbishop Laud (q.v.; 1633-45),
assumed an extreme form. The latter taught that
episcopacy was not only necessary to the well-
being, but essential to the very existence of the
Church. His administration revived, to the Low-
church and Puritan mind, the ritual of Rome, and
displayed so much sympathy with it that he was
said to have been offered a cardinal's hat. Abbot,
archbishop of Canterbury (1611-35), was a strict
Calvinist, but he could not check the growth of
the Arminian views advocated by Laud, whose
fidelity to his principles brought him to the block
in 1645. He and Charles I. have since been re-
garded as martyrs by a school of Anglicans who
reprobate everything that savors of Puritanism as
contrary to the Church and to God. Since his day
a large liberty of opinion has been allowed and
practised in the Church of England on the question
of ritual and episcopacy; the High-church views of
Laud, and the Low-church views of Parker and
Grindal, both having their representatives.
During the Commonwealth, the Established
Church was, in fact, a religio illicitae an act of Par-
liament having abolished episcopacy,
6. The Com- and discontinued the use of the Lit-
monwealth, urgy (Sept. 10, 1642). Puritanism
the Resto- triumphed for a time, and the West-
ration, the minster Assembly (q.v.) in 1643 es-
House of tablished a Presbyterian kingdom;
Hanover, but in spite of the strong theological
intellects which supported it, and in
spite of the massive will of Cromwell, who was not
a Presbyterian, but an Lidependent, Puritanism
X»5
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bziffland, Ohuroh of
s a faOure in England. The accession of Charles
II. (1660) restored the Church of England to the
national position which it has ever since held.
Stern measures ag*ainst the Puntans soon followed.
By the Act of TJniformity (q.v.) of 1662, the use
of the Prayer-Book was rigidly enforced; and two
thousand English clergymen, among them some of
the most scholarly and pious divines of the time
(such as Baxter and Howe), were deprived of their
henefices. These penalties for dissent were in-
creased by the Five-Mile Act (q.v.) of 1665, while
the Test Act (q.v.) of 1673, by exchiding all Puri-
tans from office, marked the culmination of legis-
lation against dissenters. Charles II. died, it is
^mmonly held, a Roman Catholic, and his brother,
James XL, hved as one; but the nation was against
him, and his efforts to restore confidence and tol-
eration for the Roman Church failed. The acces-
sion of William and Mary in 1688 ushered in a new
epoch. The principle that the Estabhshed Church
had an exclusive right to existence and protection
was abrogated. The movement in favor not only
of toleration but of absolute freedom of worship
and political equality without reference to eccle-
aastical connection began with this reign. Put
into more and more extensive practise, this prin-
ciple has effected the abohtion of most, if not all,
political disabilities on account of religious differ-
ences. The first legislation in this direction was
the Act of Toleration (q.v.) of 1689 establishing
freedom of worship. The nineteenth century
witnessed the repeal of the Test Act (1828), the
removal of the disabilities of the Roman Catholics
(1829) and Jews (1858), and the disestablishment
of the Irish Church (1868).
The eighteenth century was characterized by a
wide-spread rehgious apathy and worldliness among
the clergy, and witnessed the culmi-
7- Deism, nation of Deism, which identified
Rise of Christian revelation with natural re-
Methodism, ligion, and excluded from Christianity,
as ungenuine and false, all that was
not contained in the latter (see Deism). But the
influence of Deism was more than counteracted by
the Evangelical spirit and activity of Whitefield
and the Wesleys, graduates of Oxford, which worked
with irresistible power upon the masses, and aroused
the clergy out of their indifference to a new sense
of their spiritual obligations. John Wesley (q.v.;
1702-91), the founder of the movement, a man of
notable power of organization as well as a great
preacher, reached the masses and spoke as no single
individual had spoken to England since WycUf.
Charies Wesley (q.v.) gave the English people some
of its best hynms. Whitefield (q.v.) in America
as well as in England made the reputation of the
greatest popular preacher England had produced.
Against his will John Wesley founded a new church
organization (see Metuodists). Fresh life sprang
up in the Church of England as a result of this
revival of practical religion. The so-called Evan-
gehcals, including some of the most famous pastors,
fervent preachers, devout poets, and self-sacrificing
philanthropists — ^men like Venn and Newton and
Cowper and Wilberforce — brought a warm conse-
cration to their work and vied with the more elo-
quent and equally devoted leaders of the Methodist
movement in spreading the truths of vital religion.
The century closed with an intense sympathy for
the heathen abroad and the depraved classes at
home. Sunday Schools were organized by the
layman Robert Raikes of Gloucester in 1780, and
in 1799 the Church Missionary Society was founded,
while later still the movement which resulted in the
abolition of the slave-trade was inaugurated by
Wilberforce.
The nineteenth century was characterized by
earnest philanthropic movements, by the rise of the
Oxford Movement, which profoundly
8. Later influenced the Church (see Tractari-
History. anism), and by the close affihation
with the Episcopal churches in the
United States and the English colonies. The
British and Foreign Bible Society united Church-
men and dissenters in a common enterprise, and
the Evangehcal Alliance, in 1840, again sought to
unify them in spirit and prayer. No preceding
period was distinguished for piety at once more
practical and more Uberal. However, the Church
received a blow which, in the eyes of her opponents,
threatened to crush her, when John Henry Newman,
Henry Edward Manning, Frederick W. Faber, and
other men of eminence among both the clergy and
the laity became converts to the Roman Catholic
communion. A far different school, equally devo-
ted to the Church of England, but adhering to
Reformation rather than to Anglo-Cathohc tenets,
included such men as the Hares, F. D. Maurice,
and Archbishop Whateley. In the last half of the
century Biblical scholarship was carried on to a
high point by such men as Archbishop Trench,
Dean Alford, Bishops Lightfoot and Westcott of
Durham, Bishop Ellicott, Dean Stanley, and Pro-
fessors Hatch and Hort, not to mention the living.
These Biblical studies culminated in the movement
to revise the EngUsh translation of the Bible (see
Bible Versions, B, IV., § 7). The High-church
party lays emphasis upon the exclusive right of
episcopacy and apostolic succession, and main-
tains an advanced ritual, together with insistence
on the doctrines of the Real Presence and baptismal
regeneration. The extreme wing has reintroduced
practises abrogated under Lutheran and Calvinistic
influence, such as veneration of the Blessed Sacra-
ment, auricular confession, communion in one kind
for the laity, and the estabhshment of monastic
orders. They are distinguished for the elaborate
and reverent character of their services, for the
frequent celebration of the Eucharist, which is held
to be sacrificial, and for their great zeal and devo-
tion in benevolent church work. Occupying oppo-
site ground is the Low-church party, which holds
strictly to the natural interpretation of the Thirty-
nine Articles (q.v.), denies episcopacy to be of the
essence of the Church, and denounces so-called
rituaUstic practises. Between these two schools a
third has grown up since the middle of the nine-
teenth century. Its combination of tolerant, and
sometimes latitudinarian, sympathies with loyalty
to the Church has secured for it the name of the
Broad-church party. Among its more prominent
representatives have been Arnold, Julius Hare,
Enfflaad, Ohuroh of
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
M
Maurice, Kingsley, and Stanley. During the nine-
teenth century the vigorous life of the Church was
further shown by the restoration of cathedrals and
the construction of churches, in the creation of new
episcopal sees at home and the rapid extension of the
Church and episcopate in the colonies. In addition
to the Parliamentary acts bearing on the rights of
Churchmen were the Compulsory Church Rate Abo-
lition Act (1868) relieving dissenters of church tax-
ation, and the University Test Act (1871) throwing
open the universities to all irrespective of creed.
m. Theology, Liturgy, Clergy, Government:
The doctrinal standards of the Anglican Church
are the Thirty-Nine Articles (q.v.) and the Book
of Common Prayer (see Common Prayer, Book
of). To these may be added the
I. Theology. Catechism and the two Books of
Homilies (see Homiliarium) issued
in the reign of Edward VI. and sanctioned
by the Thirty-nine Articles. Within the pale
of the Church the most divergent views have
prevailed concerning its doctrinal status. On the
one hand, it has been represented as strongly
Calvinistic, both in respect to the sacraments and
to the decrees; on the other hand, theologians such
as Newman (before his conversion to the Roman
Catholic faith). Bishop Forbes of Brechin, and
Pusey hold that nothing is taught in the Thirty-
nine Articles which can not be harmonized with
the Tridentine decrees. An imprejudiced study
of the wording of the Articles, without any infer-
ences from what is left imsaid, shows that they
teach a moderate Calvinism, and are in all essen-
tials in sympathy with the Protestant Reformation
of the Continent. The sole and supreme authority
of the Scriptures is emphasized (Art. vi.), as is the
doctrine of justification by faith, Art. xi. reading:
** Wherefore, that we are justified by Faith only, is
a most wholesome Doctrine," etc. Original sin is
the corruption by nature of every descendant of
Adam (Art. ix.); and predestination is the ever-
lasting purpose of God to redeem " those whom he
hath chosen in Christ out of mankind " (Art. xvii.).
The doctrines of purgatory, celibacy, etc., are
specifically denounced (Arts, xxii., xxxii.). The
teaching concerning the Eucharist is plainly against
transubstantiation, which, in Art. xxviii., is de-
clared to be ** repugnant to the plain words of
Scripture," the *' Body of Christ " being *' given,
taken, and eaten, in the Supper, only after a heav-
enly and spiritual manner." While Art. xxvii. can
scarcely be said unreservedly to set forth the doc-
trine of baptismal regeneration, the case is different
in the Office for Baptism in the Prayer-Book.
After the child has been baptized, the priest says:
" Seeing now . . . that this Child is regenerate,
and grafted into the body of Christ's Church ";
and again, after repeating the Lord's Prayer, he
gives thanks to God for regenerating the infant, etc.
These words, naturally interi)reted, teach baptismal
regeneration, although by Low-churclimen they are
frequently explained as being used in a hypothetical
sense.
The worship of the Church of England is liturgical
and is regulated by the Book of Common Prayer.
Its beautiful forms of service, and its solemn and
venerable prayers, are not only among the ebokt^
specimens of English, but exert on the earaai;
heart of those who hear them an ii*
2. liturgy, fluence which nothing else can replMa ]
The rubrics (so called from having oq|^
inally been written or printed in red ink) gm :
directions for the minutest details of the flerfHai>:
Provision is made for daily morning and evftiafi
prayer, these services consisting of prayers, anthm^
(Te Deum, BenedicUe, Magntficatf Nunc DM%
etc.), one lesson from the Old and one from the IKmt
Testament, the Creed, and the sermon. Afltaei
morning prayer on Sunday, Wednesday, and Fridm^:
a Litany of great beauty and comprehenaveiMf
should be recited; and the Eucharist, for wfaiA
a separate liturgy is provided, is celebrated at mi^
ing intervab, as often as once daily in many Q^
churches. The original purpose was obvioiul|y Ii
have a celebration at least once each week. Twoit^
nine feasts are observed, while Lent and AdfWl»
with certain other days, are fasts. The focmB for
baptism, confirmation, marriage, burial, and odh
nation are prescribed. The creeds are the ApostlBi^'
Nicene, and Athanasian, the last-named assailedfagra
strong faction. Any departure, even in the smaflMft
detail, from the Book of Conmion Pra3rer is iOepiL
The clergy of the Church of England coDdsti d:'
three orders — deacons, priests (presbyters), Mi
bishops. The canonical age is reqMel>
3. The ively twenty-three, twenty-four, Mi
Clergy, thirty. The duties of the deaooo m
to render assistance to the priest in tki {
service of the sanctuary and in pastoral work. Hi ■
may preach, read the prayers and Scripture 1»
sons, assist in the distribution of the elementBrt
communion, and administer baptism. The prieit
serves at the altar and consecrates the elementB it
the Eucharist. At his ordination the bishop pio-
nounces upon him the words " Receive the Half
Ghost for the Office and Work of a Priest in tta
Church of God," etc., this being interpreted «tl«r
as a petition for the anointing of the Hdy Spirii
or as marking the transmission of a heavenly gntt
through the bishop. The bishop has the exduflvs
right of ordination, confirmation, and the coop-
eration of churches. Bishops are appointed by tin
crown. A congi d'dire is sent to the chapter wbei
a bishopric is vacant, but it is a mere formality, li
the name of the new appointee is sent with it. Il
the case of bishoprics recently established, as Mift*
Chester, St. Albans, Liverpool, Truro, Newcastle
and Southwell, they are conferred directly bf
letters patent from the crown. Deans have chai9
of cathedral churches and are assisted by canooii
the number of which may not exceed six for ssf
cathedral. The archdeacon assists the bishop in
his official duties as superintendent of the dioceflft.
He holds synods, dehvers charges, and visits pa^
ishes. He is sometimes aided by rural deans.
Both these classes are members of ConvocatioQ
by virtue of their office. No bishop is allowed te
transgress the limits of his diocese in the per
formance of episcopal functions imless requestei
so to do. The bishops frequently associate wit!
themselves suffragan bishops.
England is divided into the two archbiBhopik
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bnirland, Ohuroh of
3ibuiy and Yoric. In 1906 there were
he limits of the former twenty-five sees,
and within tiie latter nine. In order
Em- of dignity the archdioceses and dioceses
: rank: Canterbury, York, London,
Durham, Winchester, etc. In connec-
i the Church of England and Wales there are
ity-one suffragan bishops and two assistant
The Irish Church, disestablished in 1869,
archbishops and eleven bishops, and the
episcopal Church has seven bishops. The
)nial see was that of Nova Scotia, which
.ted in 1787. There are thirty-two deans
J over as many cathedrals, but the deans
minster and Windsor are independent of
I control, and are subject directly to the
There are ninety-three archdeacons and
U deans. The clen^ of the Church in
orders in England and Wales are called
" " vicar," " curate," etc., and at the cen-
901 numbered 25,235. The benefices, or
lumber nearly 14,080. Their patronage is
between the crown (1 , 150 livings), the bishops
the imiversities (770), private patrons
jtc. (see England and Wales.) The con-
he bishop of the diocese is necessary to the
Q of an incumbent; and, in the event of a
nent between patron and bishop, the case
ed by the Court of Arches. The people
voice in the choice of their rector, but the
moe inducted, has absolute control of his
so that not even the bishop may enter it
his consent. Many of the parishes have
ents in lands; others are supported, in
* in part, from public funds, such as Queen
Bounty. The system of patronage has led
es, some of which still remain. On the
nd, the plurality system, by which a clergy-
^t hold any number of livings at the same
d which was so much abused in the seven-
ind eighteenth centuries, has been rectified
iamentary legislation. Under the present
)ne can hold two cathedral positions at the
me. The holder of a cathedral position
Id only one parish besides. A clergyman
ve two parishes; but if the one numbers
lousand, the other may not include more
B hundred. The evils of non-residence have
been restraintd by law. The yearly in-
F the Church of England from voluntary
itions amounts to something more than
XX) and the income from ancient endow-
» £5,500,000. Of this income the arch-
►f Canterbury receives £15,000, and the arch-
of York £10,000; the bishop of London
t, and the bishop of Durham £8,000. The
h the smallest income is that of the
of Sodor and Man, which amounts to
Deans on the average receive £1 000; and
gy from £150 upward. A fund managed
** Ecclesiastical Commission," and supplied
revenues of suppressed canonries, sinecures,
5 surplus revenues of bishoprics over and
be episcopal salary, is used for the augmen-
>f bishoprics, the increase of the smaller
the endowment of new churches, etc.
The Church of England is one of the estates of
the realm. Its relation to the State is one of de-
pendence, the sovereign being its
5. Relation supreme governor, and Parliament
of Church its highest legislature. The arch-
and State, bishop of Canterbury is the first peer
in the realm and crowns the king.
The bishops (see Episcopacy, IV.) have their
" palaces," and seats in the House of Lords, except
the bishop of Sodor and Man. As for the rest, ex-
cepting the bishops of London, Winchester, and
Durham (who always sit), they have seats only after
their appointment to the House of Lords. The
Church does not legislate for itself independently or
directly; it is subject to Parliament. The convoca-
tions of Canterbury and York are the two highest
official church bodies. Convocation is assembled
by the king's writ, and can not proceed to make
new canons without his license, nor are its decisions
vahd till confirmed by his sanction (see Convoca-
tion). Judicial business is transacted in three
courts. The lowest is the diocesan Consistory
Court, presided over by the bishop's chancellor.
Appealed cases go up to the Court of Arches, the
official head of which is styled Dean of the Arches
(see Arches, Court of). The last tribunal of
appeal is the king in council, or the judicial com-
mittee of the Privy Council. There are three church
censures: suspension (for the neglect of parish
duties), deprivation, and degradation. The two
latter follow upon the disuse of the Prayer-Book,
teachings subversive of the Thirty-nine Articles,
simony, or conviction in a civil court. The Court
of Arches alone exercises the right of deprivation.
In 1888 the first Lambeth Synod was held which
included the bishops of the Church of England and
the Colonies and all the Protestant Episcopal
churches of America (see Lambeth Conference;
Lambeth Articles). As in America, it should be
noted, the opposition of a wing of the Low-church
party to the Oxford Movement led to the formation
of the Free Church of England (q.v.) as well as
to the introduction into England of the Reformed
Episcopal Church (q.v.). D. S. Schaff.
Bibuoqbapht: For a comprehensive list of the literature
the fullest treatment is in the Britiah Muaeum Catalogue
of Printed Booke, in six parts, under the entry " Eng-
land." The titles of the most important recent works
(1880-1905) are collected in the Subject Index issued by
the trustees of the British Museum, under the entry " Eng-
land," in which a section is devoted to the Church of
England. A very necessary volume is C. Gross. Sourcea
and Literature of Engliah Hiatory . . . to AboiU I486,
London, 1900. The reader is referred also to the bibli-
ographies appended to the articles on the individual
worthies of that communion in this work, and to such
articles as CoifiioN Prayer, Book of; Thirtt-nine
Articles; and Westiiinster Asskiibly.
For general treatment the pertinent works of the Eng-
lish historians Lingard (Roman Catholic; able), Freeman,
Froude, Green. Ranke, H. D. Traill (Social England, 6
vols., London. 1893-97, 3d ed. in progress), Gardiner, and
Lecky are to be lonsulted. as well as the monumental
Dictionary of National Biography. As pourccs the super-
latively important Rolls Seriee may not be overlooked,
as well as the publications of the Camden and Surteea
Societies. Bohn'a Antiquarian Library, 41 vols., London,
1848 sqq., contains the medieval English chroniclers and
other valuable works. On the Reformation the publi-
cations of the Parker Society are to be noted; also Foxe's
Acta and Afonumenta, best ed.. 8 vols., London, 1843;
J. Strype, Annala of the Reformation (and other works),
Bnffland, Ohuroh of
Bnffland and Wales
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
1«
27 vols.. Oxford, 1822-28; G. Burnet, Hi»t. of the Refor-
tnaHon, 7 vols.. Oxford, 1865; D. Neal, Hut. of the Puri-
tans, new ed., 2 vols., London, 1843; cf. also F. Seebohm,
Oxford Reformer»t 3d ed., London, 1887; and the general
works upon the Reformation.
On the general history consult: the Opera of Bede;
J. Ussher, Eccleaiarum Britannicarum arUiquilates^ in the
Works, ed. C. R. Elrington, 16 vols., Dublin, 1847-62;
£. Stillingfleet, Originea BrUannicce, ed. Pantin, 2 vols.,
Oxford, 1842; T. Fuller. Churdi, Hiet. of Britain, ed. J.
Nichols, 3 vols., London. 1868; J. Inett, Originee AnoU-
canoB, ed. J. GriflSths, 3 vols., Oxford, 1855 (in continua-
tion of Stillingfleet); J. Collier, Eccl. Hiet. of Great Britain,
best ed.. 0 vols.. London, 1840 (goes through the reign of
Charles IL); J. Grant, Hiet. of the English Church and of
the Sects, . . . tvith Anstoera to Each Dissenting Body, 4
vols., London, 1811-25 (goes through the reign of George
III.); E. Card well. Documentary Annals of the Reformed
Church of England, 1646-1716, 2 vols., Oxford, 1844; G.
Weber, Oesehichte der akatholischen Kirchen und Sekten
von Grosabritannien, 2 vols., Leifraic, 1845-53; J. S. M.
Anderson, Hist, of the Chxirch of England in the Coloniea,
3 vols., London, 1868; G. G. Perry, Hiat. of the Church of
England, 3 vols., ib. 1862-64; R. W. Dixon. Hiatory of
the Church of England from the Abolition of the Roman
Jufiadiction, 4 vols., ib. 1878-91; A. Martineau, Church
HiaL in England . . . to the Reformation, ib. 1878; R.
Barclay, Inner Life of the Religioua Sodetiea of the Common-
wealth, 2 vols., ib. 1879; E. Churton, The Early Engliah
Church, ib. 1879; J. Stoughton, Hiat. of Religion in Eng-
land, 1640-1800, 6 vols., ib. 1881; idem, Religion in
England during the Firat Half of the Preaent Century, 2
vols., ib. 1884; C. J. Abbey and J. H. Overton, The Eng-
liah Church in the 18th Century, 2 vols., ib. 1887; W.
Stubbs, Regiabrum aacrum Anglicanum, Oxford, 1897; a
new ed. of Stubbs' Lectures on Early Engliah Church
Hiat., ed. A. Hassall, appeared, ib. 1906; W. A. Shaw,
• Hiat. of the Engliah Church, 1640-1660, 2 vols., ib. 1900;
J. H. Overton, The Church in England, 2 vols., ib. 1903.
Convenient handbooks are: G. G. Perry, Student'a Church
Hiat of England, 3 vols., ib. 1878-87; A. C. Jennings, Ec-
cUaia Anglicana, ib. 1882; H. Gee, The Elizabethan Clergy
and the Settlement of Religion, Oxford, 1898; H. C.
G. Moule, Evangelical School in the Church of Eng-
land; ite Men and ita Work in the 19th Century, Lon-
don, 1901; A. Plummer, Engliah Church Hiat., 1609-
1702, 3 vols., Edinburgh, 1904-07; T. Allison, Lecturea
on Engliah Church Hist 1702, London. 1906; A.
Gasquet, Henry Vffl. and the English Monasteries, ib.
1906 (Roman Catholic); S. R. Maitland, The Reformation
in England, New York, 1906; H. N. Birt, The Elizabethan
Religious Settlement, a Study of Contemporary Documents,
London, 1907 (Roman Catholic): J. H. Overton, The Angli-
can Revival, New York, 1907; W. B. Carpenter. Popular
Hist, of the Church of England, London, 1 908; G. R. Bal-
leine. A Hiat. qf the Evangelical Party in the Chur<^ of
England, ib. 1908.
On councils and church law: D. Wilkins, Concilia
Magnce BrUannice, 4 vols., London, 1737; E. Card well,
Synodalia, a Collection of Articles of Religious Canons and
Proceedinga of Convocation in the Province of Canterbury,
2 vols., Oxford. 1842; F. Makower, The Conatitutional
Hiat. and Conatitution of the Church of England, London.
1895; R. J. Phillimore, The EccUaiaatical Law of the Church
of England, ed. W. G. F. Phillimore and C. F. Jemmett,
2 vols., London, 1896; W. Stubbs, The Conatitutional
Hiat of England, 3 vols., Oxford, 1897; idem, Select
Chartera of English Court Hist, ib. 1900; F. W. Maitland.
Roman Canon Law in the Church of England, London, 1898;
H. H. Henson. The National Church ; Eaaaya on its Hist
and ConstitiUion, ib., 1908; Gee and Hardy, Documents.
ENGLAND AND WALES.
Established Church (J 1). Salvation Army. Minor De-
Presbyterians and Methodists nominations, Roman Catho-
ii 2). lies (S 4).
Congregationalists, Baptists, Theological Schools (J 6).
Calvinistic Methodists (§3).
England and Wales constitute two divisions of
the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.
They are divided into fifty-two counties, forty in
En^and and twelve in Wales, and have an area of
58,323 square miles and a population (1901) 4
32,526,075. The established Church ia the Ctorf
of England (see England, Church of), but dj
other religious bodies are fully recognized and ftd|
crated, and no civil disability attaches to any
of British subjects because of their religious
or unbelief. Since no religious census of Gnril
Britain has recently been taken, the statistki |t
the present article are drawn from year-books a|
other sources, so that the figures represent not oi^
different years, but also refer sometimes to ^^""ghill
alone, sometimes to England and Wales, and wg :
times to the British Isles.
In the Established Chureh in Elngland and Wtbr^
there are two archbishops, thirty-five
thirty suffragan and two assistant bishops. Unds
the bishops are thirty-two dcH^i
I. Estab- ninety-five arehdeacons, and eight'
lished dred and ten rural deans. For tb
Church, management of ecclesiastical
each of the arohbishoprics, or " pnrti
inccs,'' has a council, or Convocation (q.v.),C(MukliHt
of the bishops, arehdeacons, and deans in pei80ik,aM
of a certain niunber of proctors as the represeatfr'
tives of the clergy. These councils are summcail'.:
by the respective arehbishops in pursuance of III'
king's command. When assembled, they mtft,
have the king's license before they can delibenli'|
and also the sanction of the crown to their resoll^
tions before they are binding on the clergy, so tiM i
their actual power is extremely limited. Hi
niunber of civil parishes (districts tor which a
separate poor rate is or can be made) was 14,M
at the census of 1901. These, however, addoa
coincide with ecclesiastical parishes, which, dttriif
recent years, have lost their old importanoe, tti
ancient parishes having been frequently diridsl
into districts, each of which is virtually an indepeni-
ent parish. Of such parishes there were 14,080
in 1901, including those of the Isle of Man and thi
Channel Islands. Since 1818 the Church BinWillg
Society and the Ecclesiastical Conmussioners htii
formed upward of 3,000 new ecclesiastical paiiahei.
Each parish has its church, presided over by il
incumbent in priest's orders, and known as rector,
vicar, or perpetual curate according to his rdatka
to the temporalities of his parish. Private penoBi
possess the right of presentation to about 8,500
Ixjnefices; the patronage of the others bdoQ^
mainly to the king, the bishops and cathedrals, tto
Lord ChanceUor, and the universities of Oxfoid
and Cambridge. The census returns for 1901 g»t*
the number of the clergy of the Church of England
as 25,235. In 1905 there were 14,029 incumbcnia
and about 7,500 curates and unbeneficed dergft
while the non-active list comprised about 4,000.
The church accommodation, according to retunn
by 13,948 incumbents, was as follows: in pariA
churches, 5,774,608; in chai)els-of-ease, 674,038;
in mission-rooms, etc., 733,607; total 7,182,253.
The number of communicants was estimated at
2.223,207; of Sunday School teachers at 209,338;
of Sunday School scholars at 2,467,902. The groii
annual income of the clergy in 1904-05 was esti-
mated at £4,539,350, and the net income at £3,574,'
430. The amount of the voluntaiy contribution
X39
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bnirland, Ohoroh of
Bxi«rland and Wales
^Mk 1904-05 was put approximately at £8,029,714,
€iff which £2,290,247 were expended by central
societies, institutions, etc., for home and foreign
■ttiflsioDS and other educational and philanthropic
^iraks, while £5,546,029 consisted of funds applied
4iO local purposes, such as elementary education,
Oe support of the clergy, and general parochial
^motk, and £193,437 were for the extension of the
^ipiBcopate in England. Of 29,632 churches and
<cduipels registered for the solemnization of marriage
in 1904, 15,538 belonged to the Established Church
mod 14,094 to other religious denominations.
The Presbyterian Church of England had, in 1907,
twelve presbyteries, 345 congregations, fifteen
preaching stations, and 85,755 mem-
3. Presby- bers. It has a theological college and
terians and supports seventy-eight missionaries
Mfthodists. abroad, including thirty-three women.
In 1905 the amount raised for all pur-
poees was £304,613. Other Presbyterian divisions
in England are the Reformed Presbyterian Synod,
Eastern Reformed Synod, United Original Seceders,
and Synod of the Church of Scotland in England
(see Presbtterians). Under the general desig-
nation of Methodists (q.v.) are included all those
rdigious bodies which owe their existence, directly
or indirectly, to the efforts of John and Charles
Wedey. The most niunerous and influential of
tbem are the Wesleyan Methodists, the original
body founded in 1739. They are governed pri-
marily by the Conference and secondarily by the
Qsmods, the latter being semi-annual meetings of
the ministers and selected lajrmen in each district,
with a chairman appointed by the Conference,
which is now composed of 300 ministers and an
equal number of laymen, with a ministerial presi-
dent and secretary elected annually. There are
likewise quarterly meetings of the ministers and
lay officers of each circuit. The authority of both
the latter bodies is subordinate to that of the Con-
ference. They reported for Great Britain in 1907
2,445 ministers, 19,672 lay preachers, 539,146
church members, 7,566 Simday Schools, 133,108
oflicers and teachers, 1,000,819 scholars, and 8,520
churches with seating capacity of 2,326,228. Vari-
ous divisions of Methodists have been formed, the
most important being (1) the Methodist New
Connexion, formed in 1797 by Alexander Kilham,
(2) Primitive Methodists, (3) Bible Christians, and
(4) United Methodist Free Churches (see Method-
ists).
The Independents or CongregationaHsts reject
episcopacy and presbyteries. In 1907 they had
fifty-one county and other associations
3. Congre- in England and Wales, with 4,661
gationalists, churches and preaching stations con-
BaptistSy taining 1,694,879 sittings; the number
Calvinistic of ministers in the British Isles was
Methodists, then 3,253. Of these 238 were tem-
porarily without pastoral charge,
seventy-nine were engaged in collegiate and tutorial
duties, forty-four were occupied in secretarial work,
and 378 had retired from the active pastorate be-
cause of old age or ill health (see Congreoation-
alistb). The Countess of Huntingdon's Connexion,
with forty-four chapels and mission stations, is the
outcome of the eighteenth century revival. It is
governed by nine trustees assisted by an annual
conference of ministers and delegates. The Bap-
tists, Hke the CongregationaHsts, are grouped for
the most part in associations of churches, the
majority of which belong to the Baptist Union,
formed in 1813. In England and Wales there were,
in 1907, 6,706 churches and chapels and 1,972
pastors. The members numbered 405,244, the
Sunday School teachers 57,240, and the Sunday
School scholars 564,939. The Welsh Calvinistic
Methodist Connexion (see Presbyterians) is the
only church of purely Welsh origin, and embraces
a very large section of the Welsh-speaking popu-
lation. The form of Church government is Pres-
byterian, and the Church is in federation with the
United Free Church of Scotland and with the
Presbyterian Church of England. In 1906 the
denomination had 1,411 churches; 1,620 chapels
and places of worship; 1 ,248 ministers and preachers;
5,946 deacons; 189,164 communicants; 3,050 on
probation; 27,112 Sunday School teachers; and
195,227 Sunday School scholars. For the con-
certed movement of non-conformists against prelacy
see Free Church Federation.
The Salvation Army (q.v.) is one of the most
recent religious denominations and one of the most
successful. In Aug., 1906, the num-
4. Salvation ber of officers, cadets, and employees
Army, was 20,077, of corps and outposts
MmorDe- 7,680, and of local officers 45,320.
nomina- Connected with the Salvation Army
tions, are numerous philanthropic institutions
Roman under various denominations, inclu-
Catholics. ding 110 rescue houses for fallen women,
132 slum posts, fifteen prison-gate
homes, 183 shelters and cheap food depots for the
homeless, 102 workshops and factories, forty -five
labor bureaus, thirteen farms, etc. Among the
minor denominations the most important are the
Unitarians with about 350 ministers and 345
chapels and other places of worship. The Society
of Friends (q.v.) has 18,466 members in Great
Britain, 424 recorded ministers, including over 150
women, and 421 places of worship. The Churches
of Christ have 13,844 members and 179 churches in
the British Isles, with 153 Sunday Schools, 1,583
teachers, and 16,041 scholars. Tne Moravians
(q.v.) have about fifty congregations and preach-
ing stations. The Free Church of England (q.v.^
has twenty-four ministers, twenty-seven churches,
1,352 communicants, 8,140 sittings, 361 Sunday
School teachers, and 4,196 Sunday School scholars.
The Reformed Episcopal Church has twenty-eight
ministers, 1,990 communicants, 6,000 sittings, 256
Sunday School teachers, and 2,600 Simday Scliool
scholars (see Reformed Episcopal Church).
The Catholic Apostolic Cliurch (q.v.) has about
eighty churches; the New Jerusalem Church (q.v.)
has seventy-five societies, with 6,063 registered
members; the Mormons (q.v.) have eighty- two
chiuxhes; and the Plymouth Brethren (q.v.) have
twenty-three places of worship m London and its
suburbs. In the United iimgdom tnere arts about
196,000 Jews, mainly in London and other largo
to^'ns. They have 200 aynagogues, with about
Xnffland and Wales
Bnllghtenment
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
m
200 minbteri and readers. The Jews support their
owa poor atid mim about £150,000 anouallj for
neligioua and benevolent purponea. Tbe Moham-
med&os have a jno^iquo. The Gn?eks have churchee
in I^ndon, ManchcHter, and Livefpoeil; the Arme-
niana poet^e^ churches in London and Maneb^ter^
and the French, Dutch, Bwedes^ and Swiss have
places of wombip in London, Norwichp ajid Can*
terbury. The Roman Catholic Church baa in the
Britiiih Empire thirty archie piscopal and 106 epis-
copal aces, thirty-four vicariates, and twelve pre-
fect urcs apostolic. Ineludini^ two delegates apoe*^
tollc, seven coadj utors and ^ven auxiliary biahopt^^
the archbishops and bi^fhopa now holding office
in the British Empire number 180,
There are in the BritLsh Ides fifty theological
BChools, divided as follows: Church of Engbnd
twenty -one, i.e., sixteen tbeolo|:ical
5. Tbeo- coUegej^,— Aberdare (founded in 1K92),
logical Cambridge (Ridley HaU. 1881)» Chi-
Schoola. Chester (1839), Cuddesidon (1854),
Edinburgh (1845). Ely (1876), Me of
Man (Bishop Wilson Theological School, 1897),
Lix;ds tlergj' School (1S76K Lichfield (1857), Liii-
cobi (1874), Oxford (Wycltffe HuU, 187a, and St.
Stephen *B House, 1876), St, Aitlan's (1K46), High-
bury 0U John's Hall, Tniveraity of Ixsndon, 186.1),
Salisbury (1861), and WeUs (1H40)— and five mis-
eionary collegei»,~^t. Augustine's ((jknlcrbury),
Islington, Burgh (lincolnshiiie), Dorchc«iter {Ox-
fordshire), and Bi. Boniface (Warmbnator). The
Methodists have eight college*, i.e*, the Wesleyan
Methodista five, — Richmond, Did^-bury (Manchc(=H
ter), lieadingley (I-^jcds), Ifandsttorth (Birmiug-
faam), and Belfast; the Primitive Methmlists and
the Free ftletbodists one each at Manchester; and
the Methodist New Connexion one at Ranmoor
(Sheffield)* The Congrecalionalists liave nine, —
New (l^ndon, 169*)), We-Htem (Bri.^tol, 17^2),
Yorksliire United (Bradford^ 1756). llampsitead
(1803), LancasluPG {Manchester, 1816), Mansfield
(Oxford, 1886), Nottingham (1803), Memoriid
(Brecon, 1753), and Bangor (1841). The Baptist?*
have geven," Bri,s(ol (laSO). Bangor (1862), Raw-
don (Yorkshire, 18^1), llcgpnt'a" Park (Umdon.
1810), Paators' (1856), Manchester (1866). ami
Cardiff (1807). Tlic Presbyterians have a colic iw
at Cambridge O^e.^f'^^^'^ter). the Calvinii*! ic Mt^th-
odists two at Bala and Abt^rystMyth, and the
Unitarians one at Oxford (Mancliester), while an
undenominational tbcological school is located at
Carmarthen (founded in H>H9).
Biolioqhafht: For the vtaliRticii ami dHjulu concerninw
the Chureb of Englmnc] there iU¥ il^'mllAblti )h« &tii]<uiil.>4:
The ChurrhmaTi's .'lTirit40^' Tht Oj^TWal Yfar-B^J^ ef iAe
Church; Njfe's I UuMtrntid Church Annual : The X&Hotmt
Churrh AlmaTiar, iktitl Cfiffkjt^'n Cterimi DireflAirif.
For the other eommumoD* rt»c«urrte niu^t b& Lad tci the
ye»r-bocib) of the wpnrate tHuJiei^; to the Fm Churrh
Ymt Bmk: The Rerirw 4>f tht Churrhfjt; The Pntcredinn^
of Ou Natiowj^Cotinnl <;>/ the Eiangrhcal Frtt ChvrcJift;
The NoneanformiMt ami Iwiepettdent (a weeltb. ISSl^lWO,
continued &s The EFamhuT. lOCM) «qqj. Conpuli further,
besidfa the litemtufe under Ekhlaxd, CfitBCil of, and
that under the ardele^ on thi* indiviiJual bodii's! K. Wmn-
loT*. haw Helating to Pnyfestnnl Sonc&nffiFmiMtM. Londtvn,
1S86; J. G. Roaers, Church SmtimM of Englajid in thv i&th
Ceniurjf.ib. 1891; A. B, Dyer. Comparatirr Table af Englimh
H&neontcfrmitu and ihr EmjlUh Chweh. ih. 1803; H. S.
ak«at*, Hitiatu iff ihe Free Chuechet o/ England, ib. IBM;
W. Lloyd. f%e 8t(?ry of Fmieatmta DiMmlth. im tt
Home, Hitianf of the Frm Chwftkm, Ih. 1901: H. L
HaiECvd, The Poor mtd the l&md^ a Beport m «f ^
rotum Armtf C^mimt Ih, 1906. Ooiuiiit aln fit ^u»
EMGLISH, JOHlf MAHAH: Baptiit; b. it
Tutljaown, Pa., Oct, 20, 1H45. He wm ^\mi
at Brown Univeraity in 1S70 and Newt4)D HMt*
logical Institution in 1S75, He was teftcher i
Latin in the Connecticut Utefmiy Institute. Sii[>
§eld. Conn., 1870-72, and of Greek ia Desim
University, Granville, O., 1874, He mi pastor
of tbe First Baptist Church » Gloucester* Mast^
1S75-^, and of the Dudley Street Baptist Oms^
Boston, 1882. Sinc^ 1882 he h&a been piof^if
of homiletica and pa^oral theoloigy in Nevttn
Theolopcal Institution^ and was also a lectmcr
in Andover Theological Seminary in 189HK.
Since 1003 he haa been president of the Nortliera
Baptist Education Society. He has writtea Th
Chrjjiiian Arademjf and the Edwcaiifm 0/ T&*Dqf
(Hartford, Conn., 1892) and Tim Preatni StaH of
the Chruiian Miniainf (Boatoti, 1899)-
EKGLISH UDEES: Correctly called the In-
stitute of the Blessed Vii^n Mary, one of the most
important and influential of the latef female con-
gregations of tbe Roman Catholic ChuteL Ita
or^n goes back to the attempt of Mary Ward
(b. at Mnlwith, 3 m. s.e. of Ripon, Yorkahire, Jan.
23, 1585; d. at He worth, now included in the city
of York, Jan. 20, IG45), daughter of an English
Roman Catholic of YorkshiTt^^ to found a fe^isfe
society after the pattern of tbe Jesuits (*ee Jesotb,
III). In 1006 she went to St. Omer and joini^the
Colet tines, the severest order of St. Cla^e, as alay
sister. Dissatisfied with her work and position there,
in 1607 she left the convent, with tbe determination
of founding a new community, especially for EngU^
women, and successfully established hoir^^- -^^ St
OnicrandGravelinesin 1607 and KiOO, Th' bcrs
concerned themselves chiefly with the c^iuL^dion
of ^fh, and were not bound to strict Beclusion.
In IGl 1 Misa Ward adopted the rules of the Jesuits,
with the necessary changes to adapt them to women.
She spent her time in constant travel in England
and tlie Netherlands, and established houses of
her order at Spitalfields, London, about 1611, at
Li^e in 1617, at Cologne and Treves in 1620 and
1621, and at Home in 1622. The order did not
find favor with the eler^, who charged its founder
and its members with insubordination. In 1625
Pope Urban VIM. closed it a schoots^ and la 1628
he deciUptl upon its syppression, which was finally
aceomplished by bull datjed Jan, 13, 1631^ and pro-
mulgated May 21, 1631. To combat the oppo-
sition ^lii^ Ward went to Rome twice, the first
time in 1622, when she remained there four years,
and ai^in in 1629. In 1626 she went to Munich,
where the elector, Maximilian L, allowed her to
establish a house, and in 1627 the Emperor Fer-
dinand provideil a foundation for her in Vienna.
From 1632 to 1637 she was in Rome^ and Urban
allowed her to establish a new house there. From
laiS to 1642 she lived in London with a few faith-
fnS followers, and thenceforth in her native York-
ihire.
X41
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
England and Walos
Enllirhtenment
Thoagh nominally suppressed, Mary Ward's cora-
rniuiities lived on, perhaps not altogether without
the tacit consent of high ecclesiastical authority.
Tbe company with her at Heworth kept together
and about 1650 removed to Paris. In 1669 Frances
Bedingfield established a settlement at Hammer-
snoith, and shortly after one at York. The house in
Home was not given up. The Munich house had
VQyal favor and from the end of the sixteenth cen-
tiny was able to plant filiations in South Germany,
ttiAustria, and in the electorate of Mainz. Its eighty-
tine rales were approved by Pope Clement XI. in
17U3; they were essentially those originally drawn
tsp by Mary Ward, although all mention of her, as
Irellas any acknowledgment of a connection with the
''Jesuitesses" was carefully avoided both by the
pope and the members of the order, who were now
called Instituta Maries or the " Institute of the Eng-
fish Ladies.'' A tendency to honor the foundress
manifested itself within the order a hundred years
later, and Benedict XIV. by bull of Apr. 9, 1749,
fmbade to call her '' blessed ,'' and emphasized
the non-identity of the Institute with all " Jesuit-
esses/' At the same time he settled a controversy
between the order and certain South German bish-
ops by placing each house under the jurisdiction
of the bishop of the diocese in which it was located,
but m<Jring the head of the Munich house supreme
over the schools and all matters of visitation. In
1840 the supremacy of the Munich house (in 1835
removed three miles from the city to Nymphen-
buiig) was limited to Bavaria. The Congregation
received full papal approval from Pius IX. in
1877.
The congregation includes teachers, called
" ladies " {Frdulein) and lay sisters (" sisters ").
Both classes take simple vows for life, from which
they may be released by the pope for canonical
reasons. The houses are mother-houses and filia-
tions. The members wear a black dress with
broad white collar and white bonnet and black
veiL Their principal work is education, and the
girls educated by them number several millions.
They are also occupied with labors for the poor
and sick. They are most numerous in Bavaria,
but are also strong in Austria, and have a house
in Mainz and in York. There are filiations and
mission stations in Lombardy, Bucharest, London,
the East Indies, and elsewhere. Two Irish so-
cieties, the Loreto Sisters (founded at Rathfamham,
near Dublin, in 1822 by Frances Ball) and the Irish
Sisters of Charity (founded in Dublin by Mary
Frances Aikenh^Etd in 1815, confirmed 1834),
differ from the Institute of Mary only in name. The
former have houses all over Ireland and in England,
America, Australia, and South Africa.
(O. ZSCKLERf.)
Bibuoorapht: Heimbucher, Orden und Kongreoationen, in.
364 aqq. (where the literature is given, p. 364); lives of
liias WiM^ Miss Ball, and Miss Aikenhead in the Quar-
lerly Series, vols. xxxv. and lii., xxxiii., and xcvi. respect-
irely— of Miss Ward by Mary E. C. Chambers, ed. H. J.
Coleridge, S. J.. 2 vols.. London, 1882-85. and in DNB,
Supplement, iii. 506-508; of Miss Ball by H. J. Coleridge,
ib. 1881; of Miss Aikenhead by Maria Nethercott, ib.
1897 — and of Mim Aikenhead by 8. A., with an account
of the foundation of the Irish Sisters of Charity, Dublin,
1879. 1882.
ENLIGHTENMENT, THE.
The Movement Characterized ((1).
Political Phase ({ 2).
Economic Phase ($3).
lieligious and Ethical Aspects (5 4).
The New Knowledge (5 6).
The New Historical Method (5 0).
Philosophy of the Period (5 7).
Literature of the Enlightenment (5 8).
The German EnHghtenment (5 9).
Practical Results (5 10).
Its Relation to Theology (5 H).
Close of the Period (5 12).
[The Enlightenment is a translation of the German
expression die Aufkldrung (literally ** the Clearing
Up **). The rendering " the Illumination " is also
sometimes used, while not infrequently the Ger-
man is transferred without translation.] It sig-
nifies a phase of historical evolution in Europe
which may be characterized as marking the begin-
ning of the modem f>eriod of secular culture, in
contrast to the theological spirit that constituted
the regulating principle of society in the preceding
epoch. The Enlightenment must be regarded not
as a definite movement aiming at a par-
I. The ticular end, but rather as a general trans-
Movement formation of the genius of the times,
Character- accompanied by important changes
ized. in national and social organization,
and the removal of the center of politi-
cal gravity from the south to the north of Europe.
The principles of the Enlightenment are to be met
with in the seventeenth century and may be traced
further back to the Renaissance; they attained
their fullest development in the eighteenth cen-
tury; they entered on their decay in the nineteenth.
Its animating spirit is essentially that of oppo-
sition to the supremacy of churchly ideals based on
the irreconcilable contradiction between reason
and faith, and to the consequent injection of the
element of supernaturalism into the practical
aiTairs of life. Its tendency is toward an ex-
planation of the world on the basis of universally
valid factors of knowledge and an ordering of life
toward universally valid ends, and its most stri-
king characteristics are an unsparing use of critical
analysis and a spirit of reforming utilitarianism. To
the general and immutable truth of theology it
opposes a truth of its own whose sanction it finds
in the mind of the individual, and in this r61e of
champion against tradition it is subjective, independ-
ent, self-confident and optimistic. But though the
Enlightenment was thus the first great movement
of opposition to theological dualism, it was not the
unconditioned product of the spontaneous action
of the human reason, but a historic result of definite
facts and circumstances. Its method was deter-
mined by ancient tradition and the newly arisen
sciences; its content, by that part of historic
tradition which it chose to regard as the inalien-
able possession of the individual mind but which
in reality represented only truth attained through
development; its essential service consisted in the
banishment of supernaturalism from history.
The Thirty Years* War (q.v.), ending with the
Peace of Westphalia in 1648, was followed by a
decline of the religious influence and a correspond-
ing rise of secular interests, which now began to
BnUffhtenmont
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
m
predominate in public affaire and in social life. The
animosities between Catholic, Lutheran, and Cal-
vinist powere gradually disappeared;
2. Political the Northern War brought Orthodox
Phase. Russia into the sphere of European
affaire; colonial growth widened the
arena of political activity by offering new fields
for material development wherein the religious
element was of relative unimportance. Diplomacy
abjindoned the religious view-point and became
Machiavellian with the reason of State as its
guiding principle. Within the states the ancient
pretensions of the Church yielded to the interests
of a society that was rapidly being reorganized
on the basis of commercialism, militarism, and
bureaucracy. Formally, orthodoxy retained its
own and established religions prevailed; yet the
secular principle determined the attitude of the
governments to the Church and toward their
subjects. This is the period of Concordats (q.v.),
of the persecution of the Jesuits and of territorial
church legislation. The theory of sovereignty,
fostered by the revival of the Roman law and the
Reformation, developed into absolutism, which
in turn subordinated Church to State completely,
and broke the political influence of creed. With
these changes in the conception of the purpose
and authority of the State appeared new theories
as to its nature and origin. Following out the
traditions of Aristotle and Machiavelli, Jean Bodin
(d. 1596) advanced a purely rational origin of soci-
ety and in his Colloquium hcptaplomereSt widely read
in manuscript (ed. Noack, Schwerin, 1857), devel-
oped the destructive effects of such a theory on
the religious power in the State. But it was Gro-
tius (d. 1645; see Grotius, Hugo) who destroyed
the scholastic dualism of lex natures and lex divina
and found sanction for the law of nature, the law
of nations, public law, and natural morality in
the human underatanding unaided by revelation.
His cause was strengthened by the rise of the mod-
em Stoics in Holland and by Hobbes (d. 1679;
see Hobbes, Thomas) with his Epicurean teach-
ings. Pufendorf (d. 1694), in Germany, and
Locke (d. 1704), in England (see Pufendorf,
Samuel; Locke, John), made the new ideas the
common possession of European culture. In this
newly developed theory of the State is the true
precursor of the Enlightenment; for, though it
assumed no radical attitude in the beginning and
maintained friendly relations with the religious
creeds of the time, its result was the destruction
of the theoloojical bases of the prevailing culture.
It exercised a powerful influence on the remodeling
of church law, especially among the Protestants,
marking, as it did, the beginning of ecclesiastical
legislation on purely political principles. It fur-
thered the growth of toleration and attained its
final development in the theory of the freedom of
religion and of conscience, and further still, of
the universal rights of man. Yet so complex
are the sources of the various manifestations which
in their entirety are known as the Enlightenment,
that the Declaration of the Rights of Man by the
French States-General in 1789 is more immediately
to be traced to the influence of the constitution of
the United States (1783) than to Rousseau's Confrnt
social (1762).
Parallel with this process of political
mation went a line of cognate economic and
development. The old rigidity of social
zation — the feudal separation of cl
way slowly with the development of an e:
world commerce and the rise of industiy.
financial needs of the absolute state made ft
friend of the rising commerrial ad
3. Econom- industrial classes for whose protedigi
ic Phase, laws are now enacted. The growth
of economic freedom reacted m ton
upon the development of the individual Th
natural sciences came to the aid of the
technical industries, and in this manner an
between the industrial and the learned classeB
effected. The final result was a fluent intmniiK-
gling among the different classes of the popuUtio^,
revealing itself in the appearance of a powaU'
citizen class eager for political, economic, aat^
spiritual liberty, the inheritors of a new litentni:'
and a new education that was tending to free itadlj
from theological guardianship. England and BA']
land were the models of this close union of comnMr*
cialism and liberty and as changed politkal eat*;
ditions had led to the formulation of a new politaeil
theory, so the transformation of economic facta ii
Europe brought forth a new economic and bochI
theory, which, like the new theory of the Stat%
bore a deep impress of the idea of natural nglibb
Bound up for a time with the theological teacfaiq^
it was developed into an independent theoiy lif ;
the English and French boui^eoisie and beoiMk
finally, antitheological and, to a degree, anti*
religious. Its independence was fully establkhai
by Adam Smith (d. 1790) and Quesnay (d. 1774). j^
The spirit of individual freedom and courageoa ^^
optimism appears more prominently in this eoih ;
nomic phase than in any other phase of the ~
lightenment. Unrestricted freedom of labor aal 'i
of capital became inalienable human rights, aal
of all the ideas of the Enlightenment have vMt
tained themselves longest and affected the vM :
most.
Along with political and economic changes then
is to be noted a transformation in the geoenl
spirit of the age, which arose in reaction agiioA 1
the excesses of religious wars, tha
4. Relig- burden of established creeds, and tin
ious and ceaseless strife of theologians. Oh^
Ethical of religious conflict in England eami
Aspects, the Levelers and Latitudinaiitfi
(qq.v.), and, in Germany, the CiBs"
tines (see Huss, John, Hussftes), together witfc
the many attempts at religious union. A poweifal
cause contributing to the weakening of the wBf
ious influence was the patent inefliciency of cBtaJ^
lished creeds as a force for morality. The rise d
Pietism (q.v.) prepared the way for the ElnUghteft-
ment. There comes a revolt against the b«Jkl
in magic, witchcraft, and other superstitiona. A
growing spirit of humaneness, of active phibllr
thropy, and of cosmopolitan tolerance, appeal^
indicated, for example, in the mitigation of tht
severity of judicial procedure. The tendency to
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Knlightanment
^
a basis for morality independent of religion
strength. In England and France societies
organized for the improvement of morals and
in the universities the elegance of Cicero
Seneca drives out the old scholasticism; and
'tKcological narrowness is combated by the spirit
^ universalism in the Neo-Stoic teachings of Justus
(d. 1606), who influenced Grotius, Des-
and Spinoza. The spirit of Humanism and
4tt Renaissance thus persisted in the jurists and
'^be phUosophers of France and Holland.
In all these phases of the Enlightenment there
^^ipeaiB, as yet, no conscious, thorough hostility
'to a theology restricted to its own field, but the
^Wire rather to emancipate other branches of
Ikiiman interest from its sway. Only gradually
vioet a really independent method of thought arise,
CMmditioned largely by the epistemological and
Inorml theories of Stoicism. The theory of natural
law first established its independence; natural
idigion and natural morality achieved their free-
dom with greater difficulty. Yet natural religion,
in essence, was taught by theology itself and needed
but the refutation of the doctrines of hereditary
im and the invalidity of the human intellect in
order to gain the overhand over a revelation.
Lord Herbert of Cherbury accomplished this in
1624 in his De verUate rcligixmis. Natural morality
was freed from theology through the separation of
the lex TuUnras from the lex divina and sanction for
it in the human reason was established by Francis
Bacon (q.v.; d. 1626) and the French skeptics,
especially by Charron in his Sagesse (1605). Bayle
(d. 1705; see Bayle, Pierre) contrasted the uni-
versality of the moral instinct with the diversity
and conflict between historical creeds. In these
different ways Western Europe, in the seventeenth
century, strove toward the attainment of an au-
tonomous organon that should constitute a simple
and unvarying norm for the guidance of the judg-
ment on the matter of conflicting faiths and moral
On the evolution of such a method of thought
a profound influence was exercised by the natural
sciences and the method which they employed.
Two forces are discernible in this development —
(1) the impetus^ toward induction
5. The New supplied by Bacon and, more than
Knowledge, this, (2) the progress in mathematics
and mechanics following the astro-
nomical discoveries of Copernicus (d. 1543), Kep-
ler (d. 1673), and Galileo (d. 1642). The new
knowledge united to the atomism of Gasscndi (d.
1655) established induction on a firm basis and
found fullest expression in Newton (d. 1727),
Huyghens (d. 1695) and Laplace (d. 1827). The
laws of gravitation and inertia were both the basis
and the impulse to extensive investigation in the
various phases of the physical world. The seven-
teenth and eighteenth centuries are the centuries
of the great physicists and mathematicians, and
on the principles they outlined arose the sciences
of optics, acoustics, chemistry, zoology, geology,
physiology, and medicine. The influence of the
new sciences was enormous. They destroyed the
foundations of revelation and theology, and led to
the rise of new philosophic systems aiming at the
interpretation and correlation of the results at-
tained by the various sciences, the methods of
which were mathematical, marked primarily by
clearness of statement and preciseness of definition.
The new scientific method entered even the fields
of natural law, natural religion, and natural mo-
rality. Locke and Condillac made psychology the
study of the laws of motion among psychic elements,
and Quesnay interpreted social laws after the man-
ner of laws of nature. Voltaire became the apostle
of Newton and in France particularly the new
sciences were perfected and disseminated. Nor
were these in the beginning hostile to religion.
The new knowledge showed itself capable of various
interpretations. It was found consistent with
deism by Locke and Voltaire, with ancient pan-
theism by Shaftesbury, with mystic pantheism by
Spinoza, with spiritualism by Descartes, with theism
by Leibnitz, and with materialism by the Encyclo-
pedists (q.v.). Yet the whole aspect of the world
of thought was changed. Miracles became im-
possible, except to the casuist; the earth was
removed from its central position in the universe
and became only a point in space; anthropocen-
trism was destroyed. The spirit of the eighteenth
century assumed its characteristic qualities; it
became atomistic, analytic, mechanical, practical;
entirely on the side of the known and the evident,
entirely opposed to all that was dark, mystic or
fantastic.
Second only in importance to the mathematical
sciences was the development of a new historical
method, universal, secular, and philosophic, as op-
posed to the theological and antiquarism
6. The New historiography that came before. The
Historical great geographical discoveries of the
Method, age made tiie field of human interest co-
extensive with the world and fostered
the study of histor>% geography and statistics.
Tradition in state, religion, and law were put to
the test of critical investigation. Machiavelli and
Bodin were followed by the expounders of natural
law whose studies lay in the field of politics and
legal history, and the Deists who gave their atten-
tion to religion. In manifold ways the French
skeptics emphasized the relativity of the principles
underlying state and religion. This principle of
relativity found its most ingenious exposition in
Bayle's Dictionnaire historique et critique (1696)
and its profoundest expression in Montesquieu's
Lettres persanes (1727). A decisive blow at tra-
ditional methods was administered by Bolingbroke's
Letters on the Study and Use of History (1738-52).
Voltaire in his Essai sur les moturs et sur Vesyrit
des nations (1754-58) opened the succession of
histories of civilization and universal histories
which estabh'shed the principle of the relativity
of different civilizations and of the possibility of
explaining history by natural laws. He was fol-
lowed by Turgot (d. 1781), Condorcet (d. 1794),
Dupuis (d. 1809), and others in France, by Robert-
son (d. 1793), Gibbon (d. 1704), and Hume (d. 1776)
in England, and in Germany by Gatterer (d. 1799),
SchlOzer (d. 1809), Heeren (d. 1842), Meiners (d
1810), J. D. Michaelis (d. 1791), and Spittler (d.
Bnllffhtenment
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOO
IM
1810). If the age of the Enlightenment be called
an unhistorical age, it is so only in the sense that
it cultivated history not so much as an end in
itself as for the purpose of obtaining support for
its political and moral theories. And the influ-
ence of its investigations was enormous. They
destroyed the idea of a history of the world
based on Daniel, the Apocalypse, and St. Augus-
tine, opened up vast realms of time, rejected
the fall of man as the cardinal point in univer-
sal evolution, and created a new type of prim-
itive man. Above all, it introduced a method anal-
ogous to the analytical and mechanical method
of the natural sciences. It dealt with the indi-
vidual as the historical unit, as a result of whose
conscious, purposive actions social structures
arise. And as the enormous diversity of human
motive and impulse thus revealed necessitated
the establishment of some norm for a unified inter-
pretation of history, such a one was found in
natural law, religion, and morality; and all devia-
tions from the norm were ascribed to evil or cun-
ning, to tyranny or priestly hypocrisy, to stupidity
or ignorance. And thus historiography, because
it had caught the spirit of the Enlightenment,
became a powerful instrument for the dissemination
of that spirit, though in the first place works may
have been written with purposes deistic or material-
istic, theological or anticlerical, skeptical or opti-
mistic.
A new philosophy, opposed both to the Aris-
totelianism of the Church and to the rehabilitation
of ancient philosophic systems, now assumes to
outline the fundamental principles of scientific
thought in the theoretical and practical disciplines.
Abandoning the old belief in the Fall and the con-
sequent degeneration of the human intellect, it
grounded itself on the capacities of
7. Philoso- the human mind and dared to be as
phy of the creative in basic principles as the new
Period, sciences had been in their respective
fields. Philosophy was no longer the
handmaid of theology, but ruled an independent
realm. The creation of a new philosophy was the
work of the great minds of the seventeenth century;
its consequences partly destroyed theology and
partly transformed it. These consequences were
developed in the eighteenth century by the less
original thinkers and litterateurs; for though the
great men of the eighteenth century, Hume,
Berkeley, Kant, belonged in part to the Enlighten-
ment, their original work first bore fruit in the nine-
teenth. Yet the influence exercised by the great
philosophers on the history of philosophy is dif-
ferent from that they exerted on the history of
the Enlightenment. Their essentially philosophic
problems were too abstruse and subtle to affect
greatly a popular movement, and it was rather
their secondary contributions that furthered the
progress of the Enlightenment. Thus Spinoza
and Malebranche exerciseii practically no influence
at all; the influence exercised by Hobbes and Leib-
nitz was indirect; while that of Shaftesbury and
others was only partial. Of greater importance,
after Descartes, was the work of Bayle, Locke,
Wolff, Voltaire, and the Encyclopedists. Service
was also rendered by the Deists who directed tbib
criticism against positive religion, and the ethial
writers who sought in the new philosophy a httk
for natural morality. There came finally the ni
philosophers of the Enlightenment, the edeetiBi
and popularizers, the exponents of common mm
and natural law, whose philosophical impoctaiMi
is small indeed, but whose historical influence vii
great.
Nevertheless the philosophy of the EnUghtflB*
ment, in the last analysis, may be traced buk ti
the great philosophic systems. (1) CarteoaoiHi
applied the mechanical method to the study of tia
physical world and the axiomatic process of math^
matics to the spiritual. It found ontologic only
in a God who combined in himself phjr^cal nb*
stance and soul substance. It abandoned emf' {
thing that was not clear or demonstrable. (2) Tht ^
sensualism of Hobbes and Locke broke man
abruptly with the old metaphysics by discardi^ :
self-evident truths and innate ideas and fouiMfiW'.
all knowledge on the exp>erience of the senses, aai
its recasting in the soul ; yet they found the idM '
of God necessary for the working of their woril
machine. From them proceeded the phyaeo*
theological arguments for the wisdom and thegoo^
ness of an architectonic deity and the treatmaft
of morality on the basis of an empirical psycholqgf
which attained to the greatest importance. (3) h
reaction against sensualism, Leibnitz, by a method
analogous to that of Descartes, established a nn-
chanical world of bodies and a dynamic world of
spirits, transforming the old ontology of substaiMl
into one of monads. (4) Materialism carried tb
tenets of sensualism to the extreme by denyi^
the existence of the soul and combating the phyao^
theological arguments for the existence of Go4
In Hume and Kant, it is true, the materialifli
of the new natural philosophy brought forth pf^
found epistcmological theories, but the natnnl
sciences on the whole rendered greater services t»
the revolutionary thought, which attempted, « .
the basis of the observation of nature and certaia
elementary data of psychology empirically derived^ I
to create a new metaphysical and ethical systo^ |
destined to constitute the precondition for a eoO" |
plete reconstruction of society. Yet to all the* j
contrasting or opposed systems there were comim ]
the spirit of antagonism to the theological method^ <
the miraculous and the exceptional, and an vat \
doubting confidence in the power of the intelW j
to attain knowledge and in power of will to app^ I
it. Especially in the field of ethics the indepw l
cnce of the human conscience was upheld again^ j
all supernatural authority, against all reveakd
systems of sanctions, rewards, and punishmeotL '
It was literature, however, and not philosopfatft
that really insured the triumph of the Enlightett* :
ment. The great fact here to be recogniaed is thi
cooperation of three forces, a rising boui^geoifln^
a growing independence of thought, and the hig|hl|
developed literatures of England and France, ft
was literature that finally overthrew theology
and created the vocabulary, the battle-cries and tbl
very name of the Enlightenment. Holland nil
the first home of the militant literature of the age
X45
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bnllffhtenment
Tliere Bayle published his dictionary and edited
ham journal {Nouvelles de la r&publiques des lettreSf
1684-87), and Le Clerc published his
8b Litert- Bibliothkque universelle (1686-1726).
tee of the The real origin of the literature of the
Bnligfaten- Enh'ghtenment, however, was in Eng-
ment land after the Whig Revolution and
the establishment of the freedom
olthe press in 1693. Locke (d. 1704) and Shaftes-
bury (d. 1713) were writers of elegance. Pope's
Mftay an Man (1733) is a theodicy in the spirit
<rf Shaftesbury. The publication of periodicals
fkaling with contemporary manners and morals
prepared the way for the realistic study of
life which Fielding (d. 1754), SmoUett (d. 1771),
Goldsmith (d. 1774), and Sterne (d. 1768) were to
carry on with splendid psychological power and
absolute freedom from theological predispositions.
Defoe (d. 1731) pictured man in a state of nature,
and exercised a profound influence on Rousseau
and German pedagogy. Bolingbroke (d. 1751)
was the first to write philosophic history. The
moral theories of the Deists were ' expounded by
Hutcheson (d. 1747), Ferguson (d. 1816), Adam
Smith (d. 1790), WoUaston (d. 1724), Price (d.
1791), and Tucker (d. 1799), and the esthetic
theories of Shaftesbury were developed by Burke
(d. 1797), Gerard (d. 1795), and Hume (d. 1776)
who studied the relations between the beauti-
ful and the useful and greatly influenced the German
Enlightenment. Richardson's (d. 1761) novels
of middle class sentimentality and morals pro-
duced an important effect on Voltaire, Diderot,
Klopstock, Lessing, and Wieland. The Enlight-
enment literature in England was not radical,
however; extremists, like Toland (d. 1722) among
Deists, exercised no great influence, while material-
ism found in Hartley (d. 1757) ajid Priestley (d.
1804) only solitary champions. The decline of the
Enlightenment in England may be dated from the
reaction following the outbreak of the French
Revolution.
In France the Enhghtenment first gained strength
among the dilettante nobility of the court of Louis
XIV. from whom it passed to the members of the
higher bourgeoisie and the literary class, and then
to the great mass of the Third Estate. From the
classic literature which it found ready to its hand it
derived precision, elegance, and wit, but also some-
tliing of the shallowness that goes with these quali-
ties. Newton and Locke were introduced to the
French public by Maupertuis (d. 1759) and D'Ar-
genson (d. 1757). The novel and drama of Eng-
lish citizen life were copied by PrtSvost (d. 1763)
and Destouches (d. 1754). But the highest devel-
opment of the Enlightenment Uterature came to-
ward the middle of the century when in a spirit of
extreme radicalism it assailed everything in society.
Church, and State. The exponents of the En-
lighteiunent may be divided into three groups
which differed appreciably in character and suc-
ceeded each other in prominence, though united
in aim. (1) Elnglish liberalism and deism were
advocated with remarkable success by Voltaire
(d. 1778) in almost every literary form; his intei>
ests were predominantly religious. Montesquieu
IV.— 10
(d. 1753) gave his time to history and politics and
became the father of pragmatic history and con-
stitutionalism. (2) The succeeding scientific and
materialistic movement was originated by La
Mettrie (d. 1751), found its most celebrated ex-
ponent in Diderot (d. 1784), and its classic formula-
tion in the *' Encyclopedia" (1751-80). More purely
scientific were Holbach {Systtme de la nature ^ 1770),
Condillac (d. 1780) and his theories of knowledge,
Cabanis (d. 1808), and Buffon (d. 1788), whose
literary charm made him one of the most influential
of popularizers of science. (3) A new spirit and
tone appears in Rousseau (d. 1778) who expressed
the economic theories of the Enlightenment in
their deepest and most abstract form and on the
other hand lent to its cold intelligence a romantic
warmth and a depth of feeling that widened im-
mensely its range of appeal. Through Mirabeau
and Sieyds the ideas of the Enlightenment entered
the Revolution.
From England and France the elements of the
Enlightenment came to Germany, where, owing to
peculiar conditions, its political manifestations
were of far less importance than its influence in
the fields of religion, ethics and esthetics. Two
distinct literary movements marked
9. The the eighteenth century: (1) The real
German literature of the Enlightenment pro-
Enlighten- ceeded from the popularized teachings
ment of Leibnitz, through Wolff and Gott-
sched, and developed on the one hand
into theological and legal rationalism, and on the
other into the novel and play of middle class morals.
(2) The revived humanistic or classic-romantic
movement, proceeding from English sources and
from the more essential teachings of Leibnitz,
passed through Lessing to Herder, Winckelmann,
Goethe, Schiller, and Humboldt and found expres-
sion also in the newer schools of philosophy and
the historical and psychological sciences. Leib-
nitz, Lessing, and Kant belong to both movements;
to the Enlightenment, through their practical
interests and the results of their popularized teach-
ings; to the second, through the deep and original
content of their philosophy which was appreciated
only by the minority. Only the former movement
is here to be considered, a movement through which
Germany assumed its place in the literary world,
last, because the theological influence had longest
maintained itself in the small German principalities,
because science was still subject to scholasticism,
and finally because of peculiar political conditions.
The first change to be noticed occurred in the sphere
of learning where Pufendorf (d. 1694) and Leibnitz
(d. 1716) ushered in a broad, cosmopolitan treat-
ment of the sciences. The first to gain a wide
hearing for the new ideas was Thomasius (d. 1728),
who sought to reorganize education after the French
model and in 1688 established a periodical similar
to those published in Holland at the time. Wolff
(d. 1754) slowly drove scholasticism from the uni-
versities. The real founders of the literature of
the German Enlightenment, however, were Gott-
sched (d. 1766) who combined the Wolffian phi-
losophy with French classicism and translated
Bayle, and Gellert (d. 1769) who, writing under
Enllffht«nment
Xxuiodius
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOQ
146
English influences, in poems, lectures, fables, and
novels, laid the basis for the moral culture of Ger-
many for many decades. There appeared also imi-
tations of the English periodicals (after 1721) which,
though largely theological in tone, continued the
connection between literature and the bourgeoisie
and sang of the justness of God after the manner
of Pope and Thomson. How all-pervading the
theological atmosphere was appears in Klopstock
(d 1803) and his imitators, though it is indeed a
softened theology expressed in humanistic and
poetic form. The break with theology was ini-
tiated by Lessing (d. 1781), who found the step
essential in his endeavor to create a new culture
and a new literature upon the basis of a new atti-
tude toward life. In revelation Lessing discerned
only a manifestation of the human mind striving
toward truth, which is attainable only by reason,
and this theory he elaborated with the assistance
of deistic theologians like Spalding (d. 1804) and
Jerusalem (d. 1789). At Berlin arose the group
under Nicoki (d. 1811) and Mendelssohn (d. 1786).
Their organ was the AUgemeine detUsche Bibliothek,
around which sprang up a group of popular phi-
losophers who promulgated theories of natural
morals, theology, and esthetics on the basis of
Locke, Leibnitz, and Wolfif. Wieland (d. 1813)
in his philosophical romances contrasted the light
French view of life with the heavy idealism of the
Germans and thus gained over the Gallicized higher
classes to the use of the German tongue. Of the
other great figures of literature only the youthful
Schiller (d. 1805) had connection with the Enlight-
enment. Kant (d. 1804), in his practical philosophy,
in his morals, law and theology, approached the
Enlightenment and lent to its ideas a more formal
character. But while Goethe (d. 1832) and Schiller
had little to do with the movement, the favor of
the public went out to Iffland, Kotzebue and the
charm of Jean Paul.
So mighty a development as the Enlightenment
eould not fail to produce a profound effect on the
practical affairs of life. Its double
10. Practi- result was (1) to strengthen the bour-
cal Results, gcolsie and inspire them to demand
a share in government and adminis-
tration and (2) to drive the governments themselves
to concession. In England and France the first
movement made itself predominant; in the rest of
Europe the second was the more conspicuous.
Philosophic kings and ministers now appear of the
type of Frederick II. of Prussia, and the espousal
of the ideas of reform by the monarchs led in turn
to the complete triumph of such ideas. The French
Revolution came because the French government
lacked the courage and decision to adopt the new
ideas. After the Revolution the ideas persisted
and in the subsequent political reorganization
played a prominent part.
In the spiritual realm the most important effects
of the Enlightenment api)oare(l in the fields of edu-
cation and public instruction. Universities were
freed from the sway of the old theological humanism,
citizens' schools and popular schools were estab-
lished or reorganized, and public instruction was
freed from clerical supervision. Other influences
like Pietism tended toward the same result, bot it
was from the Enlightenment that the inspiiitiai
came toward the creation of an educational sjrstai
that, with the supreme confidence of the period,
was expected to lead to a hi^er, happier, mon
prosperous, and more moral age. The great edu-
cational programs of the age emanated fnn
Locke {Some Thoughts Concerning Educa^
1693) and Rousseau {6mile, 1762), the one oat-
lining the education of a man of the world throo^
experience and reflection, the other the develop-
ment of man through the um^estrained unfolding oC
natural powers. The 6mile, in France, was only a
success of the hour, but in Germany it gave the
impetus to the great philanthropinistic movement.
Basedow (M elhodenbuch fur Vdter und Mutter iet
Familien und Volker, 1770) was followed by Bahrdt,
Rochow, Campe, Stuve, and others. Throu^
Zedlitz, minister of Frederick II., the new vAm
shaped the policy of the Prussian govemmeot
But as early as the middle of the seventeenth een-
tury, the needs of the bureaucracy and the no-
bility had led to the erection of institutions in-
tended to furnish a new education, not Greek and
theological, but modem and practical HaDe
(1694) was the type of the new institutions and
it influenced greatly the development of phito-
sophic and juristic studies. By the middle of the
eighteenth century the theological education had
suffered a further loss of prestige as indicated in the
erection of the University of Gottingen (1736), where
humanism is found independent of theology. The
Volksschule created by Pietism fell ultimately under
the sway of the ideas of the Enlightenment, and
even Pestalozzi recognized them in part.
Of the influence exerted by theology on the prog-
ress of the Enlightenment mention has already
been made ; it was an influence exerted, however,
under compulsion and it advanced the interests
of the Enlightenment without adding anything
to its content. As a result of the
II. Its Re- subjection in which the Enlighten-
lation to ment was held by theology for a long
Theology, time and the necessity for violent
action on the part of the latter to
achieve its independence, it assumed that negative
and destructive character by which it was so strongly
marked. Even in its affirmative theories the En-
lightenment, in its struggles with theology, was
brought to assume the existence of as rigid a truth
as that of its rival. The break between the two
was sharpest in France where the unyielding at-
titude of the Church made the Enlightenment
perforce a movement of thorough negation. In
England and Germany, on the contrary, there was
a rapprochetnent between the two. In the former
country there arose out of the deistic controversy
an apologetic theology (CJlarke, Butler, Warburton,
and Paley) which may be designated as rational
supematuralism, which here as well as in Germany
carried the spirit of the Enlightenment into the
very heart of the enemy's position. In Germany,
especially, the course of the development was
decided by a compromise between Enlightenment
and theology which was effectual in disseminating
the principles of the former, not only among the
147
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDU
Xnllvhtenment
Bnnodiiis
Inrned classes, but among the great masses of the
population. But as its principles were embraced
hf members of the higher clergy and by the theo-
logical faculties, it became in turn conservative.
Sbwiy, however, the inherent contradiction be-
tween its principles and the theological dualism
H reason and revelation came to the front. With
time the germ of dissolution e^itered into the body
«f dogma .and the new spirit of the times attacked
both the logical substructure and the imposed
foperstructure of doctrine. The followers of Wolff
had attempted a compromise without departing
from the paths of orthodoxy, but the Neologues,
under the influence of the popular philosophy,
broke entirely with dogma and sought to restrict
revelation to the Bible, whose contents seemed
more ill harmony with natural theology than the
scholastic subtleties of the Church. Only at the end
of the century, however, and primarily under the
inspiration of Kant's Religion innerhaU) der Gremen
der blassen Vemunft (1793) did the more radical
theologians advance to the position of identifying
completely the religion of ethical rationalism with
Biblical revelation, though still with purely apolo-
getic purposes. But through this apologetic lit-
erature the subjective, analytic, and utilitarian
spirit of the Enlightenment penetrated to the very
heart of Christian belief, and inevitably led to
leactionary movements which made common cause
with other forms of reaction aroused by the spirit of
the Enlightenment. The theology of the Enlight-
enment was, therefore, a thoroughly apologetic
compromise on the basis of the principles of the
Enlightenment. It was a question of the suprem-
acy of the dogma of reason, of the dogma of
revelation, or of the identification of the two, and
it was the last solution that theology was driven to
adopt.
The end of the period of the Enlightenment
began in different countries at different times.
The mightiest influences that contributed toward
its downfall were the political reac-
12. Close tions aroused in England by the
of the American Revolution and that in
Period. Europe by the French Revolution.
At the same time the revolutionary
movement finally destroyed the political structure
of the medieval ages and cleared the ground for a
new political and social organization. The wars
of the Revolution called into being a new factor,
the principle of nationality, which came into oppo-
sition both with the spirit of enlightened cosmo-
politanism and with the spirit of enlightened
abeohitism of the preceding period. There entered
into play at the same time the influence of the new
German culture which emancipated itself from the
ideas of the Enlightenment in literature, philosophy,
and science, created a new attitude toward life,
and soon came to cooperate with similar tendencies
in other countries. Fancy and sentiment, a love
for the humane culture, sympathy for all that is
psychologically real, characterized this new con-
ception of life which was at one with the Enlighten-
ment in its opposition to supematuralism, but
differed from it in its positive appreciation of the
worth of things. Science, too, lost its character
of abstract subjectivism and militant reform, and
restricted itself to the interpretation of reality.
Finally reaction entered also the field of economic
thought, destroying the individualistic principles
of the Enlightenment. Nevertheless the Enlight-
enment has remained an appreciable influence to
the present day, to a minor degree in Germany, to
an important extent in France and the Anglo-
Saxon world, where the separation between En-
lightenment and supematuralism is as sharp as it
was a century ago. (E. Troeltsch.)
Biblioorapht: E. B. Pusey, Hi$torical Enquiry into . . .
the RaHoncUUt Charaeier . , . in the Theolooy of Oermany,
London, 1828; B. Bauer, Oeechichte der PoliHk, Kul-
tur und Aufkl&runo dee 18. Jahrhunderte, Chariot tenburg,
1843-44; F. A. Saintes. Critical Hietory of Rationalism
in Oermany, London, 1849; L. Noack, Frevdenker in der
ReliQion, Bern, 1853-55; A. F. Qfrdrer, Oeechichte dee
18. Jahrhunderte, Sohafniausen, 1862-84; F. C. Schloseer,
Oeechichte dee 18. Jahrhunderte, 8 vols., Heidelberg, 1850-
1864; K. R. Hagenbach, Oerman RcUionaliem in ite Riee,
Progreee and Decline, Edinburgh, 1865; H. T. Buckle,
Hi*t. of Civilization in England, London, 1878 (cf. L.
Etienne, Le Poeitivieme dane Vhietoire, Paris, 1868, a
criticism of Buckle); J. TuUoch, Rational Theology . . .
in England in 17th Century, Eklinburgh, 1872; Kohn,
Aufkl&rungeperiode, Potsdam, 1873; J. W. Draper, Hiet.
of the Conflict between Religion and Science, New York,
1874; idem, Hiet. of the Intellectual Development of
Europe, 2 vols., ib., 1876; J. Cairns, Unbelief in 18th Cen-
tury, London. 1881; L. Stephen, Hiet. of English Thought
in 18th Century, ib., 1881; A. Sorel. U Europe et la rh)o-
lution, Paris, 1885-92; R. Eucken, Orundbegriffe der
Oegenwart, Leipsic. 1893; A. D. White, Hist, of the War-
fare of Science xoith Theology, New York, 1896; W. E. H.
Lecky. Hiet. of Rise and Influence of the Spirit of Ration-
alism in Europe, London, 1899; J. F. Hurst, Hist, of
Rationalism, New York, 1901; R. Otto, Naturalistische
und religiose Weltansicht, TQbingen, 1904, Eng. transl.,
NaturcUiem and Religion, New York, 1907.
ENNODIUS, MAGNUS FELIX: Latin author
and bishop of Padua; b. at Aries 473 or 474; d.
at Padua July 17, 521. His life, until he reached
manhood, was secular, and his education was clas-
sical. After becoming a convert to Christianity,
he delayed making an open profession of faith until
attacked by serious illness. With his wife's con-
sent, he separated from her to enter the religious
life, and was ordained deacon by Epiphanius of
Ticinum at some date previous to 494. In 496
Ennodius went to Milan, where he took an active
part in the schism which then convulsed the
Church (see Anastasius 11.). In connection with
this arose the controversy of Pope Symmachus
with the antipope Lauren tius (see Symmachus),
in the course of which Ennodius defended the
pope in his Libellus adversus eo8 qui contra
synodum acribere propsumpaeruntf basing the papal
power on the privileges of Peter. Remaining at
Milan as deacon until 512, he was appointed bishop
of Padua in 514. He had already accompanied
his predecessor on a mission of Theodoric to the
Burgundian king Gundobad, and in 515 and 517
he was sent by Pope Hormisdas to the court of the
Byzantine emperor Anastasius in an unsuccessful
endeavor to reconcile the Eastern and the Western
Churches.
As an author Ennodius represents Latin litera-
ture in its period of decline. In theology he was a
Semi-Pelagian, and made no attempt to conceal
his antipathy to Augustine. In addition to the
works already noted, special mention may be
Enoch
Epao, Synod of
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
141
made of his numerous, but unimportant, letters,
the Vita Epiphanii episcopi Ticini (valuable for its
biography of his predecessor), the Vita beati An-
tonii (very legendary, in the taste of the period),
the Panegyricus dictus dementissimo regi Theo-
dorico, the Eucharisticum de vita (autobiograph-
ical), and many dictionea on subjects of minor in-
terest. (T. FoRSTERf.)
Bibuoorapht: The works of Ennodius, except the Car-
mina, are in MPL, Ixiii. The Carmiruit Epiatolce, and
Panegyricua, ed. F. Vogel, are in MGH, Atict. ant., vol. vii.,
1885. A list of editions and literature is given in Potthast,
Wegweiser, pp. 407-408, 1291. with which cf. Wattenbach,
DOQ, i (1885), 47, 70, 404, ii. 480, i (1893), 48, 72. Con-
siilt: Fertig, Afagnus Felix Ennodius und seine Zeit,
Passau, 1855-60; F. Piper, in ZKO, i (1877), 239-256;
B. Hasenstab, Studien zu Ennodius, Munich, 1890; S.
L^glise, S. Ennodius et la supr^mcUie au 6. sitcle, Lyons,
1890; W. Smith, Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biog-
raphp, ii. 19-20; DCB, ii. 123-124.
ENOCH.
The Source of Knowledge (§ 1 ). Similar Legends (5 3).
Life and Translation (S 2). Enoch in Tradition (S 4).
Enoch is the name in the Hebrew text of the
eldest son of Reuben (Gen. xlvi. 9; Ex. vi. 14);
a son of Midian (Gen. xxv. 4); a son of Cain (Gen.
iv. 17-18) after whom the latter
I. The named the first city; and, in the line
Source of of Seth, of the seventh patriarch as
Knowledge, reckoned from Adam (Gen. v. 18).
Since the name Lamech also occurs in
the lines of both Cain and Seth, and as there is a
striking similarity between other names of the two
lines, it has been customary since Buttmann
(MythologuSf i., Berlin, 1828, pp. 170 sqq.) to re-
gard the two genealogies of Gen. iv. and v. (which
furthermore belong to different sources, J and
P) as variants of a single account. The resem-
blance becomes still closer if it be assumed that in
Gen. V. Enoch and Mahalalel ( = Mehujael of Gen.
iv.) have become transposed. Also a relation with
the list of the ten primitive Babylonian kings in
Berosus can not be denied. Enoch there has his
parallel in the seventh king, Enmeduranki, in the
sun-city Sippara. That Enoch also stands in
some relation to the sun, is indicated by the 366
years of his life.
This patriarch, in Gen. v., has a thoroughly
ethical distinction; *' he walked with God '* (cf.
Noah, Gen. vi. 9). This indicates a
-.- . constant community of life, an un-
" . .. disturbed, familiar intercourse with
God. Herewith is intimately con-
nected the most momentous matter
that is still extant about Enoch in the ancient
source. After a comparatively brief term of life,
365 years, " he was not; for God took him." Ob-
viously something extraordinary is thus recorded.
Enoch had suddenly vanished, was no more seen.
The expression corresponds to the one used in a
similar connection by Livy (i. 16) of Romulus,
*' he was not thenceforth on earth "; the event
itself, to the seeking after vanished Elijah (11
Kings ii. 16-17). But the reason is not indefinite;
God intervened contrary to the usual course of
nature and removed his favored one from the
world of appearances. Except for this extraor-
dinary case, an early departure from life was coo-
sidered a token of divine disfavor.
Comparisons have been adduced with beathea
myths and legends, which relate of the transIatiaB
of illustrious men (Hercules, Ronm-
3. Similar lus, etc.). But the brief mystenooi
Legends. Biblical notice is essentially diffeniil
in that here the ethical communis
of life on earth with God (the " faith " of Heb. li
5) is the manifest reason for the " taking " to God;
whereas the legends are based on a physica] ooft-
ception of divinity, whereby the same coalesooi
with the highest product of nature. There is • ,
parallel in the translation of Xisuthros in Berosa^
inasmuch as this devout worthy after the Flood '
is translated to the gods as reward for his piety.
But this hero corresponds to the Biblical Noak
While here an account is extant which is md^
pendent of the Biblical narrative but akin to it|
on the other hand the legend adduced by E. Bo»
chart (in PhaUg et Canaan, Caen, 1646), with^rf«^
ence to the ancient king Annakos or Nannakos in
the city of Iconium, is questionable on the score of
originality. This king is said to have lived up-
ward of 300 years before Deucalion's flood; he ii
supposed to have predicted the same, and to hafB
tearfully bewailed the lot of men, since after fail \
death they were to be overtaken with destruction.
The story is first found in Zenobius (ProwrWo, ?L
10), that is, about 200 a.d.; Jewish influence is no*
improbable.
Concerning the manner of the translation, inl
the abode and condition of Enoch after it, whiA
the theologians have sought to define more cloeelj', .
the Bible gives no clue. The context merely standi \
for the fact that he was taken away from the irorii
of sin and death, and received into closer commo*
nion with God, without dying. The view prc«* \
lent with the rabbis and in the primitive Chnid^
designates Paradise as his place of abode; othot
indicate heaven; the Ascension of Isaiah (ix. %
the seventh heaven. The Arab theologians wawt
according to the indefinite expression of the Koni
xix. 58 (cf. the Book of Enoch Ixxxvii. 3). Tta
New Testament also recognizes a transformati*
without death (I Thess. iv. 17; I Cor. xv. 51).
Tradition has been all the busier for the meagtt'
ness of actual data. By analogy with Noah, it j|
was assumed that Enoch was a preacher of »•
pentance and herald of judgment >
4. Enoch in (Ecclus. xliv. 16; cf. xlix. 14; Book d ;.
Tradition. Enoch i. 9; Jude 14 sqq.). Later, i» ^
an age of speculation concemin| -
nature and history, people thought to find in Enock
conversing so intimately with God the actual W <
vehicle of divinely influenced human discemmeiit*
the genuine gnosis instilled by good spirits, in coo* -"]
tradistinction to the knowledge conveyed by dr j
mons. His name (from the Heb. hanakh, **to
consecrate ") seemed to denote the " consecrated**
one, from whom authentic solutions were to bl |
expected touching the secrets of this world and
the one beyond. Hence he was esteemed no k*
as the inventor of writing and the sciences, espfr
cially starcraft (Eusebius, Prceparaiio evangdkiti
ix. 17; cf. the number 365), than as apocalyp^
X49
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bnooh
Bpao, Synod of
mtba (cf. A- Dillnmnn, Dm Buck Heri^h, Leip-
aic, 1S5<% pp. xxvL aqq.). In tho last ccoturiea
bclot^ Christ, Eiiocb was accredited with t!ie e?ii-
tlie tTKksyTe of contemporary knowledge about
God, mturc, and history; as was done in the the-
Ql(»praJIj important Book of Enoch (see Pssud^
mpwiupHA, Ouj Testamkxt^ II., 4-5). With the
^Aisba, Enoeh, or, as they more commonly call
him, Idm (** the learned, expert one ") play® prc-
domjnaiitly the part of the metliator of higher wLbt-
(iodD ami science (cf. d'Herbelot, B^li&th^qut ori-
ejiiilr, Oerm, transL, !., Halle, 17S5, pp, e24-<>25;
C Weil, Bibiiitche I^^jenden der MmelmdnneTf
fmakfurt, 1S45, pp. 62-67); for rabbmic legendi
d. J. A. Eiaenmenger^ Enldecktes Judetiihum^ ii.,
Iflnigiabeiig, 17H, pp. 396 sqq,).
C. voH Oeelli.
StsuoaBAFHTt BcsidM tbe literatura given in the text,
{sofitlt: M, PoJauci. ScUdtijarnM from the Talmud, pp. 34-
37, Philmlelphia. Ig76; H* E. Tiyh, Earij^ NarmHvEt of
Qt^'ViM, pp, 90-91, London. 1J31I2; idem, in E^potitory
Timet, UL (ises) 3M; BB, i. 7(Mr-7D5; EB, it. l^SH-
$$; JB, Y. 17B-i79; &nd ConunentAdes oa GeneoiB and
nJude,
EirrHROIflZATIOir. See Bishopi Pope, Pa-
pact, Papal tsTSTEM.
EKTHUSIASH : An intense moral impulse or
all^ngrossjng temper of mind. The t-erm as aj>-
plied to religion designates both a noble temper of
mkid and moral ferv^or, and also a misdirected and
even destructive intenflity of feeling. In the bettor
eense of the term, our Lord was the highest illus-
tration of enthusiafim. His ioul wa^ possessed
with overwhelming affection for men, and an in-
tense impulse to help them. The apofttles were
enthusiasta in a good sense. The early monks, St,
Franck of Asfri^i, Dominie , Huhs, the Reformers,
the e&rly Methodists, are all examples of religioui
enttnunasnu Heathen religions hav^e had their en-
thudaala aa well aa the Christian.
Christian enthusiasm in the good Eieni^ m de-
rived from two motives,^ — ^love for men and love
for Christ. In the had sense, enthusiasm is almost
ByDonymous with fanaticism, and enthusiai^t^ with
sealota. It is fervor of soul drawn from w^rong
pHnciplea^ founded on wrong judgments, aJid ap-
plied to wrong ends. Neither selfish nor impure
motivefl neeeftsarily prevail in such a temper of
mind^ and seal of activity. Such enthusiasm may
proceed from & sincere desire to glorify God. It
substitutes fancies for the truth, and in its last
stages the disorder of the mind becomes mental
insajiitj.
The term " enthueiajts " haa also had a technical
sense, as in the EliEabethan period. Jewel, Rogers
{Tkirty-nme Articles, Parker Society ed.^ Cam-
bridge, 1S54, p. 158), and others speak of ** Enthu-
siasts " as they do of Anabaptisti. During the
Commonwealth period^ and afterward the t«nn
was frequently applied to the Puritans in a tone of
depreciation, as by Robert South, who preached
a special Bcnnon on the subject, " Enthuaiasts not
Led by the Bpirit of God," meaning by " enthusi-
asts" the Puritans. See Ecstasy. {Sermom, ed.
W, G. T, Shedd , sermons Iv. Ivi, voL iii,, pp. 157-
180, S vols., New York, 186^-1871 >)
Biblickihapht: I. Tfcylfir* Naiitrat ffintory of Enihu*iaim.
Now York, 1849; U. LavinKton, Enthuii^tm of Meth*
adUttt and PapiaU, ed, R. Polwbel^, Loodon, IS^i"?; J.
Macklntcwh, M itcelkLneout Wftrkm, p. 731, ib. IKiil: G.
Wcaky'fl Sermon an EnihuMamtt iei iu hi a WirrkM, ii. 331 sqq,
ElfZIKAS, FRANCISCO DE: Spanish Prot-
estant; b, at Burgos, Spain, c. 1520; d. at Geneva
1570. He was known in Gefmany by the Grccized
form of hie name^ Diyander, and by the name
Eichmann, in Franco as Duchesne, in Holland as
Van Eyck^ull tranHhitions of lus Spanish name,
which means ** oakman." He ©tudie<l in the
NetherlundH and embraced the Reformation; then
visited Wittenberg, where he translated the New
Testament from the Greek into Spaninh under the
eye of Melanchthon- His completed wdrk he took
to the Netherlands and publmhed it tliere (Ant-
werp, 1543)- Ho dedicated it to Charles V. and
presented it in person t^o the emperor at Bnisaels.
But this procedure was so evidently in the interest
of the Reformation in Spain that it could not bo
permitted to pass unpunished, conBcqucntly En-
zinas was soon after thrtjwn into pri?ion. He es-
caped in 1545, and thereafter hvcd in different
places. His brotlier, Jaime, also embraced Prot-
estantism, prepared a catecliism in Spanish setting
forth the Evangelical faith, and printed it at Ant*
werp (1545), He then, in pursuance of liis father's
directions, w*ent to Rotne^ where he was burned at
the stake, 1546. The tiiini brother, Juan, abo be-
came a Protestant^ but, settling in Germany, es-
caped persecution. See Spain, the Refohmatio^v
IN.
BtBLiOoOA^EfT: M^moira de Francisto de EnmmtM, 2 vols..
BrtiMeK lS62-fi3, cf. ZKG, xiii. a8S2h T. MtCrie. iikt
of . . . th€ Reformation in Epain, chttp, v., EdinbaritK.
1820; H. C; Leu, Mint, W (Ae ifuptirilum of Spain, iii. 434,
New York, 1907; KL, iv, 66l-flft2.
BOK. See Gnosticism.
EON DE L'ETOILE. See Epuo db Stella.
EPAO, SynOD OF: A Bynod held in Sept.,
517, at Epiio or Epaone, a village to the south of
Vienne, near the jiresent Anncyron, at tlmt time
part of the kingdom of Burgundy, where a year
earlier the Arian king Gundobad had been suc-
ceeded by his ortliodox son Sigismund. It was
attended by twenty-four bishops from all parts -of
the kingdom, on the Invitation of Avitus of Vienne
[q-vj. Laymen ©cem to have been present, after
their participation had been declared lawfni; canon
X3dv. permitted them to bring charges against any
clergy who were justly accuBed of immorality.
The forty canons passed at tliis meeting should be
considered in eonneetion with those of the synods
of Agde (606) and Orleans (511; qq.v.). They
were intended to do for the Burgundian kin gf lorn
what these had done for the Visigothic or Frank-
ish ^though the speedy dissolution of the former
made their effect slight. Several of them, how-
ever, were included in a later (Spanish) collection
of the canons of Agde (though with some modifi*
cations in the direction of less severity), and thus
continued to have an influence on subsequent
practise. The spirit of Avitue breathes through
them alL An important section deals with the
inalienability of ecclesiastical property; a more
Bparohy
BpiirfteBi
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
150
vigorous repression of Arianism is demanded,
though the return of individuals to the Church is
made easy. It appears that priests and deacons
were married, and that the episcopal oversight
embraced the monasteries. The enforcement of
the rights of bishops corresponds to the treatment
of the metropolitan power. The number of for-
bidden degrees for marriage is increased, in har-
mony with older legislation, apparently with an
eye to the case of a royal officifd who had married
his deceased wife's sister; this led to an attempt
on the king's part to discipline the bishops, and to
a firm pronouncement on their part at the first
Sjmod of Lyons (before 523), at which eleven of
the members of the Synod of Epao were present.
(Edgar Henneke.)
Bxbuoorapht: The Ada, ed. R. Peiper, are in MOH,
AueL ant., vi. 2 (1883). 165-175. cf. (ed. Maassen) MOH,
Condi., i (1893), 15 sqq.; Harduin. Concilia, ii. 1045
■qq.; Hefele, Conciliengeachichte, ii. 680 sqq., Eng. transl.,
iv. 107 iqq.; Neander, ChrUtian Church, ii. 101, iii. 5. 100.
EPARCHY: Originally the designation of a
civil province in the Roman empire, composed of
smaller communities, and forming in its turn a sub-
division of the dioikesis (see Bishopric). These
divisions furnished a model for the ecclesiastical
organization; the heads of the smaller communi-
ties became bishops, those of the eparchies metro-
politans, with their sees in the capital cities, and
those of the dioceses exarchs or patriarchs. In
the later Greek and Russian Churches, the usage
altered and the jurisdiction of an ordinary bishop
was called an eparchy. (P. HiNSCHiusf.)
EPHESIAHS, EPISTLE TO THE. See Paul
THE Apostle.
EPHESUS. See Asia Minor in the Apos-
tolic Time, IV. For the Council of Ephesus, 431
(Third Ecumenical) see Nestorius; for the " Rob-
ber Synod " of 449, see Eutychianism, 5 6.
EPHOD: An implement used by the priests of
the Hebrews to obtain oracles from God. In
I Sam. xiv. the Urim and Thummim appear as an
accessory of the ephod, especially if (as is prob-
ably the case) the Septuagint in verse 41 has the
right reading: " Yahweh, thou God of Israel,
wherefore answerest thou not thy servant this day?
If the guilt be mine or my son Jonathan's, let
Urim come forth; if it be the people's, let Thum-
mim come forth." Clearly the Urim and Thummim
were two holy Jots which were in some close con-
nection with the ephod, and were brought forth
by the priest (who put his hand into the bag in
which they were kept), or were made to leap out
by violent shaking of the bag. From the two pas-
sages I Sam. xiv. 41, xxviii. 6 it is evident that in
the time of Samuel, Saul, and David it was cus-
tomary to inquire of God by means of the Urim
and Thummim, or, which amounts to
Varieties the same thing, by the ephod; and
of Ephod. further, from I Sam. xiv. 3, 18 (R. V.,
margin), that it was a part of the high
priest's duty to carry it with him. The form of
the ephod does not appear from these passages.
It is doubtless the same thing which appears in
I Sam. xxi. 9, where the sword of Goliath is placed
behind it (doubtless as a sacred trophy), in al
probability as it hung upon the wall; but this ImI.
passage gives no warrant for concluding that it.,
was an image of Yahweh. Besides this ephod'
which the high priest wore, there is mention of ti
ephod of linen worn by other priests (I Sam. xxJL'
18), by Samuel (I Sam. ii. 18), and by Davki fli
Sam. vi. 14). The ephod to which tbs Urim aal
Thummim belonged was therefore not of linen, but
probably of some costlier stuff. An ephod which
belonged to the high priest's equipment is d»*
scribed Ex. xxv. 7, xxviii. 4, etc.; but it cannot
be said that this is something entirely diffeiat
from that which appears in the early accoontii
Taken altogether, the references contained in thi
Old Testament do not permit a very lucid acoomi
to be given of the article.
According to Ex. xxviii., the ephod was made of
gold, blue, purple, and fine linen, joined with two -i
shoidder pieces and a band. It was apparently n 2
ornament for the breast and had a loose " pocket*
{hoshen, a word which is not understood) in which
were the Urim and Thummim. TUi
High- pocket, a span square, was made iiit
Priestly to the ephod by rings of gold and
Ephod. chains which were carried to rosettei
on the shoulders, the rings being mh
demeath the ephod. The ** pocket " was adorned
with three rows of precious stones, four in a rov,
on which were engraved the names of the twel?e
tribes. The ephod, which was rather of the mr
ture of regalia than of ordinary clothing, was woitt
above an overcoat of blue (cf . I Sam. ii. 18-19). So
far the ephod of the time of Samuel was like thit
described in the priest-code.
But it is held that numerous signs indicite
another kind of ephod. From Judges viii. 24 it ii
concluded that the ephod was sometimes an im^e
of deity, since in this case it is stated that the
thing became a snare to Gideon and to IsrieL .
Those who support this view see confirmation in
Judges xvii.-xviii.; 1 Sam. xxi. 10, and in the con- ^
nection between ephod and teraphim in Hos. iii. i
But this view is untenable. That the '
Ephod not teraphim were images is clear from
an Image. 1 Sam. xix. 13, 16; but it does nc/tldr !
low from the " and " in Hos. E 4 .
that the ephod was also an image. What the two
had in common was that both were used as oradoi
(Ezek. xxi. 21; Zech. x. 2). Judges xviii. 20
speaks against the similarity of ephod and imag^
and suits better the explanation that the fonner
was something that could be himg about one.
And the passage in which Gideon is said to haw
made an ephod is h'ttle more certain. So little ii :
known of what was actually done in that case,
what was bought with the 1,700 shekels, and what
was the cost of labor, that no sure conclusion ii
possible. If the passages quoted do not show that
the ephods of Gideon and Micah were images, on
the other hand it can not be proved that they were
not. Still, the ephod was something habitually
worn as a duty by the priests, and this does not
agree with the supposition tliat the article was a
standing image, as is required by the hypothem
that the sword of Goliath was placed behind such
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bparohy
Bphraam
image (I Sam. xxi. 10). Moreover, supposing
;t Gideon's ephod was an image, the carrying
mch a weight as is stated to have been the
mint of the booty was beyond the power of a
iest. In all cases but this, the ephod was made
be worn, and the ephod is never mentioned
lODg the iforbidden representations. Some sup-
K that the gold was used merely as a plating;
that case how massive must Gideon's ephod
iTe been to require 1,700 shekels to cover it ! And
lother terminology is employed to express such
la^ (Ex. XX. 23, xxxii. 31). It is unlikely, too,
at the same word would denote an image and a
lit of the priest's regalia, while a distinction is
Hide between that and a linen ephod. Duhm's
qilanation of it as a golden mask which the priest
Qt on is equally untenable {Das Buck Jeaaiah^ p.
DO, Gdttingen, 1892). Since other peoples made
itieies of clothing richly decorated to put on the
ttges of their deities, it is not inconceivable that
he Hebrews did the same.
Hie etymological meaning of the word is doubt-
bL Generally it is taken from a root meaning
'to draw over," hence " covering." Lagarde con-
wts it with an Arabic root meaning " to draw
Mr to a greater as a mediator," and so makes it
■em "a vestment in which to approach God."
fapport for this is found in the Syriac ped?Ua, from
iroot the same as the Arabic mentioned above.
iihis be the case, it gives the more reason for re-
tting the meaning " image." See Images and
I&G&^WOSSHIP, I. (W. LOTZ.)
Buoobapbt: T. C. Foote, The Ephod, in Johru Hopkins
Vnitenity CireularM, Baltimore, 1900; idem, in JBL,
1902, Dp, 1-48; B. Ugolini, Theaauna antiquitatufn §acra-
ran, xiL 785 sqq., Venice, 1744-69; W. Baudiaain, Oe-
fditkte dea tdUeatamendithen PrieaterthumB, pp. 205 sqq.,
Lcipae, 1889; P. de Lagarde. in Abhandlungen der 06t-
Imga^ GtaelUdutft der Wieaenechafien, 1889. 178; Ben-
■Bcer, Ardidi^offie, p. 382; Nowack, ArchOologie, ii. 21
KM.. 118 aqq.; G. F. Moore, Judgea, p. 381, New York.
1895; E. Sellin. BeUrdge aur iaraeliUachen und j&diachen
^aUgwna^eachuJtU, II. i. 119-120. Leipsic. 1897; A.
Via Hoonacker, Le Saeerdoce UvUique, pp. 370 sqq..
Loonin, 1899; DB, i. 725-727; EB, ii. 1306-09; JE,
T. 185-187.
OTRAEM (EPHREM) SYRUS ("Ephraim the
nian "; Syriac ^Apkrem) : Theologian, exegete,
id homilist; b. at or near Nisibis, in the begin-
ng of the fourth century; d. probably near
dosa, possibly in June, 373, but the dates 378
id 379 are also given. His father is said to have
Ben the priest of a deity or idol named Abnil or
liizal destroyed by Justinian. He was converted
> Christianity by Bishop Jacob of Nisibis, with
iKXD he is said to have attended the Council of
lioea. He lived at Nisibis until 363, when he
tok up lus residence near Eklessa as an anchorite.
b is nid to have visited Basil of Csesarea, to have
M ordained deacon by him, and to have declined
rther ecclesiastical advancement. He went to
Egypt and there remained for eight
life. years, preaching to the monks in their
own language. Shortly before his
ih be appeared as a public benefactor in the
st of a famine by opening a hospital for the
in the monastery. His will forbade his
ftl in a church, and directed that he should be
wrapped in his old cloak and laid in the common
cemetery (cf. T. J. Lamy in Campte rendu du IV,
congrts acientifique des Catholiquea, Freiburg in Swit-
zerland, 1898, and R. Duval, in J A, 1901, Sept.-
Oct., pp. 234-319). According to the Chronicle of
Edessa his death occurred in June, 373; Jerome
places his death under the emperor Valens. If the
former date be correct, the encomium upon Basil
(d. Jan. 1, 379), ascribed to Ephraem, can not be
by him. All ecclesiastical calendars celebrate him,
the Latin on Feb. 1, the Greek and Syriac on Jan.
28, the Coptic on 14 Epipi (July). At present his
grave is shown in the Armenian cloister Dar Scrkis
west of Edessa (cf. C. E. Sachau, Reiae in Syrien,
Leipsic, 1883, p. 202).
The works of Ephraem were very numerous, ac-
cording to Sozomen some 3,000,000 stichoi, a great
part of which consisted of sermons and lectures.
They do not easily separate into classes, though a
provisional division is into exegetical, dogmatic-
polemic, and poetical. In the latter branch he is
credited with the invention of the " Controversial
Hymn," called by Burkitt a " melancholy addi-
tion." From the standpoint of the intrinsic worth
of the writings it is difficult to explain the great
repute of this Father. The value consists in the
fact that the great number of the
Exeget- productions and their excellent pres-
ical Works, ervation afford many means of in-
sight into the life and thought of the
Church of his period. But Ephraem was prolix
and repetitious, so that there is really little to re-
ward the student for examination of his work.
The difficulty in securing data is enhanced by the
fact that many works ascribed to him are not his,
and much of the work done upon Ephraem has to
be done over in the light of better information,
especially that gained from the Armenian version
of his writings. Thus the examination of the New
Testament quotations of Ephraem by F. H. Woods
(Studia biblica et eccleaiasticaf vol. iii., Oxford, 1891)
was revised by F. C. Burkitt (Ephraim's Quoto-
tions from the Gospel, in TS, vii. 2, 1901). In his
exegetical work upon the Gospels his basis was
Tatian's Diatessaron (cf. J. H. Hill, Dissertation on
the Gospel Commentary of S. Ephraem the Syrian,
Edinburgh, 1896). That in his work on the Acts
he used a " Western " text has been shown by J.
R. Harris (Four Lectures on the Western Text, Cam-
bridge, 1894, pp. 23 sqq.). His Commentary upon
Zechariah has been studied by Lamy (Revue bib-
liquc, 1897). Burkitt asserts that Revelation is
not referred to in Ephraem's exegetical works.
The theological writings are less valuable for
their contributions to theology tlian for their ref-
erence to the heresies of the time. In the biog-
raphy it appears that no less than
Theo- nine arose in Edessa during his times
logical and and that he combated them all,
Poetical among them the heresies of Marcion,
Works. Mani, and Bardesanes. The type of
his theology is best seen in his " Ser-
mon on our Lord " (in T. J. Lamy, i. 145-274; Eng.
transl. in NPNF, 2d ser., xiii. 305-330). This is a
treatise on the incarnation; but the language is
highly figurative and a clear idea of Ephraem's
Ephraexn
Bpikleais
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
15S
viewa is hard to obtain from it, U waa for hia
poetry that he was in ancient times most cele-
brated, eince thia gained for him the titlea " Lyre
of the Holy Ghost '' and ** Prophet of the Syrians."
It was with this a« a weapon that he fought against
Bardesanea and his son Harmodius. In his hymns
he used principally the meamire of seven fiyllables,
and the Syrian Clmrvh utill make© urn of hb com-
positions (the ** Kisibene Hyinas " are in XPSFf
utsup., pp. 165-220)-
Ephraein waa not the founder of a school of the-
ology or exegesis like that of Antioeli, It appears
that his works were translated into Greek, since
Soiomen stat<*f!* that they loac! little by Ijcing so
rendereiJ. Jerome reafl hut one in the Greeks that
on the Holy Ghost* Burkitt criticizes Epbraem's
theology as giving neither the historical Christ,
nor tfie ChriRtiatiity of the early Church, nor yet
the clearly defined tloctrine of post-Nicene times,
and as failing in the point of intellectual eerbus-
ness* E. Nebtle.
BtBMCKiiiAPfnrt Tba chief eilition r>f the " Work?*/' b^^n
by Fetor MobKrek O^t^npclict) and tiDifthcd by J, B, A*
AHwindini, waj publiahecl, @ vols., Rome. 1732-46. Other
editioiiN ara; Opera axl^rta, ed. J. J. Ovurbeck* Oxfurd»
1805: Carmina JVm6ervi, ed. U. Hicki^ll, l^ipair, 1B66;
ilj/mrii et StTTmtneM^ ed. T, J. I^my, S tqIs,, Mccblin,
18S2 g6; " History of Jowph." Ptoris. lS9tr fraein^nts of
tbo ** Commentary on the Dip.teiwafci]]," ed* J* Jl. Itarrip.
Lunilab^ 1B95. Tr&titil. into Gflnn. are of aeleeteil works
by P. Zingerle, fl vols.. Innsbruck, 1^1-15, mid by F. X.
Reithm^yert in BibHathek dcf Kirchtnv&ter, Kcmpten,
IfiOO. Of Engf. triLn--«1. may be niootioned; SeUct Warka,
by J. B. MoniH. Oxford^ 1847; Rcpmntanc^ of Niner^h^
iijid ^iKt Mettiml Jlifmnt arid Homiliea, by If. l^urffieM,
3 vols.. LondoTV. 1853; NPNF, 2d Rer., liii. 167-341.
EnR. trandU, of ten of hia hynmin are in It. Pick, Itjflnn*
and PmtTtf tff the Ba^ttrn Ckurch, New York. imjR.
The Bources for ^ life are: I he Ertf^mftitAm of Epbraem
by Gregory of Nys^sa (bc^st); and the briefer notioea in
Boiomfin, fiiMt ecci.. jii. 16; Theodor^t, Hi»i. e^et., ii. 30,
iv. 20; Jerome, De nV. ifi. 11 S. The best dlN^ua^jnn of
the life in Eng, ia in NPNF, 2d ser,, %uL 119-14fl; vidu-
iiblep however, i^ DCFi. ii. 13r}-t44, Conmiit further:
J. F. Goab, in MemtfrahUifn, ii. 136 nqfi,. cf. i. fiS |iqq..
Leipflic, l7tl-96; J. Al!tl«h«n. Dm Leb^n rfe* i^phraem
det SyrerM, Berlin, IS53; C. Ferry- '^^ Sphrem po^Uf, Pann.
1S77; Kl, iv* fi77-«S2: Seluiff, ChHatian Churek. iii, §26-
033.
On the writiniifs ennffult: X B. Assemam, BiMwtheai
frri^ntati*, L 511 «1Q+p Itaini*, 17 IB; C* von LenEerke, Cttm-
mentaiio criiifa d. S. EphrfTTntJ tSuf^o, lialle. 1S2S; idem,
Dt Uphrtrmi . * . arte hermenfutyra, Ktluigabf TJS, iB3l:
A. Uaase, S. Kphni^mi iSs/ri tk^itlogia, Halle, ISUO;
Moodingerp EvanijetH cuncfrrfitijilis crpogitit?. Venice. I!I7G;
E. A, W. Budge, On fi Fragment oj a Coptic Vrrnan ej
S. Ephmim . . . on ike Tratutfiifuratkm^ London, 1887;
EphriFmi Syri contmentarii in epivtiJias FatdU Venicr*
1S93; H. Grim me. Der Siruphfidmu in dtn Gedichttn
Ephraema dew Sj/rrrt. Freiburg, 1803; T. J. Lamy, L'Eji/-
§^•90 en r&ri£TiJ. DM ijuatrihne 9iick, iv, 4f»Q-48ft. Pariu, 1SQ3;
J. Gwynn. The Apeaxiupte a/ St. John, pp. dj,-dii.,
Dublin, 18&4: W, Wright, Shijrt HiMt. &I Syfiae Literature,
London, 1S94; R. DuvaJ, La iJfl/raivre onam^Vnn*.
PftriB. 1895; H. Hcrinff. Di> Lehre von dtt Pemdigi, Ber-
Un. 1S&7; NPNF, ijii. 140-152.
EPHRATA COBtMimiTY. SeeCoMMUNisMjL,5.
EPICTETUS: Stoic pbilosopher: b, at Ilier-
apoUs (121 m. s.e. of Smyrna), in Phrygia, c 5f>
AM.] d. at Nicopolis (3 m. n. of Prevesa), in Epi-
nis, a. 120. For a time be lived in Rome as the
slave of Epaphrodituj?, a frecdtimn and favDrite of
Nero, but later he Bceiireil hm freecJom and became
a courtier of Nero. He studied the Stoic philoso*
phy under Musooius Rufus and achieved distinc-
tion at Rome as a teacher of philosopby. Wha
Domitlon drove the pkiloeopbefB froca Borne ^boid
90 A.D. Epictetufi settled at NicopoUs^ whens h
taught with great success till the end of hia lUi;
He seems to have written nothing him^lf^ but \h
sayings were recorded by his pupil Flavius Ariaimi^
who did for his master what Xenophoti did f^
Soerates, Aa reported by Arianus, the works 4
Epictetus consist of the EnchHHdian, a tnanyil d
moral teaching, and the " Diiscouraea ' ' in ts^
books, of which only four are extant.
As a philoaopber Epictetus waa intenselj pi»-
t leal I and bis teaching was concerned witli the
conduct of life, rather than with the problcim d
metaphysics. His ethica are of peculiar intemb
becau!^ of the eimilanty between his teachii^
and those of Je^us, Like other Stoics (see Sroh
cjsm) he made virtue the purpose and end el life
and identified a virtuous life with a happy Ufc;
As thb ideal is to be attained largely throu^ i
ceticism, " bear and forbear " becomes the watch-
word of a virtuous and^ therefore, happy Ufe. To
be happy, one must restrict hia desires aad aot
meddle with things over which he has no cootfoL
The only thing in the worid that is abedutely oun
is our will. Nothing ca-n break that; whatever we
do, we do because we will iU But this will in oi
is only the diiine will; and henee EpLetetus de-
duces all moral laws from the will of God, As
rational creatures we have part in the reason of
God; we are divine- All tbat is irrational in the
world, external sin and evil, is merely an appear-
ance, and should not affect us. Epictetus lived in
accordance with his ascetic teachini^ and is de-
Bcribe*! as a model of wisdom a,nd virtue.
His works ha've been edited by J. SchweighSuBer
(5 vols., Leipsic, l7»9-t80O), and by H. Schenkl
(Leipisie, 1894; 1898). Among tranalations may
be mentioned that of Elizabeth Carter (London,
1758), which has been revised and edited by T, W.
Hiijginson (Boston, 1865), also those of Geofge
Look (London, 1890) and T. W, Rolfeston tLon-
don, 1888).
BiHLiocnAr-fiT; The esrly life is by I>ioe«D«fi Xjuertini in
hift " Lives of Ihe Philo^topbeEn "' {bcsnt edition by H. G.
Hilbtier, Lelpnii:, 1S28-31), For » modem Appred&tioa
cnnault F. W. Furar, Sttken aft^t Qod, London, 1888.
For further i:Uw:uaaion consult F. Ueberwtitf. G^K^tdUe
dtr Phihaophie. ed. M. Heinie, Berlin, !8©6-97» und in
Eng. the translationH of the History of PbiloaOpliy of
Elrdmnnn (Lundon, 1S9C!>, and of Winde.lb&nd (ib. 1B03).
AIho, E. M. Bchr&nka. Der St&iker Bpiktei uvd teime Pki-
lim>phi^, L«p«iic, 18S5; A. Bonh^ffor. Bpiem und die
Stoa, SluttRnri. 1S00; idem. Die Ethik d^ , . . Spuilel,
ib. 1S04. D(her litfirature j^ indicstisd id J« M, BiJdwin.
BiriioiMtrtf of Philif»ophu and Peydioloififj iii, 1, pp, 191-
1&2, Kfcw York, 1903.
EPICURE AITISM: The philosophy of Epicurus
(342-270 B.C.), more particularly hia ethics. The
term is also applied loosely to any hedonistic tend-
ency in morab. Building upon the raaterialistk;
metaphysics of Democrituis, and the hedonistic
teachings of A ria tippus, Epicurus reached the view
tbat happiness, or pleasure, Is the cluef good and
the only pofisible en<l of rational action. In popu-
lar thought Epicureanism has received a crude in-
terpretation not justified by the teachings of its
founder. According to EpkuruSi pleasure, though
53
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Ephraam
Bpiklesis
lednble, is not always to be chosen, for it may
etd to pain greater than itself. It is not the
^feisare of the moment, therefore, that we are to
EoDow (the view of the Cyrenaics), but pleasure in
% Ittger sense, including the pleasures of the mind,
It nell as those of sense. The chief good, then,
becomes a happy life as a whole, the substance of
whieh, in the view of Epicurus, is a healthy body
nd a truiquil mind. He held that some desires
tie unnatural, others unnecessary. These are to
be controlled. He is reported to have said, " If
tku wilt make a man happy, add not unto his
liehes, but take away from his desires."
With Epicurus the cardinal virtue is the insight
meeflBary to regulate the desires and thus secure
iBoItiinate preponderance of pleasure over pain.
ftm this virtue all others follow. On the whole,
lii teaching is hardly less rigorous than that of the
fltoies, who expressly made virtue the end of con-
dKt A virtuous life, Epicurus holds, is the con-
Ma of a happy life; if one is consistently virtu-
ous, his life can be only one of happiness. He
tngbt a prudential justice. The just man spares
budf the annoyance to which an unjust man is
fobjected by his fellows. Fear of the gods and
lev fA death Epicurus considered superstitions
iiAarbiog to a happy life, because, as happy and
bperishable creatures, the gods have nothing to
do with the affairs of this world. Unlike other
pliilosophers of his time Epicurus believed in the
fnedom of the will. Epicureanism was long pop-
lb in Rome and was one of the four philosophical
ibools endowed by Marcus Aurelius. Through
b Jk natura rerum Lucretius became the chief
ileraiy representative of Epicurean philosophy.
Hie teachings of Epicurus, revived by Pierre Gas-
ndi (q.v.) became extremely popular in the time
of the English deists and the French encyclopedists.
teuoasAPHT: P. von Gisycki, Ueber daa Leben uTui
Mtnliikao$opkie de* Epikurua, Berlin, 1870; £. Pfleiderer,
twUmmiamua und EffoUmua, Leipsic. 1880; W. Wal-
I hee, EpicureanUm, London. 1880; W. L. Ck>urtney.
SiMdia in Philotophy, ib. 1882; T. C. Baring. The Scheme
[ affpiama, ib. 1884; F. W. Newman. Epicureanimn, in
I UiaeOaniee, vol. iv.. ib. 1891; P. Casael, Epikuroe der
PUoioiA. Beriin. 1802; E. Zeller. Stoics, Epieureana,
niSeeplka, London, 1802; H. O. Newland. Epicurean-
M. ib. 1900; J. Maaeon. Lucretiua, Epicurean and Poet,
ibn 1908; and the general works by A. W. Benn
{QnA PkUoeophen, ib. 1882). B. Erdmann (Hiat. of
AONoplky. ib. 1893). and W. Windelband {HUt. of An-
^ tkut Pkiloaophy, ib. 1000). Additional literature is in-
I £eited in J. M. Baldwin. Dictionary of PhUoaophy and
f AieWw. iii. 1. PP. 102-104. 361-362, New York, 1005.
; BPKLESIS OR mVOCATION: In the strict
■OK of the term, the liturgical prayer by which
JBerally in the ancient Church, and to this day in
tile Eastern, the sacramental elements (water, oil,
^read and wine) are consecrated; a prayer in which
God is asked to send down the Holy Ghost upon
^ dements, the assumption being that such a
pnyer has the mysterious power of bringing the
Bciy Ghost into such relation with the elements
Sfasi they become operative for their purpose.
Imce this purpose is the sanctification of the re-
•tvers of the sacrament, a prayer for this also is
KuUy included in the epiklesis. Its position in
e liturgy is generally after the thanksgiving and
yrda of institution. As a rule it begins with what
is called the anamnesis or commemoration, fol-
lowed by the anaphora or oblation, after which
comes the epiklesis proper. It has a natural affin-
ity with the prayers of consecration in the so-called
Sacramentals (q.v.), but is to be distinguished defi-
nitely from them. See Holy Water.
The oldest evidence for the epiklesis in the form
of a prayer of consecration for the baptismal water
is found in Tertullian {Debapiismatef iv.); but there
LB no doubt that it was a constant feature of the
baptismal rite in both East and West throughout
the third and fourth centuries. In the West the
next oldest evidence is scarcely Cyp-
In the rian, who speaks only of a '' cleansing
Baptismal and sanctifying" of the baptismal
Service, water {Epist.f Ixx. 1), but rather the
Synod of Carthage of 256, with its
phrase " The water sanctified by prayer." Am-
brose asserts (De spirUu sanctOf I. vii. 88) that the
descent of the Holy Ghost, effected by the prayer
of the priest, hallows the water, and Jerome {Con-
tra Lttciferum, vi. and vii.) is unable to conceive
any true baptism without such a descent. Augus-
tine bears unmistakable witness to the same usage;
yet he, together with Ambrose, was to a great ex-
tent responsible for upsetting the universal belief
in the efficacy of the epiklesis and replacing it, as
the central point in the action of the Eucharist at
least, by the words of institution. In his conflict
with the Donatists he felt obliged to place the con-
secrating power less in a prayer of epiklesis, which
was clearly in his time not uniform in its wording,
than in a fixed, authoritative formula, such as was
that of baptism, resting upon the words of institu-
tion of the sacrament. This opened the way for
a new view of consecration, whieh in the Eucharist
especially came to be of decisive importance.
It was not long before Augustine's teaching bore
fruit. It is combined with the older view in the
pseudo-Ambrosian treatise De sacramentis (II. v.
14), and probably determined the inclusion of the
words of institution in the epiklesis of the sacra-
mentary of Gelasius, a formulary which, with some
changes, is still used in the Roman Catholic Church
at the benediction of the baptismal water. The
corresponding formulary in the Greek Church is a
simple epiklesis without the words of institution.
In the case of the Eucharist, plenty of evidences
from the fourth and fifth centuries, both Eastern
and Western, attribute the consecration of the ele-
ments to the epiklesis; but the agreement is not so
universal as in the case of baptism, nor is it safe to
assume that the epiklesis was in use from the be-
ginning as a prayer of consecration, which it came
to be considered in the East. The oldest witness
for the Eucharistic epiklesis is Irenajus, who says
(IV. xviii. 5) ** The bread which receives the invo-
cation of God is no longer common
In the bread but the Eucharist "; but that
Eucharist this phrase can not be pressed is
shown by the occurrence in the pre-
ceding section of another in which that bread is
said to be the body of the Lord " over which thanks
have been given," and the context shows that this
giving of thanks (eiicharistein) is not to be taken as
simply a general term for consecration. The epi-
BpikleaU
Epiphanius
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
154,
klesis is mentioned again in the second so-called
Pfaff fragment of Irenseus, not much later than his
time, and by Firmilian of Caesarea (Cyprian, Epist.,
Ixxv.). In the fourth century the evidences be-
come more numerous; it is mentioned by Basil
the Great, most frequently and definitely (as hav-
ing the force of consecration) by Cyril of Jerusa-
lem, again by Gregory of Nyssa, Athanasius, The-
ophilus, Chrysostom, and Ephraem Synis. But
the most striking proof of the position which it
held in the East is the fact that there is not a sin-
gle Oriental liturgy in which it is absent or in which
it is not regarded as having consecrating force.
The earliest Western authority for the epiklesis
in the Eucharist is Ambrose (De spirUu aando, III.
xvi. 112 and De fide, IV. x. 124), who shows in
these pajssages not only his acquaintance with it
but his belief in its consecrating force. In two
other passages he seems to attribute this force to
the words of institution, which only shows how
little the question was definitely worked out in
that period. Augustine was hindered by his
symbolic conception of the Eucharist from fully
applying Ambrose's ideas on this point to it; but
certain phrases of his were taken by a later age
as decisive against the consecrating virtue of the
epiklesis. It found, however, down to the seventh
century, authors who still attributed to it its
earlier importance, such as Fulgentius of Ruspe,
Optatus of Mileve, Gaudentius of Brescia, and
Isidore of Seville.
The conclusions indicated by the passages re-
ferred to are confirmed by the oldest Western
liturgies, which exhibit the epiklesis in universal
use here as a prayer of consecration for the Eucha-
rist in the fourth and fifth centuries,
Western then either disappearing or altered
Liturgies, and removed from its original posi-
tion immediately after the words of
institution. The oldest Gallican liturgies known
show no trace of this process, whose centei^point
was probably at Rome. It is true that Gelasius I.
(492-496) still knows and approves of the epiklesis;
but the simplifying and imifying work which won
the name of reformers of the liturgy for him and
Gregory the Great eliminated or transformed it in
the Roman liturgy, whose acceptance in Gaul and
later in Spain ended by bringing about the same
results there too.
In conclusion it may be safely said that the
epiklesis is not primitive, and its origin may be
attributed to a combination of Biblical terms with
pagan popular notions. The Scriptural formula
" to call upon the name of the Lord " (Joel ii. 32,
quoted Acts ii. 21 and Rom. x. 13; Acts ix. 14, 21,
xxii. 16; I Cor. i. 2) recurs in many types of epiklesis.
Among the Gnostics the Name (q.v.), as a power-
ful mystic formula, is of the greatest
Conclusion, importance; its possession enables a
man to call down the Godhead. Noth-
ing was to be employed in Christian worship which
had not been previously " hallowed " from demo-
niac influences; and the Holy Ghost, as the sancti-
fying power, must thus be called down upon the
creatures of water, oil, bread, and wine — a conclu-
sion the more natural that in the Scriptural narra-
tives of the baptism of Christ the Holy Ghost M
descended in visible form. The theory that tin
definite epiklesis originated in Gnostic dide^
where it was unquestionably widely used, and thet,
found its way into the practise of the Church, M
incapable of demonstration; it may well hat
originated in both about the same time, and hadj
a more rapid development among the Gnostiai
If it were certain that the extant magical papyri
of the later mystery-cults were of purdy pagn
origin, uninfluenced by Gnostic views, they wodi
afford more than a heathen parallel for the Cbrii*
tian epiklesis; for in them the words epHkm,
epikaleisthai are the technical terms for the ianh
cation of the Godhead on all kinds of gifts, suchaa
wine, water, and milk. At least an analogous ikm
may be clearly shown in later paganism in thi
consecration of statues of the gods, for which agiii
an epiklesis was in use. (P. Drews.)
Bibliography: From the Catholic standpoint: L. A.
Hoppe, Die Epiklesia der griechUtJien und onenlaiHtAm
Liturgien und der r6miachen Konsekraiion$hinon, Bittf
hausen, 1864; J. Frans, Der euduaiMtiaeke Komtim'
tionamoment, WCLrsburg. 1875; idem. Dm eudkoriaCiidb
Wandluno tmd die EpikleBe, ib. 1880; F. Probst. Sdb«-
menie und Sakramentalien, TQbingen, 1872; idem, Ukh
gis des 4. JahrkunderU, MOnster, 1803; idem. Die ebm^
lAndiache MeMe vom 6. bie turn 8. Jahrhundertg^ ib. iMft
llcfele, Coneiliengeechichte, vii. 721, 728 sqq.; KL, ir.
086-696.
From the Protestant standpoint: P. Zom, DumtMIi
. . , de inucXT^vti, Rostock, 1705; J. W. F. Hdfling. Dm
Sakrament der Taufe, i. 470 sqq., Erlangen, 1846; QL
Anrich, Das aniike Myaterienweeen in aeinem Binput ml
das Christenium, Gdttingen. 1894.
EPIPHANES.
POCRATIAN8.
See Carfocrateb and ibsGo*
EPIPHAianS OF CONSTANTIA: Greek CboA
Father; b. at Basanduk (near Eleutheropolii^
the modem Bet Jibrin, 23 m. s.w. of JeriMr |
lem), probably between 310 and 320; d. at set i
403. It is very doubtful whether his parents nw
Jews, for while still a youth he Uved among the
monks of Egypt, where he came into conflict with
Gnostic heretics and succeeded in expeUing soipe
eighty members of the sect. In hii
Life. native town he founded a monastoy
and was ordained presbyter by the
bishop of Eleutheropolis. He was possibly a doee
friend of Hilarion, although the statements in hii
VUa concerning their relations are devoid of his-
toricity. But there is no doubt that he was •
faithful adherent of the Nicene Creed, and becaiiee
of his reputation for learning and piety he was made
bishop of Constant ia in Cyprus and metropditaa
of the island in 357. He established monasticifln
in his see, and was so deeply venerated that his
judgment was sought on all sides. Thus originatfld
many of his works, such as his epistle on the pe^
petual virginity of Mary, his " Fast-anchored,"
his '• Medicine Chest," and his ** Twelve Gems."
Next to his zeal for monasticism, Epiphaniui
was characterized by his orthodoxy. He regarded
Origen as the father of all heresies, and made thft
task of his life the crushing of his opponent. Hk
hatred was based on the fact that Origen was thft
source of Arianism and had also received a Greek
training, with which was connected a spiritualian
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Epiklesls
Epiphanins
piph^nius opposed by a tram Tealism.
ffore became the leader of a reaction
Mg^n which assailed all Greek culture
withia the Church, While on a visit
oa lo Jerusalem (probably in 393), he
m. 00X1 tended m the Church of the Resur-
rection agamst the teachingsi of
I the root of Ariamsm until Bbhop Johan*
peUed him to desist, Johannes replied
mmon agaiDSt ** aDthropomorphlsm/^
pbanius, thou^ he too repudiated all
CDorphistic doctrines, besought the bishop
bn the teachings of hia opponent. Borne
srward be ordained a monk, the brother
e, priest at Bethlehem, a violation of the
, rights of Johannes which he felt himiself
to juMify. He had another occasion to
his antipathy to Origen, when Theophilua
adria c-ame over to bis aide and sought to
e the folio were of his former teacher in
iftQ desert. The disciples of Origen took
ith Chryaostomj and Theophilus urged
ua to convene a synod to condemn Origen
!nd its rulings to him, to Chrysostom^ and
hope. EpipJmniufi eagerly assented, held
1, and hastened to Constantinople, at the
1 of Theophilua, in 402. Then*, however,
jpd meeting Chiysoatora, but performed
ordination which contravened ecclesiaatical
informed the biahops whom he had as-
of the condemnation of Origen. After a
endeavor to secure the expulsion and ex-
estion of the adherents of Origen and the
ation of his writings, he left the city in
died before be reached Cyprus,
oaraordinaiy reputation of Epiphaniua
is tM^n temporaries was due to his union
itic asceticism with deep learning and zeal
doxy, and be may be regarded as the reprc-
tof the tendency of his time to drive pagan -
ma at all costs from the position which
^ it still held. His importance for
%- posterity, on the other hand, is found
Et in the contents of his writings. His
^* Fast-anchored " affords insight into
logy of the period, and it contains a de-
ipooition of the doctrine of the Trinity
R^uirection, and polemics against the
Origen, and others. Far more important
Medicine Cheat," which was based largely
lus and the lost ** Heresiea ** of Hippotyt us.
9- loUTces of Epiphaniua are more difficult
, Once he quotes Clement of Alexandria
uthority, but shows himself independent
isciission of many of the older heresies,
f the Jewish and Samaritan sects, the
1, the Valentiniajis, and the Mareioniti?s.
bis limitations, his work remains a valuable
w the heresies of the fourth century. The
tulation/' which was used by Augustine,
> have been a separate work of Epiphanius.
eights and Measures " is devoted chie^y
ooks of the Bible, their translations, the
ly of Paleseine, and other Bibhcai subjects.
elve Gems,'* on the twelve precious stones
:«afitplate of the hi^ prieet, is extant only
in two excerpts, one edited by Konrad Oesner
(Zurich, 1565), and the other preserved as the
fortieth queation of Anz^t^asius. The Latin trans-
lation of the latter, which is incomplete at the
beginning and the end, wa^ first published by P. F,
Foggini (Rome, 1750), but the exegesis of the Song
of Solomon, also translated by the same scholar,
is really an abridgment of a work of Philo of Car-
pasia. The letters of Epiphanius to Johannes of
Jerusalem and Jerome have been preserved in
IjiLtin translation, but the Homilies, the Vilm
prapheiOT^mt the De numerorum mj/s^eriuTj and tho
eo-Hcalled Phyitwhgu* are spurious.
(N, BONWETSCH.)
BiBUooaAPRT: The edUio pHfi^pa at the Opera Jsi by J.
EiervAiciuB, B»w], 1544; the editions by D» Petaviuj,
Parifl, 1G2JI, and W. Diodorf, LeipBJp, 1859-02 <critial)
^DtitiUD the Vila o^icribiid to an allesHl ctompamoEi of
Epiph&nitiSp FdtybiuA (wGrt,iilpAs dj a source). Boutoh
for a Ufe nret Socrates, ffitt, eed., vi. 10, 12; Soiom^^,
HM. €ixl,, vi. 32p vit. 27, viii. 14: Jerorne, 0e vir. itt.,
i^v. For more modem dj«cui»ionji of hia life c^nAuIti
A. Gervaiier Hialoira di la vie de B* Bpiphisne^ ParU,
173B; D€B, it. 149-156 (by E. A. Upi<iu». etaboratu);
Keaader, CAriiliatt Ckureh, yah. i., iL; &cb&ff. CAruHan
Chure^, Hi. S20-933. et paefllm. For treatment of Vsri-
oufl pbaHft of mtid^da eoafluU: H. Eb«>rbEird,*£H# BethtUiff-
ung des Epip^niu* am Streiie Hirer Oriffc net. Trier, I ShSjB;
R. A. LipfiitU, Zut Qu^hnkriHk rf<w Bpipfmnion, Vieon*.
184^; idem. Qutllen der aJMitten KeUerueMhieMt, pp. 91
eqq., LeipHic, 1S74; A. Uitf^nfcNb Kelwr^jevdvithte da
UrdtrifteHium*. pp. SO sqq., ib. IS&i; H, G, Voigt, Ein*
vrtachathns Urktindm dtM iQ,jiiimoniiam*ti^htn KampftM^
Jb. 1S91: E. RdL^b, ia TU, xli. 4, im5\ Knimb^vber. Qt-
aehUkte, pp. fi74 Kiq.E G. ItAuscheri, JahrMehtr der
d^HwUitk^n Kv-the, pp. 3S2-383, 404. 5£2 aqq., Fi^ibuni,
1807; Kriiicer, HitUfry, pmmu\\ Haraack, D^gmti, eape-
csi&lly vol. ii.
EPIPHAHItlS SCHOLASTICDS: A friend and
assistant of Cassiodoms (q.v.) at whose rt*quest he
translated many Greek works into Latm, viz.: (I ) the
church histories of Socrates, SosEomen » and Tbeodo-
ret, which he combined into one; under the name
oi Historia iripartUa, it was the most popular com-
pendium on its subject in the Middle Ages; (2)
the collection of synodicsl episties sent to the em-
peror Leo L in defense of the Council of Chalcedon
and in c^^ndenrmation of Timotheus iElunis (gen*
erally known as the Code^ Eneycliua}; (3) the
comment aty of Didymus the Blind on the Catholic
Epistles; (4) the commentary of Epiphanius of
Satamis on the 8ong of Solomon. G. KrOger.
Bi^lioqrapht: Ceilliw, Autmrt aaa-f*^ viii. 524. id. 102;
DCB. ti. 160-100.
EPIPHAirrUS OF TICnnJM; Bishop of Tici-
num (Pavia); b, at Ticinum 43S or 439; d. there
Jan. 21, 496* He was elected bishop in 460 and
was consecrated at ^lilan. lie is described as of
gracious personality and bearing and of great
popularity* In the troublous times that preceded
the downfall of the Western empire, Ep.phaniua
became the advocate and protector of his f)ock
against the harbanan leaders in whose hands lay
the fate of Italy. In 471 he went to Rome as dele-
gate of the nobles and populace of Uguria tor act
as mediator between the emperor Anfbcmius and
his son-in-law the king-maker Ricimer and suc-
ceeded in preventing war, though he could not
save AnthemiUH from death by the ordem of
Ricimer in the following year. In 474 he was the
Eplphany
BpUcopaoy
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
Ut
ambassador of the emperor Julius Nepos at the
court of the Visigothic king Euric, whom he per-
suaded to abstain from hostilities against the
empire. In the same year the Heruli under
Odoacer attacked Pavia and destroyed the cathe-
dral; but Epiphanius obtained from the conqueror
the remission of five years' taxes for the city and
devoted himself to its restoration. He stood in
the good graces of Theodoric, who sent him on a
mission to Lyons in 494 to obtain from the Burgun-
dian king Gundobad the release of his Ligurian
prisoners. Epiphanius was the means of bringing
back more than 6,000 men to the depopulated
fields of northern Italy. There is a tradition that
his body was brought to Hildesheim in 962.
(T. FSRSTERf.)
Bibuoobapht: The VUa by Magniia Felix Ennodius is in
MGH., Awt. ant., vii (1885), 84-109. and in MPL, Ixiii.
207-240.
EPIPHAiry, FEAST OF THE: A festival cele-
brated in honor of Christ on Jan. 6, or some day
near that date. It is first found among the Basi-
lidians in Egypt, with whom it was the commem-
oration of the baptism of Christ. This was also
the main reference of the festival when its observ-
ance became general in the Eastern Church. In
some instances the birth of Christ was also com-
memorated on that day. But tliis meaning was
not retained when, at the close of the fourth cen-
tury, the Eastern Church adopted the custom of
the Western, to celebrate the birth on Dec. 25.
The Epiphany festival is first mentioned in the
West in the fourth century. It is possible that in
Gaul at least the birth of Christ was celebrated on
that day; but in later times the celebration in the
West generally referred to the worship of the Magi
in chronological connection with the celebration
of the birth on Dec. 25. References to the bap-
tism occur, nevertheless, down to the Middle Ages,
which makes it probable that wherever the festival
was celebrated in the West before Christmas was
fixed for Dec. 25, it concerned the baptism of Christ.
In the Middle Ages the worship of the Magi was
retained as the principal fact. Yet mention was
also made of the miracle at Cana, and even of the
resuscitation of Lazarus. The idea was the mani-
festation of the glory of Christ, as may be seen from
the Roman Gospels for the Sundays after Epiphany
which relate his being found in the Temple, the
manifestation of his glory at Cana, the faith of the
centurion, and the stilling of the tempest. The
special fimctions which marked the day in the East
were the preliminary steps to baptism and the
blessing of the font, and the announcement of the
date of Easter. Among popular customs some
remains of the dramatic representation of the com-
ing of the Magi have been retained in certain
places.
Luther reverting to the original meaning of the
day desired that preachers should refer to Christ's
baptism and to Christian baptism in general, and
himself preached on that subject. But he did not
succeed in im;iosing his view on the Lutheran
Church, which retained Matt. ii. 1-12 as the Scrip>-
ture lesson for the day. Before the end of the six-
teenth century the celebration of the day was
abolished in some territories; among the RefonaH
it ceased entirely. Even among Lutbenuu th
festival fell more and more into disuse, as
essary, or was transferred to the following Sundq;
as in Prussia in 1754. At present there is
diversity of practise: in some parts the day is
kept as a great festival, in others it is a
" half holy-day," i.e., a day of purely ritual obien;
ance, with a church service; in others again it ^
not celebrated at all, though the following Sunta
are still counted as Sundays after Epiphuiy. Ill
efforts to restore the day are not likely to be
cessful. It follows too soon after Christmas
it is difficult to give it a special significanee ii
addition to that of the greater festival. A
gestion that the day should be celebrated as i
general missionary festival has this against it, ' '
in many places missionary festivals have alrei^f
been introduced with special peculiarities, and i^,
would be undesirable to interfere with them. ThMi
only Luther's suggestion would remain, to makettib
day a baptismal festival. But this suggestion iIhI
has little prospect of successful execution. Hk
festival, in our conditions, suffers from thediffiedK]
of retaining the day as an ecclesiastical festhil^
while it has attached to it no generally acknofl'^
edged special event to be celebrated. [In themodf^
em Roman Catholic Church, it is the double of thr%
first class, with an octave, and the Andean Oo»-/,
munion has retained it among the greater or "m4»;
letter " holy-days, with a special service appointoil;-
Bxblioorapht: Bingham, OrigineM, book xx., chili. iK«y
E. Martene, De antiquia ecdeaia rili&tM, iii. 42, Voter
1783; A. J. Binterim, DenkwQrdiakeiUn^ v. 1, pp. tir
sqq., 7 vols.. Mains, 1837-41; P. de Lagarde. UAmim
Weihnachtsfeat, in MitteUungen, vol. iv.. Gdttingra, Iflli
T. Kliefoth. Liturffiache Abhandlungen, 8 voUl, Rortnl^
1854-61; L. Duchesne, Christian Worthip, paaBim, L»
don, 1904; DC A, i. 617-621 (a worthy acooimt). ;
EPISCOPACY.
I. The Roman Catholic Church.
II. The E^astern Church.
III. The Jansenist Church of Holland and the Old CatbdkL
IV. The Church of England and the Protestant Epiieopil
Church.
V. The Reformed Episcopal Church.
VI. The Moravian Church.
VII. The Lutheran Churches.
VIII. The Reformed Churches.
IX. The American Methodist Episcopal ChuichM.
X. The Historic Episcopate.
Episcopacy is church government by bi8h0|a>
The purpose of this article is to give a concise state*
mcnt of the views concerning the episcopal offiei
held by different Christian commimions; for tin
origin of the office, its historic development, ttd =
theories of its relative dignity, see Polity, EcdJB-
astical; for the selection of bishops and their duties
see Bishop; see also the articles upon the sevenl
bodies named below.
I. The Roman Catholic Church holds to the £-
vine origin and authority of episcopacy. Iti
position was distinctly defined by the Coiuidl ol
Trent: *' If any one saith that in the Catho&B
Church there is not a hierarchy by divine ordinar
tion instituted, consisting of bishops, priests ind
ministers; let him be anathema. If any one atitk
that bishops are not superior to priests ... a
that the power which they possess is commoii U
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bpiphany
Bpisoopaoy
to priests ... let him be anathema "
3dii. 6, 7). Episcopacy is held as essen-
i Church as the sacraments; the Church
xist without it. The words of Cyprian
rdii. [Ixvi., Ixix.] 8, ANF, v. 374-375),
irch is in the bishop," present this view
The bishops are the immediate sue-
the apostles, — " all chief rulers by vica-
nation succeed to the apostles " (Cyprian,
, A.VF, V. 373). Another view was quite
in the Middle Ages, viz., that all bishops
ssors of St. Peter and stand in his stead
ders of the Church, who hold the place of
Robert Grosseteste, Epist., xxiii., ed.
oils Series, no. 25), a view held also by
h Fathers. It is a matter of uncertainty
he bishops are an order distinct from the
not (cf. Friedberg, Kirchenrecht, p. 150).
certainly superior to priests and deacons
y in jurisdiction but in the kind of grace
ess. In their consecration a special grace
ed and they alone have the right to or-
thus confer an indelible grace. Thomas
again and again affirms that the episco-
jt a distinct order and that consecration
lot a sacramental character (cf . Sententi(Pf
3; Summay Supp., xi. 5, ed. Migne, iv.
lie Council of Trent speaks of the " hier-
bishops, priests, and deacons " but its
is susceptible of a twofold interpretation,
Lsses subdeacons with the ordines majorea
cxiii. 2). Innocent III. (1198-1216) in-
le subdeacon in the ordines majores. If
tiaconate be an order by itself then the
>longs to the order of the priesthood and
listinct order,
pe is at the head of the hierarchy of bishops
the immediate successor of Peter, all
ire subject to him as the vicar of Christ
successor of the divinely appointed head
postles. The confirmation of bishops by
i was made a fixed rule by Nicholas III
). The theory that the bishops are
3 of the pope was definitely stated by
III. Quoting Leo I. (Epist., vi., Af PL,
he declared that they receive their author-
sist the pope and not as having ** plenitude
r" (cf. Dollinger-Friedrich, PapsUhum,
1892, pp. 73, 409). This theory was advo-
the papal publicists in the early half of
eenth century and opposed by the anti-
iblicists of the same age, such as Pierre
md by Gerson and other Galilean leaders
fteenth century. This view of Innocent
•usly limits the prerogative of the bishops
»le8 the pope to depose them and makes
gnat ion valid only when accepted by him.
ican I>ecrees (iv. 3; SchafF, Creeds^ ii.
) order obedience to the pope by " all
in " all matters that belong to faith and
id also in those that pertain to the govern-
I discipline of the Church," and also assert
eir episcopal authority is really strength-
protected by the supreme and universal
The struggle over the Galilean and
itane theories of the jurisdiction and
original authority of the episcopate was theo-
retically brought to a close by the decision of the
Vatican Council.
IL The Eastern Church holds likewise to the
divine origin of episcopacy, to the transmission
of apostolic grace, and to apostolic succession.
It dissents from the Latin Church in refusing to
recognize the pope as the spiritual head of all
Christendom, but is ready to acknowledge him as
the patriarch of Western Christendom, occupying
an equal dignity with the four historic patriarchs
of the East, Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch,
and Jerusalem.
in. The Jansenist Church of Holland and the
Old Catholics both agree with the Roman CathoUc
Church on the question of the divine authority of
episcopacy, but differ from it in holding the Galilean
theory of the episcopate, i.e., they deny to the pope
anything more than an appellate and supervisory
jurisdiction over the Church, hold that he may err,
and that ecimienical councils are superior to him
in authority. The episcopate of the Dutch Jan-
senists was received in 1724 from Dominique Marie
Varlet, Bishop of Babylon, then living in Amster-
dam. Other Roman Catholic bishops, on being
applied to, refused the rite of consecration. Each
new consecration ever since has been noticed by a
special excommunication from Rome. The Old
Catholics secured their orders from the Jansenists
of Holland, the bishop of Deventer consecrating
Bishop Reinkens (Aug. 11, 1873), who subsequently
consecrated Dr. Herzog bishop for Switzerland
(Sept. 18, 1876), so that they preserved the apos-
tolic succession.
IV. The Church of England and the Protestant
Episcopal Church of the United States tolerate
two classes of opinion, — the Anglo-Catholic or
High-church view, and the Low- or Broad-church
view. (1) The Anglo-Catholic view of the episco-
pate LB in essential particulars that of the Roman
Catholic Church. It does not recognize the superior
authority of the pope, as the vicar of Christ and
the infaUible successor of St. Peter, nor even place
ordination among the sacraments. But it re-
gards episcopacy as indispensable to the very
being of the Church, holds to the transmission of
grace by the imposition of hands, accepts apostolic
succession, and denies validity to any ministry not
ordained by bishops. Bishops " as being the suc-
cessors of the apostles are possessed of the same
power of jurisdiction " (J. H. Blunt, Dictionary
of Doctrinal and Historical Theology, p. 85, London,
1870). They are, and have been from the time of the
apostles, an order distinct from the priesthood
and diaconate and higher than both. As late as
1618 the highest authority in the Church of Eng-
land, James I., recognized the ordination of the
Reformed (IJhurches of the Continent when he sent
a delegation made up in part of bishops to the
Synod of Dort. Archbishop Laud (1633-45) was
the most extreme representative of the jure divino
right of episcopacy the Church of England has had,
and his intolerance brought him to the block.
(2) The Low- and Broad-church view regards the
episcopate as desirable and necessary for the well-
being, not to the being, of the Church. The epiMopal
Bpisoopaoy
Bpisoopius
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
W
is not the only form of government with Scriptural
authority (if, indeed, it or any other be recommended
by Scripture); but it is the one best adapted to
forward the interests of Christ's kingdom among
men. The best Anglican writers on this side
agree that the episcopate developed out of the
presbyterate, and that there are only two orders
of the ministry in the New Testament, — presbjrters
and deacons. Dr. Lightfoot, bishop of Durham,
in his scholarly and exhaustive discussion of the
subject (commentary on Philippians, pp. 180-267),
says, "It is clear, that, at the close of the Ap-
ostolic Age, the two lower orders of the three-
fold ministry wen? firmly and widely established;
but traces of the episcopate, properly so called,
are few and indistinct. . . . The episcopate was
formed out of the presbyteral order by elevation;
and the title, which originally was common to all,
came at length to he appropriated to the chief of
them." And again he says, " The episcopate was
formed out of the presbytery." After he was made
bishop he stated that his views on the episcopate
had been misunderstood. Dean Stanley (Chria-
tian InstUiUions, p. 210) representing the same
view, says, " According to the strict rules of the
Church derived from those early times, there are
but two orders, — presbyters and deacons."
This view, which is also held by such men as
Arnold, Alford, Jacob, and Hatch, was the view
of the divines of the English Reformation. Cran-
mer. Jewel, Grindal, and afterward Field (" The
apostles left none to succeed them," Of the Church,
vol. iv., p. vii.), defended episcopacy as the most
ancient and general form of government, but always
acknowledged the validity of Presbyterian orders.
(Cf. G. P. Fisher, in the New Englander, 1874, pp.
121-172.) Bishop Parkhurst looked upon the
Church of Zurich as the absolute pattern of a
Christian community; and Bishop Ponet would
have abandoned even the term " bishop " to the
Catholics, Ecclesiastics held positions in the
Cliurch of England who had received only Presby-
terian ordination. Such were Whittingham, Dean
of Durham, Cartwright, Professor of Divinity at
Cambridge, and Travers, provost of Trinity Col-
lege, Dublin. It is doubtful whether any prelate
of the English Church in Elizabeth's reign held
the jure divino theory of episcopacy, though Arch-
bishop Bancroft (d. 1605) seems to have been the
first Anglican prelate to avow it. Two of the
most elaborate defenders of the Low-church view
in the seventeenth century were Stillingfleet and
Ussher, the latter representing the episcopate as
only a presidency of the presbyter over his peers;
yet the Episcopal Church reordains all ministers
who have not been episcopaily ordained, but ac-
cepts priests of the Greek and Roman Catholic
Churches without reordi nation.
The orders of the Anglican Church were declared
invalid by Leo XIII. in the bull AposioliccB curcc
of Sept. 13, 1896 (in Mirbt, Quellen, p. 406), the
decision being based on certain defects in the form
of ordination. Mr. Gladstone's appeal to the pope
to hold the decision in abeyance was not heeded.
The archbishops of Canterbury and York united
in a reply (1897).
V. The Ref onned Episcopal Church hdds to
episcopacy of expediency. " It adheres to q
copacy, not as of divine right, but as a veiy
and desirable form of church polity " (Dedanlktt
of Principles, Dec. 1, 1873). Its founder and fid
bishop was Geoige David Cummins (q.v.), who *
been assistant bishop of the Episcopal ~
in Kentucky.
VL The Moravian Church deserves separate
special mention, for three reasons. Its epi0OO|iri
was active before the Reformation on the On
nent and in England began; it is in the
succession; and its bishopric in America ani
those of the Episcopal (1784) and Methodist (17BB
denominations by forty years, August GottiUi
Spangenberg (q.v.) having been consecrated it
Germany, 1744, and exercised oversight in Foa*
sylvania from 1745 to 1762. The first bidni
consecrated in America were the Moravians, Ibifii
Mack, at Bethlehem, Oct. 18, 1770, and MicUl
Graff, at Bethlehem, June 6, 1773. The first Mt^
ravian bishop was consecrated at Lhotka in im^
by the regularly ordained Waldensian bUapjl
Stephen (cf. E. A. de Schweinitz, The Mcnrimt
Episcopate, London, 1877; see Bohemian BRrai*|
ren). The British parliament recognized the H^l
lidity of Moravian ordination in 1749. In 1881|,
however, Bishop Stevens of Pennsylvania
dained a Moravian presbyter, aiming to give h
more ample ordination." The Moravians recogniS
the ordination of other Christian bodies as ytSil
admitting presbjrters at once into their
{Law Book of the Church, ix. 63). [The
Waldenses had a connexional organization
bishops or general superintendents (vna/om or at-
jorales), ordained if possible by other majcra; '
the absence of a major, by presbyters. They *
apostolic succession for their majores. Ihar
thority in ordaining and in exercising difldpGit^
was much greater than that of presbyters (d. B»
Gui, Practica InquisUianis heretica promto^, ed.01
Douais, Paris, 1886, pp. 136-137). The M<MM»J
Anabaptists had a similar polity with a oa^
bishop or head of the whole connection.
A.H.N.1
Vn. The Lutheran Churches have for the moi ]
part abandoned episcopacy, and where they retdb ■
the name "bishop" the authority of the officnlii:
regarded as of human bestowment. The psiikSF'
of the ministry is a fundamental tenet of LutherMkI
With rare exceptions (Geoi^ of Polents, bishop tf>
Samland (q.v.), and Echard, bishop of PomendU
the bishops on the Continent, unUke the bidia||<:
in England, held aloof from the R^onxuitM&
Luther might have had episcopal ordination fpr j
the first Lutheran preachers, but, as he distindlf \
said, he did not want it. He ordained with fab Oil ;
hands the first minister of the new order, Ul
amanuensis, G. ROrer. He pronoimced the xssaat '
try a matter of expediency, that things may bt '
done in an orderly and decent manner. An d-
ficer with supervisory jurisdiction scHnewbll
similar to that of bishop is called in Germany Sapih
intendent (q.v.). The Lutheran Church in Swete
has bishops; a committee was appointed in 1874^
by the convention of the Episcopal Church in te
69
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
"'pisoopaoy
BplMOopius
Jiiited States, to investigate the validity of ita
idera, but the convention let the matter drop and
M decision was pronounced. There is much doubt
BOBoeming the int^rity of the succession. Law-
met Peterson was consecrated by Paul Justin,
BUup of Abo, in 1575 Archbishop of Upsala.
Ibe evidence for the validity of Justin's consecra-
tioD is defective. But the confessions of the
Swedish Church recognize the equality of the min-
iikiy. The bishops of the Church of Denmark
hat no claim whatever to apostolic succession,
dkboo^ the English bishops of India have recog-
and Danish ordination. Christian III. in 1536
iiprisoned the old bishops; and the new ones whom
lia]ypointed were at first called superintendents,
■d ordained by Bugenhagen.
VnL The Reformed Churches recognize two
«deiB of the ministry, — presbyters and deacons.
Tkqr believe that the bishops of the New Testa-
mi were identical with presbyters, and deny
tbt the apostles appointed any successors. They
iDoot deny that episcopacy as a matter of expe-
iBDcy may be justifiable; but they do not con-
ttde either its divine origin, or the transmission
il grace by the imposition of hands, or apostolic
nnession, in the Anglo-Catholic sense. (Cf. the
IWbi of Government of the Presbyterian Church,
(bps. iii., v., ete.) Calvin supported episcopacy
ft Poland and acquiesced in it for England.
httk Knox divided Scotland into eleven districts,
kt each of which a " superintendent " was to be
Aoam; his duties were to be those of a missionary
fl)KrviBor and the idea of a separate order of the
9miAry was not thought of.
DL The American Methodist Episcopal Churches
kve an episcopacy which is neither diocesan nor
lienrchicsLl, but itinerant and presbyterial. The
biriiops constitute an ** itinerant general superin-
taidaicy,'' and are " amenable to the body of
iumBters and preachers," who may divest them of
fhar office. They are not a distinct order of the
dogjr, but only presbyters. The Methodist
H^anopal Church in the United States (North)
it several of its recent General Conferences has
CDiphatically disavowed that the episcopate is an
Older, it is only a function. The Methodist
Cbarch can not claim apostolic succession if it
mmkl John Wesley after having applied in vain
Id the Bishop of London to ordain preachers for
Affierica, himself ordained the first bishop,
Thomas Coke (q.v.), in 1784. The Wesleyan
Qmrch in Great Britain has superintendents.
He Evangelical Association and the Church of
the United Brethren also have an episcopate.
Their bishops are elected for a stated period and
«oi for life.
L The Historic Episcopate is an expression first
«nd in its technical sense by the Protestant Epis-
copal Church at ite Triennial Convention in Chicago,
1885. The expression occurs in a series of four
•tides adopteid by the Convention which were
ialeoded to be a basis for the reunion of Christen-
ioBL They were reaffirmed by the Pan-Anglican
G^PDod at Lambeth, 1888 (see Lambeth Confer-
BKs). In the communications which passed
dveen the conmiittee appointed by the Triennial
Convention and the Presbyterian General Assembly
of the United States of America, it was found that
the expression meant that there is a special order
of bishops which goes back to apostolic times and
the proposition of union on that basis was declined
(cf. the Minutes of the General Assembly for 1887,
pp. 132-134, 154-156, and for 1880, pp. 93-101;
also C. W. Shields, The Historic Episcopate (New
York, 1894). D. S. Schaff.
Bibliography: Add to the works cited under BiSHOPe and
Polity. Ecclesiastical, J. Reville, Le9Ori0ineacleV6pi»'
copai, Paria. 1895.
EPISCOPAL CHURCH, REFORMED. See Re-
formed Episcopal Church.
EPISCOPIUS (BISSCHOP), SIMON: Dutch
theologian; b. at Amsterdam Jan. 8, 1583; d.
there Apr. 4, 1643. For his gifts and industry
shown in the schools of Amsterdam the city au-
thorities made him alumnus, and sent him to the
University of Leyden in 1600. There he became
master of arts in 1606 and then began the study of
theology under Arminius and Gomarus. When
the Amsterdam officials wished to make him
preacher there, the Calvinists protested. He went
to Franeker and heard Johannes Drusius. In 1610
he became pastor at Bleiswyk, after having de-
clined other calls. He took part on the side of the
Remonstrants (q.v.) in the conferences at The
Hague (1611) and at Delft (1613). When Gomarus
resigned as professor at Leyden the curators nomi-
nated Episcopius as his successor and he entered
upon his duties as professor there Feb. 23, 1612,
with an address De optima regni Christi instruendi
ratione. During the six years that he held this
position he published several works which were
collected after his death in his Opera theologica (ed.
S. Curcellffius and P. van Limborch, 2 vols., Am-
sterdam, 1650-65). Festus Hommius, pastor in
Leyden, attacked him in Specimen conlroversiarum
Belgicarum (Leyden, 1618) and he was once pub-
licly affronted in Amsterdam.
With twelve other Remonstrant ministers Epis-
copius was cited to appear at the Synod of Dort
and he was one of the leaders of the Remonstrants
before that body (see Dort, Synod of). He and
the others were banished and for a time he lived
in Antwerp, then at Paris and in Rouen, until,
after the death of Prince Maurice (1625), the ani-
mosity against the Remonstrants in his native
land began to diminish and he was able to return
to Rotterdam (1626). He wrote much during his
exile including the Confessio sive declaratio pas--
torum ({ui in frderato Belgio Remonstrantes vocan-
tur (1622; Dutch transl. by Uytenbogaert, 1621).
In Sept., 1630, he consecrated the new Remonstrant
church in Am.sterdam; in Oct., 1634, he became
the head of the newly founded Remonstrant theo-
logical seminary there, and filled the position with
much honor and renown for nine years, displaying
vast energy and exercising a far-reaching influence.
In his Institutiones theologirrr (left incomplete;
published in four volumes, 165f>-51) he gave a
scientific basis to the doctrines of the Remonstrants,
in his Apologia pro confessione (1629) he refuted
an attack of four Leyden professors upon the
Bplsoopna
Bponym
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOO
m
ConfessiOf and various attacks by Trigland and
others received his immediate attention. With no
less zeal and success he defended the Protestant
faith against the doctrines and practise of the
Roman Catholics.
In all his writings Episcopius maintains that
theology is not a speculative but a practical science
and that every conception of faith is without value
when application fails in religious and moral life.
But it must be granted that his opponents had some
reason to question his orthodoxy. Not only did
he combat the Calvinistic doctrine of predestina-
tion, but in his explanation of the dogmas about
the divinity of Christ, the Trinity, and original
sin, he deviated from the doctrine of the Reformed
Church. None the less his endeavor to free theo-
logical science from ecclesiastical constraint broke
the way for its independent development. He
was one of the greatest theologians of his age and
was generally esteemed for his amiable character.
H. C. RoGGEf.
Bibliographt: P. a Limborch, HUtoria vita tancH Epi»-
copii, Amsterdam, 1701; J. Konynenburg, Lofrede S.
Epiacopiiu, ib. 1791; J. M. Schrock, Lebenthe»chreibuno
von berUhmien GeUhrten, ii. 182-194, Lcipaic, 1790; F.
Calder, Memoirs of S. Episcopiut, London, 1835; H. C.
Rogge, Bihlioikeek remonstranUche geschriften, pp. 38-47,
Amsterdam, 1863.
EPISCOPUS m PARTIBUS IlfFIDELnJM. See
Bishop, Titular.
EPISTLE: I. The Epistles of the New Testa-
ment: WestCytt and Hort's Greek New Testa-
ment has 531 pages of text, of which slightly over
one-third is taken up by the Epistles.
Importance This is a striking fact, showing that
and Sig- the epistolary element is a significant
nificance. part of Holy Scripture and decisive
for the study of the nature and mean-
ing of revelation and ia.spiration. Since the New
Testament reflects the history and mental perspec-
tive of the Christian consciousness out of which it
came, it is also certain that letter-writing played
a large part in the building and development of
the Apostohc Church.
Other facts found in or near the Apostolic Age
have similar bearing. The letters to the churches
in the Apocalypse of John (chaps, ii. and iii.) are
strong evidence. Their existence as an organic
part of an apocalypse is, in itself, notable. Chris-
tianity took the apocalypse from the Jews. For
two centuries it had been in constant use and,
like all abiding litx^rary types, had created for it«clf
a traditional mold. The prophetic consciousness
of the new religion boldly altered and adapted it.
The New Testament apocalyptist takes the letter
as a part of his metliod. His letters are something
more than a form; each had a definite address and,
like a real letter, takes color from actual and local
conditions. This original element in the Christian
Apocalypse proves that letter-writing had already
played a considerable part in the making of the
new religion's fortune; othen^'ise, the apocalypt-
ist would not have made this use of the epistolary
form.
The First Epistle of Clement (95 a.d.?) shows a
Christian congregation manifesting a lively interest
in the affairs of another. Evidently, correspond-
ence was the means whereby the new
both expressed and intensified its deep
consciousness. The Shepherd of Hennas (100-1#|
A.D.?) enjoins Clement, the head of the Roman c
gregation, to send the prophet's outgivings to til ]
other churches. Thus it is evident that thekttvl
satisfied a deep need of primitive Chiistiamt);
Religions differ in their power to create a hi^ aiii
sustained common consciousness. It was becuR
the religion of Jesus excelled at this point il
competing religions which invaded the Rooai
Empire in the same period that it eventually con-
quered. Therefore, the lai^ge si>ace within tb
Scripture canon occupied by the Epistles iQumina /
the history of the Apostolic Church and the nstia
of the Christian religion.
The Apostolic letters were in large part written
before 70 a.d., while three at least of the Gospdi
were published after that date. Here, again, ii
a fact significant for the interior history of tlie
Apostolic Church. The publication of the (Soa-
pels corresponds to the need which impels a natka
to publish and codify its oi^ganic law. The bond-
ing of the Apostolikon (the Epistles) accompamB
the founding and building of the Catholic C^oicb,
wliile the publishing of the Gospels indicates the
deepening self-consciousness of the Church.
In the founding of the Catholic Church St Pttd
played the leading part. It was his ambition as a
missionary to evangelize the empire. In the pm^
suance of that splendid aim he planted chuicbei
widely scattered over Asia Minor and
The Greece, the care of which was on his
Epistles heart night and day (II Cor. xL 28).
of PauL Consequently throui^ letters and the
disciples who served him as lette^
carriers (Timothy, Epaphroditus, Sylvanus, and
others) he kept himself in touch with these oatr
posts and sought to shape their development It
is easy, then, to understand why the Pauline tet-
ters constitute the main part of the New Testar
ment Epistles. In the first place they occupy a
large part of the space within the canon. Of the
183 pages given to the Epistles in Westcott and
Hort's Greek New Testament, St. Paul fills 127.
In the second place, the Pauline letters are the
only real letters in the New Testament. T^
Catholic Epistles are largely homilies; the Episite
to the Hebrews is a theological treatise, with a
small personal element (xiii. 23-25); but the Paul-
ine letters are in large part real letters. The apostte
was informed regarding conditions in his churches,
and his letters go to the heart of specific prcblems
and needs.
St. Paul used the letter as he used the Gredc
language, with masterly freedom. His salutation
is a distinct literary evolution. Compare it with
the salutation of James, which is cast in the lit-
erary mold of his time. Paul builds up a saluta-
tion which becomes an apologetic and doctrinal
instrument (Gal. i. 1-5; Rom. i. 1-7). His eager,
creative mind reaches forward to his condusioQ
and greets his correspondents with it.
St. Paul's letters are, in a sense, an autobiography.
In them he expresses himself with great freshness,
surrendering himself to the matter in hand^ taking
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bpiaooinui
Bponinn
or from it whfle he imposes form upon it. In
■ way be makes himself the only man of the
loitolic Age who is largely and vitally individual
VB and comes before us as a real person. No
e of Peter or John can be written which is not
§Mj generalization and more or less diffuse
monizing. But a biography of Paul is possible.
Henry S. Nash.
E. Apocryphal Epistles. See Apocrypha, B.
HL Epistles, in the Liturgical Sense. See Peri-
9Bn; and also Evanoeliarium ; for those in the
Hdeiiastical sense see Commendatory Letters;
DfedETALs; Encyclical Letters; Letters Di-
APmr: As an aid to penetrating the internal life
«f the Apostolic Age through study of the Epistles, con-
alt in general the literature on that period and the works
11 Introduction to the N. T., especially: E. Renan, Hitt.
iHorigine^ du dtriaUanisme, 7 vols., Paris, 1863-82, Eng.
IbhL, London, n.d. (brilliant, but the conclusions are
It be scanned); E. Reuss, Geachichte der heiiigen Sehrif-
^4t$ y. T., Brunswick. 1887, Eng. transl., London.
WO (tomewhat antiqiiated, yet precise and clear in in-
il^t); A. C. McGiffert. HUt. of ChrUtianity in the Apot-
Mc Age, New York, 1897 (belongs to the Hamack
tkatA); A. Julicher, Einleituno in da» N. T., TQbingen,
Ml. Eng. transl., London, 1904 (best for Introduc-
in): J. Moffatt. Hittorieal N. 7., Edinburgh, 1901
(httdy): E. Ton DobschQtx, Dom apo$toli8che Zeitalter,
BiUe, 1904, Eng. transl., London, 1904 (on the re-
%ioqa and social background); P. Wemle, Die Anf&nge
mmtr Relioum, TQbingen, 1904, Eng. transl.. Begin-
■npi of ChriUianiiy, 2 vols., London. 1903-04 (the doc-
tnaal predominates over the practical and social); W. M.
IflMay, Letterw to the Seven Churchet, ib. 1905; J. H.
lopes. The Apostolic A o« in the Light of Criticiem, New
Tork, 1906 (be<rt popular work); H. von Soden, Beoin-
•M0t of ChriatianUy, London, 1906.
XnSTOL^ OBSCURORUM VIRORUM: A se-
ct of satirical epistles occasioned by the conflict
etween Johann Reuchlin (q.v.) and the Domini-
UM of Cologne in the early years of the six-
snth century. They may be regarded as com-
laioQ pieces to the Clarorum virorum epistolw . . .
i Jckannem Reuchlin^ a collection of missives in-
aided to illustrate the support which that great
eiiolar enjoyed among the illustrious men of the
ine, and to the poem Triumphus Doctoris Reuch-
•i, the authorship of which has been attributed
I put to Ulrich von Hutten. The first part of
ke Ejnstoltt appeared in 1514 under the title
ifMUt obscurorum virorum ad venerabilem virum
4aqutrum Oriuinum Graiium^ and comprised
nty-one letters which were increased !)y seven
■ the third edition, publisheii in 1 516. The second
ivt appeared in 1517 under a slightly altered title
■d contained sixty-two letters, to which eight
■pplementary letters were added in a second
vfition. In 1689 Ijoth parts were published in an
mplified form but the added material possesses
0 inner connection with the original work. Or-
ninis Gratius, to whom the greater number of the
tten are addressed, was professor of belles-lettres
id philosophy in Colo:cne after 1506. Devoting
■ considerable humanistic learning to the service
icholasticism, he drew upon himself the hatred
d contempt of the advocates of the new learning,
d waa characterized by Luther as a " wretched
etaffter and a ravening wolf, if not indeed a
leodile." Among the alleged writers of the
IV.— 11
letters occur a few names of actual personalities,
such as Jakob Hochstraten and Arnold von Ton-
gem, but the great majority like Schaflfsmulius,
Mistladerius, etc., are obviously comic fictions.
In form no less than in contents, the Epistolce are
a burlesque of the scholastic literature. The de-
based Latinity of the theologians is cleverly imi-
tated and their ignorance of and contempt for the
ancient learning are contrasted with their firm
conviction of their own erudition and mental
acuteness. Assuming to be puzzled by the most
absurd problems of scholarship and theology, the
writers address themselves to Ortuinus for a reso-
lution of their doubts. The moral degradation
of the clergy is painted at the same time with a
broadness of humor that is undeniably contrary
to the taste of a more advanced age. References
to the dispute between ReuchJin and the Domini-
cans are to be found in all the letters, and in the
second part the first rumblings of the approaching
storm of the Reformation may be heard.
In spite of the similarity between the two parts
of the Epi8iol(r, the first may be characterized as
showing a more restrained fancy and mode of ex-
pression and a less evident desire to indulge in
satire for the mere joy of destruction. The letters
have been assigned, therefore, a double, and, pos-
sibly, a triple authorship. The author of the greater
number of letters in the first part and the one
who conceived the idea of the work was Johann
Jager (called Crotus Rubeanus), who, bom at
Domheim in 1480, was educated by the Domini-
cans, became professor of theology at Cologne in
1506, and rector of the university of Erfurt in 1520.
The chief writer of the second part was probably
Ulrich von Hutten. To Hutten the work had
been attributed from the beginning, but, whereas
he indirectly confessed to the authorship of the
Carmen rythmicale in the second part, he expressly
denied all responsibility for the first. The persons
attacked in the Epistolce obtained a papal brief
against the authors, publishers, and possessors of
the book, and carried on a vigorous polemic
against the work. It was a Defensio by Pfefferkom
that gave occasion to the writing of the second
part. (Ferdinand Cohrs.)
Bibuoorapht: The edition which dinplacen all others is
by E. Bdckinfc, 2 vols., Leipsic, 1864-70, containins text,
indexes and commentary; German transl. by M. Binder.
Stuttgart. 1876. Eng. transl., London, 1909. Consult D.
F. Strauss, Ulrich von Hutten, pp. 176-211, ib. 1871, Eng
transl., I>ondon, 1874.
EPONYM: The personage assumed in folk-lore
and early history as the ancestor of a clan or race
or as the founder of a state or city. The term is a
loan-word (Gk. epdnymos, " given as a name ")f
and is much used in modem investigations into
the origins of society. It embodies concisely the
results of those investigations so far as they in-
volve that the alleged ancestors or founders were
fictitious creations formed in the late mythopeic
period in response to inquiry into beginnings by
the peoples concerned. Thus its use implies that
when it was forgotten what were the origins of the
lonians, Eolians, and Acheans, of the Italian
peoples and of Rome, Ion, iEolus and .Achajus,
Italus and Romulus were put forward to account
Bqultliis
Erasmus
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
for the names of the tribes, peoples and city, though
modern research has seemed to prove that they had
no real existence as persons. While the term epo-
nym and the conclusions of research it expresses
have long been commonplaces in secular history,
only comparatively recently have they been applied
to Biblical history. Here the critical school alone
has applied the term and the idea, e.g., to the patri-
archs assigned as progenitors of the Hebrew race
and of the several tribes. Thus Heber is regarded
as an eponym accounting for the Hebrew people,
and the same is true of Jacob and Israel and of his
twelve sons. The grounds adduced for thus apply-
ing the method are various. In general, it is as-
sumed that what is taken as proved for non-Biblical
niccs applies with equal force to the peoples named
in the Bible, especially in view of the strong tend-
ency manifest there to etymologize in explaining
the names. In particular, the appearance both in
Kgj'ptian and in cuneiform documents of such names
as Yakoh-el *' Jacob is god," Yoseph-el " Joseph is
god," the occurrence of such names as Gad and
Asher as god-names in non-Hebraic sources, and
many similar phenomena have been made the basis
for extending to Biblical names the principles of
explanation regarded as fixed and satisfactory in
secular lines of investigation. It hardly needs to
be said that the traditional or conservative school
of Biblical interpretation repudiates the methods
and the results involved Geo. W. CJilmore.
EQUmUS: An early leader of Western monas-
ticism. Our knowledge of him is gained from Greg-
ory the Great, who got his information from per-
sonal friends. Of his date the only thing known
is that he lived in the beginning and middle of the
sixth century. He was abbot of several monas-
teries in the province of Valeria, near the Lago
di Fucino in the Sabine Mountains, and ruled also
over certain nunneries. The monks busied them-
selves with agriculture and in copying ancient
manuscripts. Although Equitius was a layman,
he preached both in churches and in the streets
of the towns and villages through which he made
missionary journeys. His itinerant activity led
to a conflict with the clergy, who induced the pope
(Gregory does not name him) to summon Equitius
to Rome; but he changed his mind, it is said, as
the result of a terrifying vision — probably in reality
through being convinced of the harmlessness of
Equitius, who is honored as a saint on Mar. 7.
(G. GrCtzmacher.)
BTBLiooRAPny: The sinjcle f»ource is Pope Grejcory I., Dia^
logorum libri quattuor. i.. chap. 4, handiest in MPL, Ixxvii.
147 sqq. Consult .1.S7?, March, i. 649-651; C. Baroniua,
Annates ercl., ad annum 581. nos. 9-12, 12 vols., Rome,
1588-93; E. Spreitzenhofcr, Die Eniuncklung dea alien
Miinchtuma in Italien, Vienna, 1894.
ERA: This word (Lat. ara and era) denotes a
sequence of years reckoned from a definite point
of time, wherein every particular year has its fixed
position by numerical rotation; and the point of
time from which the era proceeds is termed its
epoch. The word is first used by Isidore of Seville
(q. V. ) in the beginning of the seventh century ; and
attempts have accordingly been made to derive
it from the Gothic. It has been correlated with
the German Jahr and EkigUsh " year "; but t]]ii||
not at all certain, and many deem the more pnb^i
able origin to be from the Latin arc (pliuiljC
(PS in the sense of " counters," " reckoning").
Among Christian peoples, the era now geQen% !
in use is that which has for its epoch the biith tf
Jesus Christ; that is, the years are reckoned " ift»
the birth of Christ." This era was certaiiff
brought into general use and probib|f
The was invented by Dionysius Engw
Christian (q.v.). That is to say, when (in
Era. he was making a continuation of thi
ninety-five year Easter-table of OjA
of Alexandria from its expiration in the year 531
after Christ, he did not designate the sepmlt
years of this Easter cycle, as Cyril had done, u»
many years after the Diocletian persecution, bA
as so many years ab incamatione Domini, Be
says, " We have been unwilling to connect our
cycle with the name of an impious persecutor
[Diocletian], but have chosen rather to note the
years from the incarnation of our Lord Jem
Christ." For the first year of his computatkn,
Dionysius assiuned 754 of the City of Rome accord-
ing to Varro's calculation, following probaUj
some reckoning already known by his age. ^
tncamatio Domini ^ however, he understood, cat
sistently with the phraseology then in vogue, not
the birth of Jesus, but his conception; that is,
the day of the annunciation to Mary (celebrated
on Mar. 25; see Annunciation, Feast of rai).
At the same time, he did not begin his era withtWi
day, but with the first of January preceding-ia
other words, with the beginning of the year as ft
stood accepted in the calendar of Julius Caaar.
Hence "the first of January, 754, of the City of
Rome acconling to Varro," is the epoch of the era
of Dionysius. This was afterward misunderstood;
tncamatio coming to be identified with naMat
[and Dec. 25 being the accepted day of Christ's
birth (see Christmas)], people supposed that
according to the reckoning of Dionysius, Jesus
was bom on Dec. 25, 753 a.u.c. — as though Dio-
nysius began his era a week after its proper epocL
Others supposed that Mar. 25, 753, or Dec 25,
754, was the date of the incamaHo according to
Dionysius (cf. the works on chronology, e^.,
C. L. Ideler, Handbuch der mathematischen wd
technischen Chronologie, ii. 381 sqq. Berlin, 1826).
Consistently with the practise of making ineamaHo gyn-
onymous with nativitas, this era was also demgnatcd «
nativitate Domini, post Chriatum ntitum^ or as now quite
generally " after the birth of Christ." Other desisnadou
are anni circumciaionia, anni domini noatri Jeau ChriA,
anni C?uHsti gratia, anni gratice, etc.; still again, omi
aaltUia, anni orbia redempti, etc The designation mm
trabeoHonia was doubtless originally intended to signify to
many years after Christ's crucifixion, but is also appliid
to years after the birth of Christ.
It can not be doubted that Jesus was not bora in
the year 754 a.u.c. Dionysius, or his authority, must
have been in error. King Herod, who commanded
the slaughter of the children at Bethlehem (3klatt.
ii. 16-18) died 750 a.u.c, and Jesus must surely
have been bom before the death of Herod. But, if
we consider the great difficulties of all chronological
calculations, and especially the inadequate auxil-
168
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDU
JBQUltinB
ErasmuB
f:
§a^ apparatus that w&s available for DionyeiuBp
130 r^proacli m due him for his mbtake. On
IJk flthjer hand J no one can eerioualy think of at-
-({op'tiDg to alter the OhriBtian era to a<!cord with
Ibe correct date of the birth of Jesus, even if this
«iite cottld be accurat<*ly determined. The em h
flSEQiD^ded by its conveniencep especially since
'%k pf^be ha» arisen of reekonbg baekward as
^»ell m forward from its epoch; that is, of flating
«Teiiti] before its inception^ aecording to years
before the birth of Christ {ante Christum natum).
TOi TOstom came about at a eomparatively lat«
dite: the weU-knoHTi hi^oHan and chronologer
I C. Gatterer of G6ttingen about 1780 dat^d
irecKta before the birth of Christ in " yeara of the
Woiid eraa, the epoch of which is the year of the
crea^tioa of the world, have been prevalent in p^reat
wjqibeT. To mention only two, a rather wide
vpgue was enjoyed by the world era of
Ot!i« Panodorus, who reckoned 5^904 yeara
Ejis. from Adam to the year 412 A,n.
{about which time he lived); his years
bc^ witb Aug. 29, eorresponding to the First of
Tlwth, or the Egypt^B-^ ^^"^ year. Afterward,
thk em k usually termed the Antiochian, some-
tioMi the Alexandrian. Its new year was also
tnoiferTEd to Sept. 1, in which ease the eight latter
mmtha of its year 5493 are the eight former months
of tbe year one of our chronology. More impor-
tsAt than this im the Byzantine world era, which
Wg served as the standard of eomputation in the
EMtein Empire, in Russia, among the Albanians,
Sermns, and Modem Greeks. It counts sixteen
Jiara in excess of the Antiochian em^ though like-
t«e bc^ginning the year with Sept. 1 ; its year bMB
iepn with Sept. I of the year one before Christ.
TtuB era was in use in Russia tiO 1700; whence it
originated appears not to be known.
Att«£aiita to e(itnput« tbe ysar i>f the cre&tioQ of the world
QD the boFis of flpw!» oupplied in tbe Old Te^tmiietit (th«
age« of thit patriftrehd, etc-), h&ve been nude by cbronolo-
gift* ilmoft dflwa to tbe preoent tim«» Kcaliger and Cal-
Tiaiu* hnid Lb« year OQe of our en to be the year 3950 from.
the cr«lioii; Pct»liui, tbo year 3964; Unher, the year
4MXM; Frftfdc, 41S2. HiBtunuii once lued odo or onothei'
of tba« eysWEOA in datiiifr evenUi, especially for the time
before Cbrist; thus G^ttefer, mentioned ftb(»ve. comput-<^»
IB bia e*HI«r works, KocordiEig to the world era of Fetaviua;
is Mi laser otie, aoeordiug to that of Frank.
Of the etas employed in the Christian Church,
twti othere may be mentioned briery. The one is
iht Diocletian, abeady cited above, which orig-
inated m ^g^rpt. Its epoch Is the Firet of Thoth
(AiiS'29 of the Julian calendar) ^ of 284 a.d. It num-
bers the years from the accession of Diocsletian,
tbougfa the &r«t year of Diocletian m not reckoned
from the day of his praclamation (Sept, 17), but,
in accordance with a generally observed custom,
from the new year's day of this yean Aa this era
^ined drculation in the Christian Church, it came
to be termed, by way of reminder that Diocletian
had cruelly persecuted the Christiana, mra mart^
nwn. The same era continued in observance, to
gome eirtciit, aa late as the eighth century. Be-
odm this, the Spanish era was prevalent in Spain
frma the begiciiiiig of the fifth centuiy, and in
particular among the West Goths, Its epoch is
the year 716 A*u,c., or 38 BX. It is used, among
others, by Isidore of Seville in his Hutotiu Go-
thanimj and traces of its observance occur into
the twelfth century.
All these chronological systems had to yield,
step by fitep, to that of Dionysius; and for a long
time past, it has b(?en the custom
The throughout Christendom to compute
lT«w Year, in yeara after (and before) the birth
of Christ. In the light of this simple
and unequivocal reckoning, it was not advantageous
to forego the unifonn practise of beginning the
year with Jan. 1, as Dionysius had done in agree-
mcrit with the Roman calendar. A.h a matter of
fact, Jan. I appears to have maintained its place
as the beginning of the year in civil life everywhere,
nor have any calendars been found with a different
initial date^ moreover, Jan. J was named new year's
day (see New Yeau's Festival). Neverthelesa
other initial dates came into official us«*; especially
Mar. 25 and Dec, 25 were favorite dates for begin-
ning the year in the Middle Ages and down to
modem timcjs. [In England the change from
Mar. 25 was made by act of 1751.] In the case of
Mar. 25, we have still to dbtinguish between the
ca.ltul\m Fisanuat^ which computed from Mar. 25
before our new year^ and the calculus Florentinus
which computed from Mar 25 after our new year.
Other new year's dates are Mar. 1 , Sept. 1 , and the
Saturday before Easter. Luther computed the
year from Dec. 25; so that, for instance, the dating
of a letter die inruwerttum 1630 denotes, by our
mode of reckoningi Dec. 25, 1529. More detailed
information as to these new year's dates is to be
sought in text -books of chronology; a good ^iiop-
sis is furnished by H. Grotefend in Taschenbuch dtr
Zeiirecknung (Hanover, 1898), pp. 11 sqq.
Carl Bertheatj.
BiBLioaRAFHT: BMdefl the work of Ideler, mentioniwi im
the text, DOtiftuU Idelor. /.rfAr&iicA dm- Chf&noi^fffie. Berlio*
1S2S; H. Gn>t«fend, Zvitrvchnttna der deuiitch^ Mitietaiter
und der Ncuteit, voh. i.-il, 2d pn.rt» Hanover, la&L-W;
idom, ToKhenbuch dir Z^t-enJinun^. ib. 1S9S: F, RuhJ, Chro
jioloQiedeM MiUctaitcrtt und dtr Neuxtil, Berlin, 1S97; F.
K. OiaAel. Handhuch der ma£hematisdmn und tgchnittJien
Chfi^nfdGoie, VoL J., Letpoic. 1006. The literature under
CBBONOLOtiY miiy aJao be coosulted. A vohiminouii lit^ra*
litre might be citeil, but it ia eoinptuMHl larRely q{ imat-
ment qF ppedat t4>pjca beanng not Uiq directly upon the
etabjeot.
ERASMirS.
EsiHyLifetS n
Studies apd Tmvela (S 2),
B«sift of Literary Activity (f 3).
Vttrioiw Workfl(i4).
Attitude Toward the Reforin^tJQn tS &h
Relatione with Luther f| fi).
Doctrine of the Euchanet (§ 7).
ClMjng Yeiirs ti 8),
Dedderius Erasmus Eoterodamua, Dutch human-
ist and theologian, wm bora at Rotterdam, Hol-
land, Oct. 27, probably 1466; d. at Basel, Switzer-
land, July 12, 1.536. Information as
I. Early to his family and early life comes from
Life, a few meager accounts written or
sugEEBted by hiruBelf at a. somewhat
advanced age and from many but vague references
in his writinp at all periods of hia Ufa. There
BrasmuB
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
164
seems good reason to believe that the tone of self-
pity that pervades all these accounts was assumed
for purposes at which one may guess, but as to
which one can not be certain. He was doubtless
bom out of wedlock, well cared for by his parents
till their early death, and then given the best educa-
tion open to a young man of his day in a series of
monastic or semimonastic schools. All this early
education is made by him in the light of later ex-
perience to appear like one long conspiracy to force
liira into the monastic life, but there is no other evi-
dence for this, and recent criticism has suggested
ample motives for his desire to give his life-history
this peculiar turn. He was admitted to the priest-
hood and took the monastic vows at about the
age of twenty-five, but there is no record that
he ever exercised the priestly functions, and
monasticism was one of the chief objects of his
attack in his lifelong assault upon the evils of the
Church.
Almost immediately after his consecration the
way was opened to him for study at the University
of Paris, then tlie chief seat of the later scholastic
learning, but already beginning to feel
2. btudies ^jjg influence of the revived classic
Travels culture of Italy. From this time on
Erasmus led the life of an independent
scholar, independent of country, of academic ties,
of religious allegiance, of everything that could in-
terfere with the free development of his intellect
and the freedom of his literary expression. The
chief centers of his acti\4ty were Paris, Ix)uvain,
England, and Basel; yet it could never be said that
he was identified with any one of these. His resi-
dences in England were fruitful in the making of
hfelong friendships with the leaders of English
thought in the stirring days of Henry VIII. — John
Colet, Thomas More, Thomas Linacre, and WiUiam
Grocyn. He held at Cambridge an hononible
position as Lady Margaret professor of divinity,
and there seems to have been no reason except his
unconquerable aversion to a routine life, why he
should not have spent his days as an Enghsh pro-
fessor. He was ofTcred many positions of honor
and profit in the academic world, but declined them
all on one or another pretext, i)referring the uncer-
tain, but as it proved sufficient rewards of inde-
pendent literary activity. In Italy he spent three
years (loOG-OQ), part of the time in connection
with the publishing house of Aldus Manutius at
Venice, but otherwise with far less active asso-
ci ition with Italian scholars than might have
been exp>ected. The residence at Louvain exposed
Erasmus to the petty criticism of men nearer to
him in blood and political connections, but hostile
to all the principles of literary and religious prog-
ress to which he was devoting his life. From this
lack of sympathy, which he always represented as
persecution, he sought refuge in the more congenial
atmosphere of Basel, where under the shelter of
Swiss hospitality he could express himself with
freedom and where he was always surrounded by
devoted friends. Here hv was associated for many
years with the great publisher Froben, and hither
came the multitude ol his admirers from all quar-
ters of Europe.
Erasmus's literaiy productivity began oompin.
tively late in his life. It was not until be had midB
himself master of a telling I^atin st^ii
3. Basis of that he undertook to express himalf
Literary on all current subjects of literatsn
Activity, and religion. His revolt against the
forms of Church life did not pnmed
from any questionings as to the truth of the ta-
ditional doctrine, nor from any hostility to the
organization of the Church itself. Rathor, he idi
called upon to use his learning in a purification of
the doctrine and in a liberalizing of thb institutioH
of Christianity. He began as a scholar, trying to
free the methods of scholarship from the ligiditf
and formalism of medieval traditions; but he vm
not satisfied with this. He conceived of hinuKlf ti^
above all else, a preacher of righteousness. It mi
his lifelong conviction that what was needed to
regenerate Europe was sound learning applied
frankly and fearlessly to the administration d
public affairs in Church and Stato. It is this con-
viction that gives unity and consistency to a life
which at first sight seems to have been full of fatil
contradictions. Erasmus was a marked individual,
holding himself aloof from all entan^ing obligor
tions; yet he was in a singularly true sense the cen-
ter of the Uterary movement of his time. In hia
correspondence he put himself in touch with more
than five hundred men of the highest importance
in the world of politics and Of thought, and his
advice on all kinds of subjects was eageiiy sought,
if none too readily followed.
Natiu^y, Erasmus has been most widely known
for his critical and satirical writings, such as the
" Praise of FoUy " (Paris. 1509) and
4. Various many of the CoUoquia, which appeared
Works, at intervals from 1500 on. These
appeal to a wider audience and deal
with matters of wider human interest. Yet their
author seems to have regarded them as the trifles
of I lis intellectual product, the play of his leisure
hours. His more serious WTitings begin early with
the Enchiridion Militis Christiani, the " Manual (or
Djigger) of the Christian Gentleman " (ir03). In
this little volume Erasmus outlines the views of the
normal Christian life which he was to spend Uie
rest of his days in elaborating. The key-ruote of it
all is sincerity. The chief evil of the daj^, he says,
is formalism, a respect for traditions, a regard for
what other people think essential, but never a
thought of what the true teaching of Christ may he.
The remedy is for every man to ask himself at each
point: what is the essential thing? and to do this
without fear. Forms are not in themselves evil
It is only when they hide or quench the spirit that
they are to be dreaded. In his examination of the
special dangers of formalism, Erasmus pays his
respects to monasticism, saint-worship, war, the
spirit of class, the foibles of " society," in the fashion
which was to make his later reputation as a satirist,'
but the main impression of the Enchiridion is dis-
tinctly that of a sermon. A companion piece to the
Enchiridion is the Institvtio Principis Christiani
(Basel, 1516), written as advice to the young king
Charles of Spain, later the emperor Charles V.
Here Erasmus applies the same general princifdee
166
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Snbmiii9-
of honor and siDcerity to the special functions of
the Prince, whom he represents throughout as the
■rrant of the people. While in England Erasmus
bipn the systematic examination of manuscripts
d the New Testament to prepare for a new edition
nd Latin translation. This edition was published
If Froben of Basel in 1516 and was the basis of
BQst of the scientific study of the Bible during the
Befonnation period (see Bible Text, II., 2, § 1).
Itvas the first attempt on the part of a competent
ttdhberal-minded scholar to ascertain what the wri-
Inof the New Testament had actually said. Eras-
■u dedicated his work to Pope Leo X. as a patron
4f learning, to whom such an application of scholar-
lUp to religion must be welcome, and he justly
Rgtfded this work as his chief service to the cause
flf 1 sound Christianity. Inunediately after he be-
gn the publication of his Paraphrases of the New
Ikament, a popular presentation of the contents
cf the several books. These, like all the writings
tfErasmuSy were in I^tin, but they were at once
tUDsUted into the common languages of the Euro-
pta peoples, a process which received the hearty
ipprov&l of Erasmus himself.
The outbreak of the Lutheran movement in the
far following the publication of the New Tes-
tament brought the severest test of
S. Attitiide Erasmus's personal and scholarly char-
Towaid acter. It made the issue between Eu-
tte Refer- ropean society and the Roman Church
matioiL system so clear that no man could
quite escape the simmions to range
bnsdf on one side or the other of the great debate,
finonus, at the height of his literary fame, was
mmtably called upon to take sides, but parti-
■Utthip in any issue which he was not at liberty
luMelf to defiine was foreign equally to his nature
and his habits. In all his criticism of clerical fol-
fies md abuses he had always carefully hedged
bmseif about with protests that he was not attack-
i^ church institutions themselves and had no
tmnity toward the persons of churchmen. The
twrid had laughed at his satire, but only a few ob-
iliittte reactionaries had seriously interfered with
kii activities. He had a right to believe that his
vnk so far had commended itself to the best minds
tad also to the dominant powers in the religious
vorid. There can be no doubt that Erasmus was
B sympathy with the main points in the Lutheran
Qitidsm of the Church. For Luther personally
k had and expressed the greatest respect, and
Lother always spoke with admiration of his supe-
lior learning. Luther would have gone to great
hogtha in securing his cooperation in a work which
Mmed only the natural outcome of his own.
When Erasmus hesitated or refused this seemed to
tte iqnight and downright Luther a mean avoid-
noe of responsibility explicable only as cowardice
flr unsteadiDeas of purpose, and this has generally
nan the Protestant judgment of later days. On
he other hand the Roman Catholic party was equally
leaiFOUs of holding on to the services of a man who
■d ao often declared his loyalty to the principles
was trying to maintain, and his half-heartedness
t declaring himself now brought upon him nat-
lafly the fluspidon of disloyalty from this side.
Recent judgments of Erasmus, however, have shown
how consistent with all his previous practise his
attitude toward the Reformation really was. The
evils he had combated were either those of form,
such as had long been a subject of derision by all
sensible men, or they were evils of a kind that could
be cured only by a long and slow regeneration in
the moral and spiritual life of Europe. Get rid
of the absurdities, restore learning to its rights,
insist upon a sound practical piety, and all these
evils would disappear: this was the programme of the
" Erasmian Reformation." No one could question
its soundness or its desirability. Its fatal lack was
that it failed to offer any tangible method of apply-
ing these principles to the existing church system.
This kind of reform had been tried long enough,
and men were impatient of further delay. When
Erasmus was charged — ^and very justly — with hav-
ing " laid the egg that Luther hatched " he half
admitted the truth of the charge, but said he had
expected quite another kind of a bird.
In their early correspondence Luther expressed
in unmeasured terms his admiration for all Erasmus
had done in the cause of a sound and
6. Relations reasonable Christianity, and exhorted
with him now to put the seal upon his work
Luther, by definitely casting in his lot with
the Lutheran party. Erasmus replied
with many expressions of regard, but declined to
commit himself to any party attitude. His argu-
ment was that to do so would endanger his position
as a leader in the movement for pure scholarship
which he regarded as his real work in Ufe. Only
through that position as an independent scholar
could he hope to influence the reform of religion.
The constructive value of Luther^s work was mainly
in furnishing a new doctrinal basis for the hitherto
scattered attempts at reform. In reviving the half
forgotten principle of the Augustinian theology
Luther had furnished the needed impulse to that
personal interest in religion which is the essence of
P^testantism. This was precisely what Erasmus
could not approve. He dreaded any change in the
doctrine of the Church and believed that there was
room enough within existing formulas for the kind
of reform he valued most. Twice in the course of
the great discussion he allowed himself to enter the
field of doctrinal controversy, a field foreign alike
to his nature and his previous practise. One of
the topics formally treated by him was the freedom
of the will, the crucial point in the whole Augus-
tinian system. In his De libera arbiirio liar pi ^rj
aive coUatio (1524), he analyzes with great clever-
ness and in perfect good temper the Lutheran exag-
geration, as it seemed to him, of the obvious limi-
tations upon human freedom. As his habit was, he
lays down both sides of the argument and shows
that each had its clement of truth. His position
was practically that which the Church had always
taken in its dealing with the problem of sin: that
Man was bound to sin, but that after all he had a
right to the forgiving mercy of God, if only he would
seek this through the means offered him by the
Church itself. It was an easy-going Semi-Pela-
gianism, humane in its practise, but opening the way
to those very laxities and perversions which Eras-
i:rtik»jii
THE NEW SCHAFF-HEBTOG
l«l1
mua and the Re forme rta alike were combat big. The
" Difttribf?/' clever aa it was, could not iead men to
any definite action, and th>a was precisely ita merit
to the Erasmians and its offense to the Lutherans.
Aa the popular response to the Lutheran sum-
mons become more marked and more widely spread,
the social disorders which Eraf^mus
7, Doctrine dreaded l^egan to appear. The Peas-
of th« ant^' War, the Anabaptist disturb-
Eucharist. aiices in Germany and in the Low
Countries (see AwABAPTiflTa^), icono-
clasm and radicalism everywhere, seemed to con-
firm all hifl gloomy pretiictions. If this were to be
the outcome of reform, he could only be thankful
he had kept out of it. On the other hand, he was
being ever more bitterly accusetl of having started
the whole ** tn^edy," In Switzerland he was espe-
cially expoaed to criticism through his aasoeiatton
with men there who were more than suspected of
extreme rati onalLs tic doctrines. On thia aide the
test question was naturally the doctrine of the
saeramentfl, and the crux of this question was
the observance of the Eucharist* Partly to clear
himself of snspieion and partly in response to d^
mands tliat he should writ^ something in defense
of Catholic doctrine, he publiabed in 1530 a new
edition of the orthodox treat iae of Algerua against
the heretic Berengar of Toura in the eleventh cen-
tury» He added a dedication In w^hich he alRrms
positively hia beliel in the reality of the body of
Christ after consecration in the Eucliarist, but ad-
rails that the precise form in which thLn mystery
ought to be expressed is a matf-er on which very
diverse opinions have been held by good men.
Enough, however, for the mass of Christians that
the Church prescribes the doctrine and the usages
that embody it, while the refinements of specula-
tion about it may safely be left to the philosophers.
Here and there in many vehement utterances on
this subject Erasmus lays doWTi the principle, quite
unworthy of his genius and his position of influ-
ence: that a man may properly have two opinions
on religious subjects, one for himself and his inti-
mate friends and another for the public. The anti-
aacramentariana, headed by (Ecolampadiua of
Basel, were, as Erasmua says, quoting him as hold-
ing views about the Eucharist quite similar to their
own. He denies this with great heat, but in hie
denial Isetrays the fact that he had in private con-
versation gone just as far toward a rational \iew
of the fioctrine of the Eucharist as he could without
a po3iti%'e formulation in words. Naturally here,
as in the case of free will, he could not command the
approval of the Cliurch he was trying to placate.
Thus, oij the visible outcome of hb reformatory
activities Erasmus found himself at the dose of his
life at oiids with both the great parties.
8* Closing His last years were embittered by con-
Years, troversies with men toward whom he
was drawn by many ties of ta'^te and
sympathy. Notable among these was his passage
at arms with Ulrich von Hutten (q.v.), a brilliant,
but erratic genius, who had thrown himself with all
his heart into the Lutheran cause and had declared
that Erasmus, if he had a spark of honesty about
himi would do the same. In bii reply j Spongui
adver&UA atpfrgiTwi Hutiem (1523). he dapliji^l
better than almost anywhere elae^ hia skil! b W^
ing words and phraser to suit the purpose o( i^
moment. He accuses Hutten of having dqi^ '
terpreted hia uttemncea about reform aod n^ ]
emtes his determination never to take lidn m tli
division of parties. When the dty of BihI wm
deflnitely and officially ^' reformed " in 1S29, fjv*
mus gave up his residenoe there and settled in te
imperial town of Fretburg-im^Brei^au. It w/bH
seem as if he found it easier to maintain Ik nek'
trail ty under Roman Catholic than under PnHerituI
conditions. Hb literary activity oontiniied wS^
out much abatement^ chiefly on the lines of r^
ious and didactic composition ^ The most iiopo^
tant work of this last period is the Ecdam^ m
" Gospel Preacher " (Basel, 153S), in whidi to
brings out the fimetion of preaching as the moA
important office of the Christian priest, an emplodi
which shows how essentially Protestant Ms mm
thought of Chris tianity was. The same impTMOft
comes from bis little tract of 1533 on '' Prepaittaon
for Death, '^ in which th^ emphasis thuoiigfaout m
on the importance of a good life as the eseentiil
condition of a happy death. For unknown xvi^
sons Erasmus found himself drawn onoe mote lo
the happiest of his homes, at Baael» and retuniid
thither in 1535 after an absence of six years. Btn^
in the midst of the group of Protestant schokn
w^ho had long been his truest friends^ and, tohrm
is known, without relations of any sort with tbi
Roman Oatholic Church, he died. So km^ at bs
lived be bad never been called to account for hii
opinions by any official authority of the dominaiit
Church, The attacks upon him were by prii?4te
persona, and his protectors had always been men d
the highest standing* After his death, in the lesl
of the Roman Catholic reaction, his writing? wetc
honored i^ith a distinguished place on the Indei o(
prohibited books, and his name bas generally bid
an evil sound in Roman Catholic ears. The ei-
traordinary popularity of his books, however, his
been shown in the immense number of editions aod
translations that have appeared from the sixteenth
oentury until now, and in the undiminished interest
excited by his elusive but fascinating per^nalitf,
EfBHAIM EsiEBTOK.
[Ten columns of the catalogue of the library ia
the British Museum are taken up with the bsEO
enumeration of the works translated, edited or an-
notated by Erasmus, and their subeeqiient i^
prints. It is a remarkable showing. The gieatdt
names of the classical and patristic world are b-
cluded, such as Ambrose, Aristotle, Augustine^
BasQ, Cbrysostom, Cicero, and Jerome.]
BtHLiCKiaAFaT: The works were edited by Er«ffliiiv's fniod
BeaCwt EhenAtus, f^ vob., HAsel. 1 540, %ad by Li Ciffro,
10 Tok., Lejrden. 1703^06, Tha best ediUoa of the Bpi^
tim is by R S, AlJeu, vol. i., Oxfard, I90e. witb wbidb
idiould ht nnt Brielt an Detid^us Era^nu9, ed. L. K.
EnthaTBD, Btrasburg. 1909; ui Ed^. tmml. of the Spi*-
Un , ^ , to hU Fifty-iirai F«r* ArTaf%ged in Ordtr 4
Timtt, by F. M. NiehoU, appeuvd, 2 vob,. I^oadoa, 1901*
1901 Hia CoUoqmet are iq Eog. tt&mi. by N. Bailey,
ib, 1878: M» Praim of FoUv, witb his Letter to Sir TfvmoM
Afore and a We is in a biuidy wl, ik lS76j bis Snefttfi-
dion. miUHa ChriuHam i« in Mde^ innMU ib. 1905. ef. Tli
ChriMiian** Manual dmpUed from IA« Sru^indioimt ^
wt
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
EraBmuB
Erbkaxn
f.W. Crowther, ib. (1816); the Apotheonu of EraamuM
fmd. into Eng. by Nieolaa UdaU, 1S64 was reprinted,
BoiUa, EnsUnd, 1877; there is a school ed. of the Con-
mUUctmkquiu, by V. S. Clark, Boston. 1896. The most
iBBplete bibliography is found in Bibliolheca Eraamiana,
Hf0toin det tnvrea d"£nume, Ghent. 1893. Consult also
Mfottcea Eraamiana, Ghent. 1903, J. M. Baldwin,
Sidkmaryof Philoaophy and Paychology, III. i. 194-196.
Od the life consult: F. O. Stichart, EraamtM, Leipsic,
URO; H. Durand de lAur. £ra»me, prfcuraeur et initia-
ImiiVupiit modeme, 2 vols.. Paris, 1872; R. B. Drum-
■ood, Bratmua, hi$ Life and Character, 2 vols., London,
1878; G. Feus^re, iraemue; itude aur aa vie et aea ou-
HP^M, Faxia, 1874; J. Meiklejohn, The Reformer; Glas-
fDW. 1885; F. Seebohm, The Oxford Reformer; London,
1887; M. Dods, Eraamua and Other Eaaaye, ib. 1891; J.
A.Tnmde, Life and Lettera of Eraamua, New York. 1896;
P. de Nolhac, 6raama en Italia, iltude aur un fpiaode de
k mtaieaemee, . . . douae lettrea intditea d'6raame, Paris,
1886; £. Emerton, Deaideriua Eraamua of Rotterdam,
Jkiw York. 1899; A. R. Pennington. The Life and Char-
mkr of Eraamua, London, 1901; E. F. H. Capey, Eraa-
mma. New York. 1903; W. H. Woodward. Deaideriua
Erwrnut eoncemino the Aim and Method of Education,
L Ounbridge. 1904; J. A. Faulkner. Eraamua the SAolar,
Jr Cfaidxuiati. 1907.
I ERASMUS, SAIHT. See Helpers in Need, the
t"* Fourteen.
ERASTUS, THOMAS, ERASTIANISM: Swiss Re-
f kamed phyBician and theologian; b. probably at
I Baden (14 m. n.w. of Zurich), Switzerland, Sept. 7,
^ lfi24; d. at Basel Jan. 1, 1583. The name is Gre-
ased from Ltlber or Lieber. He studied theology at
Basel and philosophy and medicine for nine years
at Bologna and Padua. In 1558 he became phy-
sician in ordinary to the elector Palatine, Otto
Heniy, and professor of medicine at Heidelberg.
In 1580 he went to Basel as professor of medicine
and became also professor of ethics shortly before
hiB death. He was considered a good physician and
upright man, and established a foundation for the
education of poor students in medicine at Basel
and Heidelberg. As a student of nature he strenu-
ously opposed the astrology, alchemy, and magic
of Paracelsus and his school, though he approved
of the death penalty for witches. It is as a theo-
logian, however, that he is known and remem-
bered. He was a follower of Zwingli, took an
active part in the conferences at Heidelberg (1560)
and at Maulbronn (1564), and defended the Swiss
view of the Lord's Supper in a book Vom Veratand
der Wort Christi : Das ist mein Leib, and again
in a vindication of this work against Johann Maiv
bach, a Lutheran minister of Strasburg (Heidel-
berg, 1565). Some years later he had occasion to
defend his master's ideas against the Calvinists
in a question of church polity. There was a Cal-
vinist party in Heidelberg, headed by Caspar
Olevianus (q.v.), which wanted to introduce a
purely Pre8b3rterian constitution, with a corre-
sponding church discipline. Erastus strongly op-
posed the movement, but in vain. He was him-
self the first victim of the established discipline,
being excommunicated on a charge of latent Uni-
tarianism; after five years, however, he was restored.
Six years after his death G. Castelvetro, who had
married his widow, published a work, written in
1568 and found among his papers, Explicatio
gravimnKB qwrsHonis tUrum excommunicatio . . .
mandato nitatur divino an excogitata aii ab hominibtia
(Poschiavo, 1589). The book^ written after the
fashion of the time in the form of theses, denies
that excommunication is a divine ordinance, or
that the Church has any power to make laws or
decrees; and asserts that to inflict pains and penal-
ties and to punish the sins of professing Christians
belongs to the civil magistrates, not to pastors and
elders. It attracted much attention and was at-
tacked by Beza. English translations appeared
at London in 1659 and 1682, and again, by R. Lee,
at Edinburgh, 1844. Its views were adopted by
a distinct party in the Westminster Assembly,
headed by Selden, Lightfoot, Coleman, and White-
locke. Since that time the doctrine of state su-
premacy in ecclesiastical causes generally goes
under the name of Erastianism; though in its bro^
sense and wide application this doctrine is by no
means due to Erastus or in accord with his views.
Biblioorapht: C. F. Vierordt, Oeachichte der Reformation
im Oroaahertogthum Baden, pp. 456 sqq.. Carlsnihe, 1847;
A. Bonnard, Thomae P]raate et la diaeipline eccUaiaatique,
Lausanne, 1894. For Eraittianism consult: J. Selden's
Table Talk, reprinted Oxford. 1892. and his Hiat. of
Tythea, London, 1629. The extreme form of the doc-
trine is found in T. Hobbes, Leviathan, iii. 42, good edi-
tion. Oxford. 1881. Consult also R. I. Wilberforce,
Sketch of the Hiat. of Eraatianiam, London, 1851.
ERBKAM, erb'kdm, WILHELM HEXIOUCH:
Councilor of the consistory and professor of the-
ology at Kdnigsberg, Prussia; b. at Glogau (35
m. n.n.w. of Liegnitz), Silesia, July 8, 1810; d. at
Kdnigsberg Jan. 9, 1884. He studied at Bonn,
where he was chiefly influenced by Nitzsch and
Bleek, and at Berlin where he was still more
strongly and decisively influenced by Schleier-
macher, with whom he was fortunate enough to
come into close personal contact. Under Nean-
der's guidance he devoted himself to the study
of church history, and Marheineke introduced him
to a closer study of systematic theology. In 1834
he went to the theological seminary at Wittenberg,
where he made further progress in practical the-
ology under the guidance of Rothe, at that time
director of the seminary. Rothe guided his theo-
logical activity by directing his attention espe-
cially to Protestant mysticism and the sects
proceeding from it. In 1838 Erbkam established
himself as privat-docent in theology at Berlin,where
he finally became professor and remained ten years,
lecturing at first chiefly on the history of dogma
and later on church history and systematic dis-
ciplines. During these years he was active also
in the practical life of the Church, especially in
preaching. He defended the full and whole truth
of the revelation of the Gospel against the rational-
istic unbelief and the half-believing theology of the
Friends of Light (see Free Congregations in Ger-
man Y, § 1 ) , who about 1840 protested against faithful-
ness to the Bible and the confession in the church
as orthodox darkness, and attacked especially the
Evangelische KirchemeUung and its editor, E. W.
Hengstenberg. In 1847 Erbkam followed a call to
Kdnigsberg, where he taught church history and
history of dogma, and subsequently exegesis,
dogmatics, ethics, and symbolics. In 1857 he
became councilor of the consistory of Kdnigsberg
and was also chosen representative of the theo-
logical faculty at the general synods oi 1875 and
Erdmann
Bmest I.
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
les
1879. His principal work is Die Geachichten der
proUstantischen Sekten im ZeitaUer der Reformation
(Hamburg, 1848). (David ERDMANNf.)
ERDMANN, CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH DAVID:
German Protestant; b. at Giistebiese, near KOnigs-
berg, July 28, 1821 ; d. at Dresden Mar. 11, 1905.
He studied in Berlin (1843-1847), and in 1853 be-
came privat-docent in theology there. In 1856 he
went to Kdnigsberg as professor of theology, and in
1864, to Breslau as general superintendent for Silesia,
being at the same time honorary professor at the
University of Preslau. He retired from active life
in 1900. He wrote Leben und Leiden der eraten
Christen (Berlin, 1854); PrimaJoannis epiatolce argu-
mentum, nexus et consilium (1855); Die Reformation
und ihre Mdrtyrer in Italien (1855); Der Brief
des Jakobus erkldrt (1881); Luther und die Hohen-
zoUem (Breslau, 1883); and Luther und seine
Beziehungen zu Schlesien, insbesondere zu Breslau
(Halle, 1887). He likewise contributed the section
on the books of Samuel to J. P. Lange's Theo-
logisch-homUetisches Bibdwerk (Bielefeld, 1873;
Eng. transl. by C. H. Toy and J. A. Broadus,
New York, 1877).
ERDOSI JANOS. See Bible Versions, B,X, § 1.
EREMITE. See Hermit.
ERFURT, BISHOPRIC OF: A Thuringian
bishopric established by Boniface in the sununer of
741 with its seat at Erfurt. Previous to the erec-
tion of this see, Thuringia alone of the German
stocks had had no bishopric of its own, being under
the jurisdiction of Mainz. The first bishop of
Erfurt seems to have been Dadanus, who was one
of those present at the Austrasian Synod of 742,
and he was apparently succeeded by Boniface
himself. Whether this took place before or after
Boniface became archbishop of Mainz is uncer-
tain, but at all events it explains the later asso-
ciation of Thuringia and Mainz. (A. Hauck.)
From the time of Boniface till the fourteenth
century, episcopal acts in the Erfurt district were
performed either by the archbishops of Mainz or
by visiting bishops delegated for the occasion;
but from 1313 to 1807 there was a regular line of
coadjutors to the archbishop with their seat at
Erfurt. A papal bull of 1821 placed Erfurt under
the see of Paderbom.
Biblioqrapht: Rettberg, KD, i. 351-362; Hauck, KD, 1.
613-614; KL, iv. 770-772.
ERIGENA, JOHN SCOTUS. See Scotus, Erigena.
Johannes.
ERMLAND, BISHOPRIC OF: A German bishop-
ric established in 1243 by the papal legate Will-
iam of Modena, together with the sees of Culm,
Pomesania, and Samland. The cathedral was
founded at Braunsberg (30 m. s.w. of KOnigsberg)
by Anselm, the first bishop, in June, 1260, but
twenty years later was transferred to Frauenburg
(41 m. s.w. of Konigsberg) by Henry I. Among
the famous bishops of tliis diocese was iEneas
Silvius Piccolomini (1457-58), afterward Pope
Pius II. (A. Hauck.)
Until 1525 the diocese was under the political
jurisdiction of the Teutonic order. Toward tli9
end of this period it increased in importance; tlw
attempt of the Diet of Lublin (1506) to have it
established as the metropolitan see of the PnisBUi
dioceses failed indeed, but in 1512 Julius U ^
released it from its nominal subordination to thi *
archbishopric of Riga and constituted it an "et -■
empt '' bishopric. From 1525 to 1772 it was undv
Polish jurisdiction, and the bishops were of tint
nationality beginning with the celebrated SUm^
laus Hosius (1551-79; see Hosius, Stanibuoi);
who was one of the presidents of the Councfl of
Trent. After 1772 it was under Prussian ruk
The bull De salute of 1821 united with it the d»-
cese of Samland and five deaneries of Pomeflaiia. \
Bibliography: Monumenta'hUt, Warmientu, ed. GL P.
Wdlky and J. N. Saage. Biains. 1858 aqq.; Hauck, JU^
iv. 663,
ERNEST THE CONFESSOR AND THE REFOI-
MATION IN BRUNSWICK-LUENEBURG: Dob
of Brunswick-Lilneburg, known as '' the ConfesBor;"
b. at Uelzen (20 m. s.s.e. of Liineburg) June 26^
1497; d. at CeUe Jan. 11, 1546. In 1512 hewn
sent to the court of his mother's brother, the deetor
Frederick the Wise, at Wittenberg, and received
instruction there from Georg Spalatin; he remainei
at Wittenberg through the beginning of the Ref(v
mation. In 1520 his father, Henry, assodated
with himself in the government his two sodb, Otto |
and Ernest, and abdicated the same year. Bf 1
the retirement of Otto in 1527 Ernest became sob ^
ruler. The condition of his domain was not pi»
perous. Political considerations doubtless fu^
thered the introduction of the Reformation; it
offered opportunity to restrict the privileges of
the nobles and the clergy and to increase the
revenues from church and monastery property.
The forerunner of the Reformation in LClnebuig
was a certain Wolf Cyclop, a physician from
Zwickau, who was not free from the Zwickau
enthusiasm (see Zwikau Prophets). Saner men
followed him, such as Gottschalk Cruse, Hein-
rich Bock, and Matthaus Mylow. Ernest waa
inclined to move slowly, but in 1525 the Peas-
ants' War gave him occasion to call upon the
monasteries for lists of their property and to re-
quire them to admit Protestant preachers; he
promised the elector of Saxony to stand by the
Protestant cause. After an attempt of the RxMnan
Catholic party to reinstate his father in 1527 had
failed, his course became more decided. In J\ily»
1527, the first book of discipline was adopted,
drawn up by the preachers of Celle. At a diet in
August of the same year it was ordered that " God's
pure word should be preached everywhere witboui
additions made by men." Between 1527 and 1530
Lutheran preachers were introduced in most piJ^
ishes, and into the monasteries, not in all cases
without compulsion. Ernest went to Augsburg
in 1530 and signed the Confession. He brougfnt
back Urbanus Rhegius (q.v.), who worked for the
spread of the Reformation (after 1541 as super-
intendent) and introduced it into the city of Liine-
burg. The largest and richest monastery in the land,
St. Michael's in LQneburg, accepted the new order
after the death of Abbot Boldewin in 1532. Rhe-
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Erdxnann
BmeBt I.
a died in 1541 and was succeeded by Martin
udermark, who completed the former's work.
In general it may be said that the preachers
rote well disposed to the reformed religion, while
•be people held to the old and only gradually
idipted themselves to the new. During the
fehmalkald War the land remained true to the
QoBpel. After 1530 flmest was the most influen-
till prince of North Germany. He sent Rhegius
to Hanover when the Reformation there threat-
eoed to become revolution and restored order,
h the cities of Westphalia he strengthened the
Aotestant party against both the Roman Catholics
tui the enthusiasts, although his efforts were vain
m Munster. His influence was also felt in Pom-
Derania and Mecklenburg, in Hoya, and in East
Friesland. His most effective work probably was
leeomplished by his restless activity for the Schmal-
aid League. He induced the North German
itkA, Hamburg, Bremen, Brunswick, GOttingen,
ind others to join, and he often became the sue-
iesBful mediator when a rupture was threatened
Ktween the overcautious elector of Saxony and
iie headstrong Philip of Hesse. While Ernest
sooetimes used harsh measures to accomplish his
wrSL and was actuated by a desire to exalt his
podtion as ruler as well as by higher motives,
fel, on the whole, he was faithful to his motto,
■Kit inserviendo consumor. His four sons at
his death were still minors, but the Protestant
Church of LOneburg was so firmly established
that it could survive the regency and the unhappy
time of the Schmalkald War, and to this day the
chnrch life of Liineburg bears the character im-
ptwed upon it by Ernest the Confessor.
(G. UHLHORNt.)
BnuoemiiraT: J. G. Bertram, Daa Leben EmesH, Bruna-
*ick, 1719; J. K- F. Schlcgel, Kirehen- und Reformationt-
INAicUe von Norddeutathland und Hannover, vol. ii.,
Huover, 1829; W. Havemann, Qeachichte der Lande
BftuntdttDeig und LUnelmrg, vol. ii., QOttingen, 1855;
lim of Urbanus Rhegiua by H. C. Heimbtkrger, Gotha,
1851. and G. Uhlhom, Elberfeld, 1861; A. Wredc, Die
SiMfykruntf der Reformation in LULnebwg dureh Henog
Enat den BAenner, Gfittingen, 1887; G. Uhlhom, in Zeitn
^dri^ dee hietariaehen Vereina f&r Niedertaeheen^ Han-
over. 1897, pp. 22 sqq.; ADB, iv. 260_8qq.
ERNEST, ELECTOR OF COLOGNE. See Gbb-
HUDlI.
2R1IEST L, THE PIOUS: Duke of Saxe-Gotha
ud Altenburg; b. at the castle of Altenburg (26
B.s.of Leipsic) Dec. 25, 1601; d. Mar. 26, 1675.
&riy left an orphan, he was brought up in a
strict manner, and gifted and precocious, but not
|i&7Bically strong, he soon showed traits of the
piety of the time. As ruler, by his character and
gDvemmental ability as well as by personal atten-
ioD to matters of state, he introduced a golden
ime for his subjects after the ravages of the Thirty
'ears' War. By a wise economy, which did not
Kchide fitting generosity or display on proper
scasioDs, he freed his land from debt, left at his
ath a considerable sum in the treasury, and
duced taxation. The public security and an
corruptible and efficient judiciary received much
his care, and his regulations served as models
r other states. He did not rise far enough above
his time to do away with torture, though he re-
stricted it, and in the century of trials for witch-
craft he yielded to the common delusion, though
otherwise not inclined to superstition and a foe of
alchemy. He prohibited dueling and imposed
the death penalty for a mortal result.
His laws were not conceived in the spirit of
modem ideas about individual liberty; they foiv
bade secret betrothals, tried to regulate dress,
and extended even to the stable, kitchen, and cel-
lar. Nevertheless his regulations promoted agri-
culture, commerce, learning, and art. His palace
of Friedenstein in Gotha was rebuilt, and its col-
lections owe their origin to Ernest; the library
became one of the largest in Germany. Churches
were built and by his Schulmethodua of 1642 Ernest
became the father of the present grammar-school.
It was a popular saying that his peasants were
better instructed than the townsmen and nobles
elsewhere, and at his death, it was said, no one in
his land was unable to read and write. He made
the gymnasium in Gotha a model school which
attracted pupils not only from all German lands,
but from Sweden, Russia, Poland, and Hungary.
In like manner he fostered the university at Jena,
increasing its funds and regulating its studies,
with too much emphasis on the religious side. The
same fault attaches to his efforts in church affairs,
which won him the name of " Praying Ernest ";
but an excuse is found in the fearful demoralization
caused by the war. The Bible was his own every-
day book and he strove unceasingly to make his
people religious after a strict Lutheran pattern.
Religious instruction, consisting in catechetical
exercises without Bible history, was kept up even
to advanced years and not unnaturally the rigid
compulsion in some cases defeated its purpose.
Ernest's system has maintained itself surprisingly;
it still exists legally though somewhat modified
or disregarded.
His efforts for Protestantism were not confined
to his own land. He interceded with the emperor
for his Austrian coreligionists, and wanted to estab-
lish them in Gotha. He became a benefactor to
the Evangelical Lutheran Church of the Germans
in Moscow and entered into friendly relations with
the Czar. He even sent an embassy to introduce
Lutheranism into Abyssinia, but failed to accom-
plish his purpose. His rule of his family is a minia-
ture of his government of his land. The strictest
discipline prevailed at court. Its Ufe was simple
and industrious, regu ated on all sides by religious
exercises. Rules were added to rules. No detail
was overlooked which could promote the spiritual
and physical development of his children, and their
religious education was carried to excess. Never-
theless his cliildren all turned out well and Ernest
died with the name of "father and savior of his
people." Oliver Cromwell counted him among the
most sagacious of princes; in him was embodied
" the idea of the Protestant patriarchal prince and
of a Christian governor of State and Church truly
caring for both." For the edition of the Bible
which he planned (the so-called " Ernestine Bible ")
see Bibles, Annotated, and Bible Summaries,
I, § 1. Georg Loesche.
Bmesti
Brskine
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
170
Bisucmiiiafeit: On the life eotuult: J. H. Gelbke, Hert&g
Ernst tr Qenannt der Froffime. 3 roh,. GothA, 1810: A*
B«ck, Ermi der Fromnufy 2 vols.. WeimiLr, 1865; idem,
in ADB, vu 302-308. For the educational work: W.
Bdhjxkfr, Das 1 nfonnatiimswerk Err^l de§ Fromfrmn von
Ooiha. Leipdc, 1S55; Idem, Die Ertiehung dtf Kind^
Ernst des Frommen von Gatfm^ Chetnmta, 18S7: idem,
Dis padagogiKhcn Bestf^ungun Ertttt dts Frafnm^n^
Gtitbft, 1S88; A. Bracm* Der goOmUche Sf^ultmttiodiis,
BerUD, 1897.
ERKESTI, JOHAira AUGUST: Professor of
theology at Leipsic; b, at Teanstadt (15 m. n^n w.
of Erfurt), Thuringia, Aug, 4, 1707; d, at Leipeic
Sept- 11, 1781. Hia father woa preacher and supers
Infcendent in Electoral Saxony. In 1727 he began
the study of nmt hematics, philosophy, and the-
ology at Wittenberg. After two years he became
tutor at Leipsic^ in the houie of Stieglitz, councilor
of war and iruiyor, whose influence upon his future
career became decisive. In 1731 he was made
vice-principal and in 17H4 principal
As Profes* of the school of St. Thomas, at the
tor and same time lecturing with great eue-
Teacher> cejs on the Latin classics at the uni*
veraity. In 1742 he was apfxointed
professor extraordinary of humane literature and
in 1756 received the important chair of pro-
fessor of eloquence. His orations, distinguished
by their versatile Latin, w^on him the title of
''Cicero of the Germans." In 1759 he waa trans-
ferred to the theological faculty. He was an ex»
cellent teacher and became a leading personality
in the univeraily and town. His nature was recep-
tive; he perceived the defects in methods of
instruction, but he lacked thoroughness, while his
interest in the subject-matter and the beautie.s of
form caused him to underrate the value of pene-
trating criticism.
Emessti's importance as a theologian is intel-
ligible from his personal development and the con-
ditions of his time. After the change of confession
on the part of the sovereign and the court, the
Lutheran church of Saxony had organi^ced itself
in a more independent way, and its ehurehly life
had a secure basii in the confcflsioan of the Refor-
mat ion. But, owing to Pietism and the criticism
of rationalism, the scholastic method in theology
had to give way to the historical. Emesti was
governed by the new spirit. As a
As Theo- weli-trained philologist he perceived
logian« the defects of a dogmatic exegesis
and the insufficiencies of a merely
empirical method of Biblical criticism. On the
other hand, he was dwply penetrated by a love of
the Church whose confessional foundations he
regarded as unshakable, at least in the attenuated
dogmatics of hb time. Thus he maintained on the
one side that the Bible must be explained like any
other book, but on the other hand, as a dogmatician,
he clung to tradition. He was not conscious of
trying to harmonisse two irreconcilable principles
in his scientific and ehurehly thinking; and ju^
because as a theologian of the Church he was able
to satisfy the demands of philological criticism by
his clear formula^*, without infringing upon ehurehly
authority, his work denotes a turning-point in
the dfivdopmeDt of theological science* By hh
happy inconsistency he secured an indispnUhle
place for historical criticism in theology.
He laid down his principles in his InMiituiit
interpreiw Novi TestamerUi (Leipeic, 1761; Ei^
tmnsl., Edinburgh, 1834). In opposition to (he
mystical and allegorical interpretation of Cbceeiui
and to unhistorical rationalism he showed tliit
Scripture possesses only one setise* The wort of
the interpreter is finished with the estahliihiDenI
of the grammatical or literal sense, i.e., with his-
torical explanation, the means of which are inp-
nished by the science of language. He controvfrti
his own principles, however, by making the pos-
tive results of Scriptural interpretation deptyjdrat
upon the immediate inspiration of the Bible, !ld4
the same contradictions appear in tus dogmiitit
works.
In general Ernesti strove to be a Biblital thfolo
gian who bases his faith upon the grammatical
interpretation of Scripture. He rendered grctt
services by showing that Biblical phildogjcal
interpretation as such may claim an indepetukut
position in theology. By his deep studies of tht .
Bible he avoided rationalism^ Pietism, aod dead
orthodoxy. But he shrank from any thonjq^ :
going inno%'ation which might in any way inter-
fere with the traditions of ehurehly life. To ia-
crease his influence on the theology of his tijoe h*
founded the Th€oJ/>gtj!iche Bibliaih&k, which appeafed
in two series {1760-69 and 1773-79), writiog \mh
self most of the contributions. His editioos af
Cicero, Homer, Xenophon, Tacitus, and odser
classical authors were famous, and his Opioak
aratorin (Leipsic, 1762), Opuscula phUoiogiaxry
irca (1754), and Iniiia d^rints Molidioru {IWl
were much read. His aermons have an acftdetok
stamp; their language is cumbrous^ and be tMoki
in Latin, though he writes in German.
(G. HMNMa,}
BiBLioaaAPar: W- A, Teller Vtstdimat^ Enus^ vm T»*-
oloffit und ReliffiotK Bertiii. 1783. oad the Ju«A£» to TtOi*
by J. B. Scraler, H»He. 17S3; J. vw) Voowt OnU« d»
Erni»ti&, Ley den. 1805; C. H, Frotacber, EhiflMlh^
virorum fwuralimwt, i. 31-129, LeipAie» IS2A.
ERNESTHfE BIBLE. See Biblsb, Ankotatkb*
AND BtaL£l BUMMARIES, 1^ { 1.
ERPEMUS (VA5 IRPl), THOMAS: Duteh
Arabist; b. at Gorkum (22 ra, e.s,e, of RottcrdaJiJ)
Sept. 7, 1584; d. at Uyden Nov. 13, 1524. fi«
studietl at Middelburg and Leyden, and then trav-
eled through France^ Germany, Italy, and En^aod-
Almost immediately after his return, he ww
appointed professor of Oriental languages at Leydec
( Feb . , 1613). In addition to Ms academic actifity,
liis position as royal interpreter kept him in eoo*
stant touch mth the East. His entrance on bss
professorfihip was signalijsed by the pubticatioiid
his Gramfnaiica arabica (Leyden, 1613), whioii,
like its summary r the Rudimerda Ungwe orobiet
(1620), went through many editions and was not sa-
perseded until the works of De Sacy appeared^ two
centuries later. After the death of his patron JomI
Bcahger, Er|>enius publtshed a posthumous editm
of the latfer's Prnverbwrum Ar€^ieorum cfnluHs
dum (1614), while his duties as a teacher resulted
in bis pubUcation of the first ^tion ol tbe WdieM
171
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
EmeBti
Erskine
flCLokman in his Locmani aapientU fabulcB (1615).
h 1615 he also published his Pauli Apoatoli ad
SimttMs epistola, Arabice, which he followed in
lbs next year with his Novum Domini Nostri Jeau
(SkM TestamerUum, Arabice (1616). The Gos-
peb were based in general on the Greek text,
; Acta and the Epistles on the Peshito, and Reve-
htion on a Coptic source. In 1619 Erpenius was
appointed professor of Hebrew, and now edited
Idi Pentattuchus Mosis, Arabice (1622), which,
however, hke his Grammatica Ebrcea generalis
(1621), possesses but a minor importance. His
edition of the Christian Arabic historian Ibn al-
Amid al-Makin was completed by J. Golius {His-
Utria Saracenica auctore Gtorgio ElmacinOy 1625),
I and in the year after his death appeared his P salmi
i Daridit, Syriace (1625), while C. TEmpereur ed-
^ ited his Grammatica Chaldcea et Syrica (Aroster-
[ dam, 1628). (A. SociNf.)
BnuooftAPST: P. ScriTeriua, " Manet Erpeniani," Ley-
den, 1625; Ench and Gruber, section 1. xxxrii. 359-360.
ERRETT, ISAAC: Disciple of Christ; b. in New
YoA aty Jan. 2, 1820; d. at Cincinnati, O.,
Dec. 19, 1888. He was self-educated from his
tenth year, and after laboring as a farmer, miller,
lumberman, bookseller, printer, school-teacher,
pastor, preacher, and editor, became one of the
leading men of his denomination. He was asso-
ciate editor of The Millennial Harbinger with
Alexander C^ampbell, and from 1866 until his death
was editor-in-chief of the denominational organ,
The Christian Standard, published in Cincinnati.
His writings include First Principles; or. The
Eknmt8 of the Gospel (Cincinnati, 1867); Walks
flftwrf Jerusalem : A Search after the Landmarks
of himUive Christianity (1872); Talks to Bereans
(1875); Letters to a Young Christian (1881); Eve-
f ningtwith the Bible (3 vols., 1885-88); Life and
t Writings of George Edward Flower (1885); and
Our Position : A Brief Statement of the Plea urged
by the People known as Disciples of Christ (1885).
fiouooBAPHT: J. S. Lamar, Memoirt of Iwaac Errett, tDith
SeUeUima from hi$ Writing; Pottsville, 1894.
ESSKINE, EBENEZER: Founder of the Scot-
tish Secession Church (see Presbyterians); b. at
Diyfourgh (30 m. s.e. of Ekiinburgh), Berwickshire,
June 22, 1680; d. at StirHng June 2, 1754. His
father, Henry Erskine an English non-conformist
minister (ejected by the Act of Uniformity, 1662;
after the Revolution minister of Chimside, Berwick-
shire; d. 1696), belonged to the family oif the earls
of Blar. His mother, Margaret Halcro of Orkney,
claimed as ancestor the duke of Albany, son of
James V. of Scotland. Both parents were dis-
tinguished by piety and holy living. The son
inherited their more valuable quaUties and some-
what of the high spirit not unbecoming the noble
blood which flowed in his veins. He studied at
the University of Edinburgh (M.A., 1697), and was
licensed and ordained minister of Portmoak, Kin-
rossshire, in 1703. In 1704 he married Alison
Turpie, whose religious experience and devout spirit
were the means of giving him his first real " view
of salvation." In 1731 he was translated to the
more important charge of Stirling, which he occu«
pied till his deposition from the ministry of the
Church of Scotland, in 1740.
As a minister of the national church, no less
than after his secession, Erskine 's labors were
abundant and successful. Few ministers of that
day enjoyed greater popularity as a preacher.
People came from distances of sixty or seventy
miles to benefit by his ministrations; and at the
dispensation of the communion it was sometimes
found necessary, even in the small parish of Port-
moak, to make provision for no fewer than 2,000
participants. His discourses were plain, even
homely in style, but were delivered with a certain
elevation and dignity of manner which were always
characteristic of him.
But it is chiefly as a leader in ecclesiastical
affairs, at a critical period of the history of the
Church of Scotland, that Erskine was known
in his own day, and is remembered. For the full
history of the secession of 1733, see Presbyterians.
Of this first considerable division in the Scottish
Church, Erskine is admitted to have been the
prime mover. The inunediate occasion of the rup-
ture was an act of the General Assembly of 1732,
in connection with the vexed question of patron-
age. The relations of Erskine and his followers to
the " ruUng party in the Church," however, had
been already strained long before this: first, in the
so-called Marrow Controversy (q.v.), in which they
were rebuked by the General Assembly; and again
in a celebrated case of alleged heresy — that of John
Simson (q.v,), professor of divinity in the Univer-
sity of Glasgow, whose suspension from teaching
without deprivation either of status or stipend was
regarded by Erskine as a grossly inadequate sen-
tence. In fact, in announcing their secession in
the formal protest of Nov. 16, 1733, the four orig-
inal members of the Associate Synod, as the new
body was at first called, expressly ascribed the
step which they felt it their duty to take, not to
any one act of the Church, but to " a coiu«e of de-
fection from our Reformed and covenanting prin-
ciples."
Among the incidents of Erskine's later years
mention should be made of his procedure in the re-
beUion of 1745. When the rebels occupied Stir-
ling, he not only organized a Secession corps of
volimteers in behalf of the government, but acted
as their captain, and for his patriotic conduct re-
ceived the thanks of the duke of Cumberland. It
is also to his credit that when the Associate Synod
was rent asunder in 1747 into " Burghers " and
" Antiburghers " by disputes over religious clauses
in oaths administered to burgesses of Scotch cities,
he took the side of toleration, and while the Anti-
burghers excommunicated those who subscribed
the required oath, he refused to make non-sub-
scription a term of communion. On the other
hand he showed a narrow spirit in reference to the
work of George Whitefield and spoke contemptu-
ously of the " noisy wind " which that " prelatic "
preacher had " brought into the land." His pub-
lished works were sermons and controversial
pamphlets, which were issued in several collected
editions after his death.
(William Lsaf.) Hbnbt Cowan.
Brflkina
Bsohatolonr
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZCKJ
Biblxoorapht: A Menunr, by James Fisher, was prefixed
to the Worka of Ralph Erskine. Glasgow. 1764-66; an
enlarged Memoir, by D. Eraser, was prefixed to the
Worka of Ebeneser Erskine, London, 1826, while the Life
and Diary was issued separately, ib. 1831. Consult
Hew Scott, Faeti eccleeioe ScoHcance, 5 parts, London,
1871; DNB, xvii. 404-407; J. Ker, The Erakinee, Ebenr-
eaer and Ralph, Edinburgh, 1881.
ERSKINE, JOHN: Church of Scotland; b. at
Edinburgh 1720 or 1721; d. there Jan. 19, 1803.
His father was a distinguished member of the Scot-
tish bar, and, deferring to his parents' wishes, John
Erskine at first applied himself to the study of his
father's profession. But a strong predilection for
the Church had been early formed and showed
itself, even while he was still a student in Eklin-
burgh, in the publication of a theological work
which gained him the friendship and correspond-
ence of Bishop Warburton. He became a licen-
tiate of the Church in 1743; and in 1744 he was
ordained minister of the parish of Kirkintilloch,
near Glasgow. In this laborious country charge
Dr. Erskine, from the first, devoted himself ear-
nestly and faithfully to his professional duties.
And here, also, he formed those habits of careful
preparation for the pulpit which never failed to
render his sermons (which are vigorous expositions
of Calvinism), if not eloquent, interesting and
useful.
At this period of his life he began to maintain
friendly intercourse on religious questions with
representatives of foreign churches. In an age of
bigotry and intolerance — ^at least among the mem-
bers of the party to which he himself belonged —
Dr. Erskine was, if no Broad-churchman in the
modem acceptation of the term, a man of wide
sympathies and enlightened Christian liberality.
In the list of his earliest correspondents were sev-
eral distinguished ministers of America, among
them Jonathan Edwards. The strained relations
between Britain and her American colonies dis-
tressed him deeply, and he published several
pamphlets urging mutual concessions to prevent
the war which eventually broke out. Reference
has already been made to his friendly relations
with Bishop Warburton, and he also corresponded
with Bishop Hurd. He was no less friendly with
some of the English dissenters, especially White-
field (who preached in his pulpit at Kirkintilloch)
and the Wesleys. His correspondence with mem-
bers of the Continental Churches was long carried
on with difficulty owing to his ignorance of any
foreign language except French; but at the age of
sixty he gained a competent knowledge of Dutch
and German. He advocated and strenuously de-
fended missions to the heathen at a time when
both Churchmen and dissenters — in Scotland at
any rate — were equally indifferent to what is now
regarded as one of the chief obligations of the
Christian Church.
In 1753 Dr. Erskine was translated from Kirk-
intilloch to the parish of Culross, and thence he
removed, in 1758, to New Greyfriars Church, Edin-
burgh; after nine years, he went to the Collegiate
Church of Old Greyfriars in the same city. Here
he had Principal Robertson, the historian of Charles
v., as his colleague and, in spite of their differ-
ences in ecdeaiastical politics, as one of his I
friends. As an Edinburgh minister, he was c
to take a more prominent place in public buaiMil
than before. As a leader in the church courts, b I
represented for many years the Evangelical or poj^j
ular party in the Church. In this positjon, as k .|
every other, he was far from adopting extreni
views; and he enjoyed the respect and esteem of
all parties throughout the whole of his long ui ,
useful life. His contributions to literature (tnoi- :
ty-five publications in all) include a volume of
Theological Dissertations (London, 1765); Comii' '
erations on the Spirit of Popery (1778); and tio
volumes of Discourses (1798, 1804). He edittd
and republished various works of Jonathan Ed*
wards and other Americans.
(William LEEf.) Henry Cowas.
Biblioorapht: H. M. Wellwood, An Account o/ Ae Ljfi
and WriHnga of John Erakine, EdioburKh, 1818: Hq^
Miller. Tioo PaHiea in the Church of Scotland, Edinbaqji,
1841; W. and R. Chambers. Bioffraphioal DidUmm^
Eminent Sootamen, u. 262-264. Glaicow, 1855; T. He-
Crie. Sketchea of ScoUiah Church Hiatory, Edinbuivh, 187S;
W. Scott, Guy Mannerino, chap, xxxvii.; DNB, rril 431-
433.
ERSKINE, THOMAS: Scotch layman, knom
as ** Thomas Erskine of Linlathen "; b. in Edin-
burgh Oct. 13, 1788; d. there Mar. 20, 1870. He
was a nephew of John Erskine (q.v.), was edu-
cated in Ekiinburgh, and practised law from ISIO
to 1816; then succeeding to the family estate at
Linlathen, near Dundee, he retired from the bar
and spent the rest of his life in the care of hii
property and theological writing. While still a
young man, he rebelled at the current Scotch the-
ology, and at length found what he conceived was
a better way in which to represent the divine revda-
tion. His views are thus summarized in the En-
cyclopcedia Brilannica :
The only proper criterion of the truth of Christianity is
" its conformity or non -conformity with man's spiritiwl
nature, and its adaptability or non-adaptability to man's
universal and deepest spiritual needs." The incamttion
of Christ was " the necessary manifestation to man of an
eternal sonship in the divine nature, apart from whidi thois
filial qualities which God demands from man could have no
sanction." Faith as used in the Bible is a " certain moral
or spiritual condition which virtually implied salvadon.
because it implied the existence of a principle of spiritual
life possessed of an immortal power. This faith could he
properly awakened only by the manifestation, through
Christ, of love as the law of life, and as identical with an
eternal righteousness which it was God's purpose to bestow
on every individual soul."
Such views were not " orthodox,'* and at first sub-
jected Mr. Erskine to considerable adverse crit-
icism. But they gained favor; and he numbered
among his intimate friends and correspondents
some of the finest minds of the century, — Thomas
Carlyle, Edward Irving, Frederick Denison Maurice,
John McLeod Campbell, Bishop Ewing, Norman
Macleod, Dean Stanley, Adolphe Monod, and Alex-
andre Vinet. Maurice and Campbell were indebted
to him for those conceptions of the Atonement
which have had so great an effect upon later popu-
lar religious thought; and it was Cainpbell's public
advocacy of them which led to his expulsion from
the Kirk. Mr. Erskine's theology permeated his
being, and it was his delight to impress his views
upon all whom he met. His sincerity, earnestness,
»^3
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Brsklno
Bsohatoloffy
I
ithy, and pure and lofty character gave him
^^eat influence. D. J. Vaughan (Contemporary
June, 1878) includes him among four Scotch-
whose influence on English thought has been
ij deep, and lasting. Monod traced to a talk
-^ritli him his deliverance from Socinianism. Vinet
^iFTOte: " Were it allowable to say * I am of Paul '
^Skd * I of Apollos,' I should say * I am of Erskine.' "
Bis more important writings were • Remarks on
^ke Internal Evidence for the Truth of Revealed Re-
Bgwn (Edinburgh, 1820; 10th ed., 1878); An Es-
mason Faith (1822); The Unconditional Freenesa
if the Gospel (1828; new ed., 1879); The Brazen
Serfienl, or, Life Coming ihroxigh Death (1831; 3d
«d, 1879); The Doctrine of Election (London, 1837;
2d ed., Exiinburgh, 1878). Spiritual Order and
(MJuT Papers (Edinburgh, 1871) appeared posthu-
mously, and in 1877 two volumes of Letters, ed.
WiUiam Hanna, with reminiscences by Dean Stan-
ley and Principal Shairp.
(William LEEf.) Henry Cowan.
Bduographt: Lettert of Thonuu Er§kine . . . 1800-1840,
d. W. Hanna, with a sketch of his ancestry, earlier
ynn, etc, Edinburgh, 1877; DNB, xvii. 444-446.
ERTHAL,&r"tQr, FRANZ LUD WIG VON: Bishop
of Wurzburg and Bamberg; b. at Lohi^on-the-
Kain (26 m. e.s.e. of Frankfort) Sept. 16, 1730;
d. at Wurzburg Feb. 16, 1795. He belonged to
an old Frankish noble family and was early des-
tined for the Church. He studied theology and
lair at Wurzburg and Mainz, and enlarged his legal
bowledge in the papal chancery and at Vienna.
In 1779 he was made bishop of Wurzburg, and a
few weeks later bishop of Bamberg. The tradi-
tional Wurzburg policy, confessional considera-
tions, and fear of the dangerous Prussians induced
him to join the ranks of the imperial party. His
relations to the Vatican were proper, but he was
bent on maintaining his own sovereignty against
both emperor and curia. A child of the time, he
ruled in accordance with the maxim of enlightened
despotism, " everything for the people, but every-
thing through the ruler "; yet he was no tyrant,
but governed as a benevolent patriarch, watching
over all things, arranging all things, the head of the
family, living only for his children. It was with
the greatest reluctance that he ever imposed the
death penalty. Under his mild rule the prisons
were emptied, the finances and the entire civil
senrice were regulated, and the poor laws were
made to accord with the modem principle that
only the disabled are to be helped and begging must
cease. Lotteries were abolished and schools — pri-
mary, intermediate, and high — were fostered with
zeal and knowledge. His natural inclination
toward the practical and useful is apparent in the
administration of his episcopal office and animates
his pastoral letters and still more his " sermons for
the people." These sermons seldom treat of doc-
trine or contain cold philosophical discussions, but
speak with seriousness and emphasis of Christian
living in a language somewhat uncouth and heavy,
but of heart-winning simplicity. While they are
not free from allusions to the gracious effects of
the mystery of the altar or of the mass, on the
whole they are tmly Evangelical, hot decked out
with emotional legendary stories, and without con-
fessional polemics. He visited his bishoprics,
which constituted a kind of theocracy, as a simple
priest, preaching in the most modest village church,
examining the clergy vigorously and with justice,
and admitting to it only the most worthy pupils
of his seminary. The active, ascetic, feeble man
wished for no pleasures, and stood alone on the
height of his ruling office, which brought him only
duties and cares. In vain will one seek among the
German Roman Catholic ecclesiastical princes a
more noble personality, a more worthy priest and
a more earnest Christian. D. KERLERf.
Bibliooraphy: F. Leitschuh, Fraru Lttdwig von Erthal,
Bamberg, 1894; Zum GedOchtnia de» Fiirttbiachof* Fraru
Ludwig von Erthal, in Archiv dea hiatoriachen Vereina von
Unterfranken und Aachaffenburg, vol. xxxvii., Wtirzburg,
1895.
ESARHADDON. See Assyria, VI. 3, § 13.
ESAU. See Edom; Jacob.
ESCHATOLOGY.
Primitive Views (5 1). Significance of Eschatology
Old Testament Doctrine (5 4).
(5 2). The Second Coming (5 6).
New Testament Teaching The Resurrection (5 6).
(53). The Judgment (§ 7).
Eschatology (Gk. ta eschata) is the doctrine of the
last things. In theology this signifies those events
occurring after death which immediately concern
man. Without detailed treatment the purpose here
is to sketch only the principal lines of the subject.
Belief in some sort of existence after death
appears to be a universal characteristic of the
human race, though neither the earli-
I. Primitive est form nor the precise cause of this
Views. belief among prehistoric peoples is
known. It may have originated in
dreams, or have expressed itself in animism, or
have been a prolongation of the instinct of self-
preservation (see Comparative Religion, VI., 1,
§ 2). From 4000 b.c. the daily life of the Egyp-
tians was saturated with this expectation (cf. the
" Book of the Dead ")• That the belief was wide-
spread from 1500 to 1000 b.c. is evinced in the great
literary religious documents which have come down
to us. The Homeric Hades is a gloomy under-
world to which all the dead go, there to exist as
wretched shades beyond the reach of divine help.
The Babylonians knew of " a land of no return "
(" Lay of Istar's Descent to Hades," see Baby-
lonia, VII., 3, § 5). The later Zoroastrian litera-
ture pictures the destinies of the dead with terrible
severity (see Zoroaster, Zoroastrian ism). Plato
(d. 347 B.C.) elaborated his splendid argument for
immortality ('* Phaedo ") — a hope repudiated by
the Epicureans, and only in part reaffirmed by the
Stoic doctrine of a limited survival after death (see
Immortality).
According to the Old Testament all the dead go
to Sheol (see Hades). Thus in some sort immor-
tality was affirmed; but this belief did
2. Oid not until the fourth century b.c. em-
Testament phasize individual immortality, in the
Doctrine, sense of personal moral development.
This appears the more strange when
one considers the profound belief of the Hebrews
in Yahweh, who alone had power to make alive
Esohatoloffy
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
17
(Deut. xxxii. 29; 1 Sam. ii. 6). This hope cen-
tered in national rather than in individual blessed-
ness, which is to be explained by the fact that their
evolution had not proceeded far enough for them
to draw the consequences of separating the indi-
vidual from the collective unit of the nation (cf.
Ezck. xxxiii.). The Messianic kingdom was to be
ushered in by the Day of Yahweh (see Day of
THE Lord)— a day of judgment directed against
all evil-doers. This kingdom was destined pri-
marily for the righteous who might then be liv-
ing on the earth; the relation of the Gentiles to
this kingdom was variously conceived (Hos. vi. 2;
Isa. XXV. 8; Ezek. xxxvii.). For the pious Hebrews
who had died, participation in it was possible onl^
through resurrection, which is clearly presented in
two passages (Isa. xxvi. 19; Dan. xii. 2). In the
first, communion with God is uninterrupted be-
tween death and the advent of the Messianic king-
dom; in the second, resurrection of the righteous
and the wicked is by an omnipotent act of God.
In the Old Testament, however, one looks in vain
for anything Hke a completed doctrine of resur-
rection (cf. the frequent laments of the Psalms
concerning death). The entire eschatological hope
reflects the progressive stages of culture attained
by the Hebrews, as affected by their developing
ethical consciousness and by the spiritual disclosure
of God in their history. Growing out of this ad-
vancing idea of God as absolute Creator and Lord
of aU, to whom at length no region of life or of the
imseen was closed, was the notion of the worth of
those to whom he had given life: they must ulti-
mately share in his blessedness. The strength of
this hope, embodied in a crass supematuraJism
indeed, was disclosed in the many apocalypses which
sprang up from 200 B.C. to 100 a.d. A special
development of this hope arose among the Phari-
sees as they looked forward to a restoration of the
theocracy (II Mace), or as they were influenced by
Greek philosophy (Wisdom).
The synoptic teaching deals with the Messianic
kingdom. For Jesus the central point of interest
certainly lay in this kingdom as essen-
3. Hew tially supernatural and essentially
Testament future. Just what was the precise
Teaching, relation between these two aspects in
his own consciousness is hard to as-
certain. He at any rate never surrendered him-
self to the enthusiastic extravagances of contem-
porary apocalyptic hope; he laid sovereign stress
on the ethical and spiritual principles of his king-
dom. His teaching concerning the kingdom
centers in the parusia, the resurrection, and the
judgment. In the parusia, in which naturally his
own resurrection is presuppa<<ed, his advent was to
be sudden and unexpected, although no one knew
the exact hour, not even the Son, but the Father
alone. At one time he appears to look for his
return shortly, again onl> after long delay. Then
follows the resurrection through which the right-
eous enter the Messianic kingdom. The resurrec-
tion of the wicked is given as a part of the teaching
of Jesus, but in only two passages (Luke xx. 27-40;
John V. 28, 29). The judgment is pictured now
according to the program of the Day of Yahweh
(see Day of the Lord) in the Old Testament (m
JuDOMENT, Divine), now as present and continuouf
the principle of it is the Ught one has received, la
one's^ humane or inhumane treatment of otbeis a
whom Christ is immanent. Eternal felicity and
communion with God are assiured to his foDoiw
in the future kingdom. Paul's doctrine of ti$
future, which bears many traces of his fonner
Pharisaic beliefs, with reminders of the Book of
Daniel (chap, vii.), centers in the second advent
of Christ (I Thess. iv. 1^-18; II Theas. i. 7, 8).
The Lord, accompanied by angeb in flaming powv,
shall make a glorious and terrible descent from
heaven, when the dead in Christ shall rise fiat,
the living be transformed, and all together be npt
into the air to meet the Ix>rd, ever thereafter to be
with him. The other New Testmment writen
share the apostle's expectation of the impendiog
advent. Later Paul appears to have experienced
a change of view both as to its outer and inner
character and as to the time of its occunence.
Before the advent, however, the apostle antidpated
three events. (1) The culmination of the power of
evil which should be disclosed and overthrown.
This included an apostasy, the unveiling of the
" man of sin," " the son of perdition," the "law-
less one '' (II Thess. ii. 3, 4, 8; cf. Satan or Bdiar,
II Ck>r. vi. 15, and Antichrist, I John ii. 18, 22),
and the removal of that which now hindered the
full development of the godless one— -either Elijah
or the existing Roman authority. (2) The Gentiki
and finally the Jews are to be converted (Rom. xL
13-27). (3) Believers must suffer violent perse-
cution. With the advent occurs the resuirectiot
of believers, of which the resurrection of Christ wu
the pledge; all will then be raised, or if only be-
lievers, then later perhaps the wicked also (eL
I Cor. XV. 23, 24). The Revelation decides for a
double resurrection (chap. xx. 4r-6). Conoeniing
the condition of the dead before the resunectkn,
we discern an earlier and a later view: according
to the first, beUevers were to be after death as if
asleep; according to the second, death ushered
them at once into a fuller communion with their
glorified Ix)rd. When Christ comes, his foUowwi
shall stand before liis judgment seat, the wicked be
destroyed, external nature already redeemed diall
be glorified, and he who was the Redeemer sunen-
der his Lordship to the Father, that God may be
all things in all men (II Cor. v. 10; II Thess. iL
7-10; Rom. viii. 19-22; I Cor. xv. 24-28).
Eschatological hopes have profoundly affected
the Christian Chureh in nearly all periods of her
history. As Schleiermacher pointed
4. Signifi- out, these hopes are a witness to the
cance of £s- principle of teleology implanted in the
chatology. nature of man; the influence of this
has been to bind men to an ultimately
spiritual interpretation of human life and of the
world as subordinate to it. Immanent in the Ghns*
tian hope itself is the indestructible pledge of its
complete realization. The Scriptures had tf^
phasized one point of greatest significance: tho
essential unity of the possession and the fulBknen^
of redemption. So far as the ethical content ^
redemption was progressively apprehended, th0
175
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bsohatoloffy
isity that it be ethically (historically) rather
tlian apocalyptically (magically) realized compelled
a new point of view for the whole subject. And
if now one still uses the apocalyptic phraseology
of the Scriptures, it will be permitted only when
one has replaced its external cosmological reference
m'tb an ethical and spiritual content. In no case
fiuiy form and content be identified. That this
principle has been violated, the history of the belief
Wifl show. In Christian belief, the chief eschato-
Iqgicai events are: the second coming, the resurrec-
tiOQ, and the final judgment.
The second coming has been conceived of under
two general forms: either a visible, glorious appear-
ing of Christ at a moment fixed in the
5. The divine purpose, or a silent, gradual
Second penetration of all social forces by his
Coming, spirit, to be either perpetual or con-
tinued until the consummation. There
will thus be such a disclosure of Christ as will render
the divinity of his kingdom unmistakable; this will
meet with either a completely sympathetic or partly
hostile reception. Preceding or associated with
the advent have been several distinctive features.
(1) The millennium (see Millennium, Millenari-
axism). The Chiliastic hopes of the early Chris-
tians, based on Rev. xx. 4-6, colored by Jewish
apocalyptic fancies, are rejected by the Alexandrian
Fathers. The millennium was ascribed by Augus-
tine to the church militant. At the Reformation
the earlier fancies were revived by the Anabaptists,
receiving a vehement condemnation in the Augs-
burg Confession (Art. xvii.). Of the dogmatists
who held that the second coming, general resurrec-
tion, last judgment, and end of the world would
occur at the same time, some placed the 1,000 years
and the binding of Satan at about 300-1300 a.d.
More recently Bengel has had many followers in a
refined form of the millennial idea. The pre- and
post-millennialists are distinguished according as
the advent is placed before or after the 1 ,000 years.
(2) The ** Antichrist " has received many inter-
pretations, having been identified in the early
church with Nero, among the Reformers with the
Papacy, later with successive forces of evil as op-
po^d to God, again with systems of belief or with
a social order subversive of the Church, or finally
with an embodied evil principle in conflict with the
Gospel. Here is without doubt an echo of the
Babylonian creation-stoiy of the conflict of Light
with Tiamat or chaos, the later Jewish thought of
Satan (q.v.), and the fierce struggle of the Jewish
religious people under Judas Maccabeus against
Antiochus Epiphanes (see Hasmgneans). (3) The
intermediate state. The teaching of the Roman
Catholic Church concerning this ijiciudes the doc-
trine of Purgatory and the Limbus of the Fathers.
Purgatory is for those who departing this life in
faith are liable to pimitive sufferings for venial sins
or for the vestiges of mortal sins and who must,
before their entrance into heaven, be purified —
to be the sooner effected by the suffrages (prayers
and good works) of the faithful, but principally by
the acceptable sacrifice of the altar (0>uncil of
Trent, sess. xxv.). This is not to be confused with
a continued or a second probation. The Limbus
of the Fathers was the abode of the Old Testament
saints to whom Christ after his death and before his
ascension appeared for their liberation when he took
them with himself in his ascent to heaven (Ps. xvi.
10; I Pet. iii. 19; see Descent of CJhrist into
Hell). This doctrine rests upon the Jewish notion
of the dead as in a condition of privation awaiting
the appearance of the Messiah to raise their bodies
from the ground and call their disembodied spirits
from the shades of the under-world, thus through
union of soul and body introducing the risen Israel
to a more than earthly prosperity and blessedness.
In the Protestant Church the doctrine of an inter-
mediate state has been either rejected or variously
conceived. The earlier Protestant writers held that
the righteous and the wicked went at once to a
place of happiness or misery — the souls of believers
being made perfect in holiness (cf. the Shorter
Catechism, Ques. 37; also W. G. T. Shedd, Dog-
matic Theology, ii. 353, iii. 453, New York, 1889);
on the other hand, those who die in their sins were
thought of as entering a region where they should
behold in God their " perfect and irreconcilable
enemy " (cf. J. Edwards, Works, vi. 123, New York,
1830). In their respective conditions both classes
remain until the second coming, all waiting for the
" Great Assize," at which the earthly deeds of the
wicked and possibly of the good shall be made
manifest and judged. Associated with the inter-
mediate state have been several doctrines, (a) The
sleep of souls (psychopannychy; cf. I Thcss. iv.
13-15; ICk)r.xv.6, 18, 20,51; Acts vii. 60, xiii. 36).
Between death and the second coming the con-
dition of the soul will be that of a dreamless sleep
(cf. R. Whately, Concerning a Future State, London,
1829). (b) A nucleus of the personality of the un-
saved is preserved during the middle state imtil the
judgment, when by a creative act God ^iU reunite
soul and body, after which they will be gradually
annihilated (cf. Edward White, lAfe in ChrUl,
London, 1875; see Annihilatignism). (c) The
soul being bodiless during the intermediate state
is in a condition of " involution,'* " progressive
development " (Martensen, Christian Dogmatics,
Edinburgh, 1865), " deepest retirement " (Van
Oosterzee, Christian Dogmatics, 2 parts. New York,
1872), " spiritual seclusion " (I. A. Domer, Sys-
tem of Christian Doctrine, 4 vols., Edinburgh,
1880 sqq). (d) In the intermediate state, to those
who have not in this hfe definitely rejected Christ —
the heathen and others to whom knowledge of
Christ was impossible — a probation will be open.
This is based on the absolute universaUty of the
Gospel, the indispensableness of faith in Christ as
historically revealed for salvation, an unvarying
unity of the moral order; finally, if universal sal-
vation is to be affirmed, the offer of grace must be
effectually continued in another world (see Pro-
bation, Future; and Uni verbalists).
According to Schleiermacher, since Christianity
is a historical religion and its progress is historically
conditioned, those who die without having been
reached by the divine call, will, in a future exist-
ence, become subjects of a divine influence which
will create for them the possibility of entering the
society of the redeemed.
EBohatoloffF
Espen
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
176
Most of the early Christians held to a resurrec-
tion of the same bodies that died — " the flesh,"
*' this flesh " — in every respect iden-
6. The Res- tical with the earthly body. Origen
urrection. sought to give the doctrine an ideal-
istic interpretation; others would
relieve it of its grosser features; while the Gnostics,
following the Greek conception of matter in relation
to spirit, denied the physical resurrection. The
early Protestant view was that the same body laid
down at death shall be raised, with the same form
as the earthly body and reunited to the soul, so as
to be glorious, powerful, spiritual, celestial — the
same body but of different quality. Two other
conceptions of the resurrection have been suggested.
One, that this occurs for each one at death when he
enters at once into another sphere of life; the other,
that it is a resurrection from the dead, that it
therefore stands for the ethical completion of life
in union with Christ, uninterrupted by death, and
after death carried to perfection. (See Heaven.)
In the early Church judgment was presented in
many forms. The Son or the Father was the judge.
Some souls — those, e.g., of martyrs —
7. The went at once to the felicity of heaven
Judgment. (Tertullian and Gregory Nazianzen);
the Gnostics affirmed this only of the
most spiritual persons. The judgment was to be
accompanied by alarming physical signs together
with a conflagration, in which the world shall be
destroyed. The punishment of hell was depicted
in bold and sensuous imagery — some regarding the
fire as material (Lactantius, De Spcctacidis).
Others conceived of punishment as a sense of sep-
aration from God. Restorationism was advocated
by Origen, but was overcome until long afterward,
the opposite view being general — the eternal dura-
tion of punishment. By the scholastics heaven was
divided into the firmament of the visible heaven,
the spiritual heaven as the abode of saints and
angels, and the intellectual heaven as the sphere
of the beatific vision. Hell w^as also partitioned
off: the place of devils and the damned; and the
various subterranean regions, as Purgatory, Limbus
Infantum, and Limbus Patrum. Here and there
a voice was heard in favor of Origen 's view, but
the prevailing doctrine was that of unrelieved
eternity of penalty for those dying in mortal sin
(cf. Dante's inscription over the gate of hell,
" Leave all hope, all who enter," Inferno, canto iii.,
V. 9). Origen 's conception woke to life again in
John Scot us Erigcna. In the sixteenth century the
question suggested by some of the Fathers (Justin,
Tatian), whether the soul was naturally mortal or
immortal, was once more raised in connection with
the doctrine of punislunent. Protestant writers,
especially those of mystical temperament, pictured
the joys of heaven and the pains of the lost with
elaborate and either glowing or harrowing par-
ticulars of time and place and inner experience,
addressed to the feverish imagination and appeal-
ing to hope or fear. In more recent times the entire
question of eschatology has entered upon a further
development. In addition to the doctrine of the
endless punishment of those who die impenitent,
there are offered two other solutions of this prob-
lem which take their rise in the Scriptures, having
already appeared in both ancient and modem
thought — universal restoration (see Uni versa uftb)
and conditional immortality (see Annihiutios.
ism). The theory of evolution has set all fonner
questions in a new light and demanded a recoo*
sideration of them in the light of its principle. Jo
addition to this, the doctrine of universal restoa-
tion grounds its hope on the absoluteness of Ckxi,
the indefeasible continuity of grace, and the m^
structible confidence that finally the better self in
every man will yield io the divine persuasion aod
God will succeed in his eternal purpose of redemp-
tion. Conditional immortality argues either from
an annihilating fiat of God at the judgment or from
the well-known biological law that fimction deter-
mines organism. Since already many living forms
which once flourished on the earth, ha\ing grad-
ually ceased to adapt themselves to their enviroo-
ment, have perished, the same fate will overtab
all souls who refuse response to the ethical aod
spiritual environment of li(^. Thus man is " im-
mortable " (S. D. McCoimell, EvoluHon of /rnsKf-
taliiy, New York, 1901). C. A. BBCKwrra.
Biblioorapht: The titles of the older literature, eorerisi
the non-ChristiaQ religions, are collected in E. Abbot'i
Literature of the Doctrine of a Future Life (appended to
W. PL Alger, Destiny of the Soul; Criticai HiaL of Ai
Doctrine of a Future Life, Boston, many editions, tjg^
1880, reprinted separately). New York, 1871. The resder
should consult the literature under the articles mentioned
in the text — e.g., ANNiHiLATioKiBii; Futube PmnsB-
ment; Hades; IiiiiORTAUtTT; Judgment; MiuxKinni,
Millenarxanism; Probation, FurtrRE. The Iit«»-
ture on the eschatology of non-Christian religions should
be sought under the articles on those faiths and under
Comparative Religion. The most important litertturs
on the Christian doctrine is mentioned in the text Con-
sult further: F. Richter, Die Lehre von den letMten Dinof^
2 vols., Breslau. 1843-44; S. Lee, Eeehatology, Boston,
1858; W. Fldrke, Die letzten Dinge, Rostock. 1866; &
Davidson, Doctrine of Ltut Thinoa Contained in Ae S. T»
London, 1882 (affirms that no consistent doctrine is tstight
in the N. T.); sections 151-154 of Domer's " System of
Christian Doctrine " is translated by N. Smjrth in Domtr
on the Future State, New York. 1883; H. Karsten. IHt
Letzten Dinge, Hamburg. 1885; C. E. Luthardt. Die Ldirt
von den letzten Dingen, Leipsic, 1885; F. Kliefoth, Chri^
liche Eschatologie, 1887; J. A. Spencer, Five Laet Thinift,
New York, 1887; J. M. Greene, The Ble—ed Dead, Boston,
1888; J. Fyfe, The Hereafter, Edinburgh. 1890; F. G.
Hibbard, Eschatology, New York, 1890 (deals with the
doctrine as set forth in the Book of Revelation); H. M.
Luckock, After Death, London, 1890: J. Strong, The Doc-
trine of a Future Life, New York, 1891; J. Cross, Comitig
Eschatological Events as Revealed in Holy Writ, London,
1893; K. Kohr, Die letzten Dinge, Basel, 1895; G. 8. Bar-
rett. The Intermediate State and the Last TAtn^t, London,
1896; S. D. F. Salmond, Christian Doctrine of Immortality,
Edinburgh, 1896; J. T. Beck, Die V oOendung des Reidue
Gottes, GQt^rsloh. 1897; R. H. C!harle». Critical Hist, of
the Doctrine of a Future Life, London. 1899 (for Jewish snd
early Christian eschatology); W. B. Brown, Frobiem of
Final Destiny, New York, 1900; M. V. Cochem, 7^ Four
Last Things, ib. 1900; J. Fiske, Life EverUuHng, Boston,
1901; G. Delanne, Evidences for a Future Life, New York,
1004; H. A. A. Kennedy, St Paul's Conceptions of the
Jxist Things, ib. 1904; C. A. Beckwith, Realises of Chris-
tian Theology, Boston, 1906; L. Elbe, Future Life in the
Light of Ancient and Modem Science, Chicago. 1906;
G, T. Fechncr, On Life after Death, ib. 1906; L. A. Muir-
head, The Eschatology of Jesus, London, 1906; S. Baring-
Gould, The Restitution of All ThtTigs, New York. 1907.
Be8iides these works, the reader may consult also the various
treatises on systematic theology, more or leas space bring
always devoted to the subject; the works on the history
of doctrine will giiide to the historical study of the topic'
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bsohatoloffy
Bapen
SCOBAR, MARINA DE: Spanish mystic; b.
Valladolid 1554; d. there July 9, 1633. She
3 a near relative of Antonio Escobar y Mendoza
T.), and a pupil and penitent of the Jesuit Ludo-
» da Ponte, who trained her in the spirit of his
der. She attained renown by her extraordinary
lomotion of prayer of the heart, by her wonderful
ikiDs, and as a refonner of the Spanish branch of
l£ Brigittines (see Brii>qet, Saint, of Sweden
x© THE Brigittine Order). Many Roman Catho-
t writers term her " Blessed " and ** Honorable,"
rhileAlban Stolz even calls her "Saint."
(O. ZSCKLERf.)
tnuoGEAPHT: The original Vita was by F. Cachupin, 2
tois.. Madrid, 1654-73. Lat. transl. by M. Hanoi, Ptague,
l«7^88. Cf. KL, iv. 890-891.
ESCOBAR Y MENDOZA, AITTONIO: Spanish
€Riit; b. at Valladolid 1589; d. there July 4, 1669.
le was a scion of a distinguished family of intense
liety, and was noteworthy for his asceticism and
lis energy as a preacher and priest. His literary
noductivity was enormous, his works filling eighty-
Jiree volumes. He began his literary career with
Ik epics San Ignacio de Loyola (Valladolid, 1613)
lod Historia de la Virgen Madre de Dios (1618),
xA the remainder of his writings are devoted
ather to exegesis or to moral theology. To the
[bnner category belong, among others, In Evan-
fikSancUyrum commentarii (6 vols., Lyons, 1642-'
1648); In Evangelia temporis commentarii (6 vols.,
1W7-48); Vetus ac Novum Testamentum litteralibus
liwonlibus commentariis iiluatratum (8 vols., 1652-
1687); and a number of commentaries on individual
boob of the Bible, among which special mention
Bay be made of his In Cantica commentariif sive de
UtruB DeiparoB elogiis (Lyons, 1669). The fame
rf Escobar is chiefly based, however, on his works
QQ moral theology, of which the Summida casuum
9menlifB (Pampeluna, 1627) is the shortest, the
Unimtd thealogioB moralis receptiores absque lite
wtoi/up (7 vols., Lyons, 1652-66) the longest, and
^ Liber theologias moralis viginti-quattuor Societa-
^JetudoctorUms reseratus (1664) the best known.
^ last-named work summarizes the contributions
rf Escobar's chief predecessors to probabilistic
CMuistry. A certain apparent laxity in ethics ex-
Pceed the author to many attacks, particularly
from Pascal in his Lettres provinciaLes, while the
K«nan Catholic world gradually formed an un-
favorable judgment of the work. The parlia-
■^ts of Paris, Rennes, and Rouen condenmed the
'^ to be burned, and modem Jesuits disavow the
•ork more or less completely.
(O. ZdCKLBRt)
WwoKAreT: A. and A. de Backer, BUAiothi^pie des
^vieom* de la oompaonie de JSnu, ii. 172-176, Bnmeb,
lffi3: J. Huber. Der Jeeuitenorden, pp. 282-315. Berlin,
1^; H. Hurter. Nomendator lUerariua, ii. 22SH231.
laubruck. 1883; KL, iv. 892.
ESDRAELON. See Jezreel.
ESDRAS: Books of Old Testament Apocr3rpaa.
r I (or III) Esdras, see Apocrypha, A, IV., 1;
II (or rV) Esdras, see Pseudepigrapha, Old
fTAiCENT, II., 7; for the pseudepigraphic V and
EMras, see Pbxudepigbapha, Old Testament,
&
IV.— 12
ESKIL: Archbishop of Lund; b. about 1102;
d. at Clairvaux Sept. 6, 1181 (or 1182). He stud-
ied at the cathedral school of Hildesheim, was ap-
pointed canon, and later head keeper, at the cathe-
dral in Lund, and in 1134 bishop of Roskilde.
There he allied himself with Peder Bodilsen, a
powerful lord, and succeeded in forcing King Erik
Emune to flee Zealand. The king mustered fresh
troops in Jutland, invaded Zealand, and forced the
allies to surrender. Eskil escaped with a fine, but
when, in 1137, he was elected archbishop of Lund
by popular vote, the king refused to sanction his
appointment, and the archbishopric remained va-
cant until the king's death (Sept. 18, 1137), when
Eskil was finally invested with the dignity. As
archbishop he took prominent part in the strife
for the throne, and on one occasion was compelled
to flee after breaking his oath of allegiance to one
of the contestants. In 1139 he convened at Lund
a provincial synod which was attended by bishops
from Sweden, Norway, and the Faroe Islands; and
during the following years he founded a Cistercian
monastery at Herisvad, Sweden (1143), and a
Benedictine cloister at Esrom (1144). After hav-
ing taken part in a crusade against the Wends he
visited his friend Bernard at Clairvaux (1162).
Upon his return he was met by Cardinal Nicholas
Breakspear (afterward Pope Adrian IV.), who had
brought the pallium for an archbishop of Sweden,
but as no archiepiscopal seat could be agreed upon
the pallium was left with Eskil. He held it until
1164, when he transferred it to the first archbishop
of Upsala. According to the pope's decision the
archbishops of Lund were to retain the primacy of
Sweden. In 1154, after the death of Bernard, Eskil
again traveled to Clairvaux, later visiting Rome.
On his way home he was imprisoned by some Ger-
man knights, and as Emperor Frederick I. refused
to intervene a rupture resulted between the em-
peror and the papal delegates. Eskil reached
Denmark in time for the coronation of Waldemar
I (1157). He took part in another crusade against
the Wends, but in 1159 lost favor with the king,
was forced to flee Denmark, and spent seven years
at Clairvaux, at length receiving the king's per-
mission to return to his archbishopric. In 1174
the pope refused him permission to retire to a mon-
astery, but in 1177 he renewed his petition with
success, and spent his last days at Clairvaux.
(F. NlELHENf.)
Bibuoobapht: Sources are: Saxo Grammaticuiv, liiet.
Daniea, book xiii.. ed. G. Waits in MOH, Script, xxix,
(1892), 43-161: J. Lan«ebek, Script, rer. Danicarum, con-
sult the Index, ix. 194-195. Copenhacen, 1772-1878.
Consult: H. Reuter, Ge»ekichie Alexander dee Dritten,
Lcipsic. 1860-64; C. F. W. I. Karup. Oe»<^iehU der kor
tholiaehen Kirdu in DAnemark, MOnster. 1863; KL, iv.
902-904.
ESKIMOS, MISSIONS TO THE. See Eoede,
Hans.
ESPEll, ZEGER BERHHARD VAH: One of
the canonists who endeavorwl to carry out the
principles of the episcopal system of the Roman
Catholic Church as developed in France and exer-
cised a great influence on the doctrine and practise
developed from that system in the Netherlanflu and
Germany; b. at Louvain July 9, 1546; d. at Amcm-
Essenes
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
17a
foort (12 m. e.n.e. of Utrecht) Oct. 2, 1728, He
Btudied theology and canon law at Loiivain, was
made a priest in 1673, doctor of law in 1675 and
professor of canon law in his native city. His lec-
tures! and elegantly written works soon made him
famous, and from all sides hie^ dccisiona on canon
law were demanded* His main work, Jus ecdesim-
ticum univerBum (Lou vain, 1700; Cologne, 1702), is
still a treasure for the canonists, although it was
put on the Index in 1704 because he defended the
Jansenists, E, SEHLiNa,
IJiBLioom.\p«Tf: Dy Pm d» Belleicarde* Vi* dw van Etptn,
Louvain, 1767; F. Laurent, Van Erpen, 3 parts, Bruaa^ls,
1S30-63; K£, iv. 904-^105.
ESS, KARL AJH) LEAHDER VAJf : Two Roman
Catholic Bible translators,
1. Karl van Ess was bom at Warburg (18 m.
s.e. of Piulcrborr^) Sept. 25, 1770; d, at Huysburg
(30 m, s.w, of Magdeburg) Oct, 22, 1824. Hia ed-
ucation was begun m the gymnasium of the Do-
minicans at Warburg, whence he went to the abbey
at Huysburg in 1788; he was made prieet in 1794,
and became prior of his abbey in ISOl. When the
abbey was closed in 1804, he became priest of the
town of Huysburg and acted as vicar-general for
Magdeburg, Halberstadt, and Helmstedt, He was
an orthodox Catholic, but at first was so liberal
in tendency that he included a number of Protest
tan I hymns in the Osnabrtick Hymnal. After the
fall of Napoleon aofl the rise of Prussia he became
pronouncedly ultramontane and, in a short ** His-
tory of Religion ^' pubUshed in 1817 on the occa-
sion of the celebration of the Reformation, crit^
iciaed sharply the Evangelical churches. His
literary activity includes his part in the translation
of the New Testament with hiacouwiu Leander, Kurze
GmchicMe der Abtei Huy&burg (Halberstadt, 1810),
Ke^echismus (1822), and the Kutz€ G&schicMe der
Religion referred to above, E. Nfjstlb.
EiBLiOGiiAFHir: F. C, Faider von Boiromieo. Qelmhri^n und
SchrifUiUiUr-Lejikon, I 202, Landahut. ISIT; ADB, vi.
377; KL, iv. 90S.
2. Johann Heinrfch, better known by his Bene-
dictine name Leander van EsSp was bom at War-
burg Feb. 15, 1772; d. at AfTolderbaeh (20 m. n.e.
of Heidelberg) Oct. 13, 1847. He was educated by
the Dominicans at Warburg; entered the Benedictine
abbey Marienmilnstor near Paderborn, 1790; was
made priest and pastor at Schw^alenberg, 1796,
He became preacher for the Catholic Church at
Marburg and professor in the university there in
1 8 1 2 ; an d retired in 1 822* He was deeply interested
in the dissemination of the Bible, and wrote many
pamphlets in which he advocated more frequent
use of the Scriptures by the laity. Wjth Ids cousin
Karl he pubhshtHl a German translation of the New
Testament (Brunswick, 1S07); alone he published
the Old Testament in German (part 1, Hubabach,
1822, part 2, 1S3G), and with his pupil Wetzer the
whole Bible in three parts (liS40). In 1821 he pre-
fixed u preface to a work on mixed marriages by
a Roman Cathohc priest and it was put on the
Index Dec, 17, 182i, and two days later the same
waa done with lus translation of the New Testa-
raent* though the latter received the commeiida-
lion of the Roman Catholic faculty at TQbingen
and of the vicar-general of Bnichaal. His edi&ii
of the Vul^te was published in three parts (182^
1824); and of the Sept uagint in 1824 (latefftedlf
E, N^tle,WJth Prolegomena and Epilegomena, 1887);
in his New Testament he combined the Compluti^
sian and Erasmian readings. In the copies circulitli '
by the BFBS, the prefaces have been remofii
Other writings are: PragmrOticadoelorum caikidicanm
Tridentini circa Vtdgatam decreti *en*w» Aulerji
(Sukbach, 1801); PragmatUeh-kriiiiche Gadddt
der Vulgala (Ttibingen, IS21); We*enkkrm ^'
chriiUichen Giaubtn^ und Leben^ (1823).
E, K]
niBUOoHApaT: F. C. Fddflr von Borroraiso, GtLArtn^
SchHfCtUner-Ltrtik&n, i. 203-204. La»dabui, l^ll; E. E. ;
8cribtt. Bioffrnphi9ch-4iitT&riKhem Lfxikon, L flH^
D&mLitfidt, l»3l; ADB, vL 377 eqq.; KL, iV. MB-tlt
ESSAYS AHD REVIEWS; The title of a boil
projected and edited by Henry Bristow WHnb
(q.v.) and published in London Mar, 24, ISKV
which occasioned a remarkable theological eookl'
versy. It included seven essays by as mtnj la^
thors: Ths Edu£fdion of tkt Worlds by Fredeitt
Temple; Bunsen*s Bibllc^ Rc^earchesj by Sow-
land Willtams; On the Study of the Evidmtm 4 ■
ChrwHanUy^ by Baden Powell; Sitmca Ai*^ ;
iquea de Genh^, The NatUmoi Churchy by Bmif
Bristow WUaon; On the Mosaic Cosmogmijff llf
Charier Wy cliff e Good^nn; Tendejicm &f Rdi§^
Thought in England, 1688-1750, by Mark Pattiiiii;
and On the Interpretation of Scripiure, by Bcnjiaii "I
Jow^ett, I
With the exception of Goodwin all the writer* iw ^
clergymen* and with the exception of Williams tflr^
Goodwin all were Oxford men- The book attra^ ^
U Itle attention until the apjjearance of an aagnynnw
review in the Westminsier Review for Oct., ISBIL
Under the title Neo-Chriitiami^ the writer (Ftei-
eric Harrison) assumed a jubilant tone and vd^
corned the essayists to the ranks of liberalion (Um
review is reprinted in Harrison's Creed of a La^
man, London, 1&07). The clergy now took
Samuel Wilberforce, bishop of Oxford ^ aft^
ing his clergy agamst the book in his iutnoi -
charge, took up the controversy in the Qu^rfir^
Review for Jan., 1861, He accused the mf&T^
of neology, rationalism, and skepticism, aad ^ ]
nounced them for their dishonesty in holding iuA
views and remaining in the Chureh. A petitioflrf
protest was presented to the archbishop of GaIrte^
buiy at Lambeth Mar, 13, 1S61, signed by IIXOW
clergy. Meanwhile, on Feb. 16 there had append
in the Time^ the so-called '' Episcopal Mamferto^*
in the fomi of a letter from the aTchbishop of Our
terbuiy in an^^wer fjo one of the numerous renofr
St ranees with wliieh the bishops had been be9i|ed;
to it were affixed the names of twenty-five biibfl|K
who joined the archbishop ** in exi>reHdng the pril
it has given them that any clerQrraan . , , ^im
have published such opinions,*' Both hoiuei rf
convocation expressed condemnation of the bookj ^
and Wilhnms and Wilson were summoned b«ij»
the court of archer, which pronounced final ded-
sion in Dec, 1862. WilUanus waa convicted d
denying the inspiration of Holy Scripture ^ flt
holding heretical views on propitiation and juitil-
X'W
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Ess
Bsaents
r
itkm, Wilson of denying the inspiration of Holy
Soipture and also of denying the eternity of future
pa^shment, and both were sentenced to suspen-
mm for one year, with payment of costs. Appeals
to the queen in council were heard June 19-26 be-
ffoR the judicial committee, which included Lord
CSfcanoellor Westbury, Lords Cranworth, Chelms-
ioni, and Kingsdown, the two archbishops, and the
Iwhop of London, each appellant pleading his case
in person. Lord Westbury finally delivered his
julgment Feb. 8. 1864. Restricting itself to the
■ledfic passages cited by the prosecution, the
eoart decided that the opinions expressed therein
%ere not inconsistent with the articles and formu-
laricB of the Church of England. Accordingly the
judgment of the court of arches was reversed; and
tfae appellants were granted the costs of the appeal.
Some of the points affirmed by the judgment were,
that it is not penal in a clergyman " to speak of
merit by transfer as a fiction," or " to deny the
proposition that every part of every book of Holy
ftripture was written under the inspiration of the
fldy Spirit and is the Word of God," or to express
(he h<^ ** that even the ultimate pardon of the
wkked, who are condemned in the day of judgment,
may be consistent with the will of Almighty God."
The decision naturally put a stop to a prosecution
that had been begun against Jowett in the vice-
chancellor's court at Oxford Feb. 20, 1863.
The annoimcement of the judgment started the
agitation afresh. On Feb. 24, 1864, at the instance
of E. B. Pusey, the so-called " Oxford Declaration
on Inspiration and Eternal Punishment " was pre-
pared and sent to every clergyman of the Estab-
lished Church in England, Wales, and Ireland, with
a letter adjuring him to sign it without delay. It
was addressed to the bishops and archbishops, and
in the course of a few weeks was signed by 11,000
dergymen. The two archbishops dissented from
the judgment of the privy council and each stated
his position in a pastoral letter. On Mar. 16, a
deputation waited on them at Lambeth Palace to
present an address signed, it was said, by 137,000
laymen, who desired to thank the primates for the
stand they had taken. The bishop of London
(Tait), who had concurred in the judgment, was
made the subject of many attacks. In June a
resolution offered by Wilberforce was carried in
the upper house of convocation by a vote of eight
to two (the bishops of London and Lincohi) synod-
icaily condenming the book " as containing teach-
ing contrary to the doctrine received by the United
Church of England and Ireland in common with
the whole Catholic Church of Christ." After a
stormy debate, in the course of which A. P. Stan-
ley and others urged strong arguments against the
measure, the lower house concurred in this resolu-
tion June 24 by a vote of thirty-nine to nineteen.
In July Lord Houghton brought this action of con-
vocation before the House of Lords. Lord Chan-
cellor Westbury pronounced it illegal, but not
worth noticing. " The judgment,^ he said, " is
simi^y a series of well-lubricated terms, a sentence
8o oily and saponaceous that no one could grasp
it "; from this characterization originated Wilber-
fixce'B nickname of " Soapy Sam " (see Wilber-
force, Samuel). The judgment of the judicial
committee, as a matter of course, became a part of
the law of England and was ultimately acquiesced
in. With the judgment in the Gorham Case (q.v.)
it has established the right of an English clergy-
man freely to express the opinions he honestly holds.
How little this charge of heresy affected their
ecclesiastical preferment is showTi by the positions
three of them subsequently held: Temple became
bishop of Exeter (1869), of London 1885, and then
archbishop of Canterbury (1896); Pattison rector
of Lincoln College, Oxford (1861), and Jowett,
master of Balliol( 1870).
Bibliography: The literature eduoed by the BMayt and
Reviewt is enormouB; a Kuide to it may be found in S. A.
Allibone, Critical Dictionary of EngliMh Literature, iii.
2771-72, Philadelphia. 1801. and many titles are col-
lected in the Britiah Mueeum CaUdogue under " Easays
and Reviews." Consult: II. B. Kennard, Euaye and
Review ; their Origin, Hietory, General Character, and
Significance, Per»ecution, Proaecution; the Judgment of
the Archee Court, Review of Judgment, London, 1863
(" an exposition, a history, and a defense "); H. B.
Wilson. Speech before the Judicial Committee of . , .
Privy Council, ib. 1863; and A. P. Stanley, in Edinburgh
Review, April. 1861.
ESSENES, es-sinz': One of the three Jewish sects
of the time of Christ. According to the testimony of
Philo and Josephus, the Elssenes, numbering about
4,000, lived in the time of Christ in Palestine, partly
in their own colonies by the Dead Sea, in the wil-
derness of Engedi (Pliny, v. 17), partly in cities
(Josephus, War, II. viii. 4). Excluded from the
temple in Jerusalem, the Essenes formed a com-
munity resembling that of a monastic order, en-
trance into which involved a double novitiate. An
applicant spent a year outside of the community,
during which its mode of life was rec-
The No- ommended to him. He was provided
vitiate, with a spade (symbol of work), an
apron (to be used at the ablutions),
and a white dress (the robe of the order). During
his second noyitiat« of two years the candidate was
admitted to the lustrations but not to the meals.
At the end of that period he was admitted to the
order. But before becoming a full member he had
to bind himself by a solemn oath (the last permitted
to him, since the E^ssenes rejected the use of the
oath elsewhere), in which he promised to honor
God, to exercise justice, to injure no one intention-
ally, to obey the superiors, and not to divulge any
of the secrets of the order. Children were also
received into the order to be educated for tiie
community. The superiors of the order had an
extended jurisdiction; without their command noth-
ing could be done. A court consisting of 100 mem-
bers judged offenses and could decree exclusion
from the order.
The members had everything in common, and
upon entering the order the candidate cast all his
possessions into the common treasury. The prin-
cipal but not the only industry was
The Order, agriculture. The mode of life was
Practise and very simple. Anointing the body with
Doctrines, oil was considered defilement. Sla-
very was not tolerated, the strictest
truthfulness was enjoined. Before the sun arose
the members never discussed secular matters.
Esther, Book of
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOO
ise
According to Joseph us they addreaaed their " an-
cient prayers to the sun, as if entreat mg him to
rise* " After prayers, work commeBccd, followed by
a meal for which they prepared by ablutions. After
the meal they returned to work and at evening
reassembled to partake of the e%*emng meal* They
observed the Sabbath strictly, rejected bloody
sacrifices, but ecnt their oblationB to the temple.
Of the religioua tenet s and teaching of the Esfienea
little is knoT^-n. They were no doubt Jews. The
law was highly estecimed, and was exfjounded on
the Sabbath and punctiliously observed. In this
respect the Easenes resembled the Pharisees. Ac-
cording to Jose[jhua they occupied themselves only
with the ethical side of philosophy* They be-
lieved in the immort^^dity of the eoul and in angels;
not to divulge the names of the angels was a part
of the oath taken by novices,
Essenlsm was an enigmatic phenomenon con-
cerning which views differ. The name appears in
different forms (EMaioi in Philo, EMmnoi in Jo-
isephus, Emeni in Pliny), and has been variously
interpreted. Some derive it from the Greek ho^im^
^* piou5 "j others from the Semitic Aos^e, pltiral ha^-
mn, ** pious,*'; and others from a^sat/a, **phyai-
ciana *'; Salma^iiia (according to Josephus, Ant.
XIII., XV. 3) derived it from the ctty of Essa, a
hyp<jthesLs adopted by Hilgenfelcl.
Theories As difficult as the explanation of the
of Its name ih the tpicsiion of the origin and
Origin and nature of Essenism. Some consider
Character* it a purely Jewish development.
Othera st^^ here extra- Jewish influ-
ences* Witliin tbese two views there is another
difference of opinion over the peculiarities in which
Essenism differs from Judaism and what influences
were at w^ork in its origin. There is no doubt as
to the relation of Elssenism to Pharisaism, Schilrer
(English cil*, IL, ii* 210) thinks that " Essenism is
, , . merely Pharisjiism in the superlative degree."
But this is not sufficient to explain the peculiarities.
Seholars like Rit*?chl would ex-plain all peculiarities
from the fact that the Essenea wishtd to be a
people of priests. Others^ like Bestmann and
Luciua, think that in the time of the M:iccabeee
the exclusive pious separattfi from the temple
at Jerusak*m and forme* l a community of their own.
For a time llilgenfeld considered the Essenea
Jewish mystics, then again he spoke of Persian
or even of BiKldhistie influences^ but in his later
works he retumetl to his earlier position, and de-
rived them from the original Rec habit es (q.v.).
Wliatever foreign influences were operativCp Bud-
dhistic were not among them, though Peraian may
have l>een* Tlie philosopher Zefler has endeavored
to prove that R^^penism has it^ pamllels in Pythng-
orism {Gtf^fh'tt'hit dvr Phtlomphk dcr Griechen, iii.
277 sqq., Leipsic, ISSI). Whether it is at all
necessary to n^^ume foreifti> influences depends
upon the an.^wer tti thetpicfction whether Joi^phus'
notes on the antlirotxilogy of the Essenes are
correct. Whereas I^lssenism as far as its tenets and
mode of life go may be explainetl from Judaism
and may be considt^red an effort akin to that of
Pharisaism completely to attain by isolation purity
of life, the Esaenic doctrine of man can be exphuned
only from foreign, roost probably PjrihapMsja,
influences* But then it can be aaaumed ttmt oihg
influences also, in which Essenism differs fmn
ordinary Judaism, came from the same sounm
Only scanty notices survive about the history of
Essenism. The first Esaene, Judas, m/mtiood ttj
name lived about the time of Anttgoatiii e. llOs-c,
(Josephui^ Ant. XII L^ ix*). In the timeof drid
the sect seems to have been strong, bat ^veij ss^
posed contact of Christ with it belonp tc the r^
of unfotmded hypotheses. When and hov E^
nism was taken up by Christianity and its aiihefntti
were received into the Christian Church m no(
known. It may be supposed that some ImntA tk
Church, though they still retained some dsitinctiit
peculiarilies. This is probably the kernel of irlai
Epiphanius tells of the Essenea and Sampasitd.
In the system of the Clementines Essenie ekmsM
are probably contained,
(G. UHiaoR3ft,|
BiBLioaHAFnT: The chief H>uroe« mr^t Pblki, (hed «*«i
probu9 f^f&eTj xiii-xiii*, Mft^gjex's ed.. iL 4ST"ISBr u>d
" Apology for thu Jew* " preserve by Eu«kiit5. Pr^-
patatio Bsanfftlioat viii. H, mad M&ti^y, ii. 63;2-€34;
Jowpbue, War. IhMH 2-13; AnL XIII., t.«, XV, ti
5* XVIILL 5 ( JD«e|>hu9 wiis in & pcMJtian to ciirr unmle
notioeft, Hinoe be li^red ntar Ihem); Ptiny* HitL luL t. 17.
Laler Utetatun on this Esaems ti ext«imv«, aad it b«t .
girpn in SchQrer, GtwekidiU, iL ^6-559, &ft«r vbiel] M- !
Jown Bcharer'B Suable tTVAtment of the ftubJKt, ppi
S59-5S4, EnE. tmnil. II., ii* 18S-2I8. Consult; Fraokd.
JQ Zeita^rifl i&r die neliffiimn /ii£?rFJ«nt dm JvdtntKwmt,
iii C1S4&>, 441-461: A. Rltwhl in Ti«)lo0udk Jakf-
b&cker^ xiv (1S56>, 315-356; A* Hileenfeld, JmHadu
Apotalyptik, pp. 243-286. JeD&, 1S57: idem, K^atrtt-
ArAidUe d& Ur^vittenthumi, pp. ST-140* Lelpae. 1884:
J. M; Joit. Gcft^idite iU» Jud^ntumM, j* 307-214. Lttpek,
1857; C* D, GicLsbure. The EatneM, LDtiduii. ISM: J.
Dpr«nbourc. HittoiT^ de In PaUMtim. pp. 166-175, 4X0-
462. Paris, 18117^ Oemfin** m ZfVT, sdi (1860). a3»-352;
H. B^vH ^Mt- of Itrwd, t. 370 sqa*, Laodoii. 1874:
J. B. LiRhlfcMjt, CommimUxr^ on Colot^an*, pp. S2-4I8.
34§-41&. ib, 1S75; H. J, Hestmann, GtMchiehtt dfr dtrid-
lichen Sitte, 1.308 aqq.. Nflrdlingen. ISSO; P* E, LuduA, !kr
Ettenitmu*. SCmstburg. ISSl; A. lillje* Baddkitm in Chria-
iendom. or Jr«ur the EMM^ne, London, ISST; Ohle. ia JPr, ziii
(lSS7).29S-344, 376-ae4. liv (JSS8>. 221-274 3H-32a
36^SS7; H, Grttetx* G^^ckichie der Judvn, jti. padsiin.
Uipjile, 1SS8; T. K. Chryne* Onmn of &^ PttJUr. pp.
418-421, 446-440, Ixindon, 1891; J. E. H. Tbompeon,
BookM Which Inflaenaed Our lArrd, pp. 75-122* 217-224.
Eclinburgh, 18»1: M. I. Wdnst^in, BmtrAgt atr GticMdUe
der Bma&fT, Vienna. 1892: M. Dniie, Lem E^rnienM. Moo-
t»ub&np 13^5: A. Regieffep Lo Sedr d« Em&nitm, Lyons.
1S0S; DCB, ii. l»e^208; DB, i. 7<l7-772; EB, ii. 1396-
1400; JK, V* 224-232*
ESTES, DAVID FOSTER; Baptifit; b, at Au-
burn, Me., Oct* 18, 1851 . He was graduated at the
University of Vennont in 1S71 and Newton Theo-
logieal Institution in 1874. and itudied in Gdt-
t in gen 1 878-7 9* He held paatdrates at Mane hester,
Vt., 1S74-76, Belfast, Me*, 1876-78, and Vei^nnes,
Vt., lSSO-83* He was then professor and acting
president of Atlanta Baptist College 1883-86, and
pastor at Holden, Maea*, 1886-91, Since 1S91 he
iias been proft«sor of New Testament interpreta-
tion in Colgate University, Hamilton, N. Y, He has
written History of Hdden, Mass. (Holdea, Mass.,
1S94): An Oailine of New Testament Thtolosy
(New York, 1900); and Notes on Greek Grammar
lUiistraicd from the New TestamsrU (Hamilton,
K* Y:, 1906),
II
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
BMenea
Esther, Book of
ESTHER, BOOK OF.
The Name (§ 1).
The Story (§ 2).
Qiaracter and Date (§ 3).
Hiotohcity (§ 4).
The F^tival. Its Name and Origin (§ 5).
Ethics of the Book (§ 6).
Its Canonidty (§ 7).
T\^ Book of Esther takes its name from that of
tb heroine, which b usually derived from the
Persian sUareh ("star"), but is prob-
i I. The ably the same as the Babylonian
I Itme. Ishtar. This identification is sup-
r ported by the evident derivation of
I tlie name of her protector Mordecai (Heb. Morde-
i ttay, Septuagint Mardochaios, " one who belongs
I to Uie god Marduk "). Though this name is
ntber strange for a Jew so true to his faith, anal-
ogies are not lacking (cf. A.*H. Sayce, * Higher
Wfewni' and the Monuments, p. 470,London, 1894),
The scene of action is the Persian court in Shu-
ifain in the time of Ahasuerus, i.e., Xerxes. The
narrative tells how the beautiful
2. The Jewess Hadassah, ** Myrtle/' came
Stoiy. to the court and under the name of
Esther was made the consort of the
Mag. In this position she was able to save her
people from threatened destruction. A favorite
of the long, Haman, having had a dispute with her
COQUi Mordecai because the latter would not bow
ten to him, induced the capricious king to fix a
kj by lot (Persian pQrf) on which the Jews
tinu^ut the kingdom were to be exterminated.
Erther induced the king to favor her people, Haman
118 executed, and Mordecai took his place in the
imnunent. A new edict of the king permitted
<b Jews to resist the attack, and thus the feared
tlirteenth of Adar became a day of victory and
<b fourteenth, in Shushan the fifteenth, a festive
(ky. The festival was called purim from the lots.
The institution of the celebration is traced to
Hndecai and Esther.
The narrative is harmonious and written with
dnmatic skill. Ch&^. ix. 20-28 records that
Mordecai reported the events in a letter addressed
io the Jews of all the provinces of the kingdom
with the request that they celebrate
3. Qiarac- in future fourteenth and fifteenth
tertnd Adar as festal days, giving presents
Date. to one another and alms to the poor.
In this institution of the Purim-
Mval its name is explained from the lots cast at
the beginning of the narrative (iv. 7). This section
va recapitulation of the preceding narrative, forming
A fitting Old of the roll appointed to be read on the
I\inxii-fe8tival. Verses 29-32 are no doubt dupli-
eites and were inserted later than v. 20-28. The
■ntcr drew from oral and probably also from
vzitten sources some time after the events, because
AbMBueruB and Mordecai belonged to the past (cf.
1 1-2, X. 1 sqq.). These passages refute the as-
fomption of Qement of Alexandria, and Ibn Ezra,
wtQD^y construing ix. 20, 32, that the book was
piitten by Mordecai; and the authorship is unde-
Cfmined. The time of composition can be fixed
oly approximately. Although the time of Arta-
; I. has been suggested, matter and Unguistic
character indicate the latest Persian or the Greek
period. The language is permeated by Aramaisms
and Persisms, and is otherwise in a state of decay.
The book must belong to the most recent part of
the canon. That the author wrote in Persian has
no warrant.
The historicity of the narrative has been stoutly
T^uestioned. It has been held that the book con-
tains a number of anachronisms and
4. Histo- misstatements of Persian customs.
ricity. Ahasuerus has been identified with
Xerxes; and from what is otherwise
known of the voluptuous habits and capricious
whims, of the sudden alternations between favor
and disfavor, and the passionate cruelty and the
adventurous pride of this despot, the identification
is justifiable. Oertain other facts, like the dreek
campaigns, tally well with the narrative in Esther.
On the other hand the account of Xerxes' marriage
after the Greek campaign, as recorded by Herodotus
(ix. 108 sqq.), is not in harmony with the story of
this book, father can not be identified with
Amestris, whose lofty position makes impossible
the no less distinguished dignity enjoyed by Esther
according to the Biblical narrative. The historic-
ity of the narrative is also opposed by the exist-
ence of a law according to which the king of the
Persians in his selection of a wife was restricted
to the (seven) noblest families of the Persians
(cf. Herodotus, iii. 84). The question then remains,
how far Herodotus is reliable. These narratives
were certainly orally transmitted with delight,
and moreover passed through a noteworthy literary
redaction. In this way inaccuracies and exaggera-
tions might easily creep in. Thus according to ii.
6-7 Esther and Mordecai had been deported with
Jehoiachin, whereas from their age they must have
been [remote] descendants of the prisoners of his
time; the statements in iii. 15, viii. 15 of the sym-
pathy of the inhabitants of Shushan for the Jews
are too strong to be true. But the substance of
the history neither stands nor falls with these
details. The main support of the narrative con-
sists obviously of the Purim-feast itself. Outside
of the Book of Esther, the feast is first mentioned
II Mace. XV. 36 as " The Day of Mordecai." On
its origin and celebration cf. also Josephus, Ant.
XI., vi. 13. The book is considered pure fiction
by such modem scholars as Zunz {ZDMG, xxvii.
684 sqq.) and E. Reuss (Geschichte des Alien Testii-
ments, pp. 581 sqq. Brunswick, 1892-94).
Since the word pur (*' lot "?), the Persian origin
of which has not been proved, points to a foreign
origin, some have endeavored to trace the Purim-
festival as well as the entire narrative to foreign
sources: Hitzig recalled the Neo- Arabic phUr,
'* New-year " and the Persian intercalary days
PurdeghQn ; he thought that the basis was in some
event which happened about New-
5. The Fes- year, not in the time of the Achae-
tival, Its menidse but under the rule of the Par-
Name and thian Arsacidse, from which language
Origin. pur, " lot," may come. Lagarde
thought that the Purim-feast is the
Persian festival in honor of the dead, Farwardigan,
which was celebrated with joy, the Greek name of
Esther. Book of
Ethioal Culture
THE NEW 8CHAFF-HERZ0G
IBS
which, phourdigan (used by Menander), coincides
partly with the Hebrew, the original of which was
purdaia instead of purim, appearing as a variant in
the Septuagint phaurdia. Since this is not satisfac-
tory, the reference to a Babylonian myth and festi-
val has found more favor. Zimmem would trace
a connection of the Purim-festival with the Baby-
lonian New-year's festival called Zagmuku or'
Akttu, and identified pur with the Assyrian puhru,
" totality," " assembly "; the meaning ** lots "
might be understood from the fact that at the
assembly of the gods at that festival the destinies
(lots) for the coming year were appointed. As
that festival was celebrated in honor of Marduk,
the name Mordecai indicated that the Hebrew
matter was derived from Babylonian sources.
This Jensen endeavored to prove more decisively
by the equations: Haman = Humba, Hiunban, the
head of the Elamitic pantheon; Esther x=r Ishtar;
the wife of Haman Zaras = Kirisa, wife of Humba;
Vashti = Mashti, a Babylonian goddess. The Baby-
lonian New-year myth, with which was blended
the memory of the overthrow of Elamitic over-
lordship, was then changed into a legend of the
subduing of the enemies of the Jews. Finally,
B. Meissner thought of the Sak&en-festival which
Berosus records, during which a slave, dressed in a
royal dress, for five days enjoyed high honors,
which suggests Esther vi. 7 sqq. This festival
was originally identical with the Babylonian New-
year's festival and was blended by the Persians
with that used among them (cf . the five Farwardigan
days). On this occasion Ishtar (Esther) came
prominently before Marduk (Mordecai). But in
none of these hypotheses do the date and duration
agree with those of the Jewish festival. Neither
the Persian nor the Babylonian New-year is in the
middle of the month of Adar. The word pur still
remains unexplained, and the identification with
the Assyrian puhru is doubtful. It is possible that
the Jews may have combined A^itli a foreign festival
the recollection of a national event; but the change
of a myth into a history so full of vigor is not credible.
All their p>ostexilic festivals are based up>on his-
torical events. On this account scholars like
Ewald and Winer admit a historical kernel of
the Esther-narrative, and are followed by Bertheau-
Ryssel, Riehm, Oettli, and Driver.
The ethical character of the book was also
attacked, earlier even than its credibility. Greatly
as it was esteemed by the Jews, whose national
consciousness was flattered by the contents, the
Christians became here more aware than in any other
canonical book of the contrast of Christianity and
particularistic Judaism. Luther with his usual
freedom expressed a very adverse opinion, Semler's
judgment was no less decisive, while De Wette,
Bleek, and Zunz call attention to the
6. Ethics spirit of pride and vengeance, and to
of the the lack of piety in the book. But
Book. these reproaches involve an unjust
estimate of the facts. The Jews of
the book can not be charged with irreligiousness
and impiety. Without the consciousness that
God alone could save them and their people from
danger, the fast by which Esther and the others
prepared themselves for their heroic deed hid
no meaning; without unlimited trust in the faitk'
fulness of the Lord, the heroic words of Mordeoi,
iv. 13-14, are inexplicable. The fact that the m
of specifically religious language and reference to
religious institutions is scanty is not a fault in a
book read at a joyous feast, especially when thoie
institutions were not important for the festivil
itself (cf. Riehm, TSK, 1862, pp.407 sqq.). The book
is a product of the time when ancient Israel vu
about to pass into narrow external Judaism, in-
tent more upon its self-preservation than upon
the fulfilment of its destiny. The character of the
events is purely national and recalls that of the
Maccabcan period, consequently the Purim-festinl
can not be equated with the great festivals of
Israel, which are more comprehensive.
The canonicity of the book was challenged by the
Jews, and the observance of the feast was objected
to by eighty-five elders, as recorded in the Jeruai-
lem Talmud. Among Christians the
7. Its Can- opposition was more lasting. In the
onicity. Greek Church during the first four
centuries it was counted by some
(e.g., by Athanasius) among the deuterocanonical
(Apocryphal) books of the Old Testament, but the
Latin Church gave it canonical authority. The
Septuagint placed it at the end of the historical
books, enlarged by many additions (see Apochtfhi,
A, IV, 2). Jerome placed these additions at the
end of his translation, as " Additions to Esther"
among the Apocrypha. C. von Obelu.
Bibliography: The best commentaries are those by A. W.
Streane. in Cambridoe Bible, Cunbridge. 1907; C. F. Kdi,
Leipsic 1870; G. Rawlinson, London, 1873; F. W.
Schults, Leipsic 1876; L. M. de Saey. Paris. 1882; K
Bertheau. Leipdc, 1887; S. Oettli, Ndrdlincen, 1889;
A. SchoU. WOrsburg. 1890; L. B. Paton, New York. 1U8.
The works on O. T. Introduction are to be oonsoltad.
There are able discussions in: DB, i. 772-776; EB, ii.
1400-07; JE, v. 232-241. Special subjeets or phaiH
are treated in: P. de Lasarde. Abhandlunoen der . . .
OfeUschaft der Wie^enichaften, Gdttingen. 1866; J. S.
Bloch. Helleniatiache BeetandteUe im bibHaehen Sekrifttm,
Breslau, 1877; A. H. Sayoe. Introduction to . . . EtOm,
London, 1885; B. Jacob, in ZATW, % (1890). 241 sqq.;
T. K, Cheyne, Foundert of O. T. Criticiam, pp. 350 sqq.,
London, 1893; C. H. Toy. in New World, vi (1807). 130-
145; S. Jampel. Daa Buck Eether auf aeine Gtsdikkakk'
keit, Frankfort, 1907.
On the Purim festival consult: P. de Lai^anfe. Purtai,
ein Bextmg tur Oeachiehte der Religion, Ctdttingen, 1887;
H. Zimmern. in ZATW, xi (1801). 157 sqq.; H. Gunkel.
Schopfuno und Chaoe, Gdttingen, 1805; P. Jensen, ic
ZA, X (1895). 339-340; B. Meissner. in ZDMO, 1 (1896).
296 sqq.; Nowack. Arch&ologie, ii. 194 sqq.
ESTHONIANS, CONVERSION OF THE. See Al-
bert OF Riga.
ETHELBERT (iETHELBERHT): King of Kent,
559 or 560-616. See Augustine, Saint, op Can-
terbury.
ETHELDREDA (.ffiXHELTHRYTH, AUDRET),
SAINT: Abbess of Ely; b. at Exning (16 m.
w. of Bury St. Edmunds), Sufifolk, 630 (T),
daughter of Anna, king of East An^a; d. at
Ely June 23, 679. Her father, disregarding her
wish to lead the life of a nun, married her in
652 to Tondbert, chieftain of a tribe living among
the fens of southern Cambridgeshire, and she
received the Isle of Ely as marriage portion from
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Esther, Book of
Ethical Culture
husband. After Tandbisrt's death (655) she
i m eeelud^ii at Ely UU 660, wheo for political
oos flha coaseDted to a marriage with Egfrid,
it son of Oswy of Northunibria, at that
I i boy of about fourteen. Bede s&ya that
uogh twice nmrried " she preserved the glory
perfeet vii^nity." When Egfrid came to the
Qoe (^1), be sought the aid of Wilfrid of York
I,) to induee her to take her proper place aa
«L, hut Wilfrid cho^ to treat the king's wish
iB)|Moys and a serious quarrel resulted. About
\ Etheldrecla received the veil from Wilfrid's
luja at the monaBtery of her auut, Ebba, at
tftoghftm. Her husband gave his eonsent, but
cf A jeaFt fearing that she was not secure from
ft, Etheldreda fled to Ely. There, helped by her
I friend Wilfrid, she founded a double monastery
d ipent the Temaioder of her life in the strictest
$dids:n. From her name, popularly corrupted
oSt. Aadrey, comes the word ** tawdiy/' used
characterize wares UJce those sold at St. Audrey *s
momAfWf: B«de. Ri§L ted, iv. 19, 20; W. Bright.
LkteKt on Em^ljf Engli^ CAurdb HiMtonft pp. 280-2S9,
hfanl. 1S07; DNB, xriii. 19-21,
EIHEKIDGK, JOHH WESLEY: English Meth-
k; b. on a farm^ four miles from Newport^ Isle
ffjght, Feb. 24, 1S04; d. at Camborne (50 m.
lir, o( Plymouth), Cornwall, May 24, 1866. He
i Klf-ediicated, began to preach in 1S26, and
DlimKd nearly all his life a circuit preacher,
mrtbeles his scholarship and learmog won him
idipee of Ph.D. from Heidelberg in 1S47, and
I btmd time to write books of value, the chief
ni*. Bora ArumaicGc, notes on the Aramaic dia-
Ell lod the Aramaic versions of Scripture with
SDslitioas of the Oo^d of Matthew and tiie
Ifetkto the Hebrews from the Pcshitto (London,
m); The Syrian Churdies, their Early History,
jSwfkM, md LUergture (1S46); The ApoatoHcal
\dt and EpUttim, from Urn PeihiUo, ete. (1849):
hvtikm and Tiberias . . . o Svn^ of the Edig-
wai wd Sihdcatic Learning of ihe Jews (1856);
T^ Tffi^^ums of Onkelos and Jrniaihan htm Uuui,
it CI?ok, 1862-65), He wrot« aldo biographies
^ Adam Ckrke and Thomas Coke.
^MtmAm: T, Scoitb, Mmnov vf John We»lfU Ethtndge^
l«i«il8n; DMB, fvili 45,
ItUCAL CULTURE. SOCIETUB FOR.
Oii|EiQ«id J3pre»d of Movement (f 1),
Aaeheui Soctetiea (| 2),
F<kn|[DSodet>e» (| 3).
Aim (I 4).
1^ ei\mal movement had its begimiinp with
tfetttaWiahmejit in 1876 of the New York Society
for Ethical Culture, The founder was
t Ongin Fehx Adler, who was at the time a
^ Spmd lecturer at Cornell Umversity. Un-
M Moft- able to identify himself with orthodox
mail Judaism, he felt the need of a move-
ment which should gather toj^etber the
Mmg number of the unchurched of all ereeds
deiMHntnations and unite them on the baKin of
ti endeavor. The key-notes of his inaii^^ral
^ were the appeal to those present to unfurl
r 0ag of peace aod conciliation over the bloody
battle-grounds where religions had fought in the
past; the urgent need of a stron^r morality to
grapple with moral i^erils of the hour, aud the duty
of earing for the weak snd oppressed and for the
moral education of the young. The motto of the
new movement was " deed rather than creed," and
it at once undertook practical educational and phil-
anthropic work» such as district nursing, aid to
crippled children, tenement' ho use reform, the estab-
lishment of a free kindergarten, etc. These ini-
tial undertakings liave expanded and multiplied,
although, in accordance with its gcnend pioneering
policy, the society Ims dropped such work as new
public bodies have been established t« promote,
Ita educational w*ork has been it« first care. The
free kindergarten has gradually expanded untO
the large school on Central Park West includes
elementary, secondary, and normal training de-
partments. During the first ten years of its life,
the movement spread by attracting to it four men,
who, after ecrt'mg their apprenticeship in New
York, went forth to establijih other societies. Wil-
liam M, Salter established a society in Chicago in
1882, S. Bums Weston one m Pliiladelphia in 1885,
Walter L. Sheldon a third in St. I^uis in 1886,
while St-anton C^it, after having founded the Neigh-
borhood Guild in New York (the first social settle-
ment in tills country), went to England and became
the successor of Moncure D. Conway of South Place
Cha|>el, London, and afterward the founder of
several ethietd societies in England and the recog-
nized head of tlie ethical movement there. Con-
temporaneously with the estjibliahment of the first
ethical society by Stanton Coit, there was estab-
lished in Engiaiid a London Etiiical Society, among
whose members were Bernard Bosanquet, Profes-
sors J. H. Muirliead, J. S. Mackenzie, G. F. Stout,
Mra, Sophie Bryant, and among other lecturers,
Pfof. Henry Sidgwick, LesUe Stephen, John Seeley,
and Edward Caird. Prof. Nathaniel Schmidt la
associate lecfcurer of the Chicago Ethical Society,
which also includes on its staff of lecturers Prof.
Charles Zueblin of tlie ITnivcrsity of CJiicago and
Mi^ Jane Ad dams of HuU House. In addition to
the four American societies named, there is a society
in Brooklyn, N. Y., and branches of the New York
society in the Bronx, Harlem, and Washington
Heights* The number of the actually enrolled
adherents is 2,057, to wliich the New York society
contributes over 1,100. Various scattered adher-
ents are attached to the movement as non-resident
members of the New York society.
The New York society which naturally tends to
become a type and model, is governed and adminis-
tered by a board of trustees numbering
3. American thirty and an advisory council of fifty.
Societies, In addition to its leader, Felix Adler,
it lias seven associate leaders, viz.,
John Lovcjoy Elliott, Percival Chubb, Ijeslie Willis
Sprague, Mrs. Anna Garlin Spencer, David Saville
Muzzey, and Henry Moskowitsi, and as especial
assistant Alfred W. Martin. Among the more im-
portant organizations are: the Sunday School, of
wliich John L. EUiott is the sur>erintendent. and a
system of supplementary ethical classes for yoimg
men, young women, and adults; the Women's Con-
Bthioal Oolture
Ethics
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOQ
184
ference, numbering about 300, which is largely
responsible for the philanthropies of the society,
including the District Nursing Section, the Sewing
Society, the Visiting Guild for Crippled Children,
the Society for the Study of Child Nature, the Young
Women's Union, and the Women's Evening Club;
and, finally, there is a Young Men's Union of over
200 members which owns and manages a country
home where fresh-air work is conducted, and con-
tributes largely to the Down-Town Ethical Society
and the Hudson Guild. Of these two settlements,
or neighborhood houses, on the lower East Side, and
in the Chelsea district on the West Side, the first
has organized well-graded classes for the ethical
education of the immigrant population; the other
is working for the democratic organization of the
neighborhood for purposes of self-help and self-
culture. Finally, the classes for adult instruction
aim to meet the needs of adolescents, young married
people, parents, and teachers. Normal instruction
in the methods of teaching ethics is also a distinctive
feature of this work.
The American societies are united in an American
Ethical Union, which holds annual conferences.
Up to the end of 1907 eleven such conventions had
been held. The Union is responsible for a Summer
School of Ethics, along the lines of that conducted
for some years at Plymouth, Mass. It is also taking
the initiative in the establishment of a National
Moral Instruction League.
In 1892, the first German Society for Ethical
Culture was founded in Berlin, the chief leaders
being Prof. F. von Gizycki and Prof.
3. Foreign Wilhelm Forster. Branches were
Societies, later formed in other German cities,
including Munich, Dresden, Danzig,
Freiburg, and in 1904 the Vienna Ethical Society
was formed. The movement also took root in
Switzerland, societies being formed in Lausanne un-
der Prof. Auguste Forcl and others and in Zurich
imder Prof. Frederick W. Forster. In France the
movement took somewhat different form. In 1891
the Union pour L' Action Morale was started; later
it became the Union pour la Vdrit^. Foremost
among those who have been active in the devel-
opment of the movement is Paul Desjardins.
Under the leadership of Prof. Levi -Morenos the
Circolo per la Cultura Ethico Sociale was estab-
lished in Venice in 1893, and societies later sprung
up elsewhere; but they have met such severe church
opposition that the movement remains in abey-
ance. Societies have also been started in Lahore,
India; Tokyo, Japan; Auckland, New Zealand, and
Johannesburg, Transvaal. It is in England that
ethical societies have multiplied most rapidly.
Twenty -eight societies are included in the Union of
Etliical Societies, which has its headquarters at
19 Buckingham Street, Strand, London. Among
these are many labor churches, which have a some-
what distinctive character. The Union has con-
ducted a School of Ethics and a Central Ethical
Library. It was instrumental in starting the Moral
Instruction League, whose aim is to introduce
systematic non-theological moral instruction into
all schools. Among the affiliated societies whieh
maintain an independent position are the Ethieil
Religion Society, conducted by Washington SulE-
van at Steinway Hall, London, and the Leioettar
Secular Society, of which F. J. Gould is the leader.
In 1896 the first international congress was held at
Zurich, when the International Ethical Union wai
founded. At the third congress held in Eisenach ia
1906, the headquarters of the movement wen
transferred to Berlin, imder the secretaiyship of
Gustav Spiller,
The aims of the Societies for Ethical Culture aii^
variously expressed, but the one thought that ii
common to them all is " the pnmacy
4. Aims, and independence of ethics." The
Basis of Union of the New Yotk.
society reads that the object of the society is that
of " increasing among men the knowledge, the love,
and the practise of the right "; the means to tkk
end being public meetings, the maintenance of 1
public platform for the enforcement of recogniied
standards of right, the development of newer and
higher conceptions of duty in the qmckening of thi
moral Ufe; systematic moral instruction of thi ,
young; the promotion of continued self-educatioa <
among adults; general educational reform, with \
stress on the formation of character; the eameii ^
encouragement of all practical efforts tending to
elevate social conditions. It is added that iJb»
supremacy of the moral end is implied as a truth;
and that, interpreting the word " religion " to men :
fervent devotion to the highest moral ends, iht
society is distinctly a religious body; while toward
religion as a confession of faith in things 8upe^
human, its attitude is neutral, neither acceptaim
nor denial of any theological doctrine disqualifyiag
for membership. The most inclusive statement
expressive of the general spirit of the movemeiit
is that of the International Union which reads:
*' The general aim of the Union is to assert thesU" ;
preme importance of the ethical factor in all the ^
relations of life, personal, social, national, and inte^ ^
natioual, apart from all theological and metir ,
physical considerations." Perctval Chubb.
Bibliography: The leading periodicals are: For AmericK
The IntemationoU Journal of Ethics (a quarterly): •»
Ethical AddreMCM and Ethical Record (a monthly). F<V
England; The Ethical World (a bimonthly), Moral J*'
struction BuUeiin (a monthly). For Germany: fftiicAi
Kultur (a bimonthly). For France: Librea EntnlkM.
For Austria: MW^ungen der Ofterreichischen EAiadt*
Oeaellschaft. For Switzerland: Ethiache Atuehau. "Oj
literature of the movement consiets principally of J***
lowing worka by the leaders: F. Adler, Creed ana Did,
New York. 1878: idem, Moral Inatruetion of ChiUm, fl».
1902; idem. EtaeniidU of Spirittudity, ib. 1905; i<i»»
Marriage and Divorce, ib. 1905; idem. The Aefitfi^n l|
Duly, ib. 1906: W. M. Salter. Ethical Religion, Bolt*
1889; W. L. Sheldon. An Ethical MoremerU, New YoA,
1896: idem, An Ethical Sunday ScJiool, ib. 1900: 8. Gait.
Neighborhood Guild; ib. 1892; idem. The MeMogeofUtM,
Boston, 1906; W. 11. W. Sullivan, Morality aa a Rdtgitm,
New York. 1899; D. S. Musiey, Sjnritual Herof, ib. IMi
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Ethical Culture
Ethics
yaetpl, Eneydopedie Po-
UKi Method.
I).
to Rttlicion (§ 2).
s and Ethics ({ 3).
3f Theolosical to Philo-
] Ethics (§ 4).
f Ethics (S 5).
8 that branch of philosophy which treats
ory and nature of moral obUgation, and
ermines the rules of right conduct, setting
moral relation of man to self and others,
ig to give a philosophical and practical
crimination between right and wrong.
^ Concept^ Encyclopedic Position, and
The term "ethics" is derived from the
Greek Hhoa (Sanskrit svadha, " self-
. determination "), which connotes in-
dividual peculiarity as well as the
customs of a person or a community.
HhoSf as the Ionic form of ethos^ shared
Lng with the latter, but gradually a dis-
vas evolved between the two forms,
ting rather external habits, ethos spiri-
ide, or character. According to Sextus
(" Against the Dogmaticians,'' i. 16)
* ethics " was first used by Xenocrates,
istotle was the pioneer in giving the term
innotation. Thenceforth the word was
used in Greek philosophy, especially by
Later it occms in the works of Me-
and his pupils, and then in Spinoza;
ecent times the term has been affected
by Evangelical theologians of the specu-
j. The term " morals " is derived from
fftos, which, related to moduSj denotes
h in the sense of " command ** and of '
Accordingly Cicero used the adjective
translate the Greek ethikos, and Chris-
ogical terminology adopted the phrase
(or theologia) moralis in the sense de-
^cero and Seneca. In Roman Catholic
he term " morals " remained by far the
>mary, but even in the older Protestant
' and theology it shared its honors with
" ethics." " Morals " was also a fa-
n with the rationalists and the followers
ilthough it is also employed by theolo-
ogether different schools. See Morautt
lLaw.
it to existence of a special Christian or
I ethics is justified only on the basis of a
recognition of the essential connection
1 between religion and morality. Denial
L of such a view is the result of an ex-
treme modem ethical empiricism, the
of which the societies for ethical cul-
led on the basis of non-religious morality,
irry out (see Ethical Culture, Socie-
However, a certain independence must
I to morality in its relations to religion;
consciousness is wrongly considered de-
i religion when all moral good is regarded
jolely because God commands it. It
ber be said that God can command only
tiiiifiically good, and what has its basis
ETHICS.
Method of Presentation
(8 6).
II. History.
The Early Church (( 1).
Scholastic Ethics (S 2).
Early Lutheran Ethics ($ 3).
Early Reformed Ethics (S 4).
Later Protestant Ethics (S 6).
Ill
Kant's School (( 6).
Sohleiermaoher (S 7).
Recent Manuals (S 8).
Roman Catholic Ethics
(8 9).
Ethics in England and America
(8 10).
New Testament Ethics.
in his own ethical being. In like manner, a certain
degree of independence of religion must be allowed
the moral life, since morality draws its material
in great part from the manifold relations of human
life, which result from the natural, moral, and
spiritual nature of the individual, as well as from
his relations to his fcUow men and to nature.
Nevertheless, theoretical and practical attempts
to establish a non-religious morality must be re-
jected. Here the source of the moral law is sought
in external experience, with the result that pleasure
is necessarily made the sole motive of conduct.
But, since each individual must decide for himself
the measure of his pleasure or pain, all objective
ethical norms vanish and the moral law loses its
essential characteristic of unconditional validity.
In opposition to Kant's exaggerated principle of
the independence of the moral law, it should be
said that the unconditioned basis of this moral law
can be found only in an unconditioned moral will
and a divine personality. The unconditional char-
acter of moral demands presupposes, however,
that the end of moral activity is unconditioned
and infinite, while only conditioned finite ends can
proceed from the natural relations of human life.
Consequently, if these ends are to be moral, they
must be subordinate to an unconditioned end,
which can be attained only when man rises in
religion above the finite to the supermundane.
It likewise follows that only religion gives the
necessary power in fullest measure for moral ac-
tivity, since to call forth this power there must
be a collaboration of the two factors which relig-
ion alone renders absolutely sure, the consciousness
of unconditioned moral obligation, and that relation
to the imconditioned supreme moral end which
transforms duty into personal inclination. More-
over, the desire for moral activity can exist only
if there is a belief in the divine government of the
world which establishes and maintains a harmony
between the natural conditions of human life and
the supreme moral end. These statements con-
cerning the dependence of morality on religion,
however, apply perfectly only to a religion in which
the all-powerful ruler of the world is at the same time
the sum total of all good, while the highest good is
a supernatural gift of God which binds man to
moral activity. Such a religion is Christianity
alone, which, as a perfectly moral religion in the
midst of a morally faulty world, can have pro-
ceeded only from a revelation of God.
In its position in the Encyclopedia of Christian
Theology, between the two chief divisions of theo-
retical and pra<jtical, ethics belongs not to the
latter, which lays down rules for ecclesiastical
practise, but to the former, which has as its aim
the scientific comprehension of Christianity as a
given quantity. Behind the changing external
Bthlos
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
IW
forms of Christianity there is a permanent and
definite content of truth; and it is to this ideal
side of Christianity that systematic
3. Dogmat- theology devotes itself, while historical
ics and theology concerns itself with the history
Ethics, of revelation and with the historical
development of the Christian Church.
Since the content of Christian truth is religious
and moral, the religious elements fall within the
scope of dogmatics, the moral within the domain
of ethics. Accordingly, it is incorrect to regard
dogmatics and ethics, the two components of sys-
tematic theology, as a section of historical theology.
Dogmatics and ethics should not, as Schleiermacher
assumed {Kurze DarsteUung des theologiachen Stu-
diumsy 2d ed., BerUn, 1830), merely present his-
torically the doctrines now prevailing in the
Church, but should establish as valid truth the
permanent religious and moral content of all his-
torical Christianity, especially on the basis of its
records of revelation.
The peculiar bond between dogmatics and ethics
must be judged by the relation in which the sub-
jects of the two departments, the reUgious and
moral elements of Christianity, stand to each other.
It becomes necessary, therefore, to avoid any such
sharp demarcation between the two as was carried
out especially by certain theologians of the school
of Kant, who regarded morality as founded simply
in man himself and as autonomous, and therefore
independent of religion. Christian morality, how-
ever, is absolutely ruled by belief in God, revealed
through Christ as holy love; and, on the other hand,
Christian belief is morally conditioned in that it is.
connected with repentance and centered on the
good and holy God. Consequently, not only are
dogmatics and ethics by no means independent
of each other, but they have much in conmion.
They must not, however, be confused, as has been
done by C. I. Nitzsch (System der chrUtlichen Lehre,
Bonn, 1829), E. Sartorius (Die Lehre von der heiligen
Liebe, Stuttgart, 1861), and others; for both de-
partments of theology have distinctive character-
istics, in that dogmatics must proceed from the
religious side of the Christian life (in other words,
from Christian faith) to God, revealed in his works
of salvation; while it is the province of ethics, con-
sidering the ethical side of the Christian life (i.e..
Christian morality), to set forth moral good, which
is realized in the form of human freedom.
Theological ethics is essentially different from
philosophical ethics in that it does not seek to fiur-
ther general human knowledge for the
4. Relation benefit of the whole race, but serves
of Theo- first and foremost the Christian
logical to Church. It investigates not human
Philosoph- moraUty as a whole, but the ideal
ical Ethics, content of truth in historical Christian-
ity; and it postulates not merely intel-
lectual capacity, but also the possession of Chris-
tian piety to comprehend the life which proceeds
from Christian faith. However, within certain
limits, the two systems of ethics must approach
each other, in proportion as theological ethics
becomes more scientific, and philosophical ethics
more morally earnest. Such points of contact
between theological and philoeopbicai ethics «i|,
justify the use of the latter by the former, althoq||kj
there must be an avoidance of any dependenee §t:
theological ethics on philosophical, such as i^^i
peared in early Christian theology in relatioD te \
the Platonic and especially to the Stoic philosoptfr
since it would be detrimental to Christian monli^
while there must be an equal effort to shun uf '
mechanical mixture, such as prevailed in the '
ology of the Middle Ages between AristoteliaQ sad
Christian ethics, since it would be subv^siTe cf
the unity of the moral life.
From this determination of the rdations of
theological ethics to the other departments 4
theology and to philosophical eCfaiv
5. Sources arise certain points of view decim
of Ethics, for the choice of its sources. It i
evident, from the close bond betwMi
historical and systematic theology, that the
tory of Christianity makes accessible
sources for the history of ethics. Out of the
history of Christianity, the history of the Cbunk^
is most important here, in that it extends to tib
present time; and, since the Church has
a collection of religious bodies divided by tfadti
creeds, ethics can not disregard these divenitMi'
of sect. It is true that the science need not
sider all divergencies, such as those between thli
Lutherans and the Reformed; but since the M9h[
ence between Roman Catholicism and Protal*;
tantism is a basal one even in the domain «fi
morals, ethics must here assume a confeBaooiC
character. It must employ the Protestant (
as the classical expression of Reformation
ciples, as also other Protestant ecclesiastical litMh]
ture; but the Bible, as the history of special diviK'
revelation, remains the chief source of all. Ur-
ology must consider exhaustively all the vanooi:
steps by which the component parts of the B3il
are connected, both historically and essentialtf , <
with the true revelation of salvation, and with it
cardinal point, the reconciling and redeenung
revelation of God as holy love in Jesus Ghxirt;
and it must also weigh the processes whereby thett
components, connected with the factors jvl:
mentioned, receive their divine origin. Thus thai
arises the need of critical investigation of the Mk
itself, as well as of all other portions of histoikil
Christianity, to discover the universally vtM
concepts of Christianity. The more importml^
then, does personal Christian consciousness beooM
as a source of ethics. It is, however, inconect to
regard this as the primary source, as does J. C. X.
von Hofmann (Theologische Ethik, NdrdUngBif
1878), for the objectivity of Christianity finds ia
the experience of the individual Christian oi^f
an expression which is circumscribed and obscund.
Nevertheless, this experience is important in tfal
critical search for Christian doctrine in the Wk,
since it facilitates the selection of the ,
religious and moral elements of the Bible, and,
renders possible their spiritual comprefaaiaoii..1
On the other hand, for those elements of theolo^ed I
ethics which it shares with its philosophical oouih i
terpart, it must, like the latter, avail itself di A
purely intellectual observation of the nature,
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Ethics
, and history of mankind, as well as of a
preparation for these observations by
f psychology, political economy, and
philosophy.
! matter of method the first question
es is, whether the presentation should
be dogmatic or descriptive. While
id the ethics of earlier Protestantism,
a- rationalism, and the philosophy of
Kant, like their contemporary super-
naturalism, set forth its subject in the
noral requirements — that is, in dogmatic
Schleiermacher declared that Christian
IS a description of that course of con-
ch arises from the domination of relig-
dousness as determined by Christianity.
lose who followed him in this descriptive
special mention may be made of J. C. K.
oann. This method has a sort of justifi-
opposed to a purely dogmatic treatment.
*T has somewhat of an Old Testament
d corresponds to the character of Roman
ethics, which is invariably inclined to
the moral life from the central root of
i dissolve it into a multitude of duties
Qy commanded. But the purely de-
method is inadequate; for the moral law
as Schleiermacher supposed, merely a
rm of the natural law, whose operations
escribed with absolute certainty, but is
y distinguished from it in that it does not
i mechanical necessity, but counts on the
of the human will. Since the normal
ent of the Christian life does not appear
r unimpaired in any Christian, normal
morality is, in part, simply a matter of
igation.
id, and not unimportant, methodological
i the arrangement of ethics (cf . J. Kdstlin,
79, p. 622). Formerly ethics was fre-
ivided into three parts: ethics (the theory
an morality), ascetical theology (general
rules), and casubtics (considerations of
I probtems of difficulty). Casuistics must,
be excluded as opposed to Evangelical
; while the Kantian division into pure
ied ethics results in empty abstractions
list part. Many theologians, including
P. C. Marheineke, C. Werner, J. P. Lange,
nip, have applied to Christian ethics
seller's division of philosophical ethics
e main categories based on the three
indples of moral good, virtue, and duty.
sne is, however, peculiarly unsuited for
ethics, since these three basal principles
le developed independently of each other
tian sense. To proceed from the concept
on, as does G. C. A. Harless, who makes
old division of the boon of salvation, the
I of salvation, and the assurance of sal-
inesponds in no wise to the character of
T does a division according to the different
luman activity harmonize with the essen-
e of Christian morality. It is equally in-
to make a distinction between internal and
la does Hofmann (similarly C. E. Luthardt,
who distinguishes the person, the intention, and
the works of the Christian); or as does KOstlin,
who makes the classification on the basis of (1) the
life of the inner man, and (2) his external activity.
F. H. R. Frank's division, which distinguishes the
development of the man of God as related to himself,
to the spiritual world, and to the natural world, is
influenced too one-sidedly by the concept of be-
coming. Far better is H. Weiss's division into
(1) premises or factors, (2) the process of formation
of Christian morality, and (3) the manifold phe-
nomena of Christian personality both* in the life
of virtue led by the individual and in the most
important relations of social life. The first two
divisions, however, are far more closely connected
with each other than with the third, so that it is
better to combine them into a first general division,
to which corresponds the second special division
with its two subdivisions of individual and social
Christian morality.
[Ethics is the science of conduct. As such it is
concerned with the ideal as it has been developed
through individual and social custom (see Con-
science, § 7). Its function is twofold; first to
ascertain the highest word on the nature of the goal
of human life; second, to indicate how this may be
reached. If the aummuin bonum is conceived as the
common good, then the end is social and the indi-
vidual is both means and end for its realization.
Ethics passes by imperceptible gradations into po-
litical science and sociology. In distinction from
esthetics, which deals with judgments of feeling,
ethics is concerned with judgments of ends realized
by the will. It depends upon psychology in its
analysis of the processes through which motives
are constituted and the freedom of the will dis-
closed, and upon metaphysics for a view of the
world in which the human ideal takes its place as a
constituent part of reality. Until recently the term
" moral philosophy " was used to characterize this
discipline in Great Britain and America. Of late,
however, the term " ethics " has rapidly gained
ground, and is now almost universally employed to
designate this subject. C. A. B.]
n. History: The history of ethics as a science
can here be sketched only in outline. In the the-
ology of the early Church ethics
X. The found no strictly systematic presen-
Early tation, while the fundamental views
Church, of ethics were frequently at variance
with the spirit of the Gospel. To-
gether with a morally debasing concept of belief
as the receiving of traditional teaching, the tend-
ency arose to enact external legal regulations for
the moral life which liad thus been robbed of its
religious basis. To make matters worse, this
legalism was sought only in an ascetic life which
renounced the world, so that a double morality,
a higher and a lower, was evolved. For the pres-
ervation of the moral laws, as well as of traditional
doctrine as a whole, a hierarchic organization,
united with external authority, was deemed neces-
sary, so that all Christianity was considered
essentially a new law. In the West this legalistic
tendency was imprinted on the Church under the
influence of the Roman spirit. This is first very
Bthios
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
las
characteriBtically shown in the numerous writings
of TertuUian, who had received a legal training,
and whose harsh nature drove him to an extreme
ethical rigor; while his views were developed by
Cyprian in the direction of a hierarchic ecclesias-
tical organization. A certain deepening of ethics
was then introduced by Augustine, who, in oppo-
sition to the superficial and atomistic concept of
morality as a whole, and of sin as well, based evexy-
thing in Christianity on the grace of God. From
the hierarchic Church with its outward signs he
distinguished the invisible communion of saints
as the Church to which the promises of God apply,
although he did this in a sense and context which
made it possible for him to hark back to popular
Catholicism. For him also faith was merely the
maintenance of the doctrine of revelation as true,
so that it became a groimd of righteousness in the
sight of God only when proved by hope through
love; while the essential work of grace was the
magic inflowing of this love, or vindication in the
sense of justification, whereby it became possible
for man to perform works of righteousness, to
follow the supererogatory counsels of monastic
asceticism, and thus to merit eternal blessedness.
These ethical views of Augustine were accepted by
ecclesiastical theology, and appear tolerably com-
plete, although slightly coarsened in the Moralia
of Gregory the Great. They were likewise of
fundamental importance for the ethics of scholastic
theology and the later Roman Catholic Church.
Since, however, it was necessary to prove that
Augustine's doctrine of absolute predestination,
together with the premises which led to his con-
clusions, could not be reconciled in the long run
with the monastic and hierarchic principles repre-
sented by Augustine himself and further developed
after him, these elements were interpreted in a
Semi-Pelagian sense. The tendency toward an
atomistic ethical point of view was favored, more-
over, by the establishment of the confessional,
which, after the seventh and eighth centuries,
called forth the rich literature of the penitentiaries
{Libri pamitentiales ; see Penitential Books),
together with a casuistic ethics. Among the few
systematic ethical treatises written during this
period, special mention should be made of those
of Alcuin {De virtutibus et vitiis and De animce
ratione).
The age of scholasticism, at its very beginning,
sent forth the first works on ethics as a separate
science under its own name — treatises
2. Scholas- which were philosophical rather than
tic Ethics, theological, such as the Philosophia
moralis of Hildebert of Tours and the
Ethica of Abelard. Of fundamental importance
for later scholastic ethics was the ethical portion
of Peter Lombard's great treatise on dogmatics,
the SententicB. The second book treats of freedom,
virtue, sin, the will, the seven deadly sins, and the
sin against the Holy Ghost; while the third book
includes the theological virtues; faith, love, hope,
the four cardinal virtues, the seven gifts of the
Holy Ghost, the ten commandments, and the dis-
tinction between the Law and the Gospel. Among
the many followers of Peter Lombard by far the
most important was Thomas Aquinas, who d^i
cussed ethics in systematic form in the
part of his Summa, treating of general ethiotf
problems in the first section, and of spedfict^;^
Christian morality in the second. The scbeme i,
the concepts and the basis of this system, a
one of its kind, is Aristotelian; the supentrai^
ture contains essentially the ethics of AugUBtiBiL
Thomas was opposed, in a sense, even in etlM% !
by Duns Scotus (Qu<B9t. iv. 49), who emphaflW
as the basis of morality not, like Thomas, the oq|*
nizable inner necessity of reason, but rather thi
divine and human freedom of the will in an »
tirely abstract sense. With scholastic ethics thi-
moral system of medieval mysticism stood, gei>
erally speaking, not in opposition, but in dn
kinship. Both centered in Augustine and wm
influenced by Neo-Platonic concepts, so that both j;
inclined toward a non-ethical concept of God; j
both served the Roman Catholic Church, except for-!]
certain thoroughly heretical divergencies; both wa» j
cultivated especially in the mendicant ordm"
They were even blended, as by Hugo of St. Victoi;-*
or were imited in the same individual, as in Heiiltf '
Eckhart, whose Latin writings reveal him ai t
scholastic, and his German as a mystic. EfM
where the representatives of mysticism laid aadi
scholastic dialectics, as did Johannes Tauler and
Thomas k Kempis, their mysticism was but tin
popular and edifying ampUfication of the thoqglit
which forms the climax of scholastidsm-tti
conception that the supreme end of man, wUck
leads beyond Christian beUef, Christian monlilgr,
and Christian knowledge, is that form of unioi
with God which is gained through emaneipstiaB
from the finite and negation of the ego. Onljia
the influence of mysticism on the religious ISkg
which it rendered internally and actively pious, wm
there any preparation for the Reformation in the
sphere of ethics.
Early Protestant ethics was dominated by the
principles of the Reformation, which regarded the
blessed conviction of justification bf
3. Early faith as the center of all ChiistiiB
Lutheran truth, the Scriptures as the propor
Ethics. norm of Christian doctrine, and the
communion of beUevers united by thi
Word of God and the Sacraments as the esscnw
of the Church. Accordingly, proceeding on the*
principles, which here stand in intimate connectk*
with each other, it sought to purify Christian ctWd
from the disturbing elements introduced by Rornn
Catholicism. Belief was now changed from u
acceptance of ecclesiastical doctrine to a penitedki
blessed trust in God, revealed as holy love in Christ
Thus faith became the centralized and morally
powerful source of all Christian life. At the aano
time, the Roman Catholic concept of a purely
magical foundation of Christian morality as kgp^
ism and justification by works was discaidei
Instead of an external command, the source d
ethical knowledge now became the ideal life as mA
forth in the Bible, adopted by the Christian con-
science, and modified according to the individual
At the same time the distinction between a hi|jhfll
and a lower morality, and especially the
19
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bthlos
ifcum of the monastic life, was rejected. Since,
Kveover, the ethical significance of secular toil
nd of the natural relations of human society was
tm recognized, their subjection to the visible
Such became a thing of the past. None of the
lefomiers, however, developed these views into a
xanprehensive S3r5tem, although Luther often used
heok in their basal generaUty and with strong stress
m their religious aspect. His Von der Freiheit
mm Christenmenschen (1520) contains important
fondamentals of ethics, while in the discussion of
Ae decalogue in his Catechism he makes naive
itatements on individual ethical matters.
A stronger and more specific interest in ethics
m shown by Melanchthon, not only in his great
voik on dogmatics, the Loci, but also in his uni-
itiatj lectures on Proverbs and in brief indi-
ndoal treatises on ethical subjects. Nevertheless,
ke gave a 53rstematic presentation only of philo-
nptueal ethics, discussing natural law as given
If God. His Epitome philosophic^ moralis (Stras-
terg, 1538) and EthiccB doctrince elemerUa (1550)
kog fomied the basis of instruction in ethics in
tiie Lutheran Church. Melanchthon 's school pro-
daeed the first treatise on Christian ethics in
Thomas Venatorius' De virtute Christiana libri
to (1529), which emphasized the moral power of
jvtification by faith. To the same school belong
IkEegula tnice of David Chytraeus (1555) and the
ESkieis doctrince Hbri qualtuor of P. von Eitzen
(IS72). both, strictly speaking, only exegeses of
tte decalogue. The transfer from Lutheran to Re-
ioimed ethics was made by the Enchiridion theo-
hfoim of the Dane Niels Hemmingsen (Leipsic,
1568), who was inclined toward Calvinism.
With this school of Melanchthon Reformed the-
ology shared a deep ethical interest, although it
was sharply opposed to that school in
4. Early regard to the problem of the freedom
Refomied of the human will because of its doc-
Ethics, trine of predestination. This com-
mimity of interest was shown even by
Ziingli, who developed his ethical views, espe-
caDy in his Commentarius de vera et falsa religione
(Zurich. 1525). Much distinguishes him from
CklTin in the sphere of ethics, such as his concept
of the (Jhurch as a community at once religious
ttd dvil, his national patriotism, and his joyously
knman tjrpe of piety. Nevertheless, Calvin prac-
ticilly coincides with Zwingli in ids general views
of ethics. Calvin's ethics is chiefly to be found in
the third book of his InstittUio rdigionis Chris-
tma (Basel, 1536), where he regards the Christian
life as divine service, or, more specifically, as a
■erifice in the Christian denial of self, dividing the
demonstration of the latter, on the basis of Titus
fl. 12. into three parts. This basal concept gives
Us ethics a certain ascetic appearance, while the
flODcept of love is thrust into the background.
The first fairly complete system of Christian ethics
that came from the Reformed Church was the
^tkica Christiana of Lambert Daneau (Geneva,
577). In his Systema ethicce (in Opera, Geneva,
514) another Reformed theologian, Bartholomseus
[eckermann, sought to give simply a philosophical
iiics. On the other hand, Amandus Polanus, in
his Syntagma theologia (Geneva, 1610), divided
systematic theology into dogmatics proper and
ethics; and Keckermann was more explicitly
assailed by the Medulla theologica (Amsterdam,
1623) of the Puritan William Ames, who declared
that there could be no ethics except what was
strictly theological. A mediating tendency was
shown by M. Amyraut, of the Academy of Saumur,
in his Morale chrestienne (6 vols., Saumur, 1652-
1660); but the majority of Reformed ethicists
followed Ames in their monotonous exegesis of the
decalogue, from which was developed even here
a casuistic system (cf. J. H. Alsted's Theologia
casuum, Hanau, 1621).
In post-Reformation theology orthodoxy soon
became supreme, laying stress on correct dogmatic
opinion rather than on a Uving faith
5. Later of moral eflBcacy. Ethics accordingly
I^testant declined sharply and was scarcely
Ethics, cultivated, except in the barren form
of ascetical theology. An independ-
ent scientific system of ethics in the Lutheran
Church was first revived by the Helmstadt theo-
logian Georg Calixtus, who, in his Epitome theo-
logia moralis (1634), described the Christian life
as the preservation of salvation which had been
won, thus bringing upon himself the charge of
orthodoxy that he had, in Roman Catholic fashion,
asserted that good works were necessary to sal-
vation. Cahxtus was followed by Dtirr, Theodor
Maier, Rixner, and Johann Andreas Schmidt,
while J. W. Baler's Compendium theologicB moralis
(Jena, 1698) was conducted more in the traditional
channels of orthodoxy. The ethics of the eight-
eenth century was dominated in great part by the
rationalism of the Enlightenment (q.v.); although
Pietism early gave a fresh impulse to ethics in its
practical aspect by laying stress upon the moral
fruitfulness of Christian belief. The influence of
this tendency on orthodox theology is seen in
J. F. Buddeus* InstUuiiones theologice moralis
(1711). Pietism, however, gave but a scanty
scientific contribution to ethics; and the offshoots
of the Pietistic movement led to unnatural dis-
tortions of the Christian life and to an intensifica-
tion of the claim of nature to the sphere of ethics.
The attempt was accordingly made to formulate
a purely human ethics from the philosophical side,
positing as the supreme moral requirement the
furtherance of the welfare of society (Hugo Gro-
tius, Pufendorf), or of perfection (Christian Wolf).
Gradually these tendencies found their way into
theology. In his Theologische Moral (1738) Sieg-
mund Baumgarten still retained a supernatural
point of view, but gave it a philosophical basis;
while in his comprehensive Sittenlehre der heiligen
Schnft (5 vols., Hehnst&dt, 1735-53) J. L. von
Mosheim earnestly sought to prove that Biblical
and Christian ethics correspond to reason and
nature. This interest in the reasonableness of
ethics soon became dominant in theology; while,
despite the endeavors of Biblically minded theo-
logians, such as C. A. Ousius (Moraltheologie,
Leipsic, 1772) and J. F. Reuss (Elementa theologicB
moralis, Tubingen, 1767), an ethical eudemonism
spread through German theology under the in-
Bthios
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
m
fluence of English deism and French materialism.
The representatives of this movement included
J. P. MiUer, Gottfried Less, and K. F. Bahrdt.
J. D. Michaelis followed a similar course in his
Morcd (3 parts, Gdttingen, 1792-1802), while
F. V. Reinhard defended a rationalistic super-
naturalism in his System der chriatlichen Moral
(5 vols., Sulzbach, 1788-1815).
A new trend in the history of ethics was intro-
duced by Immanuel Kant, among whose works
bearing upon this subject special
6. Kant's mention may be made of the Grand-
SchooL legung zur Metaphysik der Sitten
(Riga, 1785), Kritik der praktiachen
Vemunft (1788), and Metaphysische Anfangsgrunde
der Tugendlehre (Kdnigsberg, 1797). Through
Kant's energetic emphasis on the unconditional
necessity of the moral law, which transcended
all empiricism, the dominant eudemonism was
refuted, and a deeper knowledge of evil became
possible than had been within the capabilities of
the ethics of the Enlightenment. Kant was also
in the right in his view of the autonomy of the moral
law as opposed to external interpretations of moral
authority, even though they be based upon the
Bible; but the harshness with which he defended
his attitude destroyed the proper de^ndence of
ethics on religion and resulted in a legalistic rigor-
ism. Despite such faults, Kant's basal ethical
views were widely accepted in the theology of his
period, not only by rationalistic ethicists, but also
by such supcmaturalists as K. F. St&udlin and
J. H. Tieftrunk; although some, like J. F. Flatt
of Tubingen, modified them. Through anthro-
pological investigations, F. H. Jacobi and J. F.
Fries endeavored further to develop the Kantian
ethics, and they were followed by De Wette,
Baumgarten-Crusius, and L. A. K&hler. A dis-
tinct step in advance of Kant was marked by
J. G. Fichte's Sittenlehre (Jena, 1798), especially
in its demand for a desire of the good, and through
its establishment of ethics upon the behef in the
moral governance of the world. Still stronger
was the reaction against the subjectivity of the
period of the Enlightenment in favor of a recog-
nition of objectivity in the ethics of Schelling and
Hegel. The former, in his System des transcen-
dentalen Idecdismtis (Tubingen, 1800) and his
UrUersuckungen iiber das Wesen der menschlichen
Freiheit (1809), laid down the principle: "Become
a being, and cease to be merely a phenomenon."
He failed, however, to distinguish the ethical
domain from the province of law, and thus as-
cribed too much importance to the State. Still
more one-sided was the view of Hegel, expressed
in his Grundlinien der Philosophie des Rechts (Ber-
lin, 1833), since he discovered ethics, as the real-
ization of the rational processes of the world in
general, preeminently in the ordinances of natural
human society, but left the Church no secure
position. In opposition to such metaphysical
bases of ethics, Herbart, in his AUgemeine prak-
tische Philosophie (Gottingen, 1808) and Analy-
tische Beleuchtung des Nalurrechts und der Moral
(1836), sought to establish the science solely on
the facts of experience. According to him, ethics.
ridad^
rtM.
as a division of esthetics, is to posit the irimplatj
relations which, as being morally beautiful, eroll,
pleasure, but whose sources are not to be InTHll?.:
gated. Herein Herbart doubtless intended to mn^
nize both the unconditionality and the unity of thf
ethical, but the former quality was threatened hf\M
fundamentally esthetic point of view, and tbehtltf^
by the division into individual concepts of rdatei:
In consideration of these defects of philosophiBrf^
ethics, it was the more momentous that theoIi^Mi;
ethics won its independent impo^
7. Schleier- tance. The most powerful incenthi
macher. to this development was given If
Friedrich Schleiermacher, who, ■
his Monologen (Berlin, 1800), emphasized the if^
nificance of individuality, and in his Qrvndlmm
einer Kritik der bisherigen Sittenlehre (1803) Ud
stress on the concept of moral good. Begimiim
with 1819, he published a series of treatises of
ethical content, while after his death his phikh
sophical ethics was edited on the basis of hia 189*
tures (Beriin, 1835), followed by his ChriOUt
Sitte (1843). Although the first-named is diriiU
into the theory of the good, the theory of TirtH^
and the theory of duty, it disctisses only the fiol
part in detail. Here Schleiermacher, influenoed
by Spinoza and Schelling, considers the good y a
union of nature and reason; while the correspondiqg
acts are either organizing (employing nature y a
tool) or symbolizing (transforming all into a sjrmbbl
of reason). This antithesis, however, is croflid
by the classification of all activity into geoeni '
and individual, so that both activity and the ir ;
sultant good become fourfold. The theotogM
ethics of Schleiermacher is distinguished from Ml
philosophical system especially by the fact thil
it is based not on reason, but on the Christian eor
sciousness, since it seeks to describe activity ari*
sing from the domination of such consdouflMi^
and also explicitly considers sin. This attempt,
carried out with masterly skill, to permeate (hi
entire sphere of human activity with the prindplfli
of Christian ethics has exerted an influence \x
and wide. Among more recent theological ett
icists, Schleiermacher has been very closely followed
by K. A. Rtttenick in his Sittenlehre (Bertin, 1832),
which forms the second part of his CkruM$
Lehre fiir Konfirmanden, The influence of SchWa^
macher and Hegel is likewise manifest, despite the
supematuralistic spirit of the work, in the adminhk
Theologische Ethik of R. Rothe (3 vols., Wittoi-
berg, 1845-48), which seeks to transform matemd
nature into a spiritual personality from the point
of view of Christian conscience.
An attitude closely akin to the mediating the* ;
ology is represented by H. Martensen, in his Ckri^
lige Ethik (3 vols., Copenhagen, 1871-
8. Recent 1878), I. A. Domcr, in his Syttemif
Manuals, christlichen Sittenlehre (Berlin, 1885),
and J. K5stlin, in his ChrisUiche BOA
(Berlin, 1899). A more conservative and Biblieil
position appears in C. F. Schmid's ChritiSiidm
Sittenlehre (Stuttgart, 1861), C. Palmer's Moral
des Christentums (Stuttgart, 1864), J. T. Beds*!
Vorlesungen iiber christliche Ethik (3 vols., GQten*
loh, 1882-83), the third (ethical) part of M.
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bthlos
Wissenschaft der chrisUicken Lekre (Er-
883), and R. Ktibers ChrisUiche Ethik
Munich, 1896). Strictly Lutheran are
Hariees' ChrisUiche Ethik (Stuttgart,
h ed., 1893), A. Wuttke's Handbuch der
n SiUerOekre (2 vols., Berlin, 1862),
Vilmar's Theoloffische Moral (3 parts,
L, 1871), the second part of A. von Get-
Socialethik (2 vols., Erlangen, 1873-74;
S2); J. C. K. von Hofmann's Theologische
irdlingen, 1878), F. H. R. Frank's System
lichen Sitaichkeit (2 vols., Leipsic, 1884-
id C. E. Luthardt's Kompendium der theo-
Ethik (Leipsic, 1896). The Neo-Kant-
' A. Ritschl is represented, more or less
>y W. Bomemann's Unterricht im Chris-
!rdttingen, 1891), H, Schultz's Grundriss
Uischen Ethik (Gdttingen, 1891), W. Herr-
:thik (Tubingen, 1900), Theodor Haring's
es Ltben (Stuttgart, 1900), and J. Gott-
Eihik (Tabingen, 1907). J. Pfleiderer's
: der Glaybens- und Sittenlehre (3d ed.,
386) belongs to the school of liberal and
re theology.
the more recent philosophical ethicists
tm friendly to Christianity is represented
M. Chalybseus' System der spekiUcUiven
.rols., Leipsic, 1850), L H. Fichte's System
(2 vols., Leipsic, 1850-53), C. Sigwart's
I der Ethik (Freiburg, 1886), G. Class's
i Older (Leipsic, 1886), F. Harms's Ethik
1889), and A. Domer's Das menschliche
phihsophische Ethik (Berlin, 1895). The
of Kant is shown in A. Trendelenburg's
i auf dem Grande der Ethik (Leipsic,
. Lotze's GrundzOge der praktischen Phi-
[Leipsic, 1884), Theodor Lipps's -&^^i»c^
]en (Hamburg, 1899), and M. Wentscher's
vols., Leipsic, 1901-05). Herbart's point
8 represented by J. W. Nahlowsky's All-
yraktische Philosophie (Leipsic, 1871; 2d
>), T. Ziller's AUgemeine philosophische
jigensalza, 1880; 2d ed., 1886), H. Stein-
Uiffemeine Ethik (Berlin, 1885), and W.
}rundriss der Ethik (Osterwald, 1902).
dt, Ethik (Stuttgart, 1886), and F. Paul-
rm der Ethik (2 vols., Berlin, 1890), show
ence of Positivism and Utilitarianism
Jid also reflect the teachings of the theory
ion, as elaborated especially by Charles
and an ethical relativism conditioned by
ry and represented by H. Spencer's Data
\ (London, 1879) and Leslie Stephen's
»/ Ethics (1882). Under such influences
} been a wide-spread tendency, even in
thought, to trace ethical requirements
> conditions of culture, tradition, inher-
td utilitarian motives, and to regard them
' relative. This tendency is represented
bach's l/eber Spiritvulismus und Materia-
Ldpsic, 1866), E. Laas's Idealismus und
nus (3 parts, Berlin, 1879-84), and G.
cki's Grundzuge der Moral (Leipsic, 1883).
tmonism has found its antipodal pessimism
uenstadt's SiUliches Leben (Leipsic, 1866)
ron Hartmann's Phdnomenologie des sxtt-
lichen Beumsstseins (Berlin, 1878) and Ethische
Studien (Leipsic, 1898); while a degenerate off-
shoot of both tendencies is Friedrich Nietzsche's
ethics of the " superman " {Jenseits von Gut und
Bose, Leipsic, 1886), which overleaps all moral
bounds.
In post-Reformation Roman Catholic ethics
casuistics first bloomed again through the instru-
mentality of the Jesuits, who culti-
9. Roman vated ethics diligently that they
Catholic might utilize it for advice in cases of
Ethics, conscience. Among the most im-
portant ethical treatises of the Jes-
uits special mention should be made of the works
of F. Toletus, Thomas Sanchez, Antonio de Esco-
bar, Busenbaum, Alfonso Liguori, and J. P.
Gury. Their ethics seeks to render itself indis-
pensable through its subtly developed casuistry,
and to become popular by its extreme adaptation
to human weaknesses. The latter end is served
by the well-known Jesuit doctrines of probabilism,
intention and mental reservation. This elasticity
of Jesuit ethics, together with its Pelagianizing
tendency, was assailed within the Roman Catholic
Church especially by Jansenism, as represented in
Pascal's Pens^essur la religion (Paris, 1670) and Ques-
nel's Reflexions morales (1687). The Jansenists re-
garded the love of God, evoked by the operation
of divine grace, as the one root of moral action,
but they were led into gloomy mysticism and ascet-
icism by their faulty comprehension of the Pauline
doctrine of justification by faith. Still more
visionary and passive was the ascetic mysticism
of quietism, set forth by the Spaniard M. de Mo-
linos (q.v.) in his Guida spiriiuale (Rome, 1675) and
modified by F^nelon, but attacked in both forms
by the Jesuits.
With the end of the eighteenth century Roman
Catholic ethics also came under the influence of
philosophy. The Jesuit B. Stattler, in his VoU-
stdndige christliche Sittenlehre (2 vols., Augsburg,
1791), adopted the philosophical method of C.
Wolff; while his pupil, S. Mutschelle, in his Moral-
theologie (2 parts, Munich, 1801-03), followed Kant,
as did F. G. Wanker, G. Hermes, and others. On
the other hand, M. Sailer, in his Handbuch der
christlichen Moral (Munich, 1818), set forth a
Pietistic mystic eudemonism, a similar tendency
being shown in J. B. von Hirscher's more scientific
Christliche Moral (5th ed., Tiibingen, 1851).
Some traces of Schleiermacher's influence are dis-
cernible in H. Klee's System der katholischen Moral
(Mainz, 1847), K. Martin's Lehrbuch der katho-
lischen Moral (Mainz, 1850), and C. Werner's
System der christlichen Ethik (Regensburg, 1860);
while a more traditional character is maintained
in the ethical manuals of H. T. Simar (Freiburg,
1877), F X. Linsenmann (1879), J. Schwane
(1878-85), and Rappenh6ner (1889).
F. SiBPPERT.
[English ethics dates from Francis Bacon (q.v.),
who by an empirical method presented the good as
the useful. To Thomas Hobbes (d. 1679) the
summum bonum was self-preservation. In the natu-
ral condition every man's hand was against his
neighbor; the state is therefore necessary. The
Ethics
THE NEW SCHAFF HERZOG
U
two factors of his ethics were egoistic hedonism
and absolute social authority. Since Hobbes eth-
ical thought has taken several direc-
10, Ethics tions. (1) Intuitionalism, of which
in England there is an earlier and a later school.
and According to the Cambridge Platon-
America. ists, Ralph Cudworth (q.v.; Eternal
and Immutable Morality , London,
1731), Henry More (q.v.; Enchiridion Ethicum^
2 parts, London, 1667), and Samuel Clarke (q.v.;
Being and Attributes of God, 2 vols., London, 1704),
the intuitional philosophy was applied to ethics
(see Cambridge Platonists). Good and evil are
referred to eternal moral ideas a priori. This type
of thought was followed by Richard Price (d. 1791;
Review of the Principal Questions of Morals, London,
1758), by Thomas Reid (q.v.; Essays on the Active
Powers of the Human Mind, Edinburgh, 1788), by
Dugald Stewart (q.v.; Philosophy of the Active and
Moral Powers of Man, 1828), and by William
Whewell (q.v.; Elements of Morality , London, 1846).
To these must be added Henry Calderwood (q.v.;
Handbook of Moral Philosophy, London, 1888) and
James Martineau (q.v.; Types of Ethical Theory,
Oxford, 1885). (2) Utilitarianism or hedonism, de-
riving from Bacon and Hobbes, does not flow in
a straight course, but in general to it belongs John
Locke (see Deism) , who held tliat happiness was the
ultimate motive of moral action. His great con-
tribution to ethics was his doctrine on power (Essay
concerning Human Understanding, book II., chap,
xxi., London, 1690) which profoundly influenced
Jonathan Edwards (q.v.) in his discussion of the will
(A Carefxd and Strici Enquiry into . . . Freedom of
the Will, Boston, 1754). David Hume (q.v.) in his
Inquiry into the Principles of Morals (London, 1751)
and Adam Smith (d. 1770) in his Theory of Moral
Sentiments (London, 1759) resolve the motives to
moral action into either utility or pleasure, and find
in sympathy the ultimate quality of the moral sen-
timents. Closely allied with this movement was
David Hartley (d. 1757; Observations on Man,
London, 1749), who by a physiological and psycho-
logical method explained the ethical consciousness
by the association of ideas, and showed how from
the pleasures and pains of sensation are derived
the higher pleasures and pains of imagination, am-
bition, self-interest, sympathy, theopathy, and, fi-
nally, the moral sense. Somewhere between the in-
tuitionalists and the utilitarians must be placed
Bishop Joseph Butler (q.v.), who in his Sermons on
Human Nature alleges three principles of action:
self-love; benevolence; and conscience, which adju-
dicates between the claims of the other two. Later
echoes of this teaching are heard in America in
Nathaniel William Taylor's (q.v.) doctrine of self-
love, in Noah Porter (q.v.; Elements of Moral
Science, New York, 1885), Mark Hopkins (q.v.;
The Law of Love and Love as Law, New York, 1869),
and James Henry Fairchild {Moral Philosophy,
Oberlin, 1869). The more modern advocates of
thoroughgoing utilitarianism are William Paley
(q.v.; Principles of Moral and Political Philosophy,
London, 1785), who derived obligation from the
command of another to which one is urged by a
violent motive; Jeremy Bentham (d. 1832; Prin-
ciples of Morals and LegiskUian, London, 1789), «1
holds the summum bonum to be the greatest goodi
the greatest number, and John Stuart Mill (d. 1871
Utilitarianism, London, 1861), who makes the M
to be the greatest amount of happiness altogetbl
According to Bentham, the sanctions of moraUtja^
physical, political, social, religious; accordiog t$
Mill, they are external or internal. Other writeatf
this school are Henry Sidgwick (Methods of EXkit^\
London, 1890) and A. Bain (Moral Science, *"
York, 1869). (3) Eyolutionary Ethics— a fofm
hedonism — aflirms in general that society ii t
veloping social organism, the end of which is
ing to Herbert Spencer (Data of Ethics, L
1879) happiness, according to Leslie Steplnvi
(Science of Ethics, London, 1882) health or efficieoii^l
according to Samuel Alexander (Moral Order mt.
Progress, London, 1889) equilibrium. Progrwii'j
determined by continuous adjustment of iutemtltl^
external relations (Spencer) or by conflict of idflb^
(Alexander). (4) Idealistic Ethics relates cooM^
to a rational ideal from the point of view of Ikl
source, evolution, sanctions, and principles of setiokJ^
The rational ideal is that of a moral self in midL-
union with other selves in a kingdom of penoHl-
ends. Representatives of this view in Great BriUl^
are Thomas Hill Green (Prolegomena to Etkic$, Qa^^
ford, 1883), Edward Caird (Critical PhiUmji^ ^
Kant, London, 1877), Francis Herbert Bndh^^
(Ethical Studies, London, ^76), John Henry Mrif^
head (Elements of Ethics, New York, 1892), WiOas-'
Ritchie Sorley (Ethics of Naturalism, LondcH!, Ittfl^.
John Stewart Mackenzie (Manual of Ethics, Noir
York, 1901); and in America George TnunM
Ladd (Philosophy of Conduct, New York, 1909^:
George Herbert Palmer (Field of Ethics, BoiAm^
1901; and Nature of Goodness, ib. 1903), J. Bafm
(Philosophy of Loyalty, New York, 1908), and A K.
Taylor (Problem of Conduct, London, 1901). (9
Teleological Ethics — ^a combination of hedonitit
and idealistic ethics in which the will to live the 111
which belongs to man is the summum bommr-k
advocated by Frederick Thilly (Introduction to Af;
Study of Ethics, New York, 1900) in reliance upoi
Fried rich Paulsen' a System of Ethics (New York, 18N^
Eng. transl. of System der Ethik) . Allied with thiib
William James's Will to Believe (New York, 18W)'
resting upon the premises of pragmatism. (6) ii
distinguished from Germany, in Great Britain uk ^
America Christian as compared with philosopUal
ethics has received less attention. The subject ktf
been treated under the title Christian Etkia If
Thomas Banks Strong in the Bampton Lectures fit
1895 (London, 1896), by Newman Smyth (Ifctj
York, 1896), and by William Leslie Davidson (Lflfr
don, 1899). C. A R] ;
ni. New Testament Ethics: There is no qnUB >
of ethics in the New Testament, not even a «► '
scious suggestio of the need for system. Tbe dBi^•
est evidence of this is given in the lack ci unilf
in Rom. xii.-xv., the most considerable body ft
ethical teaching found in the New Testament ddp
side the Gospels. But the conscious need of syiUA
belongs to the speculative individual, detached ii
some degree both from religious emotion and frofl
corporate obligation; and while there is wft^^tig g
&«8
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bthlos
b New Testament reeembling the Greek systems
lithics, there is none the less a unity in New Tes-
nt ethics which lies deeper than the unities of
SiflBCtion, due to a creative age which was flushed
y/iijih religious feeling and moral passion.
New Testament ethics, the standard and mold
«( Christian ethics, is religious to an even greater
ihgroe than the ethics of the Old Testament. For
IIb Wisdom literature is in some places deeply
Ifaged with Hellenism; but the Wisdom mood is
wtably lacking in the New Testament literature,
tie apocalyptic and prophetic mood being in com-
ijete control. Yet the controlling element of Bib-
mi ethics as a whole is the fact and experience of
finne revelation. The power and wisdom and
(podness of God invade human consciousness, save
mtn from all his doubts and fears, determine the
<&reetion and aim of moral passion. The mono-
theism of the prophet is ethical monotheism. It
Rveals and defines itself in distinction from Levit-
ieal ethics. The essence of Levitical ethics is a
foBOQ of ritual and custom and fixed convention.
In its results it gave an appearance of finality to
fdse or imperfect standards of moral value. Against
tliB view prophetism set itself in moral opposition
(ba. Iviii. 3-7; Micah vi. 1-8). The pith of ex-
perience is the self-revelation of the divine unity
within human consciousness and in history. It
CQq>re8Bes itself in an increasing emphasis on char-
aet». While, therefore. Biblical ethics is neoes-
mntf a religious ethics, it casts itself in the mold
of a supreme moral purpose. Moreover, the personal
and the corporate elements of ethics are inseparable
10 that the experience of the divine unity draws
after it a solid confidence in the ultimate triumph
ofbraeL
The prophetism of the New Testament is also
m debt to Judaism. The unit of thought and feel-
ing in Hebrew prophetism was the nation (Ezek.
&xviL,tbe resurrection of the nation). Judaism
in a measure shifted the center of gravity. In the
Wisdom literature the mood and mind of the in-
<lividuai seek expression. In the Psalter the indi-
vidual finds satisfaction and relief in lyrical poetry.
In Phariseeism the belief in individual immortality
liecame a working motive. But along with these
guns went a serious loss. Levitical ethics reas-
*rted itself. Insistence on rigid religious con-
fonnity became the order of the day. And the
pride of orthodoxy joined forces with it in order to
cbab the moral genius of Hebrew prophetism to the
ch&riot of legalism and extemalism. John the
^Aptist ushered in the revival of prophetism (Matt.
^ 7-11). He put himself in moral opposition to
^ Levitical ethics of Judaism (Matt. iii. 7-10;
Luke iiL 7 sqq.). Christ continued and completed
John's work. He took up into his mind and plan
|1k gains of Judaism, but transcended its spirit and
^ range. The community founded by him was
* prophetic conmiimity (Acts ii. 14 sqq.; Joel ii.
2^). It was distinguished by intense corporate
consciousness {addphos, addphoi, in N. T. outside
the Crospels 251 times; hapania koina, Acts ii. 44,
i^- 32). Hence it was also distinguished by an
unpassioned eschatolpgy. Thought and feeling set
with tidal force toward the triumph of Christ's com-
IV.— 13
munity (paroima). Emotion, wherever found on
its high levels, manifests itself in ecstatic visions of
the impending kingdom of God (I Cor. ii. 9 sqq.;
Speaking with Tongues, Acts ii. 4 sqq.). It is a
help to clear thinking to contrast the beginnings
and the genesis of New Testament ethics with the
development of philosophic ethics in Greece. The
work and the position of Aristotle is typical. He
was never a citizen of Athens. This typifies the
fact that the systematic moralizing of the Greeks
does not appear until the state (polU) is in process
of decay. Hence Aristotle has a marked tendency
toward reflective individualism, toward detachment
from corporate interests and ends (cf. his discussion
of Friendship in the Nicomachean Ethics; also his
definition of God, in terms of the speculative reason,
as " thinking on thinking," Metaphysics, xii. 9).
Christian prophetism, on the contrary, is like He-
brew prophetism, though on a higher level. It is
instinctively corporate and eschatologic.
Inevitably, the key- word is hope. In the pro-
phetic ethics of the New Testament hope is not a
virtue, but the spring of all virtues. Through
Jesus Christ men are bom again into a living hope
(I Pet. i. 3). They are saved by being brought into
quickening touch with the hope of the kingdom of
God (Rom. viii. 24). Christ is God's afl?irmation of
the promises made through the Prophets (II Cor.
ii. si)). Through him the redeemed mind and
heart utter a decisive assent to God's purpose and
plan (ib.). The frame and constitution of New
Testament ethics is a solid and glowing conviction
regarding the religion and moral issues of history.
The foundations of Christian hope are laid in faith
(cf. Heb. xi. 1; Acts xv. 9). Spiritual and moral
efl5ciency springs from faith (Rom. i. 17). Faith,
however, is not primarily an act of the mind; it is
perception, appropriation, assent, all in one; and
the man redeemed through Christ by faith affirms
and proclaims the kingdom of God to be the ultimate
reality (see Faith). This aspect of faith makes
it the root of love. It is a significant fact that the
Pauline trilogy went through two recensions. In
I Thess. i. 3 occurs the order faith, love, hope;
but in I Cor. xiii. 13 is found faith, hope, love.
The Pauline congregations in the midst of Judaism
and heathenism are threatened with disintegration,
so the unity of the congregation is the tactical unit
of the army of the Lord. Love is the constructive
power and will that makes deep corporate unity
and fellowship possible (cf. Rom. xii.-xv., I Cor. xii.-
xiv., Philippians i. 27-28). In the First Epistle of
John this view is wrought into the fiber of Christian
consciousness. Faith, hope, and love are the root-
stock of New Testament ethics out of which grow
the specific virtues. Thus, humility is the neces-
sary mood of the redeemed mind looking in upon
God in his measureless power and mercy, and look-
ing out upon the immense task of realizing God's
kingdom (Matt. v. 3; I Pet. v. 5; I Cor. iv. 7, viii.
16). It is the mood of all profound Christian ex-
perience. Joy is the inherent quality of all thor-
oughly Christian action, because the will of the
redeemed man is held within the will of God (Phil,
ii. 12 sqq.) and is strenuously working toward a
supreme end (Phil. iii. 14). So it becomes a neoes-
Bthlos
Eucharist
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
sary quality in Christian expression (Jas^ i, 2;
Phil. lii. L iv. 4; cf. Acts bm a Christian epic).
The enduritig moral quality of actiorv b expressed
in the virtue of hypomonij liappily called by Chryso*-
tom " queen of the virtuea." The *' patientia " of
the Latin and the " patieace " of the Eiiglish version
are a poor wjiilvalent for the New Testament Greek,
** Steadfast waiting ■ ' — foF the supreme end, the
kingdom of God — comes nearer to iU Since the im-
minenee of tlmt kingdom dominates the proplietjc
conaciouEness, the supreme specific virtue ia ataad-
fastness in waiting and working for that supreme
end (Jame*} i. 4; I Thess, i, 3; Rom. v. 4, viii, 25),
The wortis of Jeaus (Luke xxi. 19) sum up the
matter. The foUowers of Jesus^ through large-
hearted devotion to tlie kingdom of God and
through ateadfastnea^ in doing and bearing, shall
.enter into perfect self-possessiion and eternal life,
Henry S, Nash.
BiBUCKiaAPaY: A VBry extensive anid partly oloAsifiAti lint
of books u in J. M. BaJdwin, Dkiiomirv of Phik»fophti and
Paushiflogu, IIL, 2, pp. 812-«12, New York, 10O5. Other
Uvftful llBla W10 in the workj; gf Oroolui orid Hurst. Cave
ikD.d Emeiy given below. On I,, j9 1-S, ori^titinf? and
definioK the subjgct;, donsult: O, PAdderer, Moral und
Religion^ Leip^tc, IB72; J. It, Davi«9, Thcoloffjf afvi Mo-
rati^. London. 1373: J. KOatlin. m T8K, 1870, pnj-t 4;
T. H. GMsen, Proti^Qmcna to EthicM, Oxiord, 18S3: R. B.
F&irbaim. Doctritm of Morality in Relation to Gtace of
Redemption, London, 1838; H. Wplaa> Einteltunff in die
ditistliche Ethtk, Freiburg. 13S0; C, F. G. Heinrici. En-
dfkhpOdie, pp. 248 nqq., ib. ISOS^; Q, Simmel, EinUilunff
in die M&mlwisserutehafl, 2 vola., iJerlio, lSQi3; G. K.
Crooks and J. F. Hur«t, Theoloffioal EtitydGpadmt pp.
4S1^00, New York, 1804; A. Cave, fniraduction to Thu-
ologu, pp. 561-564, Edinburgh, 13941; C, 3t:&Q«e, Bin-
UUM.ng in di€ EthUc, Laipaic, 1901 £ P, Dupuy, Leg Fon-
demenU de la morak^ Pans. 1901; L, Etni?ry, Inbioductiofi
A r/Cude de la thtaloffie, pp. 173 -ITS, 629-033, PiLrin. ISKM;
O. Kim, QrundrifM d^ U%mhgiif^Uin Etkik, Ledpsic, 1906.
Introduetory matter will alao be found in th« sy sterna of
ethics pven bcJow,
Fof ihfi g??TiL*raJ history of othj»i coniiult: E, Feuerlein,
Die SiUenl^hre det Chriftenthuma in tAfsTt (f^chichtii^ieH
ffauptfffrmen, Tabinjieti, 18.55; J, A. W. Ncander. Var-
h9unQen ilhtr die GtscMchfe tier chrittiidien EtAik^ Berlin,
1854; W. E, tL Lecky, ItiEL of Europmn Morale. 3 vob.,
London, 1S7T an<l of fen; A. li, Bmce, The Jkforat Onitr
of the Wi}rld in An/ieni and M^irn Tfm%iqht, New York,
liBi90; J. Dunia, //lil. t/ei titcorie^ ei dee id^eM m^mleM danM
raniitiuili, 2 vols.. Paria, 1876; H, J, B^atmnnn. Ge-
«h£chfe drf rkfintlichen EthiJc, 2 vob., Hordlingf?n, iSfiO-
1885; T. 2ieglflr, Gesehit^ttf der cfiriillichen Etfiik. Bonn,
1881-87; W, Gn.^. afn^^Hiehis der efinMtlichen £lfti*. B«?r-
lin. 1881-87; L. Schmidt, ZHfl Eihik der alten Griedien^
2 voK, Berlin. 1882; J. Martineau. Tfjprs of Elhif^l
The^ri/, 2 vols., Oifcird, 18Sfi; H. Sid^wick, Hiet of Etfiict,
London, 1886; P. Jan«rt, Hint de la phUtmapfiie mtwak et
poliiiifU0, 2 vola,, PariB. 1887; C. E. Luthardt. GemcfiithLe
der chri^ttichfn Ethik, 2 purls, Li!ipaic, 18S8-93, En^.
traoBl, paj-t 1. Vhrhtmn Etftlca fSefore tfte f^formathm,
Edmhurgh, IHSO; L. 8t«phpii, liiet^ of Eng. ThouoHt in
the IStkCenttiru. 2 vol*.. London, 1S02; T, Zi<^ler, Qe^
*f AifAto drr cArt*iiicA«n Etfia\ Strimbun?, 1892; C. M. Wil-
linniM, A fin'iew of tfie Syaiema of Etfiiiia Founded on ^ .
Evolution, London, 18©3 ; O. Tille. Von Darwin bi»
Nietz«cM. Ein BucK EnhfitJtlungartkiie, telptdn. ISS5; ^.
E. Mpies, EtkicM Dacripiive attd Kiplanalortf. New York^
1001; E, W*»t«nniLrok, Griffin and fieveiQpment of the
Moral idms. vol. i., London, 1006; L, T. Hobhouao, AfomU
in Eoolulion, Study tn Comparative Ethi^M, 2 vols., ib,
I90fl; W. Wundt, Eifiiaal SystemM, ib. 10O5; II. IL 8cul^
lard. Earlu ChriMtian Ethi^B in the WeM, from Ctwrnenl to
AvnbroK^ ib. 1007.
On IL, I h consult: A. Rmu, Die Ethtk Jesu. Gleflswi,
1899; E. Grimm. Die E^ik Je*u. Hftmbur^, 1903; H. F.
Eroesti, Die Ethik det Apoatels Patdua, Gfittingen, 1885;
H. 8l&dfiCB6k, FaulinUf^e L^ire Uber da* Moratsi^ekt,
^BSBmhar^t 1899; A. Thain&, Geicki^hte der t^riattichen
SiUenl^re in dvr Zeit de» N. T., BjuiieoL, IE
ooby, Nmtteatamenlii^ke EthiJt, Kouigtibei^
Jordan, The Stoir MoraiixU and HAr ChH*tiam
1884; G. Ladf9^i£» TG^tuilian* Bthik, Leipsic,
IL, I 2: A, Rifltter, Die Mor^l dm* heUitfen 7
Aquhioa. Munich, 1B5$, On IL, I 3: C, £.
Die EthiJe Luih^rtt Lcipsic, 1S75; ideiUh, ^i
/I ronton im GebitU dm- Moral, ib. ISSC On
P, Lolwtein, Die Elhtk C^dm, Strasburg. 187
fi 6: H. Cohen, Kanla BiQrUndunQ der B^ik, B*
On IL. f 7: J. Scbftlbr, VorkiHngm flA«r ScMi
pp, 181 aqq., HalhJ, 1844; W. Bender, ScMi
Theol&ffie, Xil^rdJmgen, 1876, On IL, I 9: K
Gem(ki(Jit€ der kaihoU*cIien Theal&ffie^ Munich,
AndfeiL, Die t^erdcrbliche Moral der Jmtmitm,
1865; H, J. Bf^tmann, Geachitht^ der cfcnulfu
p&rt ii., Kaiholitefie Sitie, N&rdlJn&«n» ISS5.
On in. oonsult: H, Jaooby, NeuieMtammt^
KQnXi^bers. 1S90; W. D. G«dde9, The Phatik
note K, London, 1863; il, F. Emwti. ui imp., i
1885; C. E. Luthardt, Dit aniHes Ethik in ihrrf
iidtcn Entwiekeluno, Lfilpnc, 1SS7; idem, Gift
iJmattichen Ethik, imri. u ib. 18SS; E^g, tmod
Chrialian ECfck*, vol. i,, Edinbuixh. 1889; i
injluenm of Greek Ideae and U*agea upon 1^
CHwtA. pp. 158-170, Ij^ndon, ISSS; C. Matli»
m^k9 vf Nme Tettammt Afomfifi^, ib. 18SS; T.
ut «mp., chap, v.; C, H, Toy, /uf/oivnt and €h
chapa, v.-vi., Bo<?rton. 1891; A. B. Bruce, TUM
of the Wifrld, London, 1800; J. A. Leightoo, /#
and the CipUiiaHon &f Ttt-d^u. Pfew York^ IfiCK
783-789; DCG, L 543-547; JE, v. 245-2S6.
Treatiies on ethii^ olhe^r than those mentaon
text, or tranalations of jwme of tboae menti
A. Wulike, Christian Ethit^, Eng. transl., Et
1S73; E. H, Gill&tt, The Moral Smitn, Ni
1874; H. Maxtcnwn, ChrUtian Ethitt, 2 volt,
1SS3; P. Junet, The Thufrf/ rtf MoraU. HvwYt
H. Spenoer, Data of Eihia, ib. 1SS3 aud often; L .
StfMt£m of Chrietian Elhiea, E.ng. transit, EdJlilni
U. Calderwood, fiandhook of Moral Philoeoi^w
1388; R. L. Otttey, Chri^lian Ethiet. ib. 18i
Salter. Ethiral Reii&iQn, Bo?too, 1880; C H,
Chriaaiehe SiUetd^re, Bitsmen, 1B^2; C. G.A.TI!
ChrisUiehe Ethik, Gat£r»loh. 1801, Eog. tranpt, c
roan<Ki., Edinburgh. 1868; W. W\indt, Ethica, Eoi
vols., ib, 1807-1901; W. L. Davidson. Christian E
don, ISBO; G. B. Tepe, I futiitutiofiee tfieolaffia' mi/ru
Paris, 1809; W, Wallace. Lett^trra and Etmye o
Theolo^ atMi Ethice. Oxford, 1809; J. A. 1
Manual of Eihica, London, 1900; W. File, h
Study of Eihi0», New York, 1903; L. Levy-]
Morale et la edenee deJi m^uri, Piuria» IOCS; E,
Et*erif Day Ethi&t. Npw York, 1906; H. Raohdj
of Goi^i and Evil, 2 vols,, Oscforti, 1907; L.
*Smnr«! of Ethie*, New York. 1907; T. Slater, .
Moral Theotoiju, lb. l^QS t Roman Catholic).
ETHIOPIA, ETHIOPIAN CHURCH. S<
SINIA .^NO TRE AbYSSINIAN ChDKCH,
ETHHARCH: The title of an office
often mentioned in Hellenistic timefl,
mi^ntioas straiegoi, nomaTchm, and cihnarehi
the officials iq Egypt in the time of Augus
Lueian (Macrobimt xvii*) speaka of an
Aaandroa made king of the Boaisoms by A
Thna it is clear that the title was not one
to the JewH. Among them it probably
a degree of indepc*ndentrej et least, aeeo
Strabo (quoted in Josephnsi^ni!, XIV., vii
is the position held by the Hhnareh of th<
Egypt. For the Jews in E^pt the office
dication that they followed their customs
ligion as a spocial mee among an alier
Thisi cornea out in the edict of Oaudina
Josephus (Ant. XIX.» v, 2). Wliile the s
that after the death of an ethnarch Aufcu
tinned the office aeema to contradict a s
of Philo (Fl^iccum, j 10), that alter thedei
%Q6
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
SthlM
Euoharlst
^gnorch (a word practically the same as ethnarch)
j^ngustus established a gerousia, this may mean
only that a geroiisia was constituted, presided over
Ijy a plurality of heads. But ethnarch is not sub-
stantiated as a general title among the Jews of the
^Baspora.
It was a title borne by the Hasmoneans (q.v.),in
the first case by Simon. His brother and predeces-
tc«r Jonathan was called by Alexander, son of Epiph-
tnes, atratcgos and meridarcheSj titles which im-
ply the union of military and civil power. That
tifanon had in mind a higher title is clear from the
coimection in I Mace. xiv. 28 sqq., cf. xv. 1 sqq.,
and the idea of the titles conferred on him as stated
in I Mace. xiv. 42 is that of hereditary right. In
^lite of this, in the case of John Hyrcaniis the title
{tiled to follow succession. The coins of Hyrcanus
L mention alongside '* John the High Priest " the
"Commonwealth of the Jews," or name liim " Head
of the Commonwealth of the Jews," from which it
follows that John regarded his office as less than
that of apolitical ruler, and considered himself the
priestly head of a theocratic state. Yet the sense
of the well-known anecdote of the encounter with
Eleazar, the spokesman of the Pharisees, in which
the latter asked John to lay aside the high-priest-
hood and be contented uith the political rulership,
implies the position of ethnarch. His son Aristo-
bolus was the first after the exile to take the title
of king, in which he was followed by Alexander
Jamueus (Josephus, Ant XIII. xi.-xii.). Alex-
andra also assumed the title of queen, and is so
called by Josephus. Her son Hyrcanus, when he
retired to private life, passed the title of king to his
brother Aristobulus. Pompey gave to Hyrcanus
the high-priesthood and also the title of king.
But a Uter decree of CsBsar made Hyrcanus ethnarch
and high priest, the former title as compensation
for the loss of the royal name. Herod obtained
from the Roman Senate the royal title, but his son
Archelaus was only ethnarch.
Of special interest is the mention of the ethnarch
of King Aretas in Damascus (II Cor. xi. 32). It is
the Nabataean King Aretas IV. who is meant, and
the ethnarch is not a governor of the Jews but the
"^r of the city. This could have been only in
the days of Caligula or Claudius, since imder Ti-
berius and Nero Damascus was under Roman con-
trol. Paul's flight therefore could not have been
^fore 37 a.d. (Johannes Weiss.)
Buiuoorapht: The be^t discussion will be found in SchQrer,
^***»eAte; consult the Indexes. Consult also: J. Deren-
Jw»K. HiUoire H geographie de la Palestine, pp. 67, 450-
wl Paris, 1867; H. Graet*. GeBchichie der Juden, iii.
30-31, 163. 371, 417, Leipsic. 1888.
ETTWEm, et'vain, JOHN: Moravian bishop;
bat Freudenstadt (40 m. s.w. of Stuttgart), Wurt>-
*^"iberg, June 29, 1721; d. at Bethlehem, Pa.,
J3"- 2, 1802. In 1754 he emigrated to America.
In 1772 he led the Christian Indians from Susque-
^'"^ County in Pennsylvania to the Tuscarawas
^^'^ in Ohio. He was a friend of Washington,
f°^ devoted himself to the care of the sick soldiers
^ the general army hospital at Bethlehem, Pa.
'^ 1787 he founded the Society of the United Breth-
J^ for Propagating the Gospel among the Heathen,
^ *hich Congress granted several townshi(>8 on
the Tuscarawas, in trust, for the Christian Indians.
He was consecrated bishop June 25, 1784, and
stood at the head of his Church till his retirement,
on account of ill health, in 1801. He prepared a
vocabulary of the language of the Delaware In-
dians, which has been published by the Historical
Society of Pennsylvania.
Bibuooraphy: J. T. Hamilton, Fluft. of the Unitas Frettrum,
in American Church History Series, vol. v-iii., New York,
1895; ideni. Hist, of the Church Known as the Moravian
Church, Bethleheui. 1900.
EUCHARIST, yQ'ca-rist.
Combination of the Evening Agape and the Morning
Service (5 1).
The Early Liturgical Development (5 2).
The Service in Justin's Time and Later (§3).
The Oblation (J 4).
The Prayers (5 6).
The Ck)mmunion (§6).
Frequency of Celebration ({ 7).
The Elements ($ 8).
VahouH Customs (J 9).
The Heretical Sects (§ 10).
Eucharist is a term employed for the celebration
of the Lord's Supper, especially in tlie primitive
Church, to wliich the present consideration is re-
stricted. (For the liturgy of the Roman Catholic
Church see^MAss, II.; of theChurclicsof the Reforma-
tion, Lord's Supper, IV. For the doctrine of the
Lord's Supper see Lord's Supper, I.-IIL; Mass, I.;
Transubstantiation.) In early Christian Utera-
ture, however, the word is also applied (1) to the
prayer of thanksgiving spoken over the elements
(in the East; only once in the Latin West, Ter-
tullian, De oratione, xxiv.); (2) to the elements
themselves; (3) by an extension of meaning, to
any consecrated element or sacramerUum — as in
Cyprian, Epist. Ixx. 2, to the consecrated oil. The
application to the entire celebration of the I^ord's
Supper continued only so long as it was an actual
meal (cf. especially Ignatius), and then reappeared
only in the Middle Ages.
The eucharistic celebration of the primitive
Church underwent a very important change about
the middle of the second century. Originally,
either as a common meal or in connection with one,
it formed a separate observance which took place in
the evening, while the congregation assembled in the
morning to hear the Word. At the date mentioned
these two were fused into one service, a change which
made possible the development of the later mass (see
Mass, II., 1, §1) and still exercises an influence even
upon Protestant liturgical conceptions. The first
witness for the combination of the Eucharist with
the morning service is Justin (I ApoL Ixv.-lxvii.,
written c. 150). Though the famous letter of Pliny
(x. 96, c. 113) attests the prevalence of the older
custom in Bithynia, the Didache (ix.,
I. Combi- X.) at least for Egypt, and Clement
nation of (I CJor. xliv.) for Rome, Justin shows
the Even- the new as universally adopted, even
ing Agapse if the old for a while existed along-
and the side of it. The grounds for the
Morning change have been sought in the accu-
Service. sations of the pagans, who charged
the Christians with the commission of
hideous abominations at their agapoB. But this
is an improbable theory; both the evening agapcB
Buoharist
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
and the pagan calumnies still continued after this.
It is more likely that both religious and practical
reasons brought about the change. The earlier
manner of celebrating the Eucharist endangered
the unity of the local church, and did not accord
with the growing importance of the priesthood.
Where these meetings had often been held inde-
pendently in private houses, the aphorism of Igna-
tius— *^ no lawful Eucharist without the bishop "
(Smym, viii. 1) — now prevailed. At the morning
service the clergy were assembled, the Scriptures
were solemnly read; a natural center of unity for
the local church was here, and the religious develop-
ment was met by the change, as well as the prac-
tical difficulty of assembling widely scattered mem-
bers for both services.
In studying the liturgical development, the ear-
liest stage is wrapped in obscurity. Exclusive of
the Gospel narratives of the institution (see Lord^s
Supper, Introduction and I.), the only sources are
1 Ck)r. xi. 20 sqq. and the ninth, tenth, and four-
teenth chapters of the Didacfie. The traditional
interpretation of the Pauline passage (still upheld
by Hamack, Zahn, and others) regards the Eu-
charist as the conclusion of a meal
2. The taken in conamon, or agape. A more
Early modem view, held by Jiilicher, Spitta,
Liturgical Haupt, and Hoffmann, holds that the
Develop- reference of the passage is to one sin-
ment. gle meal, designated as a whole by the
name " Lord's Supper." This theory
is borne out by the fact that Ignatius uses the
terms agapS and eucharistia indiscriminately for
one and the same sacred feast (Smym. viii. 2, vii.
1; Rom, vii. 3; perhaps also PhUad, iv.; Eph,
xiii. 1). But this still leaves the question open as
to the manner in which this feast was conducted.
Since Christ had left no precise ritual directions,
the first Christians were free to arrange their Eu-
charist as seemed best to them. The most natural
thing was to follow the traditions of the sacred
meals of Judaism. Of these the most natural
choice would have been the Passover supper, if it
is assumed that the institution took place on this
occasion; but even with this assumption neither
I Cor. xi. nor the Didache shows any relation be-
tween the two, and none is forced upK)n us by such
passages as I Cor. x. 6, v. 7. It seems more prob-
able that a model was sought in the most common
of these observances, the Sabbath meal as it was
celebrated in every Jewish house at the beginning
of the Sabbath on Friday night. We can get an
idea of it from the Mishnah (especially Bera-
kot vi.-viii.), which shows that it was marked by
unity and characterized by the partaking of a
blessed cup and blessed bread. At the beginning
of the meal the cup, blessed with prayer by one of
the family, preferably the father, was handed round
— though this blessing might come later, and, in-
deed, the cup be dispensed with altogether. Then
the bread was blessed which was broken and eaten
during the meal; and a thanksgiving followed, to
which the company responded with " Amen," and
after the meal, in which no '' stranger " might take
part, there was another thanksgiving. The de-
pendence of the eucharistic form on this observance
is supported by the Didache, where (ix.,x-)
the same sequence of customs: after the ac
onciliation, the so-called excmologesis (xi
blessing of cup and bread by a short pray
common participation (Gk. emplUthinai,
and a final thanksgiving (x.). The fonr
blessing are indeed purely Christian, but the
blessing of cup and bread, and the placing
cup first, point clearly to a Jewish origin
the Sabbath meal, again, the whole ceret
one; the contention of Zahn, Weizs&ckj
Haupt that the prayers for the agape are f<
chapter ix. and those for the Eucharist io
not be upheld. The partaking of the cona
elements was not (as has been supposed
misunderstanding of I Cor. xi.) the final
initial act; it was the blessing of the bre
wine that made the meal " the Lord's Si
Inquiring how the unity was dissolved, it i
that the reception of the consecrated elem
the beginning became more and more the pi
thing, while, on the other hand, the subi
meal became more and more an agapi, or
charity on the part of the rich believers
their poorer brethren. This, deprived of i1
significant accompaniment, for which tb
eulogia (q.v.) offered an insufficient equi
gradually decayed and perished, while the
rist lived on with power in its new form, Ux
edence of the service of Scripture-readu
preaching, and finally, as the mass, beca
supreme act of worship.
But meanwhile, when it was imited w
other service, of Scripture-reading and pn
naturally took with it the essential fomu
had up to that time constituted it. Some
changes took place; the two prayers of bles
the elements were fused into one, and the •
of the bread and wine, by members of the
now took on the dignity of a liturgical fi
What the order of the various parts was
period we learn from Justin to have been
lows: (1) the kiss of peace;
3. The oblation (Gk. prosphora); (3)
Service in chsuistic prayer of the ** pra
Justin's (Gk. proestds)^ i.e., the bishoi
Time and intercessions, and the n
Later. ** Amen "; (4) the communi(
the payment of the congrej
contribution {slips), and distribution to tb
The last was dropped in later times, and a
sory (preface) added, which may, indeed, ha
in use as early as Justin, though he does n(
tion it. But the same groundwork contii
show itself, e.g., in Tertullian and Cyprian.
too, about 348, Cyril of Jerusalem describ
stantially the same order; (1) the washing
hands of the bishop and presbyters; (2) thi
peace; (3) preface with Trisagion and E\
or invocation of the Holy Spirit; (4) interc
(5) Lord's Prayer; (6) communion; ('
prayer. As to the later detailed developm
Mass, II.
We must now consider more definitely t
vidual parts of this primitive service. A
kiss of peace (q.v.) came the oblation, wl
197
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Euoharl«t
l^onned by the deacons receiving the offerings
gnd carrying them to the bishop. When they were
nnnerous, special tables were necessary to hold
tfaem, which stood on each side of the altar. Be-
■des bread and wine there were present other kinds
of food, such as milk, oil, honey, etc., which were
wed for the support of the poor. These gifts were
lleBsed, and the givers commemorated by name.
Ai the first spontaneous generosity languished and
the Old Testament was increasingly taken as a
model, the offering of all kinds of first-
4. The fruits was insisted on. The disturb-
OUation. ance to the service caused by the
bringing of these various offerings
gaye rise to attempts to limit them, at the begin-
ning of the fourth century, to bread and wine, or
oAher things used in ecclesiastical functions, such
18 oQ for the holy unction, milk and honey for the
neeptbn of neophytes, and the like. In the time
of Chrysostom scarcely anything but bread and
wine was brought (cf. Augustine, Serm. Ixxxii. 3,
5), and the offering was not made every Sunday
bj all the members, but on special festivals and in
honor of the departed. The church provided the
bread and wine from its own resources.
The central prayer (originally prayers), as is seen
from the Didache (ix.), at first contained thanks-
grring for both bodily and spiritual nourishment,
m free adaptation of the ordinary Jewish formu-
laries referred to above. Later this prayer was
broken by the Trisagion (from Isa. vi. 3), sung by
the congregation. Tertullian is the first evidence
for this; Origen seems to have known it; in the
time of Athanasius it was in general though not
muversal use, in both East and West. It arose
probably in Syria, where the liturgies
5* The show a really organic connection be-
Prtyers. tween it and the prayer which it
follows. This prayer usually con-
*MM a thanksgiving for the benefits of redemption,
^wding up to a recitation of the words of institu-
tion. That these formed a part of the earliest
Christian liturgy can not be safely concluded from
I Cor. 3d. 23 sqq.; but it is possible that the custom
was known to Justin, as it certainly was to Origen,
Cyprian, Cyril of Jerusalem, and Chrysostom; and
no ancient liturgy has been preserved which does
not contain these words. Under the influence of
I Cor. xi. 26, there followed what was called the
ofuannesit or conmiemoration, and then the ana-
P*^Qf in which the consecrated elements were
offered up to God; and next came the epiklesis
(jl-v-). The actual consecration was never con-
^^ed to take place through the words of insti-
tution alone before Augustine and Ambrose, but
^88 attributed to the entire eucharistic prayer —
though the view is also found that the epiklesis has
*™ power. Whether the examologesis or acknowl-
•^^Pnent of sin originally preceded or followed the
**«aristic prayer can not be determined; later it
^e after, and was usually coimected with the
^P^is. From the third or fourth century on, a
P^t interccfssion for the whole church followed.
JJj8 found in Cyril of Jerusalem and elsewhere,
°^ not in Tertullian or Cyprian. It also had its
^"^ probably in Syria, as it is not found in the
oldest Egyptian liturgy known. The use of the
Lord's Prayer as a part of the liturgy seems to
have been known to Tertullian and Cyprian, but
is first certainly attested by Cyril of Jerusalem,
Chrysostom, Augustine, and Jerome. It is not
mentioned in the Ap)ostolic Constitutions.
The actual communion, as long as the Eucharist
had the form of a real meal, was accomplished by
the passing of the consecrated elements from hand
to hand. When it became a formal act, it was
prefaced (demonstrably as early as the end of the
second century) by the bishop saying, " Holy things
to holy persons " (from the Septuagint version of
Lev. xxiv. 9; cf. Matt. vii. 6). The congregation
answered, "One alone is holy," etc., and then ap-
proached the altar, where they received the ele-
ments in their hands, standing. Great care was
exercised to prevent a crum of the hallowed bread
or a drop of the consecrated wine falhng to the
groimd; in the reception of the for-
6. The mer it was usual to place the left hand
Commu- under the right in the form of a cross,
nion. The careful washing of the hands be-
fore communion was prescribed; and
Cyril of Jerusalem instructs his catechumens to re-
ceive the chalice bowing low. The distribution of
the elements was performed in Justin's time by the
deacons; but this fimction was withdrawn from
them with the gradual growth of reverence for the
elements and belief in priestly dignity and power.
As a transitional stage, the deacons are found in
some places entrusted with the administration of
the chalice, as the less important. When a definite
formula of administration came in is imcertain,
though there are no traces of one in the apostolic
age. The oldest was the simple statement ; the for-
mula is Hoc est corpus Chrisiif Hie est sanguis
Christi. In the Apostolic Constitutions (VIII., xiii.
4) " body of Christ " for the bread, and " blood
of Christ, cup of life " for the cup. In Mark the
Hermit (c. 410) a longer formula occurs: " the
holy blood of Jesus Christ for life etemar*; and in
seventh-century Gaul a still further expansion,
" May the Body and Blood of our Lord bring to
thee remission of sin and eternal life " (Council of
Rouen, can. ii.). Each communicant answered
" Amen," as an expression of faith. That the
earliest use was to give first the cup and then the
bread is shown by the Didache, and possibly by
Luke xxii. 17 and I Cor. x. 16.
Only baptized Christians could receive the com-
mimion; this was a universal principle from the
beginning. Heretics, schismatics, and unrecon-
ciled penitents were also excluded, though it was
sometimes given to the lapsed when dying. It
was the general practise to give it to children.
The custom of placing it in the mouth of dead per-
sons must have been deeply rooted, to judge from
the number of councils which foimd it necessary
to prohibit it (see Ck)MMUNioN of the Dead).
Fasting conmumion is an old and quite vmiversal
practise, in fact, a church law, which was referred
to apostohc command by Augustine; an exception
was made on Maundy Thursday, when the Eu-
charist was celebrated in the evening. Much em-
phasis was laid, following Lev. vii. 20 and I Cor. zi.
Euoharist
Euoholoffion
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOQ
191
27, upon purity of body and soul as a preparation
for communion. Chrysostom, who is specially
strong on this point, requires a particular prepara-
tion by penance, prayer, almsgiving, and spiritual
exercises, lasting for days.
As to frequency of celebration, the most which
can be said for the primitive age with any certainty
is that it occurred at least every Sunday, and there
is plenty of proof for this in the second century.
The tendency was toward greater frequency, and
days of religious observance (Saturdays, fast-<iays,
the anniversaries of martjrrs) were thus marked.
Daily celebration became customary in the West,
by the beginning of the third century in Africa, as
evidenced by Cyprian; in Rome at
7. Fre- least in the time of Jerome, or much
quency of earlier if we are to accept as genuine
Celebration, the fragments on Proverbs ascribed
to Hippolytus. For Spain the same
evidence is given by Jerome; for Gaul by Cassian;
for Milan by Ambrose. In the East (except
Egypt), Sunday and Saturday were the regular
days. But here, too, greater frequency began to
prevail. According to Basil (Epist. xciii.) the rule
at Csesarea in Cappadocia was four times a week,
and he was anxious to see it daily. In Egypt and
the Thebaid the Sunday celebration remained the
rule for a long time, though an expression of Cyril
of Alexandria implies that by his time the Western
practise was coming in.
The elements used in the Eucharist were bread
and wine, everywhere throughout the Church.
The bread was conmion leavened wheat bread,
made in little round loaves, with a cruciform inci-
sion to facilitate breaking (see Altar Bread).
The wine, whether white or red, was mixed with
water. CJyprian mentions {Epist. Ixiii.) as a wide-
spread African custom the reception of pure water
and no wine at all. But tliis practise, which is
neither primitive nor based on ascetic principles
but simply an exaggerated insistence on the preva-
lent custom of drinking no wine in the morning,
never spread further and died out completely.
Milk, honey, and salt were used at various times
(for the salt, cf. the Clementine Homilies, xiv. 1).
The use of milk and honey is first mentioned in
connection with the communion of neophytes. A
similar custom — a purification by
8. The honey — occurs in the Mithra cult; but
Elements, it could hardly have come from that
source into Christian usage if passages
like Jer. xi. 5 and Ezra xx. 6 (cf. also Isa. Iv. 1)
had not seemed to commend it. From the neo-
phytes* communion the custom spread into more
general use; sometimes honey was mixed with the
wine (CJouncil of Auxerre, 585 or 578, can. v.); or
milk was substituted for wine, as in the old Span-
ish provinces of Gallacia and Asturia, where wine
was scarce (Fourth Council of Braga, about 675,
can. ii.; cf. also can. Ivii. of the Second Trullan
Council, 692).
A regular reception every Sunday was undoubt-
edly the normal custom of the primitive age. This
is evident, if from nothing else, from the statement
of Justin (/ Apol. Ixvii.) that the consecrated ele-
ments were carried by the deacons to the houses
of those who could not be present at the celebf»
tion. The practise of the whole congregatioii
communicating, which continued into the third
century, disappeared with surprising rapidity is
the fourth. (Chrysostom complains more thaa
once of the fewness of communicants; Eusebius of
Emesa rebukes those who leave the
9. Various church before the communion, and
Customs, such persons are threatened with ei-
communication by the Apostolic Gu- -
ons (ix.) and the (Doimcil of Antioch (341, can. a).
In the East the custom gradually prevailed of I^
ceiving the sacrament only once a year, Easter and
Epiphany being the most usual days. In the Woi i
more frequent communion remained usual. Not a j
few early councils, indeed, in Gaul and Spain (tg^ ]
Elvira, 305; Toledo, 398 or 400; Agde. 506) thwat- I
ened with penalties those who abstained from ooia-
munion; but this was directed against cryptic 1
sects, whose members came to church, but had *
their own communion in their secret meetinpi '
For the vessels used in the celebration, see Vebbiu, r
Sacred.
It seems to have been first in the West that the
custom grew up of carrying home either fragmeDfi
of the consecrated bread or the whole portion re-
ceived, in special httle boxes called area (Tertd-
lian, Cyprian). Basil attests the existence of the
same custom in Egypt, and it must have spread
rapidly. With these particles a sort of domatie
celebration would be performed (Ck)uncil of Laod-
icea, can. Iviii.; of Gangra, about 350, can. x.;cf '
Toledo, 400, can. xiv.). They were also caitied
about the person as a protection against dangeiik
as shown by the evidence of Ambrose and Gttgxf
Nazianzen. To the sick and to prisoners the En-
charist was carried not only by priests but by bf-
men and even women.
The conunemoration of the death-annivenariflt
of the martyrs took place at their graves, and can
hardly have consisted in anything but the Euchsr
rist. The custom became more general with the
fourth century, and altars were erected over the
graves. The practise must also have soon aris€*i
of commemorating the other dead either on tb©
third (ninth, fortieth) day after death or on tb*
anniversary.
As to the eucharistic celebration among the earfy
sects not much information has been handed dowB*
Relatively the most is known about the Gnostics. Id
the Pistis Sophia a description is given of a function
which it is hard to identify as eucharistic or bap-
tismal, so much have the two sacraments been
fused into one. Substantially nearer to the piafr
tise of tlie Church are the celebrations described
in the Acta Thomas and Acta Johannis; here the
Eucharist is an independent function, sepante
from the agape, and taking place in the moniin^
but not connected with the Scripture-
10. The reading and preaching service; hew
Heretical too appear the oblation, the prayer
Sects. of consecration, the breaiking of the
bread, and the administration with a
definite formula, to which the receiver respond!
with " Amen." But there is a doubt how far theK
originally Gnostic writings have been changed bg
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Euohaiist
Eucholo^on
lEc revisioii* The coneecnition among the
tics was effects not by the recital of the
» of institution but by a prayer (of thanksgiv-
in the Ada JohannUt of i^iippli cation to Chriiit
kbl^Hing on the feast in the Ada Thonia:, while
« ifl &n epikU^m in Irena^LUS L, xiii. 2 and in an-
er part of the Ada Tiwmm). What \b known
kbe BnchaTist among the other sects ia confined
imt entirely to the elements u^ed by them.
Iter replaced wine very generally outaide the
KUk citt^les. EptphaDtuji relates that Bome
\im {Eneraiiim, Apo»Udiei} used breodp salt, and
Iter; and he and AugUHtine both say that the
pfltankts used bread and cheese, without wine
euiioma which point to the original stMua of the
idbarist as an actual meal, (P. Drews.)
VJoaajLTHT: Chi ibo Bomui Catbolic nde: C. do Hur^guerm
fuLda^^Ma tU la ^ucantitia, 7 voLb. Estapa, l^OS-O?; E,
iiatiiW', fin Q^t^^^^[tim modenmriJt^^M, pari i., Antwerp^ 1T3€;
f, J. L DoUicilCErt ^%» I^re van dwr Kacki^'ifHi! in dm drri
r^nJakfhunderttn, Maint, 1S2G;F. Probst. iSoilmomente uiuj
Sihwmiittffv TahioceD, 1S72\ Q. BjckcU, MtMse unJ
Ptad^ IhiiiK, IST2; idem, in ZKT, l^BO; F. 3. Rcnx.
OfjtTkmdttm- dm- Eudtarii^^ . . . der ermUn drH J^kr-
hmdrktu, PaderborD, 1B02; J. Wilpert, Fractio paniM,
£t llfiwti B&n^^ur^f dc9 euchariatiachen Opf^§. Frei-
bon, 1805 (cf. G, Fickcr. in GGA, 1S96, i>p 6S6 »qqJ:
F- X FmiJc, Kir'diitnffetchichtikJie Ahhandtungen uW Un-
fartufilKn^ni, vqI. i,, Fn^ei-bom, 1S97; T. W. Drury, Eleva-
Hmmtht Euelarut. v£i Hitt. tmd Rction^, New Y^ork.
im, W. €, E. Ncwboll. The Soa'am^nt af thr AUat, \\y.
ini. FmmiheProtettaat poititof viev: Bingham, Ort^nei,
tetbsm., XT.; H. Alt. Der c^ruftic^ Kultua, i, 184 «qq>,
BhIb^ iSEil: T, 10itsf<?U)^ lAtifgiti^ AbhamilunQtn^ iv.-
T^SdiiveriD, 1S58-59: A, P. &taniey« ChrUimn inttitu-
im, ^pa, iv,-vi*, London^ iSSlt H* A. Ki^^tltDt Gi-
t^Ak 4m dkfiMiehen GoUsvUenster. Froibun^, 1887;
E. AiMU, .Die a/JHllffti 4^^^n dtt urUnialiachen Kif-
^mr^m, jn TU, vi. 4, iSOl; C. tod Wmu^eker, i>£»
Vidiudb Zfildlkr. Freiburg* 1892, £ng. tmniil.. 2 vols.,
UdoD, ISH-dd^ G. Anrich. DoManHkm MifHenen\P&en
kitkm Binfluu avf da* Ckrvtentum, Gottineen, t804:
iC.M«Giffert, ApoEtalieAoi, i^p. 5g-6B, 536-5ST et passim,
StttVork, l&ffT; S.Cbeetham, ^if«leSe*p Fo^n and Ckn*-
fm, [jK^anm iii -it., London. 1897; C. Cbmeo. nOir £7r-
ffn^ifl , ^ . /IliitfiM'tiid^, LeJpEuc, 1898; Hamaek, Doo*
mrnki-u.; Ntmnder. ChriMtian ChvFck, i. 323-335.
W-m. ii, 3*1-309; Schaff, CArijtiafi CAitfcA, i, 472-475,
iaoi-aofi: Mo€iler, Chri^Han CftwrcA, i. 70, 122. 2G8 tqq.
Fma tbe litungical lyde; F. Probsts Litu^icFw <^?r drH
' b cfe^^icAm /aAj^tindW(«, TQbifieen. 1870; a E,
id, Aneieni Lituroif af AnUoch, Oxford, 1879;
. in TU, iL I »Dd 2, iSSfl. cf, TV. vi. 4, pp. 39
^4-^ f, £L Briehenuhn acid C. E. Hammond. LiturffUM
**ift«r WiMtmyi. Oxiord, lEm. Ce tertian, Die Litur-
in y d^ 4rmi#mcr7H Vi«tma, 1897; F, E« Wamia,
IWXihTyir and Ritual of tks Ani^Nicena Ckwch. Lod-
^ IW7, CbcwuU ia«o iJie Uter^tui* tioder Lorp*» Sop-
El^CHARIUS, SAHrr. See Treves.
HSCHELAlOll, yiik^'el^'on: In the Greek
Intrii, the " prayer oil/' conisec rated by seven
DBA^ and used for the unction of the eick, which
counted one of the seven sacraments of the
lureb, and corresponds to the extreme unction
the Roman Church, but m not limited to caaes of
itil iUness, See Extreme Unction,
E0CHERIUS: Bishop of Lyons, where he was
n and where he died between 440 and 455.
bough married and a father, he retired before
to the monaatery of L^rins, where his sona
p educated by Hilary « Salvian, and Vincent of
B3, Among his friends were such prominent
«fiiporarie» aa John Casaian, Qaudianus Mam-
ertue, and Bidonius ApolltnariB, Ab the author of
the De laude eremi, written between 426 and 429,
be advocated the same zealous asceticism which
he observed together witii his wifp, acrofding to
the custom of the time, on the island of Lero (the
modem bt. Marguerite), Other mona«tic writingis
were also composed by him, including the E^^hor-
tatio ad fntmach^^f the Senteniia ad monachm, and
the AdnwnUio ad inrgines, and the despair with
which the conditions of the time filled him is ex-
pressed in his De conlemptu rnurtdi et ^tEctdarw
phUogophits. The first book of his Inatructiones
evidences his knowledge of the Biblical criticism
of hii^ period^ and the second forms a dictionary
of antiquities for the elucidation of the loan-words
in the Bible, The FormuiiE apirilaiis intdligmitim
contains historical, figurative, and analogical inter-
pretations of Biblical designations in the realm of
naturtit and human life. In the Pelagian eontro-
veniy he seema to have regarded the coexist ence
of God and man in Christ as analogous with the
union of bcxly and soul in humanity, while his
deep interest in the heroes of Christendom found
expression in the Pagsm Agaunenfiium mariyrum.
His letter to Philo, in Tvhich he voluntarily assumed
the charge of certain ecclesiastical institutions, like
his letter to the presbyter Faustus De lock aiiqvi^
bus Sanctis, is of doubtful authenticity, Eucherius
was closely associated mth the neighboring bishops^
and on Nov. 8, 441 , prt^sided with Hilary of Aries
over the first Synod of Orange. No details are
known of hia administration of his bishopric, and
even the year of his consecration, which was 434,
according to Sigibert of Gembloux, is unccHain,
(Edgar Hen.veke.)
BibLioorapity: The Opera «??ro publiihed by Bnuiaie&nui,
BftMl, 153t: ID MFL, L; and, &d. Wotke. in CSEL, xx^.,
1894. Sour«ea for a life are: Chrvni£43. Galiica. ed, T.
Mammsen, in MGH, Auct on/., ix. 1 (ia921, 682; Sal-
TJanua of Marwilles, in the fiame, i, I (1877), 109-1 10,
116i (jennailiiM. De vir. iU,r xxviii. ConatiJt; A. Mellier.
D# rita H scripii* . . . Ew^herii, Paris, 18TS: A. Gouil-
loud^ Saita Eucher, LMrut ft r/ijli*f de Li^n au &, aiirk,
Lyons, 1881: W. S. TeuffetGr«cAtrAfe rferr£ml«cA«iLii*i^
lur, p, 1170, f 457, no. 6, Leipsic, 1890,
EUCHITES. See MEsesAUAXs.
EDCHOLOGIOir, yti"co-la'ji*0n: A name which
in Greek signifies any collection of prayers ^ but is
most usually applied to the Great Eluchologion or
Prayer- Book of the Eastern Church, which con-
tains the rites for aU the principal ecclesiaatical
functions. It includes also a great nuniber of
benedictions for all the material objects which are
commonly blessed in the tra flit ion al or catholic
system I for the fruits of the earth, and for variom
callings in life which are supposed to need 8|>ccial
blessing. The book m of the highest interest for
the study of the Eastern Church, the life of which
from the beginning it represents in one way or an-
other. It has been pw^ser^'ed in a number of
manuscripts. The first printed edition was that
of 1526; the oldest known to be extant is the 1545
edition in the royal library at Munich. Later of-
ficial editions have appeared in Venice, Bucharest,
Athens, and Constantinople; these are the be«t for
scientific study of the Greek Church and its litur-
gical usages. (Philifp Micrsa.)
THE NEW 9CMAFF-HERZOQ
BmuoamA^ttT W. Caw« Script, Kel. hiMtpri& HtvaruL,
DiMerUtioa ii., Oxford, 1743; J. U, Nc-ak. HUtary of
the Hfilff EoMUim CftvrrA, London, 1850; E. Lefrrmnd,
Bihiiograpkit hslUni^tte^ Pkriii, 1SS5 r KnjtnbAclief^ G#-
McKichtc, pp. 0£S-aa9.
EUDES, yfldz or (Fr.) tJd, JEAN, AlTD THE
EUDISTS: FrtMirh Roman Catholic priest and tKe
Congregation founded by him. Endes was bom
at M(?Eeraip southern Normandy, Nov. 14, 1601;
d, at Caen (149 m. w.n.w. of Paris) Aug, 19, 16S0.
He was educated at the Jesuit coUege in Caen and
at the Oratory in Paris under B^ruUe, where be
was ordained priest in 1626.
Eudea distinguisbed himself by Mi care of the
Bick during times of plague and as a missioner, aud
in 1639 became superior of the Congregation of the
Oratory at Cat^n. Four years later, however, he
left the Oratorians, and with five companions
founded the Ccmgn*gation of the Missionary Priests
of Je^us and Mary, or Eudists^ which substituted
for monastic vows the vow of stnct obedience and
recei%"ed the official (sanction of the bishop of Bayeux
in 1644, The object of the Congregation was to
provide a corps of educated secular priests for the
special purjjoBe of holding missjona among the peo-
ple, and during Eudes'a aclministration of thirty-
seven years as iuperior^general it spread through-
out Normandy and a portion of Brittany, while
seminaries were founded on the model of the mother
house in RoueUi Evreux, Lisieux, Coutanc^, and
Rennea. Under the immediate successor of Eudes,
Blouet de Cam illy, additional seminaries were es-
tablished at A v ranches, Dol, Senlii, and Paris,
whiie under Guy de Fontaines (d. 1727) and Pierre
Cousin (d, 1751) the Eudist^, toother with the
Jesuits, strongly opposed Jansenism, Up to the
outbreak of tlie Revolution the Eudists were one
of the most respected and influential Congrega-
tions of Roman Catlmlic France, and possessed a
college at Paris, in addition t^^ twelve large and
five small seminaries, wliile Father Hubert, the
superior of the Paris bouse, was the confessor of
Louis XVI,
Despite the suppression of the Congregation dur-
ing the Revolution, it was quietly re^'iveti in 1800
by Toussaint Blanchard in the seminary at Reanes,
and was formally roorganraed in 1826, It has con-
sistently maintained its pronouneed Ultramonta-
nism, and since the middle of the nineteenth century
has been active in foreign missions, Eudes lumsf^K
not only founded the Congregation which bears his
name, but also the Daughters of Our Lady of
Charity of the Refuge* the prototype of the modern
sisterhoods of the Good Shepherd, and was hkewise
active in spncsding devotion to the hearts of Jesus
and Mary, thus preparing the way for the later
Congregations devoted to tlus purpose (see SACREn
Hi3ART OP Jesub, Devotion to). Since 1874 tlie
Eudists have eameJ^tly striven to secure the canon-
isation of their founder. (O, Z6citLEH+,)
BiFmcKiHAPUT: 0. de Mo&tiey, Lr Ptrr Eudet et «■ I'furti-
iu£i, Paris, l»m, EtiE. iraosl., 2d eH.. London, 1SS3; A. le
Dor^^ J^9 Veriu9 *iu . . , Jean Eud^^ Farifl. 1872; idetn.
Urn SarriM CfTurm ft . . , Jean Budet, ih. 1S91: A, Pinoa^
La y^^rahlt Plre Endat et irt ofurw*, Puris. IflOl; Hdyot,
Ordm miniaatviutii, vtii. 159-lfll^; Hembucber, Orden umf
Konu^^atianen. ill. 384-3S5, 433. 450-451; KM, IV, 964-
95S; Cmtier, Riligwm Ond«rt, p. 017,
EUBO DE STELLA (EON, EUOH DE LI
Founder of a heretical sect in France; d, ifter n^l
He came from a noble family of Brittatii m^ rm ^
into prominence there atx>ut 1146 as a ^
opposer of the hierarchy and an e^qsoEient of i
alyptic views. He appeafs to have ipplied I
him^lf the liturgtcal formula [Otto of fmm^ I
De GeMis Friderici, /, chap. 54] " by him (Lit. oji.
which he connected with lus own name ton] ^Ix
is to come to judge the quick and the defid,^ r '.>
himself out to be the Son of God^ and by lo j
ecie£t and feigned miracles gat beted iome yii;.u[,|
Though a layman and uztable to read, he ciili imiHi
maas, elected '' angels " and ** ap<Mtl«s " [na
among bis adherents* and bestowed om th^ )^
sounding namej Uke " Judgment " and " Wkknn,^
together with the rank of bishops and ar^^idup.
They undertook devastating raids for thf pliaidii
of churches and cloisters^ and spent their pIDipd
treasuf^es, im^ the narrative runs* in riotous orpei.
Li 1148 Kudo was captured, with a number of Uift
followers. When led for trial before the Bjniod ctf
Edms, he vaingloriously appealed to his '* d
missioD.*^ He died not long afterward in the |
of H.4ichblshop Samson of Reims. Some of hu sJ'
herents, w*ho would seem to have spread si £tr *^
Languedoc, were burned at the stake. Ha^iftev
the sect disappears from history. About the aza^
period &s Endows time certain hereai^ of 6 Uvii-~
chean character were prevalent m Brittany, but 1^
is an erroneous deduction from this fact to e\tppoRA
that Eudo should be included among the Citbii.
In reality he was a mystic fanatic, who vent ^im
own way, Hebmak Hjippt,
BrDLiooRAPHT: C, U, H»hn, 0«idk|<Ai« dtt KtlaBr iM Jfi^
ith^ter, i, 403, Stuttgart, tS4fi: C. SchmidU BMlit «f
d&t^ne d4i la mei^ det Caiharm, L 4Sp P«ri». IMB: E €1
Leo* Hilton/ nf the inqmnHon, i. 66, Hew YoA, t«6?
J. J. I. ?OQ EmlUfiget, BritrAffe tar S^kkm^t^iditt, L l&l.
Munich, 1890: K. Mailer, Kir£fumge*ehiehis. i. 495, Fm-
bitrff^ I8m; C. MoLinJer. in B«vue hiaiarujm. Ut US**),
158-16 1; P. Alplmndt^ry. Lei Idret moralist cka k* haSi^
doT^ J^tint ay d^ut du tSt, tikcU. pp. 102 9qq . PiriJ^
10O4: Hefels. ConeUwnffeMthuAU, y. 61«n517; Kl, ir,
662; Schnlf* v, I, pp. 482. 4S3.
EUBOCIA, yu-d6'shi-a, MLlAi EmprMS <A
Byzantium and wife of Theodosius II, (40&-^S0);
b. at Athena 394; d. at Jerusfdem c. 460- Bet
original name was Athenais, and she was the dsugb-
ter of the pa^n rhetorician Leontius, she krwlf
attaiiiing w^ide celebrity as a scholarly defender d
the ancient faith. .Ai ter the death of Her father,
she is said to have gone to Consiantinople to pn>
test to Pulcheria, the sister of the empress, agaJiat
the pro visions of the will of Leontius, but Pulehem,
charmed by her beauty and culture, converted h^
to Christianity and presented her to her hrotki
as a bride. The marriage is dated in 421 ^ and she
bore Theodo.sius a daughter Eudoxia, who became
the wife of the Western emperor Valentinian 111*
In 43S Eudocta went to Jerusalem and brou^t
back relics which included the two ehaiiis of St»
Peter, depositing one at Constantinople and pre-
senting the other to her daughter at Rome^ where
it gave lis name to the church of St. Peter ad Vio-
cula. Two statues were erected at Antioch in
gratitude for Eudocia'a eulo|Qr of the city. Baioa^
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Eudes
EuffeniuB
was again in Jerusalem, where she passed
linder of her life, apparently in banishment,
jse of her disgrace is unknown, although
ascribes it to an intrigue. It is at least
however, that in the commotion caused
•t and Palestine by the decrees of the Coun-
kalcedon Eudocia took the side of the Pales-
nonks against the government, her influ-
ing so powerful that Pope Leo wrote her in
king to change her attitude; and after con-
with the famous Simon the Stylite and
lius, a monk of the Syrian desert, she ac-
the decrees. In her closing years Eudocia
n hexameters a paraphrase of the Octa-
id the history of Cyprian and Justina. The
rork, portraying the life, conversion, and
lom of a Magian, is of interest as the oldest
orm of the Faust-legend.
(C. Neumann.)
ulpht: The fragments of her Carmina were edited
Lndwi^ Leipaic, 1897. The chief source for a
B the ChronicU of John Malalas (best ed. by L.
rf, Bonn, 1831). though that source is romance
than history, and Nioephonis Callistus, Hiat, eccL,
i. Consult: W. Wiegand. Eudoxia, Worms, 1871;
sorovixis, Athenaia, Leipsic, 1882; Gibbon, D0din«
ifl, iu. 387-^90.
DXTUS OF GERMAinCIA: Arian bishop of
itinople, not improperly called the father
Arianism which in the Arian churches so
lUasted the Aiian controversy; b. at Ara-
[the modem Yarpuz, 50 m. n. of Marash),
[>adocia, c. 300; d. 370. He was the son
tainCffisarius who because of his death as a
is considered a saint of the Roman Church.
his theological education Eudoxius im-
he ideas of Lucian the Martyr (q.v.), prob-
Antioch; for according to Athanasius (Hist,
urn ad monachoa, iv., MPG, xxv. 700A,
ansl., NPNF, 2 ser., iv. 271) he belonged to
lowers of Arius in Antioch whom Bishop
lius refused to receive into the clergy be-
525 and 330. After the overthrow of Eu-
B (330) he became bishop of Germanicia (in
.gene, near the Cappadocian-Cilician-Syrian
jy). He took part in the Synod of Antioch
as a partisan of the Eusebians; he also at-
the synod of the Oriental clergy in Sardica
He first became generally known in 344,
IS one of the envoys he brought the Formula
iekoa into the West — a mission for which
ite and obliging manners must have espe-
ecommended him. He was one of the few
Is who participated in the Synod of Milan
In the following two years he seems to
emained, like Acacius (see Acacius op
5A.), at the court or in the company of the
lishops, since he took part in the negotia-
; the court in Sirmium in 357 in which the
formula of Sirmium was composed,
t this time Bishop Leon tins of Antioch died,
doxius immediately returned to the East
k his place, apparently with the consent of
, XJrsacius, and Valens, not later than the
ig of 358. As bishop he accepted at a
1 Antioch the " Formula of Peace " of Sir-
rut foon showed that he intended to explain
it in the Arian sense. According to Athanasius
(De synodia, xxxviii., MPG, xxvi. 761 A), A6tius
taught Eudoxius the *' Arian impiety *^ about this
time, and it is true that the Arianism of Eudoxius
in former days was less radical and pronounced,
but it is possible that A^tius influenced him at an
earlier time. The extreme Arian tendencies of
Eudoxius called forth the opposition of the Homoi-
ousians, and this party gained for a short time
the upper hand. Emperor Constantius now dis-
owned Eudoxius; apparently he was exiled and
retired to his native country. He returned and took
part in the Synod of Seleucia in 359. Later he
went to Constantinople, under the protection of
Acacius, but only after long negotiations and after
his renunciation of the teachings of A^tius was he
able to regain the favor of the emperor. On Jan.
27, 360, he was enthroned as bishop of the capital.
It is true, he broke with Eunomius and A^tius,
but the enmity between him and the Homoiousians
remained and directed the course of his theology
and church polity. In the time of Valens, this
tendency regained the ascendency. The Synod
of Lampsacus in 364 compelled the emperor to
choose between the Homoiousians and the HomcB-
ans of the last two years of Constantius. Valens
declared himself in favor of the Homoeans, prob-
ably not without the influence of Eudoxius.
The most lasting result of the activity of Eudoxius
was the Arianism of the Germans; for the Goths did
not receive uncompromising Arianism, but that
Homa^an form of it which was sanctioned at the
Synod of Constantinople in 360 and became court
religion imder Valens. To the council of 381 and
the orthodox theologians of that time " Arians "
and " Eudoxians " were synonymous conceptions.
Eudoxius wrote a " Discourse on the Incarnation,*'
which has perished; certain fragments, attributed
to him, may point also to other writings.
(F. LooFs.)
Biblioobapht: Scattered references appear in Sozomen,
Hiat. eccl., ii. 19. 37. 40, 43. iv. 26; and Theodoret. Hiat.
eccl., ii. 2J5. Conault: Tillemont, Memoirea, vol. vi. pa»-
aim; C. P. Caspari, Alie und neue Quellen zur Geachichte
dea Taufaymbola, pp. 176-185. Christiania, 1879; F.
Reiche, Chronologie der letaten aec?ia Bilcher dea Ammianita
AfarceUinua, Jena. 1889; DCB, ii. 265-266; KL, iv. 960-
962; Hefele, Conciliengeachichte, vol. i.. £ng. tranal., vol. ii.
EUGENIUS, yu-ji'ni-us: The name of four
popes.
Eugenius I. : Pope 654-657. He was a Roman
and was chosen pope in accordance with the com-
mand of the emperor and the exarch to select a
successor to Martin I., who had been banished
(see Martin I.; Monothelites). He was con-
secrated Aug. 10, 654. Eugenius had already been
apocrisiarius in Constantinople and thus seemed
to be fit to bring about a reconciliation with the
imperial court in the Monothelite controversy.
The apocrisiarii whom he sent to (Constantinople
concluded peace with Pyrrhus, the patriarch, and
under the influence of Peter, the trusted friend of
Pyrrhus, the dispute between the Monothrlites
and Dyothelites seemed to be approaching its end.
When Peter was appointed patriarch of Constan-
tinople in 655, he sent, according to custom, an
official letter to Eugenius, annoimcing his election^
ifliiffenlTia
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOa
M
which contained no orthodox utterances on the
" operations and wills " of Christ; therefore the
monks of Rome, fearing the invasion of hetero-
doxy, protested, and clergy and people took their
side. Eugenius was forced to promise to repel the
approaches of Constantinople, and the hope of
reconciliation was frustrated. He died June 2 or
3, 657. (H. B6HMER.)
Biblioorapht: Liber pontificalia, ed. Duchesne, i. 34.
Paris. 1886. ed. Mommsen, in MOH, Oft. pont. Rom.,
i (1898). 185; R. Baxmann. Die Politik der Piipste von
Oregor I., i. 177-178, Elberfeld. 1868; J. Langen. Oe-
8chichte der rdmiechen Kirche bU Leo I., i. 356-359, Bonn.
1881; Mann, Popea, I., i. 406-412; Hefele, Concilienge-
achichie. iii. 238 sqq.; DCB, ii. 270; Bower, Popea, i. 467-
458; Milman, Latin Chriatianity, i. 281.
Eugenius H.: Pope 824-827. After the death
of Paschalis I. the people of Rome chose as their
candidate for the vacancy the deacon Laurentius.
But the nobility finally gained the victory, and
their choice, Eugenius, archpriest of Santa Sabina,
was consecrated and enthroned as Eugenius II.
Jime 6, 824. The emperor Louis acknowledged
him, and sent his son Lothair to Rome to settle
existing difficulties. The points settled between
Lothair and the pope were, in the main, four:
(1) the annulment of illegal confiscations which
had taken place imder the late popes; (2) regu-
lation of the administration of justice and suppres-
sion of brigandage; (3) regulation of the relation
of subjects to the Prankish empire; (4) regula-
tion of papal elections. The political supremacy
of the emperor over Rome was emphasized by Lo-
thair in every respect. Each newly elected pope
had to avow his faithfulness to the emp>eror before
consecration. Nevertheless, Lothair considered the
wishes of all parties, the people, the nobility, and
the papal court, as far as possible and thus his
mission had the desired success; peace and justice
were secured for a number of years in Rome. But
while the young Lothair tried to emphasize the
Prankish supremacy, the old emperor yielded to
the pope the general administration of ecclesias-
tical affairs. In the controversy concerning pic-
tures in the church (824-826) which was initiated
by Emperor Michael II. of Byzantium, the Prank-
ish emperor conceded all authority to the pope.
At a synod in Rome, in 826, it was manifest that
the papacy had now seized the reins of church
government. The pontificate of Eugenius II.
makes, at least ecclesiastically, an important ad-
vance in the emancipation of the papacy from the
Prankish empire. (H. B6hmer.)
Biblioobapht: Liber pontificalia, ed. Duchesne, ii. 69,
Paris, 1894; AnnaUa Einhardi, ed. G. H. Perta, MOH,
ScripL, X (1826). 135-218; Theganus, VUa Hludounci, ed.
G. H. Pert!. MGH, Script., ii (1829). 585-603; Jafif^,
Regeata, i. 322 sqq.; R. Baxmann. Die Politik der P&pate,
i. 331-339, Elberfeld. 1868; J. Langen, GeachichU der
rdmiachen Kirche von Leo /., pp. 809-815, Bonn. 1885;
Hauck. KD, ii. 444 sqq.. 489; Bower, Popea, ii. 202-208.
Eugenius HI.: Pope 1145-53. He was a Pisan
by birth, Bernard by name, had studied under the
great Bernard at Clairvaux, and was appointed by
him abbot of the Cistercian monastery of St. Atha-
nasius near Rome; he was also a cardinal. When
Pope Lucius II. died suddenly, Feb. 15, 1145, in
the midst of his struggle with the Roman Senate
(see Lucius II.), the cardinals immediatelj deefeai
Bernard his successor, and he was enthroned a
the Lateran as Eugenius III., all on the same daj.
Two days later the senatorial party compelled him
to leave the city. A sentence of exconmiumcatjoi
pronounced by him against the patrician Pierieov
had no effect, and Bernard of Clairvaux, wiio lif^
terceded for him, was unable to pM^^J
Disorders the Romans; nor yet could the pew
in Rome, induce King Conrad III. of Genniq
to take arms against the insuigai
Romans. Not until Christmas, was Eugenius lUi
to reenter Rome, after concluding a treaty rf
peace with the senatorial party, wherein he ifeqgfi
nized the Roman Republic imder that party's i»c
thority. A few weeks later, however, he was
pelled once again to forsake the Lateran.
At this time Eugenius succeeded in
the leadership in a matter which concerned
Western Christendom. In consequence of the eoh
quest of Edessa by the Emir Zengi of Mosul (CSuiik*
mas, 1144), the Christian seigniories in the EM:
were gravely imperiled, while from Jerusalem iM^
there came urgent appeals for help; furtberaoi;
an Armenian embassy opened up some prosped rf'
a submission of the Armenian Church to the
man See. The interest of Eugenius IIL in beUf
of the East was so strongly aroused that en Dmi
1, 1145, he issued the encyclical Quantum prait
cessores summoning the king, the nobility and (hi
people of France to take up the cross, and
them of ecclesiastical rewards the
The Second as on the Pirst Crusade. This
Crusade, had a brilliant sequel. Louis VIL
Prance, who had long projected a pl*^
grimage to the Holy Land, was promptly n$isi^
and even Conrad III. of Germany promised, ai thft
Imperial Diet of Speyer, Dec. 27, 1146, tosuppirt
the cross. That the appeal resulted so efifec^ud^
was really due to Bernard of Clairvaux (q.v.). W
the pope profited by it, as is manifest above all Ii
connection with the synod convened at Reioos
Mar. 21, 1148, and attended by more than four ho-
dred bishops. Among the notable measures thai
passed (the acts are not preserved) b the declaniftMi
of the invalidity of consecration by Anacletus lU
and of marriages contracted by priests; as wdlil
the imposition of the interdict upon the rendenfli ^
of an excommunicated person. Eugenius fdt \k 1
position to be so strengthened that he ventunl 1
to suspend the archbishops of Cologne and Main^ I
and came near exconununicating King Stephen cf ^
England; envoys of King Henry of Germany !•• *t
quested of him a brief to the German clerics «• \
horting them to stand loyally by his side in ttl
father's absence. While this synod was yei It
session the pope received news of the discomfiUoa
of the German and Prench crusaders; wherenpan
he hastily returned to Italy.
Not very favorable conditions awaited him Yuen.
Arnold of Brescia (q.v.), who had been reod^ed
again into the communion of the Church by Ei^
genius at the beginning of his pontificate, bad !»•
maincd quiet at first; but during the Pope's 1qi||
absence from Rome, he had resumed his reformir
tory efforts. By his espousal of magnificent pbu
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Buffenina
i Eternal City, he had so faacinated the
1 people that a treaty was concluded
according to which Arnold pledged
lid of himself under oath to defend the Ro-
ida. man Republic, and the people on their
side promised to support him. All the
pts of Eugenius to break this bond between
1 and the Romans were ineffectual. Nor
i succeed, at the close of 1149 and with the
King Roger of Sicily, in subduing the Roman
yiac by force of arms.
s alliance with the Norman king also exer-
an unfavorable influence upon his relations
>)nrad of Germany, who, on his side, aroused
ipe's suspicion by reason of a compact with
reek Emperor Manuel. The antipapal party
Doe sought to utilize this tension between Eu-
I and Conrad for their own ends, and endeav-
0 draw the latter over to their side, though
it success. When the pope through a treaty
he Roman Senate was able to return to Rome,
ilatk>n8 between pope and king assumed a
favorable turn, since Eugenius supported
d in restitution of Duke Wladislav of Poland,
his half-sister's husband. However,
itions new tensions arose not long afterward.
iGer- In France there was an active desire
J and for a new crusade to restore the shat-
mce. tered Christian rule in the East; and
because the miscarriage of the last
ie was charged against the Greek Empire, the
irise was to be directed against this power.
m plan was to be executed only in case Roger
Qy fought on the side of France; and since
ontingency in turn presupposed the neutral-
the German king, the undertaking of the
le depended upon the problematical success
lieving a reconciliation between Roger and
d. The attempt miscarried; and at this
tre Eugenius made a total change of policy,
rawing his support from the crusading proj-
nd contriving to restore favorable relations
the German king. Their mutual interests
them still closer together. The pope, imable
ister the continually recurring tumults in
and again forced to leave the city, desired
Dg's intervention; and Conrad aspired to the
ial crown: hence he formed the plan of a
to Rome, which was formally approved by
ignates of the Empire at the Imperial Diet
rzburg, Sept. 15, 1151, and the preparations
«gun; but before the appointed term. Con-
id at Bamberg, Feb. 15, 1152. His succes-
rederick I., Barbarossa, adopted the plan,
e German princes, at a new Imperial Diet
nburg (Oct. 13, 1152), swore to support the
1 expedition.
re it was actually started, however, Euge-
jxie to such terms with the Romans that he
et^im to Rome, this time cordially received
ate and people. There he concluded with
iroys of the German king a treaty which
highly important in the statecraft of the
ig years; it was ratified by Frederick at
ice. Mar. 23, 1153. The king promised to
e peace neither with the Romans nor with
Roger of Sicily without the approbation of Eu-
genius or his successors; to subject, so far as he
could, the Romans to the pope as they
Treaty had been subject to him a century
between past; to defend against every assailant
Eugenius the honor and the regalia of St. Peter
and Fred- as guardian steward of the Roman
erick L Church. The pope promised to honor
the king as son of St. Peter, to crown
him emperor, and to proceed against foes of the
Empire with canonical penalties. They promised
reciprocally to cede no domain in Italy to the
Greek emperor, and if he made an incursion there,
to drive him out.
Eugenius died near Tibur July 8, 1 1 53, and was
buried in St. Peter's at Rome. His conduct as
politician was not without address, and the appre-
hensions of Bernard of Clairvaux, who dedicated
to him the famous tract De consideratione, were not
reaUzed. He surrendered naught of the papal
authority, and understood how to uphold it. In
his manner of life and in his sympathies he con-
stantly showed that he was an old Cistercian.
That he failed to master the Roman revolutionary
movement is not an evidence of incapacity. It
was good fortune for him that he died before the
great conflict broke out between Frederick 1. and
the Papacy. Carl Mirbt.
Bibuoorapht: The EpUtolcB and PriviUgia of Eugenius
III. are in AfPL, cvi., cixxx., clxxxii. Consult: J. De-
lannes, HUt. du pontificat d'Euo^ne III., Nantes. 1737;
Jaff^. ReffMta, ii. 20-89; G. Sainate, Vita del . . Eu-
Oenio III., Pisa. 1868; M. Jocham. Geschichte de* LtbenM
. . . dea . . . PaptteM Euoeniut 111., Auffsburg. 1873;
F. Gregorovius, Hist, of the City of Rome. IV.. ii. 56-64,
London. 1896; J. Langen. OeMchichte der rtimisrhen Kirche
von Oregor Vlll., Bonn. 1893; J. Jaatrow and G. Winter,
Deutache Oeachichte im Zeitalter der Hohenstaufen, vol. i.,
Stuttgart. 1897; Bower. Popes, ii. 477-485; Milnum,
Latin ChriatianUy, iv. 244-262.
Eugenius IV. (Gabriello Condulmieri): Pope
1431-47. He came from a Venetian mercantile
family and belonged to the Celestine Order. Al-
though he was still young and none too well
equipped for the position, he was chosen to suc-
ceed Martin V. on Mar. 3, 1431. The history of
his papacy is largely that of the Council of Basel,
and his importance is in the fact that to him more
than to any one else was clue the failure of the
council and the whole idea of reform by councils.
He summoned the council Mar. 12, 1431, but soon
repented, for he realized that it might brin^: great
danger to himself. The distrust between po|M' and
council grew steadily on both sides, and culmi-
nated in a bull of the former dissolving the council
and action by the latter deposing the po|x» and
the choice of Felix V. (ci-v.) as his successor (see
Basel, Council of). An event favorable to Eu-
genius was the union consummated (on paper) in
1439 between the Roman and Greek Churches,
whereby his reputation in the West was consider-
ably augmented (see Ferrara-Fu)RENCE, Coun-
cil of). He also lived to see Germany, which at
first had declared itself neutral between pope and
council, range itself on his side. In France he
could not annul the so-called Pragmatic Sanction
of Bourges of 14.38 (see Concordats and Delimit-
ing Bulls, III., 2), but he succeeded in keeping this
Ihiglplua
BunomitiB
THE NEW eCHAFF-HERXOO
important lj.nd faithful to his obedience. He died
Feb. 23, 1447. Hk euccessora praifled Mm for
having saved the power of the papacy in dilScutt
timefl; and by his victory over the couiieil and by
the union with the Greeks he did really contribute
to the restoration of Ultrajoontane idea.s of the
papacy after they h^ been shaken by the Great
Western Schism. Paul Tschackjwt,
BtuuooftAPEit: Tbe VHa in in MurfttoHp SeripionM, III., U.
B6g>B7a, Commit: A. Ma^iu, Ueber die Sidtufiff d^t
KamaidvlenMerw A. TravwmMH «un Pap§i Et$4fen /F.*
iMliUn^p 1SS6; U, Bin^k, Dtr KMngr ErMbiMcfmf iMgtrish
. . . utvi Papfi Bngtn /^^P Bonn, 1889; Creighton*
P^jMtu, U, 1 65-373 i Futur. Popa. i. 282-361; MiJm*n,
LaHn ChrUtianity, vii. 5S8-¥ili. 08, Buwer, Popa. ilu
EUGIPIUS, yu-jip'i-0e (EUGIPPIUS, EBGE-
PIUS, EUGYPPIUS, EGIPPIUS); Monk and ec-
clesiastical writer; b, in Noricum about 455 or
460; d. between ^3 and 543. His life is obscure
and the alleged facta given by vanous writera ere
to be rejected. Under his name there have been
preserved an extract (Thssaurus) from a part of
the works of Augustine wliicb circulated in numer-
ous manuscripts during the Middle Ages and was
greatly esteemed; some letters, and a biography
of St. Severin (q»v.). The latter is his most im-
portant work. It is wntt-en in a simple stylej bare
of almost every ornament, and it is this sioipUciiy
and nalvetfi which have procun^ universal recog-
nition for the work. HLstoriana have special rea-
son to esteem this biography, as they obtain from
an eye-wit nesi important information concerning
a period and jmrt of the Roman empire which other-
wise would be unkno^^m. The time is that after
Attila'fl last invasion of Italy and after his death,
when Germanic tribes such a^ the Goths entered
Italy, robbing and epoiling, murdering, and ta-
king captives. Only certain fortresses on the right
bank of the Danube resisted for some time the at-
tacks of the Germans, ei*pccially through the aid
of Severin, who warned the Romans of the threat-
ened invasion and gained also the respect of the
Arian Germans and induced them to retire. But
the downfall of the Eotnan dominion in Noricum
could not long be postponed. Shortly after the
death of Severin (482) the time came which had
been predicted by him wlien the last Romans emi-
grated from Noricum and returned to Italy. In
487 they carried his bones with them, thus fulfil-
ling his last wish. The remains were finally de-
posited in 491 or 492 at Lucullanum, on a small
island in the Bay of Naples, where a noble woman
provided a beautiful butying-place. There a new
monjistery wits erected for Severin 's disciples, of
which Eugipius became the third abbot.
DuririjE^ the latter years of the life of Severin,
Euicipius wa^ one of hii* disci pies. He witnessed
his last deeds and heard hia last admonitions and
predictions. He wrote bis biography of the saint
in the beginning of the sixth century. A distin-
guished layman, the author of a biography of a
monk namwJ Bassus, had asked Eugipius for ma-
terial on the life of Severin, with the intention of
using it as the basis for another biography. Eugi-
pius complied with the wish, and wrote down all
his own recollections and those of his older breth-
ren, armnging them chronolopcilly. Thm
hesitated to entrust a layman with hia
and finally pkve it to Paseha^us, a deiei
him to write a biography of Severis and pn
account of his miracles and predictioos.
chasiua, however, refused, on the ground Uist
scholarly skill could add to the memorial of
pius. A stranger, he thought, might odj
the represent-atton of the pupil and e;
Thus there were no changes made in tJie
script. Eugipius was not learned, espedafly
secular Beiences. His judgment in
matters is not deep, and he relates minele
miracle, without the least attempt to eipbuD
BrBLioonAi^T: The Optm* ed. J. Hwold, appeawd B«4]
1542; in MPL, haU mad in CSEU ix. puU 1-1
0Ult: M. BOdlnsarr In SiixungwA&idkis dF Tfirtor
dmiit, pkilotot^iMk-hiAtoHtekt Klatm, sd (1S7S), 7^
814; Wat&enbActa. DGQ. 51 h ocL, i. 47, 6di cd. i. «Mt
il. 601; A. Ebcrt, Gachidiie d*r diruJitdUsifwilB
Lfcterofur. i. 431 aqq.. Lelp^c, 18S&; W. a TniEii 9t-
tchiehle dm- r6miteh«n LOiratiir, p^ I^Sfi^ | 4M. do. ti
Leitwic, 1S90; DCB, ii. 276-276.
EUHEMERUS, yll-hi'mer~us (ETT^fEIOB^
Greek philosopher; flourished about 3 16-300 a&
He was possibly a native of Messene, though A|^
gentum, T^ea in Arcadia, and the islaad d On
all claimed him. In philosophy be wat iHiid ti
the school of Aristtppus of Gyrene. He lived II
the court of Cassander of Macedon, by vboot hi
was sent on a journey into the region of tbe hiiH 1
Ocean. On his return he w*rote a " Sacred B» 1
tory," the method of which made him faniotB, Ii '
this work he clmmed to have found in Pananw,tb
capital of the (fabulous) istand Pancha^j & tempfe
to Zeus where was a column bearing the t?g>^
of the births and deaths of many of the gods. Be
professed to take this as a clue and interpr^
myth as history, regatdiDg the gods bb endneDt
men posthumously deified, thus anticipatiog tha
Spencerian school and giving his name ta tla*
ty|XJ of interpretation of history and inytli eiB^
Euhemerism. The book was attractive iustyfe
and matter, and was translated by the Latjn pM*
EnniuB (Cicero, De natura deorum, i. 42)* Onlyi
few fragments remain, collect^ in DiodDniB Sfco:
lus, Bibliothecm ftwtonco*, cd. P. Wesfflding {f^
sterdara, 1746), in I. P. Cory, Anderd Frojm***!
(London, 1876), and G. N. Eemethy (Bwlipe*i
1S89). The work was a subtle attack on yi^
ism, and its method was taken up by the CSiiitiiD
Apologists (cf. Lactantius, " Institutes," i- Ui
Eng. transl. ANf\ vii. 20-24— founded on t-Or
hcmerus), and continued to be in favor until vieiy
recent times. Quo. W. Gilmoei
1S60; R. de Block, Etih*m^i won Uvn ei m datk^
MoQB, 18TG- valuahle notes on to be found iti Mirn^
de raatdemit deM inMcHp^Ofrig, vob, viii., p. rr., x^if.
453, 402, 3txv. 1.
EULALITJS, yu-1^1l-tja: Antipope 41ir4l9. For
his election and expulsion, see Bonifaci L
He was banished to Campania, where he remained
quiet during the pontificate of his sncoessFul op
ponent, after whose death some were found U
support again the choice of Eulaliue. He died tb
year after Boniface, in 423. (A. Haucz.)
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bu^plus
Eunomiiis
HJOoaAPHT: Bower, Popet, i. 162-167; Milm&n, LaHn
ariHignify. i. 108-100. See also the literature under
BonrAcsI.
EUL06IA, yu4d'ji-a: A word used several
iuBB in the New Testament, with the general
■BR of " blessing." In patristic and ecclesias-
ttai writers it has a double meaning. The earlier
WBthat of a definite clerical blessing, which, ac-
mfing to the Apostolic Constitutions, the deacon
m not to impart, while the presbyter received it
II his ordination only from the bishop, and the
Irtter only from other bishops; it was imparted to
iehtty in the Eucharist and on other solemn
MttBoos by the bishop or presbyter. The word
IM applied also to the special blessing given to
oteehumens or compeienteSf and to the hallowing
cflituigical materials, such as water and oil; in
fte later ritual books it occurs of the marriage
UeniDg, the setting apart of monks, etc.
The second and better-known use of the word
ns in a sacramental connection. The use of it
k I Cor. X. 16 was compared with that of eucharia-
■m and eulogisas in Matt. xxvi. 26, 27, which
icre taken as equivalent; and eulogia was em-
pk^ed for the Eucharist itself. In the third cen-
)mj eulogein was used for the act of consecration
nd administration of the elements (Eusebius,
UuLecd., vi. 43), and numerous passages in Cyril
af Alexandria show that in his time eulogia meant
either the Lord's Supper itself or the consecrated
Imd. But this meaning underwent various mod-
Bntioiis. As eariy as Irenteus it was customary
ior bishops to send the sacrament to other places
Ib token of unity. The Council of Laodicea for-
Udithis practise (can. xiv.) on the ground of poe-
Afe profanation. In the fifth century erdogice
iw given even to catechumens and penitents,
vhowere debarred from the reception of the sacra-
MDt; but later liturgical writers explain these as
foitionB of the bread offered at the Eucharist but
lot consecrated, only blessed and given as a sort
ffnbstitute for the sacrament to these classes.
Thb " blessed bread " is what is called antidOron
tithe liturgy of St. Chrysostom; its connection
lith the term under consideration is explained by
tk formula of administration found there which
htgm with the words " the eulogia of God." This
Me of the word was handed down to the modem
Greek Church, and the custom persisted in the
Wert (Cone. Nannetense, can. ix. 890, where the
priest is to keep such pieces of bread previously
iiiened to distribute after the mass to those who
kve not been prepared for conununion).
(Philipp Meyer.)
Bbuogkapbt: Bingham. Orioinsa, XV.. iv. 3, 8, XVI, vi. 3;
C Crmcaa. Die LiturgU dea heiliaen Chrytoatomus. pp.
12^136. Gatersloh. 1890; Von Drews, in Zeitaehnft fUr
rnktiad^e Theologie, xx (1808), 18-19; and the lexicons.
EUL06IUS, yu-l6'ji-us, OF ALEXANDRIA:
Patriarch of Alexandria 580-607, succeeding John
V. He was originally presbyter and abbot of the
niastery of Mary in Antioch, and combated the
Ioiioph3r8ite heresy in numerous works, of which
number were read by Photius (BibHotheca^ codex
sxxvi). O. Bardenhewer has edited, in Greek
id German, excerpts preserved from his work" On
e Trinity" (TQ, btxviii., 1896, pp. 354-401).
A sermon on Palm Sunday (Matt, xxi.) and frag-
ments of other works were collected by Mai {MPG,
Ixxxvi. 2, pp. 2907-64). Eulogius is revered as
a saint by the Greeks on Feb. 13 and by the Latins
on Sept. 13. G. KrCoer.
Bibliography: J. M. Neale. Pahiarchate of Alexandria,
ii. 46-52, London, 1847; A. von Gutnchmid, in Kleins
SchHften, ii. 409-470. Leipsic. 1890; DCB, ii. 283.
EULOGIUS OF CORDOVA: Spanish martjrr;
b. at Cordova after 800; beheaded there Mar. 11,
859. He was of good family, was educated for the
priesthood, became deacon and presbyter of the
Church of St. Zoilus at Cordova, and adopted a
life of the strictest asceticism. His grandfather
had been noted for hatred of the Mohammedans,
and Eulogius's inherited tendencies were strength-
ened by his teacher, the abbot Speraindeo of Cor-
dova, and by his intimate friend Alvar (q.v.).
Returning home from a visit to Northern Spain un-
dertaken in 848, he found a party among the Chris-
tians characterized by a fanatical desire for mar-
tyrdom, which they sought by publicly reviling
Mohammed. Influenced by Alvar, after some
hesitation Eulogius came forward as the apologist
of this party, and wrote in glorification of martyrs
and exhorting to emulate them. The emir Abdal-
rahman II. (822-852), whose policy was tolerant
and enlightened, with the support of some of the
Christians headed by an archbishop Reccafred
(probably of Seville), sought in vain to checjk the
fanatical movement (see Cordova). Eulogius was
imprisoned for a time, but his literary activity
was not interfered with. He was chosen successor
to Archbishop Wistremir of Toledo (d. 858), but
the emir refused to confirm his election; disap-
pointed and filled with new fanaticism, he sought
the death which he had praised in others. Alvar
glorified him in hymns and in an account of his life
and death (in MPL, cxv. 705-720). His works
include a few letters and a Memoriale sanctorum
martyrum in three books, which is the main source
of the martjrr history of the time and appears to
be a sober and trustworthy narrative of facts; and
a Liher apologetunis sanctorum martyrum^ in which
he tries to place the Spanish martyrs on a level
with those of the early Church and the Moham-
medans with the Roman persecutors. With his
other works, scholia, etc., they are in AfPL, cxv.
731-912.
Biblioorapht: ASB, Mar., i. 88-97: W. von Baudisain.
EvdoQiua und Alvar, Leipuc, 1872; R. Doiy, Hiatoire dea
Muaulmana d'Eapagne, ii. 1-174. Leyden, 1861; P. Gams,
Die Kirchenoeachichte Spaniena, ii. 299-338, Regenaburg,
1874.
EUNOMIUS, yu-n6'mi-us, EUNOMIANS: A here-
tic of the fourth century and his party. Eu-
nomius was bom at Oltiseris, in the district of
Komiaspa, in Cappadocia, close to the Galatian
boundary (Gregory of Nyssa in A/ PC?, xlv. 281 D;
cf. W. M. Ramsay, Historical Geography of Asia
Minor, London, 1890, p. 264 and map p. 197); d.
at Dakora in the district of Capsarea (Sozomen,
VII., xvii. 1; Ramsay, ut sup., 306-307) c. 393.
His father seems to have been a man of education,
who took care to give his son the same advantages.
There is, however, no very definite information as
to his life until 356 or 357, when he came to AStius
Eanomins
Buphrates
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
in Alexandria, recommended, according to Philos-
torgius, by the Arian teacher Secundus, who was
then in Antioch, whose secretary he had been. He
gained the favor of Eudoxius, bishop of Antioch
(see Eudoxius of Germanicia), who made him a
deacon. When Eudoxius was suspended but not
yet banished, Eunomius was sent to the emperor
in his behalf, but was taken prisoner by the Homoi-
ousians on the road and banished to Midcea in
Phrygia in the autumn of 358. After the Synod
of Seleucia, with Aetius, he followed the serai-
Arian bishops to Constantinople, and took a prom-
inent part in the theological disputations there
which ended in the defeat of the semi-Arians.
Early in 360 Eunomius was made bishop of
Cyzicus by Eudoxius, accepting the office, it would
seem, partly in the hope of facilitating the recall of
his old teacher Aetius, while Eudoxius may have
hoped to win Eunomius for his conciliatory type
of Arianism. Complications followed, but they are
hard to trace in detail. According to Theodoret,
whose account is followed by Tillemont and Ivlose
as well as by most modem scholars, the people of
Cyzicus succeeded in inducing Eu-
Bishop of nomius to emerge from his doctrinal
Cyzicus. reticence and declare himself; they
then accused him before Eudoxius,
who, after long hesitation, deposed Eunomius from
his bishopric, and thus determined him to found
a party of his own — at first in Pamphylia, whither
he retired. Philostorgius knows of the accusation
of the Cyzicenes, but asserts that Eunomius was
wholly cleared; that nevertheless, being unwilling
to assent either to the condemnation of Aetius or
to the decrees of Rimini, he voluntarily resigned
his bishopric and retired to his birthplace; that
Acacius then calumniated him before Constantius,
with the result that he was cited to appear at the
synodal negotiations at Antioch in the winter of
360-361; that Acacius did not prees his charges,
and the matter was thus postponed to a larger
synod, the convocation of which was prevented by
the emperor's death. On the whole the latter ac-
count seems preferable in that the probably in-
dependent narrative of Sozomen is more easily
reconcilable with it than with Theodoret's.
Under Julian the Anomcean party was able once
more to raise its head. Eunomius went to Con-
stantinople, and there, in concert with Aetius,
attempted to establish an Anomcean church. Eu-
zoius of Antioch and even Eudoxius, now bishop
of Constantinople, seemed, now that court influ-
ence was no longer to be considered, not indisposed
to join the more radical Arians; but under Julian's
successors they perceived the danger
Breach of such sympathies and drew back.
with the Eunomius and his friends were thus
Semi- driven to the formation of an inde-
Arians. pendent ecclesiastical organization.
They consecrated bisliops for Lydia,
Ionia, Palestine, and Constantinople. From this time
(about the end of 363) dates the definitive breach
between the conciliatory Arians (Homoeans) an<l
the Anomoeans. Eudoxius seized with avidity the
occasion offered by these proceedings and refused
to acknowledge the consecrations, strengthened in
his policy by the favor which Valens showed faai
in the first period of his residence at Constaoli*
nople; and Euzoius recognized the logic of eventit J
Agtius and Eimomius left the representation of;
their cause in the capital to Florentius, and
tired, the former to the neighborhood of Mytiko%.j
the latter to Chalcedon. Here they lived fort;'
while without exercising ecclesiastical functioMi
On the proclamation as emperor of Procopius, £b-
nomius, with whom he had previously had fnea§f,
relations, returned to Constantinople with AiCiai
before the downfall of Procopius (May 27, 90Q^
and remained there after the death of Agtius, wiaeh
can not have occurred before the next spring, h
the winter of 367 Eimomius was banished to Mn-
retania on account of his relations with the usmpei;
but influence was brought to bear upon Valai%
which resulted in his recall in the autumn of 368,
After this he lived apparently at Chaloedao;
but little is known of the last years of his lifii
Socrates relates that when Theodosius called a eaft>
ference of the leaders of various religious paitifl
in Constantinople (June, 383) Eunomius lepn*
scnted his associates there. But his cause wm
hopeless. Immediately before the accesston tf
Theodosius, Gratian had expressly excluded III.
Eunomians, with the Photinians and ^Manichm%
from the toleration which he pi^
His Later claimed. The edict of Theodosius «
Life. Feb. 27, 380, had indirectly proecribei
them, and that of Jan. 10, 3S1, &>
rectly. On July 25, 383, after the conference mm>
tioned above, the emp>eror issued a similar eifici
against a wider range of heresies. Eunomius, tlM
only leader to incur personal punishment, mi
banished once more. He resided for a time il
Chalcedon, still exercising a certain influence a
Constantinople, was then sent to Halmyiis it
Moesia, and when this place was taken by the bir-
barian invaders, to Csesarea in Cappadocia. Ht
was finally allowed to retire to his estate at DakoiiL
His party did not long survive him. Imperial
edicts ordered the banishment of their leaders and j_
the burning of their books, and denied th?m tbil
right of testamentary disposition. And diviaiaai
occurred within their own ranks, apparently con-
nected with baptismal customs. The Eunomiaaa
did not recognize the baptism or ordination evcR
of the Arians, and substituted single for trine im-
mersion.
The importance of Eunomius may be meammd
by the number of antagonists he found on tlw
orthodox side, including Apollinaris, Didyma%
Andronicianus, Theodore of Mopsuestia, S(^hn>-
nius, Basil, and Gregory of Nyssa. Of his o«B
works only five are known — ^besidea a
Works, lost conmtientary on the Romans and
collection of letters, a small apdogBtiB
book (the one controverted by Basil, Apollinaris
and Didymus), written probably soon aft-er 360; a
rejoinder to Basil, written just before the latUar^
death; and an *' Exposition of the Faith," probably
taken from the last-named to some extent, about 383.
Epiphanius says that Eunomius and his foQovefff
went more widely astray than Alius; but this is a
mistake. Anus was an Anomcean; and the
Suaeblus of Onsarea
THE NEW 8CHAFF-HERZ0G
MS
lieved that the Persian Gulf once extended 150
or perhaps even 200 milea farther north than at
present, and the formation of alluvial land con-
tinuea at the rate of about a mile in aeventy yeara.
The whole course of the river m about 1,780
miles, and it is navigable for small vessels for about
1 ,200 miles. It has been well said that the " upper
region of the Euphrates resembles that of the
Rhine, while its middle course may bo compared
with that of the Danube, aod its lower with the
Nile." See Asstria, XL, | 2; Babylonia, II,, {{ 1-2.
Robert W. Roqeks.
BiBnooftApRr: F. B* CliMnoy* Exp^ition. firr the Survm/
€f ^e , . . EuphraUt, Laadon, 1S50 (the beat); W. K.
l^tiUM, ChaldtFa ami Suniana. ib. 1SS7; A. H. J^j^ard,
Ninev^A and Bahj/^n^ cb&ps. xjqi.-x.xilM ib. 1867; G^ Raw*
tifuran, Herodafus, E^-tay ix., Londoiif 1S7S: F. Delitvscbi
Wo loQ dot Paradirtf pp. 160-170. Ldpnic, lESl; Sehra^
der, KAT, pp. 26-28, 122. 1*8, 239. 359, fi28: DH, L
794; EB, iu 1437-29.
lUSEBIUS, yu-s^'bt-ua; Pope 309. Hia pon-
tificate lasted only from Apr. 18 to Aug. 17, after
which, in consequence of disturbance within the
Church which led to acta of violence, he was ban-
ished by the tyrant Majcenttus^ who had been the
sole ruler of Homo sinee Apr,, 30S, and had at first
shown himseLf friendly to the Christiana. The dif-
ficulty arose^ as in the case of his predecessor Mar*
cell us, out of bis attitude toward the Lapsed (q*v.),
which represented the milder standpoint. He died
in omle in Sicily, and waa buried in the cemetery
of Calixtus, his successor Damasus placing an
epitaph of eight hexameters over bis tomb; the
epithet " martyr " contained in them ia not to be
taken in the strict sensa. (Edgar Hennecke.)
BiDiiioaR^pziY: Libfr pontiflcnlU, ^. Duchciine, i. 167,
Pari*, 1886. «fl. Momm«n, in MQHt QewL pant ftwrn., i
(180S}, 45j A^'SB, Sept., vi 1.265-27 1; F. X. Kmus. Roma
loUerraitiM. pp. 181 sqq.. Freiburg, 1879: J* B. LJEbtfoot,
Apowtolic Fathert, I., i. 297-2B9, London, 1S90; Bower,
PofHia, h 41; KL, iv. 9»7-llt)9.
EUSEBIUS OF ALEXANDRIA: An author to
whom are attributed certain extant homiliea which
enjoyed some renown in tlie Eastern Church in the
sixth and seventh centuries. Their homiletieal
merit does not rise above mediocrityi and nothing
is known of the author. At all events^ he was not
a patriarch of Alexandria, as ia affirmed in an
eariy biography (MPG, Ixxxvi. 1, pp. 297-310),
written by one Johannea, a notary, and stating
that Euaebius was called by Cyril to be his succes-
sor in the cpiacoiHife. The discDurscrt belong prob-
ably to the fifth or sixth century, and poseibly
originated in Alexandria. They deal with the life
of the Lord and with questions of ecclesiastical
life and practise, which they rewlve in a monastic-
ajscetic way. Their literary character is not quite
cU-ar; while niQUi of them are adapted for public
delivery, not a few bear the character of ecclesias»
tieal pronouncements. They arc printed in MFG^
Ixxxvi. 1, pp. 287^Q2, 509-536, except four in-
cluded among Chryaoatom's works. The frag-
ments preserv4xl in the so-called Sacra paralUl^
are to be found in K. HolVn Fragrnenie vomic^n-
ischer Kir^henvf'iter (TU, new series, v, 2, TjeipHic,
1899), pp. 31 1-332. A homily concerning the ob-
aervance of Sunday is attributed by 2ahn (see be-
low) to Eu.'^eblus of Ernes a, G- KrOqer.
BittMooaAPaTt J. C. Thilo, Ueber dU 5c9kri/im d$t
6iu4 van AUxandnen und dt9 Eumtjivs v^ft ^Nuia.
1832: T. Z»hn. lO ZKW, v (1^41, 516-534: G.
^p'mD d€ daminieae ebietvatitme^ C/n« atuifni
laiitHf d'un acrmon attribuS ii Eu9i^ d'Alatmdiii, in M^
vue B^mtiin*, l&OT. pp. 530 sqq.; CeiUier, ^ulfwt «aBi|
V)Li. 3S3-3S4; DCB, ii. a<l&-307.
EUSEBIUS (BRTHfO) OF AUGERS: Bishop of
Angera; d. Sept. 1, 1081. He ia first met witb li
biiihop of Angers at the aynod of Reims jii Id^
and for a long time had been an adherent of Berao-
gar^a doctrine of the Lord's Supper (see BzEXVoa
OF Tourb). As such he was regarded by Berei^
himself and by his opponents Diet win of Ii%B^
Durand of Troame, and Humbert, But when bt
recognized the strength of the oppositioa, h
favored a compromise; at any rate he admd
Berengar in 1054 to swear to tbe formula preseated
to him, Neverthelesa Berengar eonsidered lum
hia friend many years later and requested him t«
silence a certain Galfrid Martini or to arnmgc i
disputation. In bis reply Eusebius not only »•
gretted the whole controversy, but also stated thil
he would abide by the words of Holy Scripture, »e-
cording to which the bread and wine after tbe eee-
secration become the body and blood of the Locdj
if one a^ke how this can take place the nsunm
must be that it is not according to the ordi^ d
nature but in accordance with the divine omnipt^
tence; at any rate one mtiat be careful not to pn
offense to the plain Christian, The epi^ ii i
downright renunciation of Berengar in caae In :
should still maintain his view. In favor of thi '^
supposition that EusebtUB chang^ hia opiakA
from deference to the count of Anjou, tbe dericld
opponent of Berengar and his doctrine, it can bi
adduced that he did not defend Beren^ apini
the hostilities of the court, and that for i lon|
time he sided with this violent prince. It ii il«
possible that the fact impressed itself upon Eu»-
biufl tliat the rehgioua consciousness of tbe tiw
more and more opposed Berengar, Our kno^rittjft
however, is too fragmentary to pass a very aecuiiti
sentence, S, M. DtiiTSca. ]
BihuooRAPBt: G, E. Lessiog, Betms^ariut TvnmnM ,
{Werko, ed. Lochm&tm-M<siLhn. Yiii. :^l (v^q.. U ti^
l^ipffir. 1S53'67): H. Sudendorf* Bermtrariut Tvnt^
«%*, pp. S2 sqq. et piwsim, Goth a. 1850: L. Seb*lk*
StudUn rur Oaehii^Ui da tweiten AhtriAmifkiMttlk
Loipflic, 1SS7; J. Schmticr. Berenoar vcn Tourt, 7h W9^
Mufiich, 1890; idam, in Da* Katholik, US02, 544 iqn^
Bndckitiff, in D€u{»che ZnOeArift fUr GeMchkkttityima^-
tchaft V (tSei), M2, vi (1892 J. 232^ ZKG, ut {Xm\
imi Nemder, Christian Church, iii. 508 -Si 7.
EUSEBIUS OF C^SAREA.
L Lift
Bei3om«B Fromlneiit in the Ariui Ceantroyergy (| 1%.
n. Works.
Wcirka on BibLloal Text Critisum C| 1>,
The ■■ Chin-mcle " (I 2),
Tbe " Church Hiatory "" (* 3),
Minor Historica] Warkji (fi 4),
Apoiogetid and Dogmatic Works ([ 5)^
Exfisetical and Mim»lIan«ou« Wodcs CI ^%
Til. EsiUmaie of Eu^wbiua.
Ilia DoceririD (| 1).
Ilia ExwllenoiH and Limitatio£m (12),
Eusebius of Cfliearea (often called Eutddus Piam
phili, ** Eusebius [the friend of] Pamphilus ^% tm
Pamphilus). bishop of C^sarea in Palffitine. tlM
father of church history, was bom about 27^ a
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Busabius
Bosebius of OflBsarea
use unknown; d. at Csesarea (?), at the latest
36t probably May 30, 339.
fe: Little is known of his youth. He be-
MX}\iaint«d with the presbyter Dorotheus in
h and probably received exegetical instruc-
om him. In 296 he was in Palestine and
'oDStantine who visited the country with
tian. He was in Csesarea when Agapius was
and made the acquaintance of Pamphilus,
tecame his intimate friend. With him he
d studies which seem to have related chiefly
preparation of a correct text of the Bible,
he aid of Origen's Hexapla, and commen-
collected by Pamphilus. In 307 Pamphilus
irown into prison, but Eusebius continued
tercourse and studies. The fruit of their
m labors was an apology for Origen in which
lilus and Eusebius collaborated, which was
d by Eusebius after the death of Pamphilus
gat to the martyrs in the mines of Phseno in
(see below, II., § 5). After the death of
bilus, Eusebius seems to have gone to Tyre
iter to Egypt, where apparently he first suf-
persecution. The charge that he purchased
crty by sacrificing to the gods is unfounded.
MuB is next heard of as bishop of Csesarea.
coeeded Agapius, whose time of office is not
1, but Eusebius must have become bishop
ifter 313. Nothing is known about the first
of his official activity, but with the begin-
rf the Arian controversies he becomes prom-
, Arius appealed to him as hid protector, and
a letter of Eusebius to Alexander it is evi-
that he aided the exiled presbyter (see Arius).
I the 0>imcil of Nicsea met in 325, Eusebius
prominent in its transactions. He was not
naturally a leader or a deep thinker,
teomes but as a very learned man and well
minent trained in history, at the same time a
itfae famous author who enjoyed the spe-
n (Jon- cial favor of the emperor, he came to
fosf. the front among the 300 members of
the council. The confession which he
Med became the basis of the Nicene formuki
^iCJRJi, CJouNCiL of). Eusebius was variously
»ted in the f\irther development of the
, controversies, as, for instance, in the dispute
Eustathius of Antioch (q.v.). Eustathius
tted the continually growing influence of
1 and his allegorizing exegesis, seeing in his
igy the roots of Arianism. Eusebius, on the
hand, was an admirer of Origen, and em-
l the same principles in his exegesis. Eusta-
reproached Eusebius for deviating from the
i faith, and was charged in turn with Sabel-
n. Eustathius was accused, condemned and
id at a synod in Antioch. The people of An-
alway^ prone to disturbances, rebelled against
ction, while the anti-Eustathians proposed
ius sa the new bishop, but he declined.
>r Eustathius had been removed, the Euse-
proceeded against Athanasius, a much more
"ous opponent. In 334 he was summoned
a synod in Csesarea; he dfd not attend, how-
iistmsting his opponents. In the following
te was again summoned before a synod in
IV.— 14
Tyre at which Eusebius presided. Athanasius,
divining the result, went to (Constantinople to bring
his cause before the emperor. The emperor called
the bishops to his court, among them Eusebius.
Athanasius was condemned and exiled at the end
of 335. At the same synod, another opponent
was successfully attacked. Marcellus of Ancyra
(q.v.) had long opposed the Eusebians, and had
only lately protested against the reinstitution of
Arius. He was accused of Sabellianism and de-
posed in the beginning of 336. Constantine died
the next year and Eusebius did not long survive
him.
n. Works: Of the extensive literary activity
of Eusebius, r\ relatively large portion has been
preserved. Although posterity suspected him of
Arianism, Eusebius had made himself indispen-
sable by his method of authorship; his comprehen-
sive and careful excerpts from original sources
saved his successors the painstaking labor of re-
search. Hence much has been preserved which
otherwise would have been destroyed. The liter-
ary productions of Eusebius reflect on the whole
the course of his life. At first he occupied himself
with works on Biblical criticism, under the influ-
ence of Pamphilus and probably of Dorotheus of
the School of Antioch. Afterward the persecu-
tions under Diocletian and Galerius directed his
attention to the martyrs of his own time and the
past. And this led him to the history of the whole
Church and finally to the history of the world,
which to him was only a preparation for ecclesias-
tical history. Then followed the time of the Arian
controversies, and dogmatic questions came into
the foreground. Christianity at last found recog-
nition by the State, and this brought new prob-
lems— apologies of a different sort had to be pre-
pared. Lastly, Eusebius, the court theologian,
wrote eulogies in praise of the first ** Christian "
emperor. To all this activity must be added nu-
merous writings of a miscellaneous nature, ad-
dresses, letters, and the like, and exegetical works
which include both commentaries and treatises on
Biblical archeology and extend over the whole of
his life.
Psjnphilus and Eusebius occupied themselves
with the text criticism of the Old Testament (Sep-
tuagint) and especially of the New Testament. An
edition of the Septuagint seems to have been al-
ready prepared by Origen, which, according to
Jerome, was revised and circulated by
I. Works Eusebius and Pamphilus. For an eas-
on Biblical ier survey of the material of the four
Text Evangelists. Eusebius divided his edi-
Criticism. tion of the New Testament into para-
graphs and provided it with a synop-
tical table so that it might be easier to find the
pericopes which belong together (see Bible Text,
II., § 4).
The two greatest historical works of Eusebius
are his " Chronicle " and his " Church History."
The former (Gk. PantodapS historia, '* Universal
History ") is divided into two parts. The first
part (Gk. Chronographia, " Annals ") purports to
give an epitome of universal history from the
sources, arranged according to nations. The
Bnaabius of OnMurea
Buseblus of Smesa
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
Sll
second part (Gk. Chronikoi kanoneSf " Chronolog-
ical Canons ") attempts to furnish a synchronism
of the historical material in parallel
2. The columns. The work as a whole has
" Chron- been lost in the original, but it may
icle." be reconstructed from later chronog-
raphists of the Byzantine school who
made excerpts from the work with untiring dili-
gence, especially Georgius Syncellus. The tables
of the second part have been completely preserved
in a Latin translation by Jerome, and both parts
are still extant in an Armenian translation, but
these translations do not possess great value on
account of numerous interpolations. The ** Chron-
icle " as preserved extends to the year 325. It
was written before the " Church History."
In his *' Church History," Eusebius attempted
according to his own declaration (I., i. 1) to present
the history of the Church from the apostles to his
own time, with special regard to the following
points: (1) the succe^ions of bishops in the prin-
cipal sees; (2) the history of Christian teachers;
(3) the history of heresies; (4) the history of the
Jews; (5) the relations to the heathen; (6) the
martyrdoms (I., i. 1-^3). He grouped his material
according to the reigns of the emperors, presenting
it as he found it in his sources. The contents are
as follows: After a detailed introduction, which
treats of Jesus Christ (book i.), comes
3. The the history of the apostolic time to
" Church the capture of Jerusalem (book ii.);
History." then the following time to Trajan
(book iii.); books iv. and v. treat of
the second century; book vi. of the time from
Severus to Decius; book vii. extends to the out-
break of the persecution under Diocletian; book
viii. treats of this persecution; book ix. brings the
history to the victory over Maxentius in the West
and over Maximinus in the East; book x. relates
the reestablishment of the churches and the rebel-
lion and conquest of Licinius. In its present form
the work was brought to a conclusion before the
death of Crispus (July, 326), and, since book x. is
dedicated to Paulinus of Tyre who died before
325, at the end of 323 or in 324. This work re-
quired the most comprehensive preparatory studies,
and it must have occupied him for years. His col-
lection of martyrdoms of the older period (see be-
low, § 4) may have been one of these preparatory
studies. The authenticity of Eusebius's " Church
History " is beyond dispute. Every new dis-
covery shows anew the conscientious, careful and
intelligent use of the libraries of Cffisarea and
Jerusalem.
Before he compiled his church history, Eusebius
edited a collection of martyrdoms of the earlier
period and a biography of Pamphilus. The mar-
tyrology has not survived as a whole, but it has
been preserved almost completely in parts. It
contained (1) an epistle of the con-
4. Minor gregation of Smyrna concerning the
Historical martyrdom of Poly carp; (2) the mar-
Works, tyrdom of Pionius; (3) the martyr-
doms of Carpus, Papylus, and Aga-
thonike; (4) the martyrdoms in the congregations
of Vienne and Lyons; (5) the martyrdom of
Apollonius. Of the life of Pamphflus only a fn§
ment survives. A work on the martyiB of Palat
tine in the time of Diocletian was composed aftai
311; numerous fragments are scattered in kgeaA'
aries which still have to be collected. The Bb
of Constantine was compiled after the death of thi
emperor and the election of his sons at Augoifl
(337). It is more a rhetorical eulogy on thi
emperor than a history, but is of great vtimy
on account of nimierous documents incorpontBi'
in it.
To the class of apologetic and dogmatic wodi
belong: (1) the " Apology for Origen," the fint
five books of which, according to the definite stati* j
ment of Photius, were written by Pamphibi it
prison, with the assistance of Eusebius. Euaebni
added the sixth book after the death of Pamphflon ^
We possess only a translation of the first bool^ j
made by Rufinus; (2) a treatise against Hierodn
(a Roman governor and Neoplatonic philosoplMr]^
in which Eusebius combated the former's gkdi*
cation of Apollonius of Tyana in a work entttled
"A Truth-loving Discourse" (Gk. PWWSlfc
logos); (3) and (4) the two prominent anddoN^
connected works commonly known by the Lttit
titles Propparatto evangelica and DemonttrA
evangelicaf the first attempts to prove the Or
cellence of Christianity over every pagan religifli
and philosophy. The Pntpanib
5. Apolo- consists of fifteen books which hn*
getic and been completely preserved. Ea»*
Dogmatic bius considered it an introdneUoi
Works, to Christianity for heathen. Ite
Demonstratio comprised origmilf
twenty books of which ten have been eoi^
plctely preserved and a fragment of the fifteentiL
Here Eusebius treats of the person of JeiBi
Christ. The work was probably finished befi*i
311; (5) another work which originated in thi
time of the persecution, entitled " Prophetic BE"
tracts " (Eklogai prophitikai). It discusses in fc«r
books the Messianic texts of Holy Scriptoie; '
(6) the treatise "On Divine Manifestatioii'*
(Peri iheophaneias), dating from a much ktar ■
time. It treats of the incarnation of the DiviBi '
Logos, and its contents are in many cases identied
with the DemonstreUlo evangelica. Only fragiuenUi
are preserved; (7) the polemical treatise " AgiinA
Marcellus," dating from about 337; (8) a supple-
ment to the last-named work, entitled " On the
Theology of the Church," in which he defended thi
Nicene doctrine of the Logos against the party ol
Athanasius. A number of writings, belon^png vk
this category, have been entirely lost.
Of the exegetical works of Eusebius nothing hii
been preserved in its original form. The so-oallBd
commentaries are based upon late manuscripiti
copied from fragments of catens. A more com'
prehensive work of an exegetical na
6. Ezeget- ture, preserved only in fragments, i
ical and entitled " On the Differences of tb
Miscellane- Gospels " and was written for the pur
ous Works, pose of harmonizing the contradictioa
in the reports of the different Evan
gelists. It was also for exegetical purposes tha
Eusebius wrote his treatises on Biblical archecdogy
Eusebias of
SustaslTUi
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
8U
went to Palestine, where Eusebiiis of Cscsarea and
Patrophilus of Scythopolis became his teachers.
But he soon turned from their allegorical elucida-
tion of Scripture to the exegetical principles of the
school of Antioch. From Antioch he went to
Alexandria, where he sought to provide the philo-
sophical foundation for his knowledge. He re-
turned to Antioch prior to 340, having already won
such a name for himself as exegete and orator that
in 341 the Synod of Antioch designated him suc-
cessor to the deposed Athanasius. Eusebius, how-
ever, shrank from the difliculties of this position,
and he was made bishop of the small city of Emesa
in Phenicia, where he sjjent the rest of his life. At
first the Emcsans took offense at his extensive
learning, which embraced magic and astrology, and
for a short time he was compelled to flee to Laodi-
cea. His biography was written by his friend
(George of Laodicoa. Only a brief extract from
this work has been preserved (Socrates, Hist, eccl.,
ii. 9; Sozomcn, Hist, eccl,^ iii. 6).
Jerome {De vir. iU.^ xci.) mentions writings of
Easebius against Jews, pagans, and Novatians,
besides ten books of commentaries on the Epistle
to the Galatians and homilies on the Gospels.
Theodoret (Ilcer., I., xxv. 26) mentions polemical
works against Marcionites and Manicheans; and
Philoxenus of Mabug (Assemani, Bibliotheca Orien-
talis, ii. 28) certain discourses and a work on faith,
which is possibly the source of the dogmatic frag-
ments preserved in Theodoret 's Eranistes {Dial.f
iii.). Further, some exegetical fragments survive
in catensB (MPG, Ixxxvi. 1, pp. 545-562), and a
fragment from a Lenten sermon (W. Wright,
Catalogue of the Syriac Manuscripts in the British
Museum, ii. 837, l^ndon, 1871. Thilo (Ueber die
Schriften des Eusebius von Alexandrien und des
Eusebius von Emisa, Halle, 1832, pp. 64, 79),
showed that the first two Latin homilies of those
published by Sirmond (Opuscula XIV. Eusebii
Pamphilif Paris, 1643) under the name of Eusebius
of Cajsarea, directed against Marcellus of Ancyra,
are probably by Eusebius of Emesa. On the other
hand, the Latin homilies attributed to Eusebius
by Gagnaius (Paris, 1547) and Fremy in 1554 (cf.
Bibliotheca maxima patrum, 28 vols., Lyons, 1677-
1707, vol. vi. 618—622) are works of Western
(Gallican) authors.
Meager as the extant fragments of Eusebius are,
they attest him to be a writer of no mean ability,
and Jerome (I.e.) depreciates him im justly. He
was one of the most influential leaders of the great
theologians of Antioch, not only in his manner of
exposition, but also in his Christology. He was
averse to dogmatic disputations, and saw in verbal
strife the main reason for ecclesiastical ruptures.
In his tendency to maintain the older incomplete-
ness of dogma against the progress of doctrinal
definition he felt himself allied with semi-Arianism
whose leaders included most of his friends and
teachers. G. KrOger.
Bibliooraphy: Fabric! us-Harles, Bihliotheca Grceca, vii.
412 sqq., HamburR, 1801; Ceillier, Auteura tacrU, iv.
318-319: DCB. ii. 358-359.
EUSEBIUS OF LAODICEA: Bishop of Laodi-
cea in Syria in the third century; d. there before
268. He was originally a deacon in Alexudrii^
where he distinguished himself during the Valeria
persecution by his piety, his care for the e^itifH^
and his burial of the dead. A few yearg later k
the Roman siege of Brucchium, a quarter of AloE-
andria, he and Anatolius secured permisBioDford
non-combatants to withdraw under safe-ooodiiel;
and shortly afterward (263?) both wenttoSjmti
take part in the controversy involving ^ rf
Samosata, bishop of Antioch. There he was ^
pointed bishop of Laodicea, succeeding Socrati^
but died before the synod which finally condeoui
Paul, which was held in 268 (?). Jerome's Chni>
icle, however, states that Eusebius was famou m
a teacher about 274, and that he was succeeded by
Anatolius in 279. (Edgar Hennko.)
Bzblioorapht: The early source is Eusebiiis, J^til iei,
vii. 1 1. 32. NPNF, 2 ser.. vol. i. Consalt: TTflami^
Mfmoirea, iv. 304; M . Le Quicn. Orient dkrialiamii, S. <
792. Paris, 1740: J. M. Neale. PairiartkaU <il AktmHk,
i. 77, London, 1847; DCB, ii. 359.
EUSEBIUS OF NICOMEDIA AlID CORSW
TINOPLE: Bishop of Berytus, in Phenicia, thea
of Nicomedia, where the imperial court resided,
and finally of Constantinople (as early as 338),
where he died 341. Distantly related to the im-
perial house, he not only owed his removal fno
an insignificant to the most splendid episcopal aee
to his influence at court, but the great power k
wielded in the Church was derived from that somte.
With the exception of a short period of ecHpse, be
enjoyed the complete confidence both of Consto-
tine and Constantius; and it was he who baptiied
the former May, 337. Like Anus, he wasapupfl
of Lucian of Antioch, and it is probable that he
held the same views as Arius from the very begin-
ning. He afterward modified his ideas aomevH
or perhaps he only yielded to the pressure of ci>
cumstances; but he was, if not the teacher, at all
events the leader and organizer, of the Arian party.
At the Council of Nicsea (325) he signed the Coo-
fession, but only after a long and desperate oppo-
sition. His defense of Arius excited the wrath of
the emperor, and a few months after the council
he was sent into exile. After the lapse of thi«
years, he succeeded in regaining the imperial favor,
and after his return (in 329) he brought the whole
machinery of the state govenunent into action in
order to impose his views upon the CSiurch. See
Arianism.
Bibliography: Sources (contradictory and imponUe d
reconciliation) are: Athanasius "Against the Aristf"
and " Apology," both in Eng. transl. in NPNF, 2 aer,
vol. iv.; SocratM, Hist ecel., books i.-ii., and Sosodmb.
Hi9t. eccl., books i.-ii., both in NPNF, 2 ser., vol iL".
Theodoret, Hist, eecl., i. 4-9, in NPNF, 2 ser., vol E
Consult: W. Bright, Hist, of tke Church, 311-451. Ox-
ford. 1860; idem. Orations of SL AAanasius, . . . «i*
Account of his Life, London, 1873; J. H. Newman, Arissi
of the 4th Cent., ib. 1876; DCB, ii. 360-307 (detailed).
EUSEBIUS PAMPHILL See Eubsbiub or
CiESAREA.
EUSEBIUS OF SAMOSATA: Bishop of Samo-
sata; d. at Doliche, in Syria, June 22, 380. Bi
took part in the synodical deliberations at Antiod
in the winter of 360-361, and appears among th
Homcean and Homoeousian bishops who in 363
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Buaebins of Bmesa
Eofltaaius
L held under Meletius of Antioch, accepted
\l&homa<nLsto8. He seems to have been a
f the right wing of the Eastern opposition
mbstantial agreement with Meletius (q.v.)»
a. he became, after 363, a representative
icene orthodoxy. He was in close rela-
h Basil, whose elevation to the see of
le did much to further, to whom in later
ind in his relations with the West he was
friend up to the time of his banishment
9e was sent first to Cappadocia and then
J, where he lived through the Gothic war,
1 being made possible by the death of
He was at the synod held in Sept., 379,
iths after Basil's death. According to
b he was killed at DoUche, whither he had
ttend the consecration of Bishop Maris,
le thrown by an Arian woman, on which
e was honored as a martyr. Some other
his life, as given by Theodoret, are ob-
gendary. But this may safely be said to
—that he is one of the few bishops of the
itmy of whom nothing but good is known.
(F. LooFs.)
*ht: Sources are: The " Letters " of Gregory
n and of Basil, in NPNF, 2d ser., vols, vii.-
odorat, HuL eed., ii. 27-28, iv. 12, v. 4. Con-
B. June iv. 235-242; V. Ernst, in ZKO, xvi
{26-664; F. Loof^ Eu9tathiuM von Seb<ute und
udoffiB der BanliuB-BrUfe Halle, 1898; DCB ii.
ins OF THESSALONICA: Bishop of
ica c. 600. He wrote a polemic work in
I against one Andrew, a monk belonging
phthartodocetse. That the Eusebius to
lotius (Bibliotheca, codex clxii.) ascribes
was Eusebius of Thessalonica is clearly
one of a number of letters which Gregory
wrote to this Eusebius {Epist., xi. 55
G. KrOqer.
ar: Ceillier, AiUeur» merit, xi. 627; DCB, 373-
[DS OF VERCELLI: Bishop of Ver-
of the most determined opponents of
in the reign of Constantius; d. 370. He
jinian by birth; but what the traditional
OS as to his parents, his baptism by Pope
his ordination by Pope Miarcus, and his
on by Pope Julius I. is either false or
•rthy. All known is that he was a
Rome, and sent from that position to be
a city entirely strange to him, probably
i before 354. He was the first bishop of
resides which Novara, Ivrea and Tortona
lave been under his jurisdiction. Prac-
^tiling is known of his administration
I, unless Tillemont's conclusion from the
Ambrose (Epist., Ixiii.) may be accepted,
erection of a quasi-monastic house in
Q which Eusebius lived with his clergy,
> that period. This, at least, Ambrose
itely, that Eusebius was the first in the
imbine the life of city clergy with monas-
ine. After the Synod of Aries (353),
' Rome desired to see the weak concession
tea repaired by another synod, and Euse-
a member of the embassy, headed by
Lucifer of Cagliari, which approached the emperor
with a petition to that effect. The new synod was
held in Milan, probably in the spring of 355. Euse-
bius at first remained away; and when he appeared,
in company of the Roman legates, the synod had
practically reached its conclusion. Eusebius, re-
quired to assent to the condemnation of Athanasius,
asked for a discussion of the faith of the council,
declaring himself willing to agree to any action
which should be prefaced by an acceptance of the
Nicene decrees. Dionjrsius of Milan was about to
subscribe such a document when Valens snatched
the pen and paper from his hand and withdrew
with his party to the palace. The outcome of the
proceedings for Eusebius was his banishment,
first to Scythopolis in Palestine, then to Cappa-
docia, and finally to the neighborhood of Alexan-
dria. After Julian's accession he took part in the
Alexandrian synod of 362, and then went as a
special envoy to the church of Antioch, where he was
imable to prevent a schism, as Lucifer had already
consecrated Paulinus. Not long after, he returned
to Italy, where, with Hilary of Poitiers, he took a
decided stand against the few Arians found in the
West, especially Auxentius, the bishop of Milan.
The legend which attributes his death to stoning
at the hands of the Arians, although his epitaph
caUs him a martyr, is untrustworthy.
(F. LooFS.)
Biblioorapht: The three " Letters " of Eusebius are in
Gallandi, Bihlioiheca, v. 78, and in MPL. xii. Sources
for a biography are: Jerome, D« vir. iU.,xcvi.; Socrates,
Hist, eccl., iii. 5-6. 0, and Sosomen, Hiat, eecl., iv. 9, v.
13 (both in NPNF, 2 ser., vol. ii.). F. Ughelli. Italia
sacra, iv. 747-748, Venice, 1719; Tillemont, MSmoirea,
viL 529-563, 771-780. Venice. 1732; DCB, ii. 374-375;
KL, iv. 1013-15.
EUSTACHTOS, yu-stfi'ki-us (EUSTATHIUS),
SAINT: According to a late tradition, a Roman
martyr who, with his family, was put to death in
118. Before his baptism he was called Placidus,
and he is said to have been converted by a vision
as he was hunting in the forest, of a cross between
the antlers of the stag he was pursuing, while a
voice cried to him: " Why persecutest thou me? "
After being exposed in vain to the lions in the
amphitheater, Eustachius and his family are said
to have been burned to death in an oven shaped
like a stag. In the Western Church the martyr-
dom of Eustachius had been conmiemorated on
Sept. 20 . since the early Middle Ages, while the
Greek Church appoints Nov. 20 for this feast.
A basilica of St. Eustachius existed in Rome in
the eighth century and apparently even in the time
of Gregory the Great, and relics of the saint were
taken thence to various places, including St. Denis
and Paris. Eustachius is the patron saint of
Madrid, and he b also one of the fourteen " helpers
in need " (q.v.), being the special protector of
pious hunters. (O. ZOcKLERf.)
Biblioorapht: ASB, Sept., vi. 106-137; Analecta BoUan-
diana. iii. 66-112, Paris. 1884: Nicephoni."* Callistus, Hiat.
ecd., iii. 29: M. Armellini. />« Ckiene di Roma, pp. 234-
236, Rome. 1887: F. GreRorovius. GescMchte Roma, iii.
678-583, Stutt|5art. 1895-96. EnR. Iransl., iii. 653-556,
iv. 420. 468, London. 1895-96: OCR, ii. .380-381.
EUSTASIUS, yu-st^'shi-us. Si^cond abbot of
Luxeuil; d. 629. He was of noble family, nephew
Bustasius
Buthalius
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
2V
of Bishop Mietius of Langres, and as disciptdus et
minister stood in close connection with Colum-
ban himself after being received into the monas-
tery at Luxeuil. After Columban had been driven
from Luxeuil, Eustasius aided him in his missionary
activity by Lake Constance (see Columban). It
is possible that Columban appointed him his suc-
cessor in the restored mother cloister. At any
rate Eustasius was abbot there from 614 with the
sanction of King Clothair 11. and had supervision
over the monasteries connected with Luxeuil.
According to the representation of his biographer,
who knew him personally, Eustasius was a learned,
eloquent, and active man. The bishops Donatus
of Besangon, Aichar of Toumai, Chagnoald of
Laon, Ragnachar of Basel, the abbots Amatus of
Remiremont, Waldebert of Luxeuil, Agilus of
Resbais, and the abbess Burgundofara of Fare-
moutier were his pupils; St. Salaberga was won
by him for the spiritual life. He changed nothing
in the order of Colimiban and zealously followed the
penitential regulations of the latter (see Colum-
ban). He retained the Irish form of the mass,
the tonsure, and daily discipline, as may be seen
from the charges made against him by Agrestius
(Vita Columbanif ii. 9), but as the Irish celebration
of Easter disappears from the charges, it is prob-
able that he ultimately abandoned it. Eustasius
also labored for the conversion of heretical and
heathen natives; he succeeded in making the
Wariskians, dwelling on both sides of the middle
Doubs, who followed Bonosus (q.v.), adherents of
the Catholic Church. With Agilus he undertook
a missionary journey to the Bavarians, but met
with slight success. His anniversary is given by
Jonas as Apr. 29, but in the Martyrologium Hiero-
nymianum (ASB, Nov., ii. 38) as Apr. 2.
cPfto Seebass.
Biblzoorapht: The one source is the life by the Abbot
Jonas, in book ii., chaps. 7-10, of the Vita Columbani,
printed in MOH, Script, rer. Menrv., iv (1902), 119-130,
and in ASM, ii. 108-111, cf. pp. 302 aqq., 406 sqq. CJon-
sult: 8. Riesler, Ge»ehichte Bayenu, i. 77, Gotha, 1878;
Rettberg, KD, ii. 188; Hauck, KD, i. 286 et passim;
DCB, ii. 381.
EUSTATHIANS. See Messalians.
EUSTATHTOS, yu-st^'thi-us, OF ANTIOCH:
Bishop of Antioch; d. probably c. 337. He was
apparently a native of Side in Pamphylia, was
bishop of Bercea about 320, and was transferred
to Antioch before the first Council of Niccea. He
was one of the few decided anti-Arians in the East,
and carried on a literary polemic against Eusebius
of Cajsarea (q.v.) which made him well hated by the
unorthodox party. They succeeded in effecting
his deposition in 330, and he was banished to
Trajanopolis in Thrace, where he died and was
buried. Jerome says that " he composed many
works agEunst the doctrine of the Arians "; but
only one is preserved entire, De Engastrimytho
contra Origenem (best edition by Jahn, TUf ii. 4,
Tubingen, 1886). Fragments are preserved of a
De anima mentioned by Jerome ; of another work
in eight books Contra Arianoa ; of treatises on
Prov. viii. 22 and ix. 5; of one on Melchisedek;
of two In inacriptionea paalmorum ; and of expo-
sitions of certain separate psalms. The commen-
tary on the first part of Genesis (MPG, xviii. 7QS-
1066) is generally considered spurious, and tk
" Liturgy of St. Eustathius " (ib. 697-704) i
hardly more authentic. (F. LoofB.)
BiBLioaRAPHY: The sources for a life, by no means relirtiik
are collected in L. Allatius, EiMtathii in Hexaemenm m»
merUariiu, pp. 112-142, Lyona, 1629. TiUemont, M^
moirea, vii. 21-31, 646-056; Fabridus-Harlee, BihUiAm
GrcBca, ix. 131-149. Hamburg. 1804; J. Fessler. imSk^
(tones patrologitB, i. 427-431, Innsbruck, 1890; DCB, iL
382-383. An In Lazarum, Mariam et Martham kmiak
ChristoloQica, attributed to Eustathius of Antx>di,«ii
published, Paris. 1905.
EUSTATHinS OF SEBASTE: Bishop of 8>*.
baste (Sebasteia, the capital of Armenia prion^
the modem Sivas); b. at Sebaste c. 300; d. atv
377. He seems to have been the son of BUvf
Eulalius of Sebaste. His early theological ediNi>
tion was influenced by the teachings of Arius, btft
he kept aloof from the dogmatic dissensions of )k
time, being attracted entirely by the ascetic ideiL
He became presbyter, but on accoimt of his aaoeHi ;|
tendencies fell out with his own father, wbo a- i
eluded him from the communion of prayers (S(»- \
men, IV., xxiv. 9; Socrates, II., xliii. 1). SoM *'
years later he was censured by a synod at Osani^ ^
probably for the same reason. Eusebius of On* '
Btantinople deposed him, but the number of Ui '
disciples increased. A synod at Gangra, abool
340, investigated the complaints against Eutir
thius. His disciples were accused of deayiflg
salvation to married persons, of favoring their
separation from each other, of holding tkfjfi^
tionable meetings, of wearing unbecoming pt
ments, of accepting payments in kind which VM
due to the Church, and of other misdeiDeaiM)& ;
Eustathius himself seems to have been free bm
eccentricities, and his reputation apparently d»> .
terred his opponents from attacking him direct^f; "
Of the next thirteen years nothing is known c«eji ■.
that i^Eustathius became bishop of Sebaste aboifc \
356. ' He is heard of again after the returt rf
Basil to his native country. Basil had also beci
won for the ascetic ideal, and Ehistathius seeoei :
to him the incarnation of monastic virtue. For j
about a decade and a half, until 372 and 373, tlMf i
were united by the most intimate friendship and j
agreed also in doctrine. Eustathius had refii" •
quished his Arianismlong before; being averse toll
dos;matic extremes, he took the part of the Honflt"
ousians. He was present at the Synod of Ancyi*
in 358 and was one of the envoys who were eert
to the court. The followers of Acacius, howew^
brought it about that a synod in Melitene, probabjlf
in the same year, deposed him from his bishopri^
not for dogmatic reasons, but on account d 10
conduct; there had probably been brought to-
ward complaints like those in Gangra. Mdetiai
of Melitene, later bishop of Antioch, at that tint
a partisan of Acacius, became his successor. M
later Eustathius was one of the Homoiousian deph
ties who represented the cause of the majoiity el
Seleucia at the court. Like the other deputiei
he accepted the formula of Nicsea in Constsnt^
nople, but he fearlessly expressed his own convic-
tions in the negotiations, and when he was deposed
on that account, he did not acknowledge the fad
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bustaslus
Buthalius
<1 to oppose his enemies in sermons and
c<ers although the favor of the court was
' on their side. When xmder Jovian and
irst period of Valens the Homoiousian
kthered again, Ehistathius was one of its
ergetic leaders, and when the edict of
1 365 again expelled all bishops who had
XMed under Constantius, Eustathius as
■A several Homoiousian synods went to
I 366 and testified to his own and their
to the Nicene Creed. Nevertheless a rup-
k place in 373 between Eustathius and
ce the latter had become a friend of Mele-
Lntioch, the former opponent and rival of
us. There was also a dogmatic difference
them concemmg the Holy Spirit. Eusta-
isidered the Holy Spirit neither created nor
i>ut kept aloof from both extremes and
the leader of the Pneimiatomachi (see
HANS AND THE MACEDONIAN SeCT) in Asia
Be made the impression in large circles of
i!tive personality and an efficient preacher,
ider of the first monks, and as the f oimder
I the first hospitals (in Sebaste).
(F. Loors.)
kPHT: Sources of knowledge are Socrates, HxBi.
43, and Soaomen, HiaL eccL, in. 14 (both in
2d ser., voL ii.). Consult: Tillemont. Mhnoirea,
H. M. Gwatkin. Studiea of Arianimn, Cambridge,
'. Loofs, Euatathitu von SabaHe und die ChronologU
iHua-Brigfe, Halle. 1808; DCB, ii. 383-387 (oen-
; KL, iv. 1017-19.
iTHIUS OF THESSALONICA: Greek met-
i; b. at Constantinople, early in the
»ntury; d. at Theesalonica between 1192
4. He seems to have been originally a
the cloister of St. Florus in Constantinople,
as deacon of St. Sophia and teacher of
and he likewise held the court position
r of Petitions. In 1175 he was appointed
I Myra in Lycia, but before his consecration
eror made him the successor of Constan-
metropolitan of Thessalonica, a position
i held for the remainder of his Hfe. About
le emperor Manuel protested formally
he formula of abjuration in which the God
mmed was anathematized as a " wholly
id God " (theos holosphuros, i.e., the mas-
ipact, not begetting and not begotten God),
ng it blasphemous and offensive to con-
am Islam. Eustathius, however, boldly
him at a synod and justified the anathema,
vithout losing favor at court. During the
d sack of Theesalonica by the Normans
illiam II. of Sicily (1185), the metropolitan
I at his post, protecting his flock and check-
fury of the conquerors, as he himself re-
1 his Z>e Thessalonica urbe a Normannis
>e8pite this, he met with much opposition,
nay even have been driven from his see
e, thus accounting for the fact that some
rka were written elsewhere than in Thessa-
As monk, bishop, theologian, and author,
IS rose superior to his contemporaries,
pposed with all his might the formalism
e&tened the welfare of his Church, writing
in this spirit his treatise " On Hypocrisy " as well
as his still more important ** Consideration of
Monastic Life.'' He was the author of many other
works, including a famous commentary on the
Homeric poems. (Phiupp Meyer.)
Bzblzoorapht: His De ThMtaloniea is in MPO, oxxnri.
For his other works and literature on them, and his life,
consult Krumbaohar, OatdiiehU, pp. 636-641.*
EUSTOCHiniL See Paula.
EUTHALIUS, yu-thfiOl-us: The putative author
of certain matter introductory to the Epistles of
Paul, the Catholic Epistles, and the Acts, com-
parable to the Masorah of the Old Testament.
As pointed out by Dean Robinson, the material has
grown gradually. First a new system of writing
the New Testament books was adopted from the
schools of grammar and rhetoric; to facilitate the
public reading in service, only so much was put in
one line as could be pronounced in one breath, in
place of the lines of equal length without punctua-
tion or word division of the older manuscripts
(K, B, A, C). Jerome did the same for the
Latin text and Hesychius of Jerusalem in the
sixth century for the Greek prophets. The
first " Euthalius " supplied about the middle
of the fourth century tables of chapters and of
the Old Testament quotations in the New Testa-
ment, with three prologues to the Epistles and
Acts, including biographical and chronological
researches. In 396 a short account of Paul's
martyrdom was added and perhaps other parts of
the work, as the Stichometry (q.v.) and the col-
lation with the famous Codex PamphUi at Csesarea,
also the division of " the Apostle " into fifty-seven
lections (Gk. anagndseis). The so-called hypotheseis
(argumenta)f short introductions to each book,
originally a part of the pseudo-Athanasian Synop-
sis scriptura sacrcB, were afterward incorporated
in the Euthalian apparatus in most Greek manu-
scripts and in the commentary of the so-called
Oecumenius.
According to Zaccagni " Euthalius " was a
deacon of Alexandria when he edited the Pauline
epistles (458), and bishop of Sulke (an unknown
Egyptian city, perhaps Pselche) in the time of
Athanasius II. of Alexandria (489-496) when he
published the Acts and Catholic Epistles. This
theory was based upon a chronological datum
foimd in only a few manuscripts of the Martyrium
Pauli and now generally held to be a late addition.
Ehrhard supposed " Euthalius " to be an inten-
tional alteration of " Evagrius " (found in Codex H
and a Naples MS.), made when Evagrius Ponticus
(q.v.) came to be suspected of heresy. Von Soden
proposed a new solution of the problem. There was a
Bishop Euthalius of Sulci in Sardinia in the seventh
century whose confession of faith, composed in the
time of the Monothelite controversy, Wobbermin dis-
covered in a manuscript of the Lawra, while von der
Goltz found a quasidevotional monologue, Eis em-
aiUoHf of the same in a manuscript of Chalcis, iden-
tical with the so-called *' Prayer of Euthalius '*
contained in many Armenian Bibles. Von Soden ac-
cordingly conjectured that all the Euthalian appara-
tus originated in the seventh century. His theory
Bnthymius
Eutyohianism
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
916
has been severely criticized (cf . F. C. Conybeare in
ZNTW, v., 1904, pp. 39-52; T. Zahn, NKZ, xv.,
1904, pp. 305-^30, 375-390; J. A. Robinson, in
JTS, vi., 1905, pp. 87-90), and neglects late inves-
tigations, such as Robinson's convincing argument
that the oldest materials must have existed before
396 and Von DobschUtz's induction from the Syriac
versions liiat the work in its fuller form lay before
Philoxemis of Mabug when he translated the New
Testament into Syriac in 508. Either there must
have been another Euthalius older than the bishop
of Sulci (to whom perhaps the title *^ bishop of
Sulci " was given by confusion with the latter),
or the seventh century Euthalius used the work of
an unknown earlier writer, adding perhaps some
new matter of his own.
Only a full examination of all New Testament
manuscripts and the versions can throw new light
on the question. A new edition of the Euthalian
apparatus is needed, as Zaccagni's first edition was
based on only a few manuscripts. A greater diflS-
culty is that of reconstructing the true text used
and approved by Euthalius. What is caUed the
Euthalius Codex in Tischendorf is but a single manu-
script of comparatively recent date.
E. VON DOBSCHttTZ.
Biblioorapht: The materiallis collected in L. A. Zaccagni,
Collectanea monutnentorum veterutn eccUaice, i. 401-708,
liv.-xcvi., Rome, 1608, and thence reprinted with many
faults and without the prolegomena in MPO, Ixxxv.
610-790. Consult DB, Supplement vol.. pp. 524-^520
(essential); Islinger, Die Verdienaie dee Euthaliue um den
neuUstamenaichen Bibeltext, Hof. 1867; W. Bousset. in
TU, xi. 4, 1804; F. C. Ck>nybeare. On the Codex Pami^ili
and the Date of Eitthaliue, in the Journal of Philology,
xxiii (1805), 241 sqq.; J. A. Robinson, EtUhaliana, in
TS, iii. 3, (Cambridge, 1805; T. Zahn. in TLB, 1895. pp.
503 sqq.. 601 sqq.; E. von DobschQts. Euthaliuaetudien,
in ZKO. xix (1808), 107-154; H. von Soden, Die Schnften
dee N. r., i. 637 sqq.. Berlin. 1002.
EUTHYMIUS, yu-thi'mi-us, ZIGABENUS (ZIGA-
DENUS, ZYGADENUS): Byzantine theologian;
d. near Constantinople after 1118. Of his life few
details are known, except that he was a monk at
a cloister in the vicinity of Constantinople. A
Latin translation of his commentary on the Psalms
was published by Philippus Saulus (Verona, 1530);
the Greek original was edited by A. Bongiovanni
in the fourth volume of the works of Theophylact
(Venice, 1754-63). The commentary on the Gos-
pels appeared in a Latin translation by Johannes
Hintenius (Louvain, 1544), the Greek text remained
impublished until C. F. Mattfti's edition (Leipsic,
1792); the commentary on the Pauline Epistles
was first edited by N. Kalogeras at Athens in 1887.
Other exegetical writings on the Catholic Epistles,
letters, an elegy on the death of Eustathius of
Thessalonica, and a controversy with a Saracen
philosopher exist only in manuscript. In his com-
mentary on the Gospels, which is superior to that
on the Psalms, Euthymius follows in general the
ancient authorities, especially Chrysostom, al-
though he shows some independence. Allegorical
and mystical interpretations are occasionally
borrowed. On the whole, he is inferior in exegetical
precision to Theophylact.
The dogmatic work of Euthymius was written
at the instance of the emperor Alexius and from him
received its name of " Dogmatic Panoply " (ai
P. F. Zinus, Venice, 1555; M. H. Gregoras, Tv-
govist, 1711). It consists of two secticHis, or
" titles," and of twenty-four others devoted to tht
refutation of various heresies. The accounts of ih$
Bogomiles, Massilians, Armenians, Paulicians, Mai
Mohammedans are of value, despite falaehoodi
and perversions. The attack on the Roman Cbth^
lie doctrines is concerned chiefly with the pnwK
sion of the Holy Ghost and the use of unleaTeD«|
bread. Much of the book is a mere compilatia^
of the Church Fathers down to John of Damara%
and is important solely ajs containing exoopCi
from such obscure authors as Leontius of Byaii.
tium, Anastasius of Sinai, Theodore the Studit%
and Maximus. (Philipp Mktir.)
Biblioorapht: The life and writings are best diaeond \f
N. Kalogeras in his edition of the Commentaries on thi
Pauline Letters by Euthynuus, 2 vols., Athena, 1887. Hi
in Athenaion, ix (1880). 255-284. x (1881). 331-Ml
Ck>n8ult also: W. Cave. Script, ecd. hiat, Utetam, f«L
ii.. Oxford. 1743; C. Ulhnann. in TSK, vi (1833X 6»-
674; Knimbacher. QeachichU, pp. 82-85 (life and Kit rf
works and editions), et passim.
EUTYCHIANISM, yu-tik'i-an-ixm.
Compromise Between Alexandria and
Antioch in 433 ((1).
The Beginning of Strife {% 2).
The " Robber Synod " of Ephesus. 440 ({ 3).
The Council of Chaloedon. 451 (S 4).
Eutychianism was a Christological heresy <A tin
fifth centiuy, taking its name from Eutychea, aa
ascetic, of strict monastic training, for thhty yem
superior of a monastery near Constantinopk
The history of the struggle of the orthodox pirt|f
with Eutyches up to the Ck)imcil of Chalcedon ia a
unhappy chapter in church history, not akmt
because court cabals had a considerable share ini^
but because it was less a struggle for purity of
doctrine than for ecclesiastical power, tumingto \
a large extent on questions of decisive importaon '
in the development of the Alexandrian and RomiB
patriarchates and in the position of moDBStidn
and of learning in the Church. As a chapter it ,
the history of ideas, it offers one of the most Of
fused and unedifying pictures in the whole of ^
matic development. This is not to adopt fla^
nack's view that the Monophysitism of OfrSi wn
the legitimate outcome of Greek Christolo^
development, or to pass judgment upon the ulti-
mate solution adopted by the council, which, uikJ»
the influence of the West, was the most ratiowl
then possible; it is simply an expression of (fit-
taste for the theological ignorance, thoughtksBiM^
and lack of conscience of which the history of the
controversy is full.
The story begins in 433 with the imion enfoiwd
by court influence between the parties of Aknar
dria and Antioch (see Nestorius, § 6) whicb bid
only concealed the opposition between their ChriaU>*
logical teachings. It was, however, not withoiA
its effects. It was fatal to those who had refund
to condemn Nestorius (q.v.), and compelled tbft
submission of such men as Theodoret and Andrew
of Samosata. It forced Cyril to take his stand ii
defense of formulas which had been worked otf
by the school of Antioch and could not be •
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bathymiiui
Butyohianlsm
dj fitted in as some zealous Alexandrians then
died. It tended rather to favor the acceptance
of two natures in Christ. It is true,
I. Com- there was in the East no theology
with which these formulas were al-
together harmonious. They corre-
ilmndria sponded to the traditions of the
and West, where it was possible to assert in
Astioch the same breath the imity of the person
m 4^ and the duality of natiu«. In the West
the conception of the single personal-
ly of Christ had, with unphilosophical simplicity,
ittaehed itself to the historic Christ, and thus pre-
fented the assertion of two natures, for the pur-
poK of emphasizing both the divinity and the
huBanity, from working out philosophically so as
to endanger the conception of the unity, and the
cowquent intelligibility of the person of Jesus,
hthe East the word prosdpon, the nearest equiva-
lent for the Latin persona, had by no means a
fhoDy parallel sense. In its technical meaning
iiod been employed since the triumph of the later
JBeene doctrine of the Trinity, as a synonym of
hjipodiuis, though it could also be employed in the
v^pnal signification, to denote a phenomenon, a
%ue presented to the senses, or the form under
viiieh either one or more hypostases are presented.
It was thus very useful as a compromise formula.
Both parties, however, accepted the compromise
Min earnest of complete victory, the patriarch of
Aleondria hoping in this for more than the mere
trinmph of the Alexandrian Christology. Since the
dqfi of Athanasius this see had acquired a position
b the East which could inspire an ambitious bishop
>Hh the hope of dominating his rivals both at
Aatioeh and Constantinople. This ambition was
iimidantly possessed by Cyril (see Cyril of Alex-
>nttu), and nothing else explains his acceptance
f the oompromiae. Peace, however, endured as
v^ aa John of Antioch and Proclus of Constan-
oople aa well as Cyril lived; but it became less
■cure each year as the extreme tendencies on both
dea came into play. This was especially the case
I Cyril's side. It was not unnatural that some of
a partizans, incapable of comprehending his fine
atisetiODB, should push his Christology into what
la practicaUy Monophysitism. The proceedings
gainst Nestorius for a while kept the opposition
uty quiet — ^though the most prominent theolo-
«D on that side, Theodoret, remained true to the
mdamental principles of the school of Antioch.
a time went on still more zealous upholders of the
Btiochian views appeared among the bishops of
■a Minor. In 435 Ibas, who had censured the
igmatic position of Cyril and the synod of Ephe-
I and supported Theodore of Mopsuestia, became
ihqp of Edessa. In 441 or 442 John of Antioch
a succeeded by Domnus, a more ardent parti zan
the traditions of that see; this Domnus, between
' and 447, filled the bishopric of Tyre, contrary
the canons, with a man who had been twice
Tied, Irenaeus, formerly a friend of Nestorius
exiled on this account about 435. After the
ii of Proclus (446), the see of Constantinople
filled by Flavian, who had indeed accepted the
n but still came from the Antioch party. Cyril
died in 444 and was succeeded by Dioscurus, much
less important as a theologian, but still more un-
scrupulous in his struggle for supremacy, and will-
ing to avail himself of monastic fanaticism and
obscure intrigues to win the favor of both populace
and court. The time was favorable to his purposes.
The feeble emperor Theodosius (408-450), since the
downfall of his sister Pulcheria's influence about
440, had been under that of his favorite Chry-
saphius, who was in close relations with the Alex-
andrian party, especially with the aged presbyter
and archimandrite Eutyches, who was among the
most influential members of that party. Born in
378, Eutyches had acquired the reputation of an
honorable and pious man, but was uneducated and
unfamiliar with the laws of thought. As a veteran
monk, and a zealous foe of Nestorianism, he counted
as one of the heads of the monastic or Alexandrian
party. He was accordingly a useful instrument in
the hands of Dioscurus, whose principal agent in
Constantinople he was after the death of Proclus.
On Feb. 17, 448, the emperor renewed the edict
against the Nestorians, and decreed the depos tion
of Irensus of Tyre; and about the same time
intrigues against Bishop Ibas began at Edessa in
which Eutyches had a hand. Both parties now
felt that the decisive conflict was approaching.
Domnus showed no signs of recognizing the depo-
sition of Ibas, and maintained a close alliance with
Theodoret, who had just before thrown down the
gauntlet to the Alexandrian party
2. The Be- in his Eranistes ; and certain clerics
ginning from Edessa who had come to Anti-
of Strife, och with charges against their bishop
were detained there as prisoners. On
the other side Dioscurus arrogantly censured Dom-
nus, and Eutyches invoked the aid of Leo of Rome,
asserting that the Nestorian heresy was being
revived. The case of Ibas was discussed by a
synod at Antioch in the summer of 448; Theodoret,
who seems to have come to Antioch to attend it,
was ordered by the emperor to return to his dio-
cese and remain there. Possibly to the late summer
belongs the unsuccessful attempt of Donmus to
discredit Eutyches as an Apollinarian heretic.
Probably through court influence, Irena?us was
replaced in September by Photius, who at once
came out on the Alexandrian side. The accusers
of Ibas, who had now gone on to Constantinople,
had better success there than at Antioch; they
obtained a decree from the emperor calling for
a rehearing of their case before three bishops, two of
whom at least were known as antagonists of Ibas.
All seemed to be going well for Dioscurus when a
renewed accusation against Eutyches provoked
him to attempt to reap his harvest before it was
ripe. This new charge was nominally brought by
Bishop Eusebius of Dorylaeura, who, from what is
known, seems to have had little sympathy with the
Antioch party, though he was not an avowed ad-
herent of the other side. To his moderate views
some thoughtless expressions of Eutyches on a
point of dogma may have seemed dangerous, and
it is possible that personal dislike helped to deter-
mine his attitude — at least Eutyches asserted
afterward that Eusebius had long been his enemy.
Butyohianlsin
Bntyohlus of Constantinople
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
However that may be, he appeared at a local synod
held by Flavian of Constantinople in Nov., 448,
with a charge against Eutyches which named him
in general terms as a heretic. Eusebius succeeded
in forcing the synod to summon Eutyches before it.
He returned answer that he was unwilling to leave
his monastery; that he adhered to the decrees of
Nicsea and Ephesus; but that he declined to be
bound by expressions taken at random from the
Fathers, preferring to follow the Scripture, which
was a more certain rule of faith than all of them.
He denied ever having taught that the Divine Word
had brought his body with him from heaven; he
acknowledged " one nature of Ciod made flesh,"
and that Christ was at once perfect God and per-
fect man, though his body was not homoousios
with ours. The synod now sent a more formal
summons to Eutyches, which had to be twice re-
peated before, on Nov. 22, he at last appeared,
escorted by a military guard and a large number
of monks. His heterodoxy was not long in mani-
festing itself to the assembly. Attempts were
made to find a way out of the difficulty, and for a
moment he seemed to yield; but his settled con-
viction was expressed in the words " I confess that
our Lord was bom of two natures before the union."
The council found ApoUinarianism and Valen-
tinianism in his admission, deposed him from his
priestly and monastic offices, and excommunicated
him. This condemnation, of course, did not touch
the Christology of Cyril himself; but many of the
Alexandrians thought as Eutyches did. The blow
was thus a heavy one for them and there is no doubt
that it was the cause of the energetic counter-
stroke represented by the Synod of Ephesus in 449.
Of the intervening events it is known only that
Eutyches attempted to set aside the condemnation
and to win to his defense a number of prominent
bishops, including Leo of Rome and Peter Chrysolo-
gusof Ravenna, and probably Dioscurus and others
in the East; that he made the most of his favor
at court; and that he assorted a falsification of the
acts of the Constantinopolitan synod and induced
the emperor to order an investigation of his charge.
Flavian, who was forced to satisfy the emperor of
his orthodoxy by a special confession of faith, also
sought help abroad, and Leo of Rome took a
decisive stand on his side in a brief of May 21 , 449.
The discontent of the Alexandrians, however,
was so decided that they induced the emperor to
call a new ecumenical council at Ephesus for Aug.
1, of the same year. Everything was prepared for
a triumph of Dioscurus, whom the
3. The emperor designated to preside over
Robber the council; but the completeness of
Synod of his triumph was impaired by Pope
Ephesus, Leo, who developed in a famous
449. letter to Flavian of June 13, sent by
his legates with another to the council,
the Western doctrine of tlie two natures in its essen-
tial variation from the Alexandrian with a clear-
ness that was fatal to the permanent maintenance
of the latter. The number of participants in the
" Robber Synod " of Ephesus was never higher'
than 138. Two imperial commissaries were pres-
ent; Eusebius of Dorylsum and Flavian of Con-
stantinople found themselves placed by the
peror himself in the position of accused
while Eutyches was simimoned almost as
The first period of the synod's session, Aug.
was occupied with the rehabilitation of ~
and the deposition of Eusebius and
Among the tolerably certain facts are the
ful demand of the Roman legates to be
preside, and their failure to have the epvUi
Leo to Flavian even read; their repeated
against this so-called invasion of the ri|^tf of
Roman see; and the unsfl&ringly masterful
in which Dioscurus conducted the whole
The timiultuous scene described by Gibbon,
had given its opprobrious name to the lyio^
rests upon partisan accounts and can be Asm
inaccurate in detail. The proceeding? of the Bemi
period, Aug. 20-22 (?) from which not only Eonfaiii
and Flavian but also the Roman legides i«
absent, resulted in a number of depositions. Amaif
others Ibas, Irenseus of Tyre, Theodoret, and Bm
Domnus of Antioch were deposed and ezooi- ^
municated as Nestorians.
The decision of the synod was recdved litk
approval at court, but by no means whoDy m
throughout the East. Yet Dioscurus had on ki
side, besides court favor, the sympathies of aid
of the Eastern bishops, and Flavian's place at Ooi-
stantinople was soon taken by Anatolius, an Ales-
andrian partisan. The only hope for a reviaoi
of the settlement lay in the West, whither Theo-
doret and Flavian now turned. But for the momeot
even the influence of Rome wai qd-
4. The availing. The synod in Rome on
Council Oct. 15, 449, rejected the deerea of
of Chalce- Ephesus, and Leo attempted in Tain,
don, 451. through his own- letters and thoae of
the Western emperor to procure from
Theodosius XL the calling of a new synod in Itily.
The death of Theodosius in the next year brought
about great changes. The power was now in the
hands of Pulcheria, who had already been won over
to Leo's side. Anatolius held a synod the nioe
autumn at Constantinople which declared its
agreement with Leo's epistle to Flavian, which hsd
already found increasing assent in the East. Uo
was not able, however, to secure that the net
general council should be held in the West; iod
it finally sat at Chalcedon, across the Bosphons
from Constantinople, Oct. 8 to Nov. 1, 451, attended
by about 600 bishops. The presidency, in a ptf-
liamentary sense, was held by the imperial commis-
saries; but the papal legates, recognized by the
coimcil as representing the spiritual head of the
Church, took the lead among the ecclesiastics and
presided formally when the imperial commis-
saries were absent.
Dioscurus had secured his triumph at Ephesos
largely through the strength of his Egyptian fol-
lowing; the emperor guarded against a repetition
of this by ordering him to come alone to Constan-
tinople. He had a private audience with the new
emperor, Marcian, Pulcheria's husband, in the pree-
ence of Anatolius and others, which was intended
to bring him to an accommodation — but without
success. He soon recognized that the cause wai
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Eutyohlanism
Eutyohius of Oonstantinople
. his downfall was not long in following,
red in the council practically as an accused
•hile Theodoret, whom he had deposed at
took his seat under the full protection
pope and emperor. At the close of the
on the commissaries declared that Dio-
mself and five of his principal supporters
us must be deposed, which took place in
session, though a direct charge of heresy
ided. He was banished to Gangra in
nia, where he died in 454. The five other
■ere restored to good standing in the fourth
As to the dogmatic question, which the
reated with some hesitation, nominally
ipect for the First Council of Ephesus, after
les of Cyril (iv. and xxxix.) and Leo's to
had been acknowledged, Anatolius was
to draw up a proposed new definition,
ich was apparently decided in its expres-
:he point of one person out of two natures,
oved by the majority at the fifth session;
Roman legates threatened to take their
3 and have a new council called in Italy
epistle was not closely followed. The
was disinclined to yield until an imperial
ced them to appoint a new committee on
I, of which the legates were now members.
It of this work was laid before the council
tame session, and solemnly proclaimed,
This was from the dogmatic standpoint
jte victory of West over East; the Coun-
inition is only intelligible in the Hght
m Christology. After an introduction af-
he Nicene and so-called Constantinopolitan
bich it declares sufficient as general creeds,
ds, with the purpose of avoiding Nesto-
lionophysite perversions of the mystery of
mation, to recognize the epistles of (^ril
named above as orthodox expositions of
I, and then to give a lengthy and precise
ent of the one person of the Lord in two
It is not difficult to see that the terms
definition and the recognition of Leo's
50 beyond CyriPs teaching; but the mem-
be council attempted to forestall objections
ading themselves of their agreement with
d of each with the other. The formulas
edon were acceptable to Western minds,
ir firm hold on the single person of the
2!hrist without danger of obscuring either
fo natures, the divine or the human. But
it a real settlement of the question for the
d the action of the coimcil, for all its
Dtent, was but the beginning of new
B MoNOPHYsiTEs). Eutyches, the nominal
r of the controversy, was not expressly
atized at Chalcedon; he was considered
been already sufficiently condemned by
by Leo, and by the synod held under
1. But after the coimcil two imperial
the year 452 enforced the ecclesiastical
ation of his party by the usual civil penal-
ttyches himself was banished, and the last
him is in a letter of Leo, Apr. 15, 454,
ig his removal to a more distant place on
nd that he still continued to deceive the
unwary in his original place of banishment. See
Christglooy, IV. (F. Loofs.)
Biblioorapht: Sources for a history are the Acts of the
Synods, printed in Mansi, Concilia, vols, v.-vii., cf. ix.
650-702 (a summary of the whole affair in vii. 1060 aqq.);
Hefele, Cancilienoeachichie, ii. 317 sqq., Eng. transl.. iii.
186 sqq.; S. G. F. Perry. Second Synod of Ephenu, Acts.
Dartford, 1881 (with Sjrriac text and sources): Theo-
doret. Hiat. ecd., passim, Eng. transl. in NPNF, 2 ser..
vol. iii.; idem. Eraniatet, in his Opera, ed. Schulse. vol.
iv., Halle, 1774; Gelasius, Geela de nomine A cadi, ed.
Thiel, Epietola Romanorum poniiflcum, i. 510-510,
Braunsberg, 1868; Q. Hoffmann, in Schriften der Uni-
veraitAt zu Kiel, vol. xx.. 1873.
Consult Tillemont, Mhnoiree, xv. 470-710; W. A.
Arendt, Leo der Oroeae, Biains, 1835; E. Perthel, Papet
Leo's /. Leben und I^ren, Jena, 1843; Wm. Bright, Hiet.
of the Church, pp. 313-451. Oxford. 1860; I. A. Domer.
Person of ChrUt, II.. i.-ii.. Edinburgh, 1862; W. Cun-
ningham, Hietorioal Theology, i. 311-315, ib. 1863; P.
Martin, Le Paeudo-Synode . . . d'iSph^ae, Paris, 1875;
A. Ehrhard. in TQ, Ixx (1888). 170-243, 406-450. 623-
653; Neander. Chriatian Church, ii. 560-560; Schaff,
Chriatian Church, iii. 734-740; Moeller, Chriatian Church,
i. 410-422; Hamack, Dogma, iv. 107 sqq.; DCB, ii. 404-
412 (very full).
EUTYCHIANUS, ya-tik'i-a"nus: Pope 275-283.
His name occurs in the lists of bishops of Rome
between Felix and Caius, and a pontificate of
eight years, nine months, and three days is assigned
to him. Nothing at all is known of the events
which marked it; but it may be mentioned that the
tablet which covered his grave in the so-called
'* vault of the popes " has been discovered (cf.
F. X. Kraus, Roma soUerranea, Freiburg, 1879,
154). (A. Hauck.)
Biblioobapht: Liber pontificalia, ed. Mommsen in MQH,
OeaL ponL Rom., i (1808). 38; Bower, Popaa, i. 37-38.
EUTYCHIUS OF ALEXANDRIA (also known
by the Arabic name Sa'id ibn BafrUc): Melchite
patriarch of Alexandria Feb. 7, 933 to May 11, 940;
b. in Fostat (the modem Cairo) 876; d. 940.
Before entering upon the clerical estate he had been
a physician, and liad also pursued historical studies.
As patriarch, he had to endure severe conflicts
with the Jacobite Copts. His writings in Arabic,
only in part preserved, are of medical, theolog-
ical, and historical content. His principal work
is the " String of Pearls " (Arab. Nazm al-jawahir),
i.e., " Compend of History." It is a narrative
from the creation of the world to 938, and comprises
Biblical, profane, and ecclesiastical history. It
contains many remarkable data, otherwise un-
known, and valuable contributions to the history
of Nestorianism and Monophysitism. The edition
of Edward Pococke (2 vols., Oxford, 1654-56),
is reprinted in MPG, cxi. 889-1232; and in 1906
a new edition by L. Clieiklio, in Arabic and Latin,
was begun in the Corpus scriptorurn Christianorum
orientalium (Paris). G. KrOger.
Bibliographt: E. Renaudot, Hiatoria patriarcharum Alex-
andrinorum. pp. 346 sqq., Paris, 1713; F. Wtistenfeld,
Geachichte der arabiaehen Aerzte, p. 52, Gdttingen, 1840;
A. von Gutschmid, in Kleine Schnfien, ii. 300-400. 486.
Leipsic, 1800; Ceillier, Auteura aacria, xiii. 45-46.
EUTYCHIUS OF CONSTANTINOPLE: Patri-
arch of Constantinople; b. in Phrygia c. 512; d.
Apr. 5, 582. He became monk and abbot at Amasia
in Pontus, and in 552 went to Constantinople as
his bishop's ambassador. Here he so effectually
combated the Antiochian theology, and made
Bvagrliui
Evanffelioal Allianoe
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
2m
Buch an impreeaioTi on the emperor Justinian that
the lattar, upon the death of the patriarch Mennas
(Aug., 552)^ appointed him patriarch of Conatati-
tinople. He played a great part in the Three
Chapter controversy (q*v.); presided at the Fifth
Ecumenical Couiicil (Conatantinople, 553); con-
ducted the coTisecration ceremonies for St. Sophia
(562); but finally fell into disfavor with the em-
peror, whose aphthartodocetic [maintenance of per-
petual virginity of Mary and denial of the reality
of the human birth of Jesus] leanings he was
unwiUing to tolerate; and on Jan. 22, or Apr. 12^
5Q5, he was exiled to hia former cloister. He was
thence recalled by Justin IL, in 577, as successor
to the patriarch John III. Scholaaticua. He is
honored by the Church as a saint. Of his writings,
only fnigments of a sermon on the Euchanst are
preserved (JI/PC?, Ixxxvi. 2, pp. 2392-2401), in
which the Greek Fathers' Bymbohc-dynamic view
of the Euchfljrist reached its climax. His intimate
friend the presbyter Eust ratios, wrote his biography
{MPG, Ixxxvi. 2, pp. 2273r-2390). G. KrOger.
BtfiLlOGRAfHT: ASB. Apr., i. fi-18; Ev«eriua, BUL eccL:
John of EpheauA, Eact. HiMt, third part, ed, W. Curet4in*
Oxford. 1S53; GdlliiiT, Auitwra aact^*, xi. 352-354); DCB,
ii. 414-41©.
EVAGRIUS, i"va-gri'o5, POSTICUS: Nitrian
hermit; b. at Ibora, a small town of Pontua,
near the capital Amasia, year unknown; d. after
400. He was the son of a presbyter in I bora,
Basil the Great appointed him lector, and Gregory
Nazianzen made him deacon. When Gregory left
Constantinople (381?), Evagrius remained in the
capital under his successor Neatorius. Because of
a love afifair with a noble lady he went to Jerusalem
where he entered the circle of Melania, the friend of
Rufinus (q.v.), and was sent by her to Egypt into
the Nitrian desert to recover from serious illness,
probably acute mental depression induced by
his experiences. There he ajient two yeara on the
mons NitrifB, then fourteen years in the colony
of hermits called KeUia, ejiming his hving by pen-
manship. His works are all monastic. Definite
criticism of them is as yet impossible since the Greek
writings published under hia name are at best only
excert^ts. Gennadius {De vir. iU,, xi.) gives a hst
of them: (1) ** Suggestions against the Eight Prin-
cipal Sins "in eight books, easentiaUy a compila-
tion of Bible texts intended to work hke amulets
against certain sinful tbought-s. (2) A collection
of " One Hundred Sentiments '* for uneducated
anchorites, tmd one of " Fifty Sentiments " for
educated anchorites, (3) A guide to the common
life for monks, (4) A writing dedicated to a nun.
(3) '^ Opinions *' for monks, which Gennadius pro-
nounces "very obscure.** These works may be
identified with five mentioned by Socrates (HUi.
eccL, iv, 23). The doctrine of Evagrius can not
be Judged on the hmis of the existing material.
Connections with the Cappadocians [Basil, Gregory
Nazianzen, and Gregory of Kysaa] are probable not
only on account of a passage quoted by Socrates
but abo because of the whole course of hh edu-
cation. He belonged to that small number of prac^
tical a.5Cetics who as educated men were able to
indicate monasticism and asceticism philosoph-
ically, hence the reputation which ht enjoyed ii
the desert among the colonies of ascetics who wm
mostly uneducated men. Hia predilection kn
Origen became fatal to him. In the lat«r Qrigai-
jstic controversies the doctrine of Eva^us mi
condemned, and from the seventh centtiry Jut
name with that of Ongen and Didymus is p^xai.
among the arch heretics. (Erwin P&i:uBCBEif>)
BteuooajLi'iiT: The b«8t c»o1l«ctioa {Eiu- it&m totofikl^
of hia writiEi^ is in GallikDdi* BittUothtca. vii. SSl-M,
repdntfrd In MPG, xl. On his Syri&c worki eom^
W. WrigbC. CaUU4}ffUi of the Sijriof: MSS. in |fc# BMU
Mttaeum^ iioEidlon, 1^70-72- Oti kU life aji4 vc4rk: T^^
iiuoQt, H^immrea^ 2d etl., x. 36S «iq,; FabndvA-Hull^
Bilflif^keca Gram, ix. 234. Hamburs, t8D4; E. Ka«Kit
ZDMG. IS78. pp. 4&6 sqq.; O, Zoddw* Sto^m hm-
kuB. Munieb. IS^; idpni, Acft^tM utui M(mdktum. l IQ |
sqq., Frankfofl, 1897 j J* A. lktbiiiiKia« ia TS^ HI 3 tlM^ '
EVAGRItfS SCHOLASTICUS: Ekriy eborel
historian; h. at Epiphania, Coele-Syria* c. 531;
d. after 594, He received careful tnuninf m iii J
echoola of the grammarians and rhetorictanfl mi ]
settled in Antioch as a lawyer {henoe his sumaiD^ •
Bchola^ticus). Here he assisted the pttiani \
Gregoriuij (569-594) in drafting briefs, repoitittid *■
decrees, and successfully defended him it Gab* »
stantinople (589) when he was arraigned ofi lii i
charge of grievous persecutions. From the Emperor
Tiberius he obtained the rank of a quaestor; from
Miiuricius* that of a prefect. He m knowa tiMj \
for his " Ecelesiaatical Hi^ory," in eii booh^ t
wliich is a continuation of Bocral^s^ Sosomea, nd [
Theodoret, eiclending from the Council of Ephott
(431 ) to the twelfth year of the reign of MaJniov
(59^594). It is one of the chief sources, apt- i
cially for the tustory of contemporary tbeoi*^ '
controversies, though it alao takes account of the
wars with the Persians and other barbariaiifi, Ii4
like other Byzantine ebronicles, contains notiMi
of all sorta of remarkable events (calamitiea, eon*
flagrations, earthquakes, etc.). Evagrius madft
good use of his original sources (EustathiiiB of
Antioch, Procopius of CsEsarea, John MaMa. Joto
of Epiphania, Menander Protector, Zacttariifi
Rhetor and other?*), and his judgment is discreet
and impartial. Ecclesiastically orthodox, bt
strictly abides by the aynodical decifiiona, ai»d
censures, in particular, eveiy deviation from tkt
Chalcedoniao dogma. Even hia great predecdaaTt
EuBebtus, is not quite proof against his criticism;
though Evagrius concedes that Eusebius Id ^
re-adors close to the true faith, even if he did w<
teach them strict orthodoxy. The beat edttioQ d
the history is that of J. Bidez and L, Parmmtitf,
The Ecctemastu^ai History of Evagrius, itkk Ik
Scholia (London, 189S); Eng. transl. in Bofcu'i
Ecehsiastkul Library in the volume with Thec4aet
(f^ndon, 18M). G, KfitoEi-
BiBLioanAPETTi P&bndiUKHarlefi, BiMvHhen^ Ormm^ 'a.
^4 pqq., Hamburg, t0O4; 0@iUi«r. Auieur* ioer^ ^
416-416; DCB. Ii. 423-424; C. do Boor, in ZKQ, v UBSVk
315-322, vi (1883), 4S2 Bdq.
EVMCGELIARIUM (i.e., emngdiarium volumm,
'^ Gospel book *'; cvangeltGrius^ with liber or eoita
understood, is found more rarely): A book em
taining the appointwl Gas|iel lections for Ghufd
service. The collecting of the Gospel wiitiDf
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Xvanrelloal Allianoe
^m'd^i' ^^c name euangdian dat^os back to the earliest
ffcj^pr the Church (cf, Zahii, Karwn, i. 161 sqq.),
^^t&ist sepa.rate rolls (mtumimi] were united; then
^yyJtffA (tnaQUBcripts in which the leaves lay consec-
uitittiy Kke a modern book) were made. This
fcm coincides with the traditional history of the
Biiti TmtameDt and sacred Scriptures genc*raUyt
^tursBg the first eeoturiea (cf, Victor BchultxCi Rotk
mMsd Cftfer, io GTeifmMii^er Sludien, Gtitersloh, IS95,
^p, 149 aqq.). The subsequent rise of the Peri-
«apM (q.v.) from the fourth century on led either
to the attackment of an appendix to the Gospel
book, in which the canonical lections were tabulated
^fittmarium, euangelistarimit in the narrower
mam), or to the formation of a new book, w^hose
COiteats were e^cctuaively the prescribed Gospel
iKtiooB. The usual designation for such a book
Btb^West eame to be et^ngeliariumf in the Eastr
wt&ngdktarum (in the wider sense). Combined
'nth the epistolare (i*e., episiotare mlumen, '* the
%iltk [book]^'' Gk. apostolos, praxapmiohi!,
" the Apostle "), which grew out of a similar proc-
W^ md contained the remaining portion of the
Ket Testament, the eFOngelimHum constituted the
faHatarium or kclionarius (in the wider sense;
Gk. MagnS^ik^m [bibluml, biblion apttstoUkon).
Erea as early as in the fourth century, the religious
udeecle^iastical appreciation of the evangeliarium
law to such a degree that people regarded the same
If typifying Scripture generally. Thus it was used
ED Ibe administration of oaths, and it gained an
Wtabhabed place in the ceremony of ordination,
beng diher solemnly delivered to the candidate
hs ofdere^ or held over his bead during the act of
Idnm^ Copiea written in small script were worn
by tromm and boys as a charm about the neck.
It MM applied to the relief of the sick, and eccle-
iftitical ordinances insured for it the same venera-
tioo as was accorded to sacred images. In public
WDfihip, in proceeaions and other ecclesiastical
obscirancea, reverence was shown toward it in
TBiioua ways.
Thifl being the popular state of mind, the zealous
CDoperatiea of art is a matter of couree. Beginning
tVTEn in the fourth century, covers ornamented with
<!^ly gtotiea and ivory carvings (cf, Victor Schultae,
^iftMdo^ der alichriatlkhtn Kunsi, Munich, 1895,
PP- ^5S flqq,), purple parchment, gilt and silver
*^pt. and miniature painting, come into vogue
oa a BRiJe of lavish luxury. The CaroUngian era
™ntiaijed the practise, and it wae tenaciously con-
**v«d by the medieval era proper. Ivory carving,
^''■'iielbg, and other fine arts were more and more
exten«ivdy brought into requisition; and along
itii descriptive illustration, there is developed the
*** ^f initial painting, while marginal decoration
JJfch« its bigbest perfection during the later
il^^'^Ue Ages and the Henaissance (eh H. Otte,
,^^^iaf€Mologie dei deuUchsn MiUeloUers, i., Leip-
^ 1883, pp. 171 sqq.; F. X. Kraus, GmcMchte der
^^khm Kumt, 2 vols,, Freiburg, 1896-1900).
^Oftrtijered cloths (camiAifB evangeliorum), or
^^stic cases icap$m}t aerved as protection against
**^r. Thus the history of the Gospel text is closely
^^'^^Jiiicted with relipous and ecdesioatical customs
^'^ with the histozy of art. Victob Schtjltze.
BiBLioonAFiiT: Consult. banicleB the Literature laeutJODed
in thp le«t: C. R. GrsBflry. f^raho^imena, ii. 687-777,
Leipsio, laOO; DC A. L 740-745. ii. 0B3-007, 1006-15,
nml the litemture under Bibi.i^ Text* IL
EVAHGELICAL ADVEHTISTS, See AdveN'iv
I8T8, 1.
EVAISGELICAL ALLIAHCl,
Foudrintiiin ilik! Oi'Tv^ftitutiou (I 1)*
The Wt>ek of PfiiiLr H 3).
Confprenres, Nnti^^cml and O«oer&l (i 4).
Appe&LH for ReUgioUfl Liberty (§ 5)<
The Evangelical Alliance \& a voluntary asso-
ciation of Evangelical Christians of different
churches and countries to manifest and promote
the union of Christitin believers and advance the
cause of religious liberty. It was founded ^ after
several preparatory meetings and conferences, espe-
cially one at Liverpool in 1845, in an enthusiastic
gathering held in Freetnason^a Hall
I. Founda- in London, Aug, 19-23, 1846, Eight
tion and hundred Christians were present—
Coastitii- Episcopalianfi, Prei^byterians, Inde-
tion* pendents, Methodists, Baptists, Lu-
therans, Reformed, Moravians, and
others, — ^including, from Great Britain, Edward
Bickerateth and Lord Wriotheslcy Ryssell (Angli-
can), Jabea Bunting and William Arthur (Wes-
leyan), Drs. Chalmers, Candlish, Norman McLeod,
and Thomas Guthrie (Presbyterian), Drs, Steanc^
and Baptist W. Noel (Baptist), Thomas Binney,
John Angell James, and Dr. Let f child (Independ-
ent); from France, Adolphe Monod and G. Fiach;
from Germany F. W. Krummacher and E*rof.
Tholuckj from Swit^erlandj Prof. La Haqje: and
from the United States, Samuel H. Cox and Will-
iam Pat ton. Sir Culling E. Eardly presided, and
became the first president of the Britiiih branch.
Nine doctrinal articles were adopted, as foUowsr
1. The divine inapl ration, autborily, and BuMciflncjr of
the Holy Scriptures.
2* The Tight and duty of private judfimeot in the inter*
pi«tatioa oT the Holy Soripturei.
3. The Unity of the Godhead, and the Trinity of the Per-
jpon^ therein.
4. The utter depravity' of humim natura in ooniMxiujenDQ
of the FiilU
5. The iBeaiiiation of the Son ol God, his work of atone^
ment for the eifis of m&akind, and hb tnediatoriaj iiiterctKi-
sdon and reiffn.
6. The juiitifitotiDo of this sinner by faith alone.
7. The work of the Holy Spirit in the nonveraion and
sanctihcsition of the sinnpr.
8. The immortality o[ the Mini, the reeurreetion of the
hody. the judgment of the world by our Lord Jeeuii Christ,
with the eternal bleMedneaa of the nehteoua and the eter^
nal punishment of the wicked,
9. The divine icuititution of the Christian ministry, and
the obhgHtiou and fHirpetuity of the ordinances of Baptism
and the Lord'M Supper.
These articles were not intended to be a binding
creed or confession, but simply as expression of the
essential agreemcf^t of Evangelical Christians whom
it seemed desirable to embrace in the Alliance.
Some have regarded the statement as t^JO liberal,
others as too narrow (art. 9 excluding the Quakers),
while still others would have preferred no doc-
trinal statement, or at best only the Apostles'
Creed. Tile American branch, at ita organisation
(1367; see below, { 2), adopted the nine London
Evanarelical Allianoe
Evan^elioal Association
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
SM
articles, with the following explanatory and quali-
fying preamble:
Resolved, That in forming an Evangelical Allianoe for the
United States in cooperative union with other branches
of the Alliance, we have no intention to give rise to a new
denomination; or to effect an amalgamation of Churches,
except in the way of facilitating personal Christian inter-
course and a mutual good undarstanding; or to interfere in
any way whatever with the internal affairs of the various
denominations; but simply to bring individual Christiana
into closer fellowship and cooperation, on the basis of the
spiritual union which already exists in the vital relation of
Christ to the members of his body in all ages and countries.
Resolved, That in the same spirit we propose no new
creed, but taking broad, historical, and Evangelical catholic
ground, we solemnly reaffirm and profess our faith in all
the doctrines of the inspired word of God, and in the eon-
aenaus of doctrines as held by all true Christians from the
beginning. And wo do more especially affirm our belief in
the divine-human person and atoning voork of our Lord and
Savior Jesus Christ as the only and sufficient source of sal-
vation, as the heart and soul of Christianity, and as the
center of all true Christian union and fellowship.
Resolved, That, with this explanation, and in the spirit
of a just Christian Uberality in regard to the minor differ-
ences of theological schools and religious denominations, we
also adopt, as a simimary of the consensus of the various
EvangeUcal Confessions of Faith, the Articles and Explana-
tory Statement set forth and agreed on by the Evangelical
Alliance at its formation in London, 1846, and approved by
the separate European organizations.
Branch Alliances have been formed in Great
Britain, Germany, France, Holland, Switzerland,
Sweden, Denmark, Italy, Greece, and
3. Branch among the missionaries in Turkey,
Alliances. Egypt, and India; also in the United
States, Canada, Australia, Brazil,
Mexico, and among the P*rotestant missionaries in
Japan and China. There is no central organization
with controlling authority; and the General Alli-
ance app)ears in active operation only as it has met
in its general conferences (see below, § 4). The
various national branches are related to each other
as members of a confederation with equal rights.
The British organization, being the oldest and
largest, and having a house and salaried officers
who devote their whole time to the work, has been
the most influential; the Continental branches are
more elastic, and confine themselves to occasional
work. The " Evangelical Alliance for the United
States " or the American branch, was organized
at the Bible House, New York, Jan. 30, 1867 (a
previous attempt having failed on account of the
antislavery agitation before the Civil War), with
William E. Dodge as president. Its first official
communication was made to the Fifth General Con-
ference of the Alliance, meeting at Amsterdam, Aug.,
1867, and was a report on the " State of Religion
in the United States of America " prepared by
Prof. Henry B. Smith, of Union Theological Semi-
nary, New York, chairman of the executive com-
mittee of the American branch. Mr. Dodge re-
mained president till his death (1883) when he was
succeeded by liis son William E. Dodge, Jr. Drs.
S. Irenseus Prime and Philip Schaff were the first
corresponding secretaries. The American branch
at once became a vigorous organization and pre-
sented an invitation to the Alliance in session in
Amsterdam to hold its next meeting (1873) in New
York, which was accepted.
The Alliance has sought to accomplish its work
in three ways, — by means of the annual WeA d
Prayer, by conferences and by appeals for Umm
oppressed by religious persecution. At a eQ»
ference at Manchester, 1846, a resoiuticm m
adopted urging the "memben aal
3. The friends of the Alliance througfaont tli
Week of world to observe the week begimpf
Prayer, with the first Lord's day of Janiuuyk.
each year as a season for concert m .
prayer on behalf of the objects contemplstal
by the Alliance." Later the scope was wideail,
in answer to an appeal from the English and AmBh{
lean missionaries in India. It has become a fnotWj
means for promoting Christian union and the spieii,
of the Gospel at home and abroad. A progiai'
is issued several months in advance of the date If ;
the British organization, and sent to the brua [
Alliances for their revision and adoption. EtA--'
branch adapts it to the conditions and winttof ,
the country which it represents, and gives it p«^ ^
licity. Fifty-nine programs have thus far bett •$
issued. In more recent years the American hauk i
has acted independently in preparing a progMi
of its own. The subjects choeen for prayer hm
included union with Christ, home and fonifi
missions, the nations and their rulers, the hooM^
and Christian institutions such as the Young Mn^
Christian Association, schools and Sunday Schoob.
The British organization from the beginning hii
held an annual conference in October in some cil|
of Ekigland. The American bruck
4. Confer- has held conferences in Pittsbog
cnccs, Wa- 1875, Detroit 1877. St. Louis 183% :
tional and Washington 1887, Boston 1889, ani
General, at Chicago in connection with thi :
Columbian Exposition 1893. Hi |
German branch has held national conferenoes it
Beriin 1894, Cassel 1896, Essen 1898, Hdddbtfl
1900, and Hamburg 1905. It is managed by • ^
committee of twelve, one of whom represents tb ,
Methodists in Germany. The Continental and
other branches meet less regularly. Far wm
important, however, are the General Conferowi
convened at intervals according to circumstane*
They have an international as well as interd^
nominational character, and may be called PWl-
estant ecumenical councils, with the importaofc
difference that they do not settle dogmas or canon
of discipline, and claim no legislative authoritf.
They have been held in the great capital^ id
arranged by the branch in whose bounds theynwetk '
with the cooperation of all the sister branchti. |
They last from seven to ten days, and are speni 1
in prayer and praise, brotherly communion, aod ■■
free discussions of the leading religious and toad
questions of the age. Eleven International CoDfe^
ences have been held in the following cities: Loodoi
in 1851, the year of the first great Inteinatiaiid
Exhibition; Paris, 1855; Berlin, 1857; Geneva, 18S1;
Amsterdam, 1867; New York, 1873; Basel, Wt
Copenhagen, 1884; Florence, 1891; London, 18BI
— the diamond jubilee — and 1907.
The Conferenoe held m New York Oct. 2-12, 1873, dm
together in friendly conferenoe and commtiniop immimt
ative ChristianB from many parts of Europe ud bm
Asia and Africa, as well as from all parts of ihm Unite
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bvanvelloal AUlanot
Evanffalioal Aaaooiation
I Canada. Dr. Philip Schaff made four journeys
awaken interest in the gathering and to invite
Bakers. He presented the matter before church
iding the Old Catholic Congress, before the facul-
maities and selected groups of clergymen, also in
with the German Elmperor and Mr. Gladstone.
» more eminent speakers from abroad, all clergymen
rs of divinity, unless otherwise stated, were Joseph
;aptist). R. Payne Smith, W. H. Freemantle,
eathes, and Rev. C. D. Marston (Anglican), John
, and Joseph Parker (Independent), Wm. Amot,
OS, and Robert Knox (Presbyterian), all of Great
Seorges FiH:h, E. F. 0>ok and T. Lorriaux of
. A. Domer. Theodor Christlieb and W. KrafiFt of
Profs. C. Pronier and J. F. Asti^ and Franck Cou-
;ierland; Cohen Stuart from Holland; Prof.M. Pro-
Pknrenoe; M. Kalopothake8.M.D.. from Greece; and
onio Carrasco and Frits Fliedner from Spain. The
ayan Sheshadri, a converted Brahman of high
t one of the most interesting figures of the oon-
renth conference (Basel, 1879) was not so largo
ang. The eighth conference ((Copenhagen, 1884)
iliance to distinctly Lutheran groimd and brought
Scandinavian Protestantism into fellowship with
faes of other lands. The conference at Florence
ive an impulse to Italian evangelisation. The
tf«renoe (London, 1896) was a jubilee meeting
vmting the fiftieth anniversary of the Alliance.
iliance has appealed against religious per-
in a number of instances through the press
and deputations of influential public
eals men, and while the appeals have not
lig- always accomplished their immediate
purpose, they have had a considerable
y. moral influence in favor of a more
general adoption of the principles
ous liberty. It successfully exerted its
\ for the release of the Madiai family in
, 1852, who were punished for reading the
id holding religious meetings; for the
{ Bfatamoras, Carrasco, and their friends,
ing the reign of Queen Isabella in Spain,
■own into prison and condemned to the
or the same cause, 1863. It aided in in-
be sultan of Turkey to abolish the death-
for apostasy from Mohammedanism in his
IS after the Crimean War, 1856. It inter-
r the Methodists and Baptists in Sweden,
ich country has since abrogated the penal
inst Roman Catholics and Protestants not
g to the Lutheran Confession. It sent in
large deputation to the Czar of RUtoia
Friedrichshafen) to plead for the oppressed
18 in the Baltic Provinces. Among the dele-
>m the United States were Philip Schaff
iam Adams of New York, Bishop Mcllvaine
and the laymen William E. Dodge, Cyrus
d Nathan Bishop. It sent a similar depu-
» the embassy from Japan, on its visit to
;ed States and the courts of Europe in
remonstrate against the persecutions of
0, mostly Roman Catholics, in Japan. It
forgotten the Nestorians in Persia, who
to the Alliance for protection against the
>n of a Mohammedan government. It
a memorial to the Czar on the persecution
sta in Southern Russia, 1874. At the
General Conference a deputation was
i to wait on the Emperor of Austria in
certain Christians in Bohemia, who were
the liberty of holding even family wor-
ship; and the request was granted by the special
interposition of the emperor. In the last few years
efforts have been made to secure a more enlightened
and humane treatment of the Stundists in Russia
and the Armenian Christians in Asia.
A new kind of work has been undertaken by the
British and German branches in cooperating in
the maintenance since 1905 of an Alliance School
at Steglitz near Berlin to train students for religious
work in Russia. (Philip ScHAFFf) D. S. Schaff.
Biblioorapht: The Proceedings of the Liverpool meeting
of 1845 and of the General Conferences at London, Paris,
Berlin, Geneva, Amsterdam, New York. Basel, Florence,
and the London jubilee conference of 1896, were all pub-
lished in English, most of them also in French, German,
and Dutch, in the cities where they were held. Of these
publications especially valuable are the volumes relating
to the Conference at Amsterdam by Rev. P. Steane, those
at New York (1873 and 1884) by Schaff and 8. I. Prime,
that at Basel by J. Murray Mitchell, at Florence by R.
A. Bedford, and at London by A. J. Arnold, and of the
Washington, Boston and Chicago meetings. Among
publications of the American branch are its Reports, 1867-
1905, the Narrative of the State of Religion in the United
Statee by Prof. H. B. Smith, presented to the Amsterdam
Conference, 1867. the similar Narrative presented by
Philip Schaff to the Basel Conference, a Report on the Al-
liance Deputation to the Ctar of Rtuaia, 1871, and the Re-
union of Chriatendom by Philip Schaff, 1893, the author's
last literary work. The British branch publishes yearly
Reports, a monthly periodical. Evangelical Chrxetendom,
1847-99, The Evangelical AUiance Quarterly, 1899-1906,
and the bimonthly Evangelical Chriatendom, 1906 sqq.
For brief but somewhat unsatisfactory historic accounts
of the Alliance consult Rev. James Davis in the Proceed-
inga for 1874, and A. J. Arnold, in the Jubilee volume,
London, 1897. Consult also Life of Philip Schaff, N. Y..
1897, pp. 252-27 A, 332 sqq., 340 sqq. The President and
Corresponding Secretary of the American branch is Rev.
Leander Chamberlain, D.D., The Chelsea, W. 23d St., New
York. The office of the British branch is 7 Adam St.,
Strand, London, and its secretary is H. Martyn Gooch.
EVANGELICAL ASSOCIATION: An ecclesias-
tical body which originated as a result of the evan-
gelistic labors of Jacob Albright (q.v.), who began
preaching in 1796 among the Germans in Eastern
Pennsylvania. The first organizations among his
converts were formed in 1800. The first general
meeting took place in 1803, which acknowledged
Albright as a minister of the Gospel, and solemnly
ordained him by the laying on of hands, in accord-
ance with the precedent in Acts xiii. 1-3. Albright
was a member of the Methodist Episcopal Church,
with whose doctrine, polity, and spirit he was fully
in accord. But he was compelled to organize,
much against his own purpose and will, because
the leaders of the Methodist Church did not wish
to do work at that time among the Germans of this
country. In 1807 the first regular conference was
held, in Kleinfeltersville, Pa., composed of the
ministers and officers of the Church, twenty-eight
in number. Albright was elected bishop and
authorized to compile a Scriptural creed and a
plan of organization, but he died May 18, 1808,
leaving this work unfinished. George Miller, an
excellent writer, John Walter, an eloquent preacher,
and John Dreisbach, a man of uncommon gifts of
organization and leadership, carried the work for-
ward. In 1809 a second conference was held, at
which the book of discipline begun by Albright and
completed by George Miller, was adopted and the
name, *' The So-called Albright People," was
BTangrelioal Aaaooiation
Evangelization
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
9SH
agreed upon. In 1816 the first delegated General
Conference was held, at which the name, " The
Evangelical Association," was adopted. A pub-
lishing house which had been founded by John
Dreisbach in New Berlin, Penn., was made an in-
stitution of the Church. The work of the denomi-
nation was at first exclusively German. But it
gradually turned into English, while now it labors
in a number of languages and nationaUties.
The Evangelical Association is Arminian in
doctrine, connectional in organization, and episcopal
in government. The governing bodies are: (1)
The Quarterly Conference, composed of the minis-
ters and lay officers of a charge and presided over
by the presiding elder of the district. It meets
four times a year, manages the affairs of the charge
and recommends candidates for the ministry.
(2) The Annual Conference, which has administra-
tive jurisdiction over a prescribed territory. At
its sessions a bishop presides and assigns the
preachers to their charges. It licenses and or-
dains preachers and acts coordinately with the
General Conference in the enactment of constitu-
tional law. (3) The General Conference, meeting
every four years, and consisting of the bishops,
general officers, ministerial delegates chosen by the
Annual Conferences upon a basis of one to every
fourteen members, and lay delegates to constitute
about one-third of the entire body. This is the su-
preme governing, legislating, and judicial body of
the Church. It makes laws in concurrence with the
members of the Annual Conferences, elects the
bishops and general officers, and is the final court
of appeal.
A controversy of several years' duration led to
the secession of about 50,000 members and the
organization of the United Evangelical Church
(q.v.) in 1891. The Evangelical Association in
1907 consisted of twenty-seven Annual Conferences,
twenty-two in the United States, one in Canada,
two in Germany, one in Switzerland, and one in
Japan. It has 131,437 members; 1,587 ministers,
itinerant and local; 2,232 Sunday-schools with 23,-
977 officers and teachers and 165,192 scholars;
1,201 Young People's Alliances with 39,143 mem-
bers; 2,219 organized congregations; 1,854 church
edifices with an estimated value of $6,340,966;
722 parsonages valued at $1,264,618. Its total
property is valued at $7,942,740.03. Its people
contributed $250,000 for missions and $1,476,771
for all purposes in 1906. It has a publishing house
in Cleveland, Ohio, and a branch in Stuttgart,
Germany. Its educational institutions are North
Western College, Naperville, 111., with four build-
ings, an endowment of $250,000, twenty-five pro-
fessors, and 450 students; Union Biblical Institute,
at the same place, with an endowment of $50,000,
and forty students; Schuylkill Seminary, Reading,
Penn., with $50,000 endowment; the Preachers'
Seminary in Reutlingen, Germany; and the Corre-
spondence College with headquarters at Reading,
Penn. It has an orphan home at Flat Rock, Ohio,
taking care of 150 children, three old people's homes,
one in Philadelphia, one near Buffalo, N. Y., and
one in Chicago, and a deaconesses' home and
hospital in Chicago. It has missions in Japan
and China. Der ckrUaiche Boischafter. Th Ewm
gelical Messenger, Das evangelische Magazin, and
The Living Epistle, all published in ClevelaiM(
Ohio, are the church periodicals. S. P. Spbdio.
Biblioorapht: R. Yeakel. Jacob AOnight and hU Crfi.
borera, Cleveland, Ohio, 1883; idem, Hittory cf A« Em^
Oelieal ABtociation, 2 vols., ib. 1892-94 (oomat doini l»
1850): idem. The Life of Biakop Joseph, Long, ib. IMfc
W. W. Orwig, Hietory of the Evanodieal Aatonalwn, &
1858; S. C. Breyfogel. Landmaake of fhe BvangeUtal A^
aociation, ib. 1887; S. P. 8pren«, Life and Lckan if
Biahop John Seybert, ib. 1888; idem, in Amerioan Ckmdk
Hiatory Seriea, xii. 383 sqq.. New York, 1894; A. Stvb.
ton, A nnala of the Evangelical AaaociaUon of NorA Amait^
and Hiatory of the United Evanoelical Ckurek, B»mAm^
1896; the Diadpline of the Evangdioal AaaociaUon, t^
tions from 1809-1903.
EVANGELICAL COUNSELS. See CoNSoa
EVANGELICA.
JVANGELICAL SOCIETY OF OraiEVA (SO-
T£ EVANGELIQUE DE GENEVE): Tb i
oldest of the Continental Evangelical sodetiei; |
founded in 1831 for the diffusion of sound doctriN j
throughout Switzerland and France. It has a tlw-
logical school at Geneva, supports numerous ttk^
sionaries, pastors, and colporteurs, and is dependeat
upon voluntary contributions derived not only bm
Switzerland, but also from other parts of Eunpi
and even from the United States, which prodMl
an annual income of about 260,000 francs. It ii
undenominational, having as its confession of tiHk
substantially the creed of the Evangelical AlliaiMl i
(q.v.). It is the product of the revival atteodai |
the labors of Robert Haldane (see Haldans, Jim
Alexander, and Robert).
Bibliographt: RSdtaetaouveniradeqiielqtteO'UnadaaoamiKS i
(published on the occasion of the fiftieth MmhraiMK
1881); and the " Annual Reports."
EVANGELICAL UNION: 1. The Evanfefiol
Union of Scotland: A religious body formed al
Kilmarnock, Scotland, May 16, 1843, at a meetiag
attended by four ministers, one evangdist, and
eight elders, representing three churches and t«9 jj
preaching stations. The ministers — James BforiMi i
of Kilmarnock, his father Robert Morison of Bitb* i
gate, John Guthrie of Kendal, and Alexander & -^
Rutherford of Falkirk — had been virtually expM
from the Secession Church for holding the doctriM
of an unlimited atonement and protesting agunit
the condemnation of James Morison (q.v.) by tte
Secession Synod. The distinctive doctrines affinnrf
were " the imiversality of the atonement, the uoi*
versality and moral nature of the influaiceBrf
the Holy Spirit, and the simplicity of faith, whiefci
by means of its object, Jesus Christ, as madeknoffi
in the Gospel, brings peace to the conscience ind
purity to the heart." The Independent ecdesuMh
cal polity was adopted, each church to be compkM
in itself. The membership of the union was lOflft
increased and an impetus was given to its work by
a number of churches, ministers, and student!^
John Kirk, Fergus Ferguson, Peter Bfather,Wfflr
iam Bathgate, and others — who were dissodakd
from the Congregational Union of Scotland for
holding views similar to those of James Morim
(see Ferguson, Fergus). It was not intended
I originally to be a sect or a separate den<
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Byanffelioal Association
Evangelisation
al meetings held over the whole country
wide preaching of the doctrines of the
i to the formation of churches and this
ed organization. A theological academy
uted with James Morison as first professor,
Guthrie was added as colleague in a few
her professors were appointed later and
s were comparatively large. The business
nion was carried on by an Annual Con-
nd the committees it appointed,
luence of the Union was far in excess of
ht have been expected from its members.
and laymen zealously cx|K)unded their
opposition to the Calvinistic doctrines of
minster Confession, and numerous tracts,
s, and books were issued from the pub-
use and circulated nvidely. The Christian
•ekly) was started in 1846 and continued
years. The Evangelical Repository (quar-
s commenced in 1854 and continued for
ir years. A monthly Forward existed for
irs and the Day Star and Dew Drop had
culation for half a century. The members
lion were among the pioneers of the tem-
Qovement in Scotland. All of its clergy
ty per cent of its members were total
s and no hquor dealer was allowed to
of the churches. In 1896 the churches
Jnion — more than ninety in number —
th the Congregational Union of Scotland,
their historical position by a prefatory
ed at the head of the constitution of the
ody which states, among other things,
f were moved and encouraged to seek
a order to efifective cooperation in extend-
[ingdom of God and proclaiming the Gos-
us Christ, through whose person and work
ncamate, and the saving and sanctifying
God, the Holy Spirit, God the Father in
has made provision for, and is seeking
tion of all men." A few small and unim-
ihurches still retain the name EvangeUcal
William Adamson.
the German ^ Evangelical Union for the
ion of German Protestant Interests,'* see
VTANGEUSCHER.
fht: F. Ferguflon. HUt. of the Evanotlieal Union,
. 1876; Evanadieal Union Jubilee, ib. 1892; J.
^iaL of ConffregaHonal Independency in Scotland,
DELIST: A word which occurs three
the New Testament (Acts xxi. 8; Eph. iv.
[Im. iv. 5), not found in the Septuagint
r Greek versions, in the Apostolic Fathers,
: Didache, and not in classical Greek use.
n the same root as the words translated
" (Gk. euangelion) and *' to preach "
tomai). In Eph. iv. 11 evangelists are
;ed along with apostles, prophets, pastors,
lers, but this does not mean that they were
;t order of church officials. Deacons,
•8, and apostles (Acts viii. 25; I Cor. i.
, all might exercise evangelistic functions.
the bishop-presbyter, was exhorted to
irork of an evangelist " (II Tim. iv. 5); and
le of the seven deacons at Jerusalem, is
IV.— 15
called an evangelist (Acts viii. 5. xxi. 8). The
evangelists are to be regarded as itinerants, trav-
eling from place to place. This was the case with
Phihp, who preached in Samaria, expounded the
word to the eunuch on his way to Gaza, and then
labored in Csesarea and the cities round about
(Acts viii. 40). They acted independently (Acts
viii. 4), but largely as " fellow laborers " and
assistants of the apostles, accompanying them on
their journeys, and laboring imder their direction.
Theodoret (Ad Eph. iv. 11) was the first to restrict
the term to itinerant preachers, and (Ecumenius
applied it for the first time strictly to the authors
of the Gospels. The term is used at the present
time in both these senses. In later Uturgical
language the name was given to the reader of the
Gospel for the day.
Biblioorapht: O. Zdckler, Diakonen und T Evanoelieten,
Munich. 1803; T. Zahn. Mianonamethotlen im Zeitalter
der Apoaid, Leipsic. 1886; J. Reville. Lee Originee He
IVpiecopat, Paris, 1889; C. von Weiu&cker, Apoatolic
Age, 2 vols., London, 1894-05; DB, i. 706-797.
EVANGELIST MISSIONARY CHURCH. See
Methodists, IV., 9.
EVANGELIZATION.
Meanings of the Term (S D-
Evangelisation in Roman Catholic Countries (( 2).
In Greoo- Russian, Mohammedan and Heathen
Lands (( 3).
Local Societies in or beside the Churches (M)-
The Movement in Germany (( 5).
Evangelization is the announcement of the divine
message of salvation and conse<iuent awakening to
a saving faith (Matt. xi. 5; Acts xvi. 10, xvii. 18;
Rom. X. 15; I Cor. i. 17; I Pet. i. 12). The agent
is called an evangelist in the New Testament (see
Evangelist). In the original sense evangelization
was the mission work done on the basis
I. Mean- of the universal testimony of the faitli-
ings of the ful and in the strength of a special
Tenn. grace. In a narrower sense since the
time of the WaUlensians and John
Wyclif the word is employed to express the efforts
to counteract and correct the declension during the
Middle Ages from apostolic ideals of Christian liv-
ing. Later the content of the word came to be the
efforts made in the service of the Church as one of
the blessings of the Protestant Reformation to
preach the pure word of grace and to stimulate to
higher individual and community life and to larger
activity in Christian service. Another use of the
word makes it express an unofficial activity, within
the Evangelical national Churches, essentially re-
lated to the work of home missions. This article
will deal with evangelization in the last two senses.
Evangelization as a reform has its area of opera-
tion in lands belonging to the Roman Catholic or
Greek faiths or where either by Mohammedanism
or a returning heathenism the Church has been
overcome. In Italy the Waldensian Church is the
central agent in evangelization, possessing seven-
teen parishes in the home valleys, forty-four
church organizations, fifty-seven mission stations,
several schools, a theological seminary, a union for
promoting the spiritual and temporal well-bcMn;^
BTAiiflrellBation
Evans
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
Ml
of scattered Waldensians, and an orphan asylum
in Rome. The synod has also imder its care three
organizations of the Free Church in Milan, Ban, and
Mottola. The EvangeUcal Church of Italy (for-
merly the Free Church) has existed since 1870
and reports twenty organizations and
3. Evangel- 119 preaching places. German Evan-
ization in gelical organizations are found in
Roman Venice, Milan, Florence, Naples,
Catholic Genoa, Bologna, Rome (since 1820),
Countries. San Rcmo, and elsewhere. The pas-
tors have held since 1880 a yearly
conference, and are for the most part under the
direction of the Prussian Evangelical Council.
The organizations in the different cities have local
institutions of value, such as societies for men and
for women, homes for young men, homes for the
aged, for seamen, and the like. The Wesleyan
Methodists have thirty-six organizations, the
Methodist Episcopal Church (American) has
twenty-eight, and the Old Catholic five. The
British and Foreign Bible Society maintains thirty
colporteurs, and the Evangelical Book and Tract
Society in Italy is doing its peculiar work. In
Spain and Portugal there are German Evangelical
organizations in Lisbon, Barcelona, Malaga, and
Amora, and the Anglican Church is represented in
Madrid by a congregation having its own church.
The work of the German Evangelical Church in
Madrid is prospering and employing various agen-
cies. The circulat ion of the Scriptures is proceeding
rapidly. See Italy; Spain; Portugal; and for
France, Belgium, Austria, and Hungary see the
articles on those countries.
In Russia the work of evangelization is sternly
repressed (cf. R. Krause, Ein Stuck Kirchen- und
Lebensgeschichte aus den deutsch^russiachen Ost-
seeprovimen, Giitersloh, 1893; H. Dalton, Der
Stundismus in Russland, ib. 1896). In St. Peters-
burg the Evangelicals find more toleration and dis-
play considerable charitable activity. Pastoral
work among the Lutheran communities in South
Russia and the Caucasus is made
3. In difficult by the great distances. In
Greco- the Balkans the Evangelical commu-
Russian, nities and interests need reenforce-
Moham- ments. The Germans have a station
medan, and at Belgrade, established in 1860, and
Heathen at Sophia and Rustchuk there are
Lands. also stations. Baptists have recently
undertaken work in the region. In
Rumania the Germans have nine stations, and in
Turkey one in Constantinople and one in Salonika.
In Greece since 1896 recognition has been granted
to tlie ( I reck Evangelical Church. In Asia Minor,
])rincipally through American agencies, the old
Armenian Church was aroused to new life. But
because of this very activity and also in conse-
quence of the reports concerning the existence of an
Armenian revolutionary party, Mohammedan fanat-
icism has almost succeeded in annihilating the
results (cf. J. Lepsius, Armenien und Europa,
Berlin, 1896). Hope is entertained, however, that
the EvangeUcal agencies, especially those of a
charitable character will succeed in reinstating
better conditions. In Palestine congregations of
the German Evangelical Church are found in Jeni
salem, Bethlehem, Jaffa, Haifa, and Beirut. Tin
United Brethren are also active there, while asyiunu^
hospitals, and schools are employed effectird|y.
Egypt is occupied by agencies from En^nd and
Germany. The Presbjrterian Church and the G«v.
man EvangeHcals are active in Brazil and work jji
carried on also in Chile, Argentina, Uruguay, ni
Venezuela. See the articles on the countries namedl
Even within the Protestant Churches there come
lapses from faith and a declension of ethical stand-
ards; new zeal then develops in the memben%
and organizations outside of the regular eeefe*
siastical agencies, having an Evangelical character,
come into existence. Out of German Pietism mm
societies of a charitable sort having as their object
the saving of abandoned children and the dih
semination of the Scriptiu^s and of Christiai
literature. Preaching by laymen of the standiBg
of Zinzendorf , Tersteegen, Bogatzky, and M. Hafa^
drawing largely from the inspiration of Refoimatioi <
sources, has had a large influence upon the quiek-
ening of Christian Hfe, and also upon the develop-
ment of the ** Innere Biission." Eof-
4. Local lish Methodism is an example tl t 1
Societies in kind of evangeUzation which waa eai
or beside ried on outside the agencies legtt- '
the larly employed, working through fok
Churches, means as Sunday Schools, city nii-
sions, and itinerant preaching. An-
other example of the same kind is the ''Innat
Mission ** of Germany, seconding the r^ular mfk
of the established churches (see Innere BIibsiokX
Local societies have also engaged in special wA
in their own fields in Stuttgart, Basel, Baden,
Elberfeld, and other places. In Norway ths
peasant H. N. Hague (q.v.) was instrumental a
forming a society for carrying on work of tMi
character in France, where evangelists, preachen^
and colporteurs were maintained for a number of
years. In Holland for fifty years the " Netheriand
Protestant Union " worked in concert with thi
Reformed Church of that country. In France the
McAll Mission (q.v.) has accomplished work not
merely in Paris but throughout France in stimtt-
lating the sending of preachers, Bible-women, and
teachers to some fifty-seven places. The work of
Moody and Sankey and of Pearsall Smith are not to
be forgotten. Emulation of the Methodist metbodi
of working aroused in Germany such men as Se-
mann, Baedeker and Von Schlumbach tolabonoC
the same kind. As a result of the appeal of Dr.
Christheb Evangelical societies were organiaed ii
Denmark, Norway, and Sweden for theappointnusl
of lay evangelists whose work should be the stiDHh
lation of the Church to new life in the matter ol
saving souls. Similar results followed in (jennaoy,
and institutes for the training of men for the woriL
were founded.
In Germany the growing importance of this kind
of labor stimulated the Central Committee of tht
*' Innere Mission " in 1888 to take council with itl
friends and supporters concerning the EvangeHal
activity of laymen in the kingdom of God, its need,
and its limitations. The conclusion was reachd
that, in view of the fact that large numbers of tin
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Evan galiwtttcw
Evana
! not reached by the ordinary minlstra-
he Church, there is necessitated an ex-
y method not bound by the usual limi-
ider which ecclesiastical operations are
conducted. In case ordinary methods
are not suited to any particular need,
it the matter shall not go by default by
ly, deferring to the usual agencies. While
regularly trained candidates in the-
to be kept in mind for the propagation
oric, well-equipped laymen are not to be
specially if their gifts are suited for the
ily experience can determine whether the
s for training evangelists are suited for
pment of this kind of activity. At any
institutions must be under official super-
vangehcal operations are not, as a rule,
irded as anything but the response to a
ed. The regular agencies of the Gospel
stimulated, not dwarfed into inactivity.
\ the movement has been widely extended,
gatherings of the churches the question
discussed what should be the attitude
e unofficial and free attempts to evan-
he Conference of Pastors of the Lower
net in 1894, the Saxon Union for the Innere
I 1894-95, the Sleswick-Holstein Union,
ich Conference in 1896, and the General
L897 have all discussed various phases of
on. The good results often flowing from
hods of free evangelization have been
I and the acknowledgment made that
lent should be added. To the officials
rch in their own departments these recom-
IS have been made for appropriate action
tsecution of their labor.
(P. Rahlenbeck.).
ht: J. Schneider. EvanoelUation und Oemein-
ven, Qfltenloh, 1897; R. Krause. Bin StQck Kir-
leben9Qe9chiehte, ib. 1893; J. Mailer, DieEvangeli-
trdm, ErUkirddiefUen, Leipeic, 1895; H. Ehilton,
digmua in RuM9land, OQtersloh, 1896; J. Lep-
•cmen und Burapa, Berlin, 1896; O. M&rker,
MfeUaaHon, Stuttgart, 1896; E. Bunke. Kirch-
MffduaHon, Hamburg. 1899; T. Hardeland,
aiUnufraoe, Leipeic, 1899; E. Graebenteich, Zur
ttHontifrage, Eialeben, 1900.
, CHRISTMAS: Welsh Baptist; b. at
1, near Llandyssil (15 m. e.8.e. of Cardi-
. 25, 1766; d. at Swansea July 19, 1838.
^be death of his father, a shoemaker, he
iestitute at the age of nine. After six
years spent with his mother's uncle he
fann hand. Through the influence of
avies, a preacher and school-teacher,
the Presbyterian church at Llwynrhy-
id soon afterward began to preach. In
ined the Baptist church at Aberduar and
IS ordained pastor at Lleyn. In 1792 he
in^esey, where for many years he ruled
iaptist churches; his salary was seventeen
fear. For a time he was a victim of the
mian heresy," but later he regained his
. Finally the churches of Anglesey
gainst his despotic government, and in
ent to Caerphilly. In 1828 he removed
and in 1832 to Carnarvon, his last pas-
torate. Evans was a man of ardent piety and a
great and powerful preacher. His brethren called
him the " Bunyan of Wales." His Sermons have
been frequently published in Welsh (Eng. transl.,
with memoir, by Joseph Cross, Philadelphia, 1854).
Bibuoorapht: Biographiee have been written by: D. R.
Stephens, London, 1847; D. M. Evans, ib. 1863; £. P.
Hood. New York. 1901. Consult also DNB, zviii. 67-68.
EVANS, JOHN: 1. Non-conformist; b. at Wrex-
ham (25 m. s. of Liverpool), Wales, c. 1680; d. in
London May 16, 1730. He was ordained at Wrex-
ham in 1702 and remained there as pastor of a new
Congregational church till 1704, when he went to
London as the assistant of Dr. Daniel Williams,
whom he succeeded in 1716. In London he threw
in his lot with the Presbyterians. He frequently
presided at meetings of dissenters and was admired
for his tolerant views. He published a number of
sermons, completed Matthew Henry's commentary
on Romans, and, intending to write a history of
non-conformity, gathered much of the material
subsequently used by Daniel Neal (q.v.) in his
History of the Puritans, Evans is best known by
a series of sermons entitled, PracticalDiscourses con-
cerning the Christian Temper (4th ed., 2 vols.,
London, 1737; edited with a life, by J. Erskine,
1825).
Biblioorapht: J. Erskine, Brief Account of John EvanM,
D.D., Edinburgh, 1802; M. Noble, Biographical Hist, of
England, iii. 146. London. 1806; Walter Wilson. Hist,
and Antiquitiet of Disaenting Churchea, ii. 212-221. 4 vols.,
ib. 1808-14; Robert Williams, Biographical DicHonary
of Eminent Welshmen, Llandovery, 1862; DNB, xviii.
66-66.
2. Baptist; b. at Usk (11 m. s.w. of Monmouth)
Oct. 2, 1767; d. at Islington, London, Jan. 25,
1827. After studying at King's College, Aberdeen,
and at the University of Edinburgh (M.A., 1791;
LL.D., Brown University, 1819), he went to London
to take charge of the morning congregation of
General Baptists in Worship Street. He was or-
dained pastor May 31, 1792, and served the church
till his death. An illness in 1815 deprived him of
the use of his legs, and after that time he had to
be carried to his pulpit. In 1795 he opened a
school at Hoxton Square (later at Islington) which
he maintained for thirty years. Of his forty or
more writings by far the most popular was his
Sketch of the Denominations of the Christian World
(London, 1795; 15th ed., revised, 1827). The book
was translated into various languages, and during
Evans' lifetime more than 100,000 copies were
sold. For the copyright he received ten poimds.
Other works are, A Preservative against the Infi-
delity and Uncharitableness of the Eighteenth Century
(1796), a sequel to the above mentioned book;
An Attempt to Account for the Infidelity of the Late
Mr. Gibbon (1797); An Essay on the Education of
Youth (1798); Complete Religious Liberty V indi-
cated (1813); and The Christianity of the New
Testament Imperishable and Impregnable (1819).
Biblioorapht: Robert Williams. Biographical Dictionary
of Eminent Welshmen, Llandovery. 1852; S. A. Allibone,
Critical Dictionary of Eng. Literature, i. 667. Philadelphia,
1891; DNB, xviii. 66-67.
EVANS, LLEWELYN lOAN: Presbyterian; b.
at Treuddyn, North Wales, June 27, 1833; d. at
Evanson
Evolution
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOQ
I
Bala (43 m. s.w. of Liverpool), Merioneth, Wales,
July 25, 1892. He studied at the Welsh Presby-
terian College, Bala (1846-49), and at Racine
CoUege, Racine, Wis. (B.S., 1854; B.A., 1856),
and was graduated at Lane Theological Seminary,
Cincinnati, O., in 1860. He was pastor of the Lane
Seminary Church, 1860-63, and professor in Lane
Seminary until 1892, of church history, 1860-63, of
Biblical literature and exegesis 1863-71, of the
Old Testament 1871-75, and of the New Testament
after 1875. In 1892 he accepted a call to the Welsh
Presbyterian College, but died four months after-
ward. He was a member of the Wisconsin legis-
lature in 1856-57 and corresponding editor of
The Christian Central Herald 1863-66. He trans-
lated and edited O. Zockler's commentary on Job
(New York, 1874); a posthumous volume of ser-
mons Preaching Christ (1893) has a memoir by
his colleague in Lane, H. P. Smith.
EVANSON, EDWARD: English clergyman; b.
at Warrington (16 m. w.s.w. of Manchester), Lan-
cashire, Apr. 21, 1731; d. at Colford (4 m. n.w. of
Crediton), Devonshire, Sept. 25, 1805. He studied
at Emmanuel College, Cambridge (B.A., 1749;
M.A., 1753). After having officiated for several
years as curate at Mitcham, Surrey, he was given
the vicarage of South Mimms in 1768, and in 1769
also that of Tewkesbury. The following year he
gave up South Mimms for the vicarage of Longdon,
in Worcestersliire. For questioning the divinity
of Christ and altering the liturgy in conformity
to Unitarian views a prosecution was instituted
against him. First tried before the bishop of
Gloucester, Jan. 16, 1775, the case was appealed to
the Court of Arches, then to the Court of Delegates,
and finally quashed on technical grounds in 1777.
Evanson was very popular with his parishioners,
and they subscribed freely to pay his expenses.
In 1777 he gave up his charges and a few months
later opened a school at Mitcliam. After his
marriage, in 1786, he purchased an estate at Blaken-
ham, Suffolk, and later preached to a Unitarian
church at Lympston. He was the author of The
Dissonance of the Four generally received Evan-
gelists (Ipswich, 1792), in w^liich he rejects the
Gospels of Mattliew, Mark, and John, and other
parts of the New Testament; Arguments against
and for the Sabbatical Observance of Sunday (Ip-
swich, 1792), a result of a controversy with Priest-
K^y; and Reflections on the State of Religion in
Christendom (I^ndon, 1802), which he considered
his most important work; also Sermons, with a
memoir (2 vols., London, 1807), containing the
Easter sermon of Mar. 31, 1771, which led to his
prosecution.
Bibliography: Gentleman'a Magazine, ii (1805), 1233;
Neaflt Harvard. Narrative of the Origin and Progress of
the Pronecutinn in Tewkesbury. London, 1778; DNB,
xviii 78-79 (where further literature is indicated).
EVARESTUS (ARISTUS): According to the
lists of the bishops of Rome, successor of Clement
and predecessor of Alexander, about the beginning
of the second century. Nothing is known about
him, and his existence is doubtful.
BxBUOOBArHY: Haraack. Litieratur, II., i. 144 sqq.
EVE: The name of the first woman, aoooidi^|»
the Book of Genesis, where her creatioii is destiM
(ii. 18-24), introduced by the soliloquy of YaliiA-
Elohim: " It is not good for the znan to beakia;
I will create for him a help as his countoput"
Then God orders the animals to pass before Ada
in pairs for review, that he may realize his uttv
loneliness and crave for the companionship of bs
own kind. While Adam is in a trance. (lod Ufai
one of his ribs (so Eng. versions) and from it foioi
the woman. It is thought by some that the vori
rendered " rib '' means any independent, sepuifab
part of the body, — a meaning favored by the uogi
of the word as " annex " in I Kings vi. h\ EhL
xli. 5-7. Be this as it may, the point of the stay
is that the woman is not created independeody df
the man, but from that which has been taken fm
him. In I Cor. xi. 8-9 Paul lays onphaas upoi
this. Originally created as one, destined for pe^
sonal relation with God, later man beoomeih»
band to the woman who proceeds out of I
" This is at last," he cries, beholding her, " boneof
my bone, and flesh of my flesh." Recogoiiiiig bv
kinship to him, he names her in contradiaUnctiiM
to himself as "man" (Hebr. ish), the "femib
man " (Hebr. isshah). The historian adds, tbt
for this reason (namely that woman has b«
created out of and for man) man will fonakefatk
and mother and cHng to his wife and thus beoon
one flesh with her. Since ish can be a eontnetkn
of issh ( = insh), the possibility of an etymologieil
connection between ish and isshah is not to be
denied offhand (cf. Strack on Gen. ii. 23).
It is further said: (1) that Eve was tempted
into disobedience and induced her husband to
commit the same sin (Gen. iii. 1-7; cf. II Cor. xL
3; I Tim. ii. 14); (2) that she was punished by tbe
pains of childbirth and her dependence on her
husband (Gen. iii. 16); (3) that Adam relying upon
God's promise of the victorious seed, gave her tbe
name Hawwah (" Life ") as the " mother of all
Hving "* (Gen. iii. 20); (4) that she welcomed the
birth of her first-bom in happy surprise at the
divine gift of grace with the words, " 1 have brougjit
forth a man with the help of Yahweh" {Gen. iv.l).
(W. VOLCKf.)
Biblioorapht: Smith, Kinship, p. 177; J. WeUhameB.
Prolegomena, p. 308. London. 1885; T. Ndldeke, in ZDMO,
xUi (1888). 487; JE, v. 276-276.
EVERETT, CHARLES CARROLL: Unitarian;
b. at Brunswick, Me., June 19, 1829; d. at Cnm-
bridge, Mass., Oct. 17, 1900. He was educated at
Bowdoin College (B.A., 1850), and after completing
his studies at the University of Berlin was sucoea-
sively tutor (185.V55) and professor (1855-57) oC
modem languages at Bowdoin, being also librariaa
during this entire period. He then entered the
Harvard Divinity School, from which he was grad-
uated in 1859, and in the same year became minister
of the Independent Congregational (Unitarian)
Church at Bangor, Me., where he remained teo
years. From 1869 until his death h© was Buaaey
professor of theology in Harvard Divinity School,
and after 1878 was also dean. He wrote: The Sdr
ence of Thought (Boston, 1869, new ed., 1890); Re-
ligions before Christianity (1883); Fichte*s Science of
19
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Branson
Evolution
Kmwiddge (Chicago, 1884); Poetry, Comedy, and Duty
OtotoD, 1888); Ethics far the People (1891 ); Gospel of
Ptat(1893); Ethics far Young People (1894); and the
foikfauinous Essays Theological and lAterary (1901);
hmortaHty and other Essays (1902); and Psychologir
viSkmenU of Religious Faiih (New York, 1902).
EVERLASTING GOSPEL. See Joachim of
FlORE.
EVIDENCES OF CHRISTIANITY. See Apolo-
getics.
EVIL-MERODACH. See Babylonia, VI. 7, § 3.
. L Seope of the Term. III.
i WL Dirwin's Greek Predecessors.
Anvdmander and Epictinia (S 1).
Henditus and the Stoics (S 2). IV.
\ Empedoeles and Democri tus ( 1 3 ).
Fkto and Aristotle (t 4).
\ Evolution (or Evolutionism) is the view that
i. fte whole world and all it contains was not estab-
'. Hied once for all, but that it is in a state of per-
■ fidiaJ motion and development.
I Scope of the Term: As a metaphysical theory
•Polution is distinguished from the doctrine of
ABaaation'(q.v.) by the fact that according to the
ktter the primal principle remains imchanged in
fmatitj and quality in spite of every efflux and
dsfdopment proceeding from it; while according
Id the theory of development in its logical com-
phtencBB nothing is excluded from the process of
indopment or change — not even the original
itself, if any such is assumed. Another
t of difference is, that in the doctrine of ema-
the development proceeds by various stages
I the highest to ever lower stages, while evo-
works continually toward what is higher
Md mOTe perfect. Both these theories, and espe-
iiiDy the latter, are opposed to that of creation,
Meording to which the whole world and the matter
•ODtained in it are the products of a free and con-
■bas act of God; and they are opposed equally
to tbe sort of dualism, in the main Platonic, which
•DMeives a permanent world of ideas in contrast
irikh a mutable matter still to be formed and
dkrives the visible phenomena from the influence
4 the fonner upon the latter. In a narrower
Wogical sense evolution often means the devel-
•pnent of organic beings from inorganic matter,
•ad their further descent from one another. In
the views of the evolutionistic school two different
tadendes are to be distinguished. One is teleo-
kfieal, or more broadly organic, which deduces
feotioD and change from internal causes or purposes
Uorent in the things subject to the process. This
vinr is found not seldom in the older philosophers,
md also in the modem, especially the German
lUiBts. The other may be called the mechanical,
jlfae it ascribes the changes to external causes.
Ail is the view chiefly held by modem evolu-
EVOLUTION.
Medieval Views.
Augustine, Erigena, and Cusa (Si).
Giordano Bruno ($ 2).
The Theory in Modern Philosophy.
Descartes, Leibnits, Herder (( 1).
Kant, Schelling, and Others (} 2).
Schleiermaoher and Hegel (S 3).
Lamarck and Darwin ((4).
Haeckel. Fouill^e, Ouyau (S 5).
Herbert Spencer (( 6).
Modifications of Spencer (t 7).
Hie terms evolution and development in this
Hie are of comparatively recent origin, and when
il|f first make their appearance relate not to the
W$ue universe but to some special partial process.
%e doetrine, however, which is now meant by
kMBB, appears in the early stages of Greek philos-
^tf, and traces of it may be found in Oriental
■wight. The terms evolution and evolutionism,
lough found in a partially analogous sense as
d|f M Nicholas of CusSi and in Leibnits and other
seventeenth and eighteenth century philosophers
in a sense still nearer to the modem, seem to have
gamed their full impxort first in England. They
are now used also by French and German writers,
and designate what forms an important, if not the
central, point in the modem conception of the
world.
n. Darwin's Greek Predecessors: Evolution is
not so much a modem discovery as some of its
advocates would have us believe. It
niM^^" ™^® ^^^ appearance early in Greek
j^^ philosophy, and maintained its posi-
BpicumB. ^^^^ more or less, with the most
diverse modifications, and frequently
confused with the idea of emanation, until the close
of ancient thought. The Greeks had, it is tme,
no term exactly equivalent to ** evolution"; but
when Thales asserts that all things originated from
water; when Anaximenes calls air the principle
of all things, regarding the subsequent process as
a thinning or thickening, they must have con-
sidered individual beings and the phenomenal
world as a result of evolution, even if they did not
carry the process out in detail. Anaximander is
often regarded as a precursor of the modem theory
of development. He deduces living beings, in a
gradual development, from moisture under the
influence of warmth, and suggests the view that
men originated from animals of another sort, since
if they had come into existence as human beings,
needing fostering care for a long time, they would
not have been able to maintain their existence.
In Empedoeles, as in Epicurus and Lucretius, who
follow in his footsteps, there are rudimentary sug-
gestions of the Darwinian theory in its broader
sense; and here too, as with Darwin, the me-
chanical principle comes in; the process is adapted
to a certain end by a sort of natural selection,
without regarding nature as deliberately forming
its results for these ends.
If the mechanical view is to be found in these
philosophers, the teleological occurs in Heraclitus,
who conceives the process as a rational development,
in accordance with the Logos, and names steps of
the process, as from igneous air to
^•^®'*®"" water, and thence to earth. The
the Steves. ^^^^^^ followed Heraclitus in the main
lines of their physics. The primal
principle is, as with him, igneous air, only that this
is named God by them with much greater definite-
ness. The Godhead has life in itself, and develops
into the imiverse, differentiating primarily into
ETOlution
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
two kinds of elements — the finer or active, and the
coarser or passive. Formation or development
goes on continuously, under the impulse of the
formative principle, by whatever name it is known,
until all is once more dissolved by the ekpyrOaU
into the fundamental principle, and the whole
process begins over again. Their conception of the
process as analogous to the development of the
seed finds special expression in their term of logos
spermatikos. In one pxoint the Stoics differ essen-
tially from Heraclitus. With them the whole
process is accomplished according to certain ends
indwelling in the Godhead, which is a provident,
careful intelligence, while no providence is assumed
in Heraclitus.
Empedoclee asserts definitely that the sphairoSf
as the full reconciliation of opposites, is opposed,
as the superior, to the individual beings brought
•Bs« M^ ^^^ existence by hatred, which are
™aped- ^jjgjj ^j^^g more imited by love to
Demoo- ^^® primal essence, the interchange
ritns. °^ world-periods thus continuing
indefinitely. Development is to be
found also in the atomistic philosopher Democritus;
in a purely mechanical manner without any pur-
pose, bodies come into existence out of atoms, and
ultimately entire worlds appear and disappear from
and to eternity. Like his predecessors, D^ocritus,
deduces organic beings from what is inorganic —
moist earth or slime.
Development, as well as the process of becoming
in general, was denied by the Eleatic philosophers.
Their doctrine, diametrically opposed
* to the older thoroughgoing evolu-
Aristotle. ^^^nism, had its influence in determin-
ing the acceptance of unchangeable
ideas, or forms, by Plato and Aristotle. Though
Plato reproduces the doctrine of Heraclitus as to
the flux of all things in the phenomenal world, he
denies any continuous change in the world of ideas.
Change is permanent only in so far as the eternal
forms stamp themselves upon individual objects.
Though this, as a rule, takes place but imperfectly,
the stubborn mass is so far affected that all works
out as far as possible for the best. The demiurge
willed that all should become as far as possible like
himself; and so the world finally becomes beauti-
ful and perfect. Here we have a development,
though the principle which has the most real ex-
istence does not change; the forms, or archetypal
ideas, remain eternally what they are.
In Aristotle also the forms are the real existences,
working in matter but eternally remaining the same,
at once the motive cause and the effectual end of
all things. Here the idea of evolution is clearer
than in Plato, especially for the physical world,
which is wholly dominated by purpose. The
transition from lifeless to living matter is a gradual
one, so that the dividing-line between them is
scarcely perceptible. Next to lifeless matter comes
the vegetable kingdom, which seems, compared with
the inorganic, to have life, but appears lifeless com-
pared with the organic. The transition from plants
to animals is again a gradual one. The lowest
organisms originate from the primeval slime, or
from animal differentiation; there is a continual
1. Aoffos-
tine,
Bri^ena,
and Ouaa.
progression from simple, undevdq)ed typei
the higher and more perfect. As thehi^ieBt4i|[^'
the end and aim of the whole process, man appH|
all lower forms are merely unsucoesBful atteopii
to produce him. The ape \b a transitioDal it^
between man and other viviparous animals. I
development has so important a woik iQ Ani'
totle's physics, it is not less important in hiBoeti*
physics. The whole transition from potenti%
to actuality (from dynamis to entelecheia)iBnti^
but a transition from the lower to the highi;
everything striving to assimilate itself to the !!»•
lutely perfect, to the Divine. Thus Aristotle, fib
Plato, regards the entire order of the univeisetti
sort of deification. But the part played in tbe
development by the Godhead, the absolutely
inmiaterial form, is less than that of the foRM
which operate in matter, since, bang alnidj
everything, it is incapable of becoming anytluBg
else. Thus Aristotle, despite his evdutiooatk
notions, does not take the view of a thorougligoiiig
evolutionist as regards the universe; nordotheNeo-
platonists, whose highest principle remains whoOf
imchanged, though all things emanate from it.
IIL Medieval ^^ews: No more absolutely tha
with Plato and Aristotle was the idea of evolutiaB
accepted by patristic and scholtttk
theology and philosophy, both on »
count of the dualism which nms
through them as an echo of the two
great Greek masters, and on account of
the generally accepted Christian theory of cieatioo.
However, evolution is not generally dmied; and
with Augustine (De civiUUe dei^ xv. 1) it is taken as
the basis for a philosophy of history. Erigena sod
some of his followers seem to teach a sort of evo-
lution. The issue of finite beings from God is
called analysis or resoluHo, in contrast to the revem,
or deificatio, the return to God, who once mow
assimilates all things. God himself, althou^
denominated — the beginning, middle, and end, all
in all — remains unmixed in his own essence, tran-
scendent though immanent in the world. The
teaching of Nicholas of Cusa is similar to Eiigena's,
though a certain amount of Pythagoreamsm comes
in here. The world exhibits explicitly what the
Godhead implicitly contains; the world is an ani-
mated, ordered whole, in which God is everywhere
present. Since God embraces all things in him-
self, he unites all opposites: he is the compUcaiMf
omnium coniradictoriorum. The idea of evolu-
tion thus appears in Nicholas in a rather panthe-
istic form, but it is not logically carried out.
In spite of some obscurities in his concepticm of
the world Giordano Bruno is a little clearer. A^
cording to him God is the immanent first cause in
the universe; there is no differrace be-
^ '^^^ tween matter and form; matter, which
includes in itself forms and ends, is
the source of all becoming and of all actuality.
The infinite ether which fills infinite space con-
ceals within itself the nucleus of all things, and
they proceed from it according to determinate
laws, yet in a teleological maimer. Thus the
worlds originate not by an arbitrary act, but by
an inner necessity of the divine nature. Thqr ait
2ZX
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Evolution
1. Des-
cartes,
Lelbnits,
Etrder.
iMtura naiurata, as distinguished from the opera-
tive nature of God, natura naivrana, which is pres-
«Dt in all things as the being of all that is, the beauty
of all that is fair. As in the Stoic teaching, with
irtdch Bruno's philosophy has much in common,
the conception of evolution comes out clearly both
lor physics and metaphysics.
IV. The Theoiy in Modem Philosophy: Leib-
Mts attempted to reconcile the mechanical-physical
md the teleological views, after Descartes, in his
Mun'pia pkilosophiaf excluding all purpose, had
oplained nature, both lifeless and living, as mere
mechanism. It is right, however, to
point out tha Descartes had a meta-
physics above his physics, in which
the conception of God took an important
place, and that thus the mechanical no-
tion of evolution did not really include everything.
In Leibnitz the principles of mechanics and physics
m dependent upon the direction of a supreme
InteDigence, without which they would be inex-
pGcaUe to us. Only by such a preliminary as-
mmption are we able to recognize that one ordered
thing follows upon another continuously. It is in
tids sense that the law of continuity is to be under-
itood, which is of such great importance in Leib-
nitz. At bottom it is the same as the law of or-
dered development. The genera of all beings
foDow continuously one upon another, and between
the main classes, as between animals and vegetables,
there must be a continuous sequence of intermediate
bein^. Here again, however, evolution is not
taught in its most thorough form, since the divine
monad, of God, does not come into the world but
tnnscends it.
Among the German philosophers of the eight-
eenth century Herder must be mentioned first of
the pioneers of modem evolutionism. He lays
tkwn the doctrine of a continuous development in
the unity of nature from inorganic to organic, from
the stone to the plant, from the plant to the ani-
mal, and from the animal to man. As nature
develops according to fixed laws and natural con-
ditions, so does history, which is only a contin-
uation of the process of nature. Both nature and
histoiy labor to educate man in perfect humanity;
but as this is seldom attained, a future life is sug-
gested. Lessing had dwelt on the education of
the human race as a development to the higher
and more perfect. It is only recently that the
flgnificance of Herder, in regard to the concep-
tion and treatment of historic development, has
been adequately recognized. Goethe also followed
oat the idea of evolution in his zoological and
botanical investigations, with his theory of the meta-
moiphosis of plants and his endeavor to discover
imity in different organisms.
Kant is also often mentioned as having been an
eariy teacher of the modem theory of descent.
It is true he considers the analogy of the forms
which he finds in various classes of
Mi'n?**' organisms a ground for supposing
^J^^^' that they may have come originally
from a common source. He calls the
liypotheeiB that specifically different beings have
origiDated one from the other " a daring adventure
of the reason." But he entertains the thought
that in a later epoch " an orang-outang or a chim-
panzee may develop the organs which serve for
walking, grasping objects, and speaking — in short,
that he may evolve the stmcture of man, with an
organ for the use of reason, which shall gradually
develop itself by social culture." Here, indeed,
important ideas of Darwin were anticipated; but
Kant's critical system was such that development
could have no predominant place in it.
The idea of evolution came out more strongly
in his German idealistic successors, especially in
Schelling, who regarded nature as a preliminary
stage to mind, and the process of physical develop-
ment as continuing in history. The unconscious
productions of nature are only unsuccessful at-
tempts to reflect itself; lifeless nature is an inmia-
ture intelligence, so that in its phenomena an 'in-
telligent character appears only unconsciously. Its
highest aim, that of becoming an object to itself,
is only attained in the highest and last reflection —
in man, or in what we call reason, through which
for the first time nature returns perfectly upon
itself. All stages of nature are connected by a
common life, and show in their development a
conclusive unity. The course of history as a whole
must be conceived as offering a gradually pro-
gressive revelation of the Absolute. For this he
names three periods — that of fate, that of nature,
and that of providence, of which we are now in the
second. Schelling's followers carried the idea of
development somewhat further than their master.
This is true especially of Oken, who conceives
natural science as the science of the etemal trans-
formation of God into the world, of the dissolution
of the Absolute into plurality, and of its continuous
further operation in this plurality. The develop-
ment is continued through the vegetable and ani-
mal kingdoms up to man, who in his art and science
and i>olity completely establishes the will of nature.
Oken, it is tme, conceived man as the sole object
of all animal development, so that the lower stages
are only abortive attempts to produce him — a
theory afterward controverted by Emst von Baer
and Cuvier, the former of whom, standing some-
what in opposition to Darwin, is of great interest
to the student of the history of the theory of evo-
lution.
Some evolutionistic ideas are found in Krause
and Schleiermacher; but Hegel, with his absolute
idealism, is a more notable representa-
8. Schleier- ^j^g Qf them. In his system philosophy
ax^^effel ^^ *^^ science of the Absolute, of the ab-
solute reason developing or imfolding
itself. Reason develops itself first in the abstract
element of thought, then expresses itself externally
in nature, and finally returns from this extemaliza-
tion into itself in mind. As Heraclitus had taught
etemal becoming, so Hegel, who avowedly accepted
all the propositions of the Ephesian philosopher in
his logic, taught eternal proceeding. The differ-
ence between the Greek and the German was that
the former believed in the flux of matter, of fire
transmuting itself by degrees into all things, and
in nature as the sole existence, outside of which
I there was nothing; while the latter conceived the
Eyolution
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
5M
abstract idea or reason as that which really is or
becomes, and nature as only a necessary but tran-
sient phase in the process of development. With
Heraclitus evolution meant the return of all things
into the primal principle followed by a new world-
development; with Hegel it was an eternal process
of thought, giving no answer to the question as
to the end of historical development.
While Heraclitus had laid down his doctrine of
eternal becoming rather by intuition than on the
groimd of experience, and the entire
evolutionary process of Hegel had
4. I^amarck
and Darwin.
' been expressly conceived as based
on pure thought, Darwin's epoch-making doctrine
rested upon a vast mass of ascertained facts.
He was, of course, not the first to lay down the
origin of species one from another as a formal
doctrine. Besides those predecessors of his to
whom allusion has already been made, two others
may be mentioned here: his father, Erasmus Dar-
win, who emphasized organic variability; and still
more Lamarck, who denied the immutability of
species and forms, and claimed to have demon-
strated by observation the gradual development
of the animal kingdom. What is new in Charles
Darwin is not his theory of descent, but its con-
firmation by the theory of natural selection and
the survival of the fittest in the struggle for exist-
ence. Thus a result is brought about which corre-
sponds as far as possible to a rational end in a
purely mechanical process, without any coopera-
tion of teleological principles, without any innate
tendency in the organisms to proceed to a higher
stage. This theory postulates in the later organisms
deviations from the earlier ones, and that these
deviations, in so far as they are improvements,
perpetuate themselves and become generic marks
of differentiation. This, however, imports a diffi-
culty, since the origin of the first of these devia-
tions is inexplicable. The differentia of mankind,
whom Darwin, led by the force of analogy, deduces
from a species of apes, consists in intellect and moral
qualities, but comes into existence only by degrees.
The moral sensibilities develop from the original
social impulse innate in man; this impulse is an
effort to secure not so much individual happiness
as the general welfare.
It would be impossible to name here all those
who, in different countries, have followed in Dar-
win's footsteps, first in the biological
6. Haeokel, field and then in those of psychology,
^J|^^^®®» ethics, sociology, and religion. Tliey
^*^' have carried his teaching further in
several directions, modifying it to some extent and
making it fruitful, while positivism has not seldom
come into alliance with it. In Germany Ernst
Haeckel must be mentioned with his biogenetic
law, according to which the development of the
individual is an epitome of the history of the race,
and with his less securely grounded notion of the
world-ether as a creative deity. In France Al-
fred Fouill6e worked out a theory of idea-forces,
a combination of Platonic idealism with English
(though not specifically Darwinian) evolutionism.
Marie-Jean Guyau imderstood by evolution a life
led according to the fundamental law that the most
intensive life is also the most extensive. He de-
velops his ethics altogether from the facts of th§
social existence of mankind, and his religion ii a
universal sociomorphism, the feeling of the uni^
of man with the entire cosmos.
The most careful and thorough development d
the whole system took place in England. Fori
6 H b rt ^^^^ *^™® *^ ^^ represented priod-
Spemjer. P*^^y ^^ ^^^ ^^^^ ^^ Herbert Spenocr,
who had come out for the prinqila
of evolution even before the publication of Dm«-
win's Origin of Species. He carries the idea throi^
the whole range of philosophy in his great Sftlm
of Synthetic Philosophy and undertakes to show that
development is the highest law of all nature, not
merely of the organic. As the foundation of all
that exists, though itself unknowable and oo|f
revealing itself in material and mental forms, Ik
places a power, the Absolute, of which we hxn
but an indefinite conception. The individual
processes of the world of phenomena are classed
\mder the head of evolution, or extension of move-
ment, with which integration of matter, mm
into a single whole, is connected, and dissolution or
absorption of movement, which includes disintegiar
tion of matter, the bre^dng of connection. Both
processes go on simultaneously, and include the
history of every existence which we can perceive.
In the course of their development the orgamsmi
incorporate matter with themselves; the plant
grows by taking into itself elements which have
previously existed in the form of gases, and the
animal by assimilating elements found in planti
and in other animals. The same sort of intention
is observed in social organisms, as when nomadie
families unite into a tribe, or subjects under a
prince, and princes under a king. In like manner
integration is evident in the development of lan-
guage, of art, and of science, especially philosophy.
But as the individuals imite into a whole, a
strongly marked differentiation goes on at the same
time, as in the distinction between the surface and
the interior of the earth, or between various cli-
mates. Natural selection is not considered neces-
sary to account for varying species, but gradual
conditions of life create them. The aim of the
development is to show a condition of perfect
balance in the whole; when this is attained, the
development, in virtue of the continuous operation
of external powers, passes into dissolution. Those
epochs of development and of dissolution follow
alternately upon each other. This view of Spencer
suggests tiie hodos and and hodos kat6 of Heraditus,
and his flowing back of individual things into the
primal principle.
Similar principles are carried out not only for
organic phenomena but also for mental and social;
and on the basis of the theory of evolution a remark-
able combination of intuitionism and empiricism
is achieved. In his principles of sociology Spenoei
lays down the laws of hyperorganic evolution, and
gives the various stages of human customs and
especially of religious ideas, deducing all religiof
much too one-sidedly from ancestor-wor^p
The belief in an immortal " second self " is ex-
plained by such phenomena as shadows and echoes
Bvolutlon
Bxolaflion, Bi^rht of
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
Die Urbeweguno der Atome und dU WelienUtehuno bei
Leukippus und Demokrit, Halle, 1884; W. Pater. Plaio
and PlcUonism, London, 1893; C. Baeumker, Dom Prob-
lem der Maierie in der griechiechen Philoeophie, pp. 210-
232, Monster, 1890 (on Aristotle); A. Gardner, Studiea
in John the Scot (Erigena), London, 1900; F. J. Clemens,
Giordano Bruno und Nicolaue Cuaanue, Bonn, 1847;
J. Uebinger, Philoeoj^ie dee Nicolaue Cueanue^ WQrs-
biirg, 1881; L. Kuhlenbeck. Giordano Bruno, . . . eeine
Weltanechauung, Leipsio, 1890; J. P. Mahaffy, Deecartee,
Edinburgh, 1880; A. Foucber de Careil. Leibnix, Dee-
cartee et Spinoza, Paris, 1863; F. J. Schmidt, Herder' e pan-
theietieche Weltanechauung, BerUn, 1888; I. Kant, All-
gemeine Naturgeechichte. ed. A. von Oettingen, Leip-
■ic,1898; E. von Hartmann, ScheUing'apoeiUvePhiloeophie
ale Einheit von Hegel und Schopenhauer, Berlin, 1869.
A review of the subject is H. F. Osbom, From the Qreeke
to Darwin, vol. i., London. 1894.
For the modem doctrine the pivotal work is C. R.
Darwin, Origin of Speciee, London, 1859, and often, cf. his
Deecent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex, latest ed.,
2 vols.. New York. 1905. For the United States the
theory was set forth by J. Fiske, Outlinee of Coemic Phi-
loeophy, 4 vols., new ed., Boston, 1903. cf. his Danrinr
iem and Other Eeeaye, ib 1884. Consult further: St. O.
Mivart. On the Oeneeia of Speciee, London, 1871; A. R.
Wallace, ConiribtUione to the Theory of NcUural Sdection,
London, 1871; idem, DartDiniem, ib. 1889; idem, Studiee
Scientific and Social, ib. 1900; G. J. Romanes, Daripin
and After Darwin, Chicago. 1882; J. Le Conte, Evolution
and ite Relation to Religioue Thought, New York, 1888;
A. Weismann, Studiee in the Theory of Deecent, London,
1882; idem. Heredity and Kindred Biological ProUeme,
ib. 1889; J. Croll. Philoeophical Baeie of Evolution, ib.
1890; J. McCosh. Religioue Aepect of Evolution, New
York, 1890; H. Macqueary, EvoliUion of Man and Chrie-
tianity, ib. 1891; E. Caird, Eeeaye in Literature and Phi-
loeophy, Glasgow, 1892; A. J. Dodson, Evolution and
Religion, London. 1893; H. Calderwood, Evolution and
Man'e Place in Nature, ib. 1896; T. H. Huxley, Evo-
lution and Ethice, ib. 1894; D. S. Jordan, Factore in
Organic Evolution, Boston. 1894; E. P. Evans, Evolutional
Ethice, London, 1898; F. W. Headley, Probleme of Evo-
lution, ib. 1901; E. Haeckel. Evolution of Man, ib. 1905;
M. M. Metcalf, Theory of Organic Evolution, ib. 1905;
J. Scouller, Law of Evolution, Ite True Philoeophical
Baeie, ib. 1905; A. Weismann, Evolution Theory, 2
vol8..tb. 1905: N. C Anderson. Evolution of the Human
Soul and the Future Life Scientifically Demonetrated,
St. Paul. 1907; R. H. Franc^. Der heutige Stand der
darwin*»chen Fragen, Leipsic, 1907; G. Paulin, No
Struggle for Exietence, No Natural Selection, Edinbui^h,
1908; E. B. Poulton, Essays on Evolution, New York,
1908.
On V. consult: (1) J. W. Dawson. Origin of the World,
New York. 1877; A. Winchell, Doctrine of Evolution, ib.
1874; B. F. Tefft, Evolution and Christianity, Boston.
1885; C. B. Warring. Geneeie i. and Ite Critics, New
York. 1887; E. Clodd, Story of Creation, London, 1888.
(2) J. W. DawHon, ut sup.; H. Druramond. Ascent of Man,
New York. 1894; J. M. Tyler. Whence and Whither of
Man, ib. 1896; H. W. Conn, Method of Evolution, ib.
1900. (3) C. Hodge, Systematic Theology, vol. ii.. Phila-
delphia, 1865; J. M. Baldwin, Development and Evolution,
New York, 1902. (4) E. Caird. Evolution of Religion,
Glasgow. 1893: A. A. Hodge and B. B. Warfield. Inepvra-
tion, in Presbyterian Review. 1881. pp. 225 sqq.; G. T. Ladd.
Doctrine of Sacred Scripture, New York, 1883; A. B. Bruce.
Providential Order of the World, ib. 1897; G. Jones. Ascent
through Christ, ib. 1900; M. Dwls, The Bible, Ite Origin
and Nature, ib. 1905; J. Orr, Problem of the Old Testament,
ib. 1906. (5) H. R. Marshall. Instinct and Reason,
ib. 1898; J. M. Baldwin, ut sup.; J. T. Gulick. Evolution,
Racial and Habitudinal. Washington, 1905; E. A. Wester-
marek, Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas, vol. i.,
London. 1906. (6) A. B. Bruce, Apologetics, Edinburgh,
1892; G. B. Fost<?r. Finality of the Christian Religion,
Chicago. 1906. (7) A. Menzies, Hist, of Religion, Lon-
don. 1895; E. Caird. ut sup.; G. T. Ladd. Phil, of
Religion, New York, 1905. (8) C. H. Toy, Judaiem and
Christianity, Boston, 1890; E. Hatch, Influence of Greek
Ideas and Usages upon the Christian Church, London,
1890; A. Hamack, What is Christianity f ib. 1901;
W. A. Brown, E—ence of Christianity, New York, 1902.
EWALD, 6B0R6 HEnfRICH AUGUST:
entalist and Biblical scholar; b. at Gdttin^ Sd
16, 1803; d. there May 4, 1875. His father i»|l
cloth-weaver. Having been thoroughly prepiHl]
in the gjrmnasium of his native town, he stadbil
classical philology, Orientalia, and theology at ik 1
university. After spending two years as teMhv {
in the gsrmnasium at WolfenbOttel, he retuMl]
to Gk^ttingen in 1824 as repetent in the theologial 1
faculty. In 1827 he beciune extraordimuy pi»> ]
fessor; ordinary professor in 1831; in 1833,
of the Society of Sciences; in 1835, titular profew |
of Oriental languages and member of the honoiaj
faculty. In 1836 he was made doctor of theokff
by the faculty of Copenhagen. Notwithstandug '
his extensive professorial activity he found tiv
for ample production. Besides works o& 'k
Hebrew and Arabic languages, the most impoftiot
of w^hich is the Lehrbwch der hebraischen Spradb
des alien Bundes (5th ed., Leipsic, 1844; ^
transl., from the 2d ed., London, 1836; of part E-
syntax — ^from the 8th ed., BIdinburgh, 1879), then
may be mentioned in this period, Cammaiam
in apokalypsin Johannis (18^) and Die poeMm
BOcher dee alten Bundes (4 parts, Gdttin^ 183S-
1839). He contributed also to several periodietk
These works are the product of strictly sdeotifie
researches, careful and at the same time geDeroai^
proportioned. Ewald's importance was conceded
willingly, and his renown was large. But this iot-
tunate season had a sudden check; in 1837 he us
dismissed from his public position because, with
some of his colleagues, he had addressed a memoriil
to the board of university regents in Hanorer,
expostulating against the arbitrary repeal, by ad
of King Ernst August, of the liberal constitution of
1833.
After sojourning four months in En^and, Ewakl
accepted a call to Tubingen, where he woiied
until 1848 as professor, first in the philoeophical,
subsequently in the theological faculty. His pro-
ductive activity during this period was confined
mainly to the Biblical sciences. Among other
works he issued Die Propketen des Alien Bundta
(2 vols., Stuttgart, 184(M1; Eng. transl., 5 vds.,
London, 1875-81); GeschichU des VoUces Israd
(7 vols., G6ttingen, 1843-59; Eng. transl., of vols,
i.-iv., 5 vols., London, 1867-74), a work of perma-
nent value on account of its careful use of the
sources. His dismissal from Gdttingen having
been hailed as an event of political consequence,
Ewald unfortunately felt himself prompted to
publish impassioned polemical writings, which
embittered him personally, and drove him to a
morbidly exaggerated estimation of himself. His
irritability also injured him with his TQbingen
colleagues, among whom he especially antagonized
F. C. Baur, with both spoken and written vehemence.
In 1848 Ewald, at his own request, was reinstated
atGottingen. From this time forth he labored par-
ticularly upon the New Testament writings, in ex-
press opposition to Baur and Strauss. He occupied
himself especially with pseudepigraphy, prowed-
ing from foundations laid by his earlier investiga-
tions. His comprehensive scholarship is faithfuUy
reflected in his JahrbUcher der biblitchen Wissenr
IS5
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Evolution
Exolusion, Biffht of
t^Mli (12 vols., Gdttingen, 1849-65). Unhappily
\m iefisitiveiiess and tastinese continually Increaseii.
Be inierfered In every event of state and church
Hkf and published his views thereon in prefaces
md postGcnpts to his books. He bad taken part
m founding the Proiett^nl Union (q.v.) in lS6^i;
oeferthel^as he subsequently withdrew from the
anil, oa faihng to cany through a manifesto that
fe had planned against the Prussian ^vemment.
Ha sharp expressions of opinion in political aH'airs
lad djteady brought Mm into repeated conflict
witfa the government. When in 18G7 he refused
tk o&th of aUegiance to the king of Prussia, his
lanoval from the pluloaophical faculty was efTectctl
by a miaisterial rencnpt. Through subsequent
oHemnc^ he also forfeited, in 1S68, the right of
ddivering lecturen From 1869 he represezited, in
tk Imperial Diet, the capital city of Hanover.
NotCT^n the victories of German arms in 1870-71,
lad the restoration of the Empire^ prevailed to
liice his bittemeas in the pohtical domain. Yet
irith all this he continued a diligent laborious
a^ar. and still published extensive works ^ in
ptftictikr, Die Bi2cher dm Netten Bundet tJbtrseUt
wdffUdTt (Gdttingen, 1871-72), and Die Thmdo^k
imAUm und Neuen Bundcs (4 vols., Leipsie, 1871-
\M), The latter work contains — with rather
tadloua exposition^ it is true — Eus aggregate view
ti Biblical religion . Carl B erth e au .
Iduoqil&fbt^ G^iUn^er QtUhrU Nadkridiien, 1815, pp. 340-
hii JL Dillni»nii, in tm nemn Brick, \\A (1875>, 778-
M\ ADB. vi. 43S^42: T. W. Da^des. HHnridi. Bwald,
Orysy«t onrf Th^iMlian, London, 1903.
EWAID (HERMMTK AUGUST), PAUL: Ger-
!iiaii Protestant i b, at Leipsic Jan, 13, 1857, He
iiidied in Edangi^ and Leipsic (Ph* D., 1881),
tuid from 1880 to 1882 was a member of the clergy
Niff of St, Paul's, Leipsic, In 1883 he became
privat-docent at the university in the same city,
Mwl associate professor in 1887. In 1886 he went
toVkma as professor of the New Testament in
the Fmtestant faculty of that eity, and in 1894 to
Edsogen as professor of dogmatic theology and
Ne» Testament exegesis. He has edited G. B,
Wincr*8 Kifrnpa^Ftdive Darstellung der Lehrbegriffe
h ver9diiedenen chrlstlicken Kirchenparfeien (Leip-
fe, 1S82)^ and has written Der Emfiusn der stoiseh-
ikmmatitchm Moral au/ die Dar&tdtung der Elhik
\dAwhros\uM (Leipsic, 1881); De vocis syneidesfos
ttpyd Krijiiffrea Novi Testamenii vi ac potentate
(1S83); Die Hauptprobleme der Evangf^lienjrage
(1880); Der geachiiJitliche Christum nnd die s^op-
*&<*fli Evangelim (1892); Ucher das Verh^inis
der gysiem^isehen Theohgie tur Schnfimmenschafi
(!^); Udn^ die Glaubenswitrdigkeii der Evange-
&» (1897); Riligimi und Chrisl€7dum (1898);
Wtr war Jetus f^(1899); Der Christ und dk Wis^en-
9^ft (1903); and Kommeni^ su den Briefen deJt
Pmdm on die £pA«tler, Kohsitierj und Philemon
(19051
EWmG, FIHIS: One of the founders of the
OomheHand Presbyterian Church; b. in Bedford
Cmmtj, Va.. June 10, 1773; d. at Ijexington.
Uo„ July 4, 184L He early removed to
Davidson County, Tenn., and subsequently to
Lofvi County, Kf, Bis education waA linuted,
but under the influence of revivalist preachers he
offered himself as a candidate for the Presbyterian
ministry. About 1800 he was Ucensed as a pro-
bationer and in Nov., 1803, was ordained by the
Cumberland prejbytery. The Kentucky synod did
not recognize this ordination and in 1806 dissolved
the Cumberland prftsbytery. As a result, Ewing,
with two others, organiEed on Feb. 4, 1810, the first
presbytery of the Cumberland Presbyterian Church
(see PRESByTERiAKB). In 1820 he removed to
Missouri, settling first in what is now (]k>oper
County. He soon built up a large congregation
at New Lebanon, which still flourishes. In 18!i6
he went to Lexington, Lafayette County, Mo.,
where he labored fill his death. He published
Lectures ori Impcniani Subjects in Diviniiy (Nash*
villa, 1824).
BiBLJOQQAi^HT: F. R. Co^ilCt Life and Timea of Rev, FinU
Eunng, NaehviOe, 1853: R, B«fd, Bioemphimt Sketeka
of , , . Exxriy Miniwlert of the Cumherlattd PreabyteriQn
Chttrch, 2 vols., ib, ISflT; i. B, LmdMcy, Sourm* and
Skelchee of Cumbwiand Freabj/ierinn HisL iti TiipiiioffUal
Medium. IB77-7S; R, V. Foster, in American Church
Historu Series, xi. 2S», 268. 288.
EXACTIOnS {Exaciion&i Udlim): In canon
law, taxes of an extraordinary sort, either entirely
new, or old taxes levied at a higher rate. They are
essentially illegal, and were forbidden as early as
the Third Council of Toledo (509), When levied,
vaJJd ground (maniiesta qc r(Uion(Ailis ca«sa) must
exJKt, and they must be limited to the indispensable
requirement (moderaium auxUium).
£]CAIICH: A title applied to the head of an
ecclesiastical province, whose rank^ historically, waa
equivalent sometimes to that of Patriarch (q.v,),
sometimes to that of Metropolitan or Archbishop
(qq.v,), Cf. Bingham, Origines, II., xvi. 5, xvii.
1-2, where the synodical decisions are given.
EXCLUSION, RIGHT OF (E^du^iva): In the wider
sense, the right of a sovereign or secular official to
veto the nomination of a candidate for an eccle-
siastical office- In the narrower and more usual
sense, the jus exclu&wm is the right to exclude a
candidate for the papacy who is unacceptable to the
power exercising it. The con^ttitutional influence
of the emperors on papal ek*ctionjs ceased in the
eleventh century; but since the fifteenth the great
Roman Catholic powers (the Eoman-German Em-
pire, .4ustria, France, Spain) liave, as a matter of
fact, attempted to exercise a certain influence in the
direction of what appeared to be their interests by
means of cardinals devoted to them, and to ex-
clude undesirable candidates by getting together
so many votes for their own that the others failed
of the necessary two-third:3. As this practise be-
came publicly recognized, since the seventeenth
century it has developed into a formal assumption
of the right to exclude from election one candidate
for each power, by a declaration made before the
termination of the balloting through a cardinal
authorised for the purpose. Beaides the powers
named, Naples and Portugal claimed this right.
Though it was not exercised at the election of
LeoXIlL.at that of Pius X. in 1903 the emperor
of Amtria attempted to enforce it against Cardi-
nal Eampolla. It waa understood, howeveri
SxcluBive Brethren
Sxeffeeis or Hermanautios
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOQ
that the Sacred College paid no heed to it, and that
there was little prospect of its being allowed at
any future election.
Biblioorapht: The subject has been especially studied
by L. Wahrmund, in Daa Aiuachliestuno'recht ... bet
den Papttwahlen, Vienna, 1888; ExclxuionarecKl bei den
PaptwahUn, ib. 1890; Die BuUe " jEierni ptUria fUiiu,"
ib. 1894. Consult further: N. Wiseman, RecolUctione of
the Laet Four Popee, pp. 356. 416. London. 1858; J. B.
Sa^mOller. Die PapeiwahUnUlen und doe etaailiche Recht
der Exklueiva, TObingen, 1892; idem. Neueete LOeunge-
versuche in der Frage . . . der Exklueiva, Freiburg. 1896;
L. Lector, Le Conclave. Originet hialoire, organiatUion,
Pahs. 1894.
EXCLUSIVE BRETHREN. See Plymouth
Brethren.
EXCOMMUmCATION.
Early Practise (§1).
The Lesser and Greater Excommunication ({ 2).
Various Legal Provisions (ft 3).
Changes Introduced by the Reformation (S 4).
Excommunication is the exclusion of an offender
from full church fellowship, which may occur as a
means of discipline in varying degrees. On the
basis of various passages of Scripture (Matt. xvi.
19; xviii. 18; John xx. 23; I Thess. v. 14; James
V.16; I Johni. 8sqq.; v. 16; II Cor. v. 18sqq.; for
the old Testament ban, see Law, Hebrew, Civil
AND Criminal), the Church of the earliest times
undertook to punish grievous sinners by such
exclusion, and either refused entirely to restore
them to its fellowsliip or restored them only after
they had attested their sorrow by penance (q.v.).
After the Councils of Ancyra (314) and NicsRa (325),
four stages of penance developed
I. Early through which the offender had to pass.
Practise. During the first year he lay prostrate
and weeping in the vestibule of the
church and begged those entering in to pray for
him (Gk. prosklausis ; Lat. fetus). Next, com-
monly for three years, he had a place in the back
of the church, with the unbaptized catechumens,
where he was allowed to hear the reading of the
Scriptures {akroasis ; audUin). Then he was al-
lowed to enter the body of the church, and to pray
prostrate, while the bishop and the faithful inter-
ceded for him (hypoptdsis ; genuflexio, substraiio).
After further penitential exercises, he was allowed
to pray standing, with the rest of the congregation,
and to be present at the most sacred portion of the
liturgy, the missa fidelium^ from which the cate-
chumens were excluded {sy stasis ; consistentia).
Only after the completion of this long process was
he restored to full communion. Originally this
discipline was applied also to sins which had given
no public scandal, until Pope Leo I. forbade them
to be publicly confessed (450), after which public
penance was only applied to open sins — the graver
ones in the manner described, the lesser ones with-
out exclusion from the fellowship of the faithful,
but still so as to atone for public scandal, and cov-
ering the exclusion from the missa fidelium. Both
of these methods are called pcenw medicinales by
Augustine; their application belonged to the bishop,
whose action must be recognized by his brother
bishops, and could be reversed only by himself.
In the Prankish kingdom, after the institution of
the Synodal Courts (q.v.), penitential discipline
was placed in their charge, when onee the Mi ]
synodales had established the existoioe of an opoi j
scandal. By degrees the old distinct sUgei of
penance, which had at first been accepted abok
the West, fell into disuse in the FranJdsh kinidai
Finally public penance practically ceased, and tk
exclusion from the sacraments became regoia^^
(as it had been exceptionally) i
2, The independent measure of disdpliDe^
Lesser and becoming known as the lesser excoo-
Greater munication, while the old exduan
Ezcom- from all blessings and graces of tlie
munication. Church was called the greater, h
the view of the canon law these fora
the general means used by the ecclesiastical \xAi
for the maintenance of its discipline. Both pl^
suppose a cause which is both public and gravt
None can be excommunicated but living, bapdad
persons who have the use of reason. The bufaop
has the right of excommunication over those vbo
belong to his diocese, though his sentence is valid
also outside of it; a prelate with quasiepiaoopil
jurisdiction, such as a papal legate, has it in the
territory for which he is commissioned; and tlie
pope for the Church at large. The power of recon-
ciliation is vested in the same p>erson, and it lequiia
as a condition the promise of obedience for the
future. Excommunication is either jvHs or hmr
iniSf i.e., prescribed by law or pronounced at the
decision of an authorized person in a case oot
explicitly covered by the law. It is divided again
into excommunicatio latce senlentia, where it takei
effect ipso facto upon the commisaon of
3. Various a specified offense, or ferendasentenHa,
Legal Pro- where it follows an express judicial de-
yisions. cision. The latter class requires two
warnings at least . Ignorance of thelaw
excuses from the former, and to be effective it must
be definitely proclaimed. The lesser excommunica-
tion deprives a person of the sacraments; the greater
cuts him off from all rights — the mass may not be
celebrated in his presence, he can not hold a bene-
fice, exercise jurisdiction, or take part in an ecdc-
siastical election, and Christian burial is denied him;
intercourse with the faithful is prohibited except
in certain specified cases. Since the time of Gregory
IX. the term Anathema (q.v.) has been applied to
the solemn declaration of the greater excommuni-
cation (cf. the form in the PorUificale Romanum).
The canon law expects that the State will give
effect on its side to the social consequences of
exclusion from Christian fellowship. The extent
to which the civil governments of the Middle Ages
were subservient to the power of the Church over
society may be seen in the way they responded to
such appeals; thus the Emperor Frederick 11. in
1213 and 1219 and Henry VII. in 1230 expressed
their willingness to inflict the ban of the Empire
upon any excommunicated offender
4. Changes who was still recalcitrant at the end
Introduced of six weeks after his sentence. These
by the Ref- conditions prev^led down to the
ormation. Reformation; but in the countries
where it prevailed a great change took
place. The greater exconununication, as being
a secular punishmenti was not recognised by the
S7
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
BxcluBive Brethren
Bxeffeeie or Hermeneutloa
Gtefofmed Church; the lesser was retained as a
nmsure of instructive discipline, generally in the
VmdB of the pastor, although Luther and others
yd that Scripturally it ought to be administered
by the whole Christian conununity ; but it was felt
ibt if the pastor admitted an unworthy person
to the Ix)Pd's Supper, he became partaker of the
IB, and so the power of exclusion was left in his
httds. The method of procedure prescribed by
the German Reformers was public only for public
1^ BB, and always based on Matt, xviii. 55 sqq.
[ 9u» the abolition of private confession did away
liththe warning of priest to penitent, it was made
before church-members summoned for the purpose,
peferably the elders, and followed by a prohibition
to approach the communion-table and sometimes
t withdrawal of other rites as well, including
betrothal; but this was not necessarily public,
wAm the offender was obstinate, when he might
be cut off from the Church in the presence of the
fbole congregation. The consistories always took
\ put in the proceedings at one stage or another;
ifid after the middle of the sixteenth century, as
tlxy had inherited many of the other episcopal
powers, came to monopolize this, leaving the pastor
only the duty of publishing the sentence. The
greater excommunication practically died out in
the seventeenth century, and the lesser fell very
much into disuse with the growth of rationalism.
It is, however, obvious that no religious community
can hope to enforce its regulations which does not
possess and if necessary use the power of excluding
members who persistently refuse obedience to
them. The modem Roman Catholic Church main-
tains the position taken in the canon law, in this as
in other regards, though considerable modifications
have taken place in practise, especially as a result of
the constitution Apostolicce sedis of Pius IX.
(1869), which removed a number of the cases of
excommunication latce senienticBf while enforcing
discipline vigorously in some other respects. See
Church Discipline. (E. Friedbero.)
Bibliography: Bingham, Oriffinet, books xvi.-xvii.; E.
Marline, De antiquia eccUsict ritibuM, 3 vols., Antwerp,
1736-37; N. Marshall, Penitential Discipline, London.
1714, Oxford. 1844; F. Kober, Dcr Kirchenbann, TObinR-
en, 1857; J. Fesaler, Der Kirchenbann und aeine Folgen,
Vienna, 1860; P. Hinsnhius, Kirchenreckt, §S 243-297.
Berlin. 1869; H. C. Lea, Studies in Church Hint., Phila-
delphia. 1883; DC A, i. 638-642 (able); S. Mandl. Der
Bonn, Brttnn, 1898; EB, i. 468-469.
EXEGESIS OR HERMENEUTICS.
L The Goneeption and Problem of
Biblical ExegesiH.
Exegesis a Necewary Science (ft 1).
Rdations to Criticism and Phi-
Wogy (| 2).
Encensand Dogmatics ({ 3).
Exegttis and Theological Science
(M).
U. The Method.
Three Kinds of Exegesis (§1).
PhiloloKical Exegejus ($2).
Historical Exegesis ($3).
Emploj-ment of Analogy and Hy-
pothesis ({ 4).
Stylistic Exegesis (ft 5).
III. Historical Ileview of Exegetical
Principles and Methods.
Transition from Dogmatic to His-
torical Principles (S 1).
Origen (5 2).
The Antiochian School (§ 3).
Later Patristic Methods (ft 4).
The Middle Ages (ft 5).
The Reformation (5 6).
Post- Reformation Theories (§ 7).
Exegesis as Affected by History
(5 8).
IV. The Forms of Interpretation of
Scripture.
Glosses and Scholia (§1).
Commentaries and Their Type
(5 2).
Translation and Paraphrase (§ 3).
V. History of Exegesis.
Prepatristic Exegesis (5 1).
Patristic and Medieval Exegesis
(5 2).
Exegesis Since the Reformation
(5 3).
German Exegesis in the Nineteenth
Century (5 4).
Modem French Exegesis (5 5).
Exegesis in Holland (5 6).
English Exegesis (5 7).
Exegesis in the United States (5 8).
Biblical exegesis or hermeneutics is the first of
tbe four departments of theological science (in-
topretative, historical, dogmatic, practical); its
ftiDrtioD is the interpretation of Scripture.
I The Conception and Problem of Biblical Exe-
fftt: That the oral and written tradition coming
^ the past may continue to be a vital and
spiritual possession necessitates both understanding
^ appropriation of the sense. Understanding
■ ichie\'ed either directly by simple apprehension,
Ofiuediately by a process. In the latter case, the
J^jwt is approached methodically that it may be
"•"Jed in its limits, essence, and causes. To
'^''dcBtand whatever heritage the past produced
JD»der conditions which no longer exist, correct
^^t is needed into the disparity of past and
present. And when such a heritage
I. Exegesis has acquired a certain authority
llecessary either as a model (classical literature)
Sdence. or as a norm of right living (the
Carpus juris) or as the source of
Cfcftrtian inspiration (the Bible), the necessity for
MBurance that a correct understanding is reached
k the motive for constructing a theory of expo-
fftioo. Out of this grew the technical term " her-
Deoeutics,'' first used by Plato as expressing the
art of rightly apprehending and setting forth the
etymology and value of any given word. The
term is derived from fierm^neuein, " to interpret,"
** to make intelligible that which is obscure,"
hence often simply *' to translate from a foreign
tongue " (John i. 38, 41-42), and then it passed
to the meaning ** to explicate." In the last st»nsc
it was used by the Fathers, and their commentaries
were named Hermineiai. The term was used
when a man explained either that which originated
with another (as a deity) or the cogitations of his
own spirit. Similarly " exegesis " is from exi-
geisihai, " to lead forth, interpret." So that as the
theory of ex|)lanation exegesis or hermeneutics
has to make intelligible whatever has survived
because of its essential value. Its concern is not
merely with rhetoric, as Schleiermacher would
have it, making of it merely an art. It is both a
science and an art; a science in that it formulates
definite rules of procedure, an art in that it in-
fuses new life into material by making it a new and
present possession.
To bring a thing to the understanding is to make
it serviceable in sense and significance. Appre-
ciation of the significance leads to a decision as to
worth, and is therefore akin to criticism; to estab-
Bzeresla or B«nB«B«atiofl
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOQ
lish the sense is to explicate with the proper means
as the case is conceived in the mind. Exegesis is
to be differentiated from criticism, nearly related
though they are. Tlie former is inductive and
analytical; the latter is synthetic.
2, Relations Exegesis asks what a thing means;
to Criticism criticism asks about its correctness
and and truth. Exegesis seeks to know,
Philology, to interpret, to explicate; criticism
to value and correct. But the con-
ditions of serviceable and artistic comprehension
lie partly in the general laws of human thought
and expression, partly in the special quality of
tlie material under examination. " He who would
the poet know, must to the poet's country go "
is a universal maxim. Sympathy gives the closest
insight. So that for appreciation of a religious
thought more than esthetic apprehension is re-
quired. In tliis criticism and exegesis are hand-
maidens, both are peerless schoolmistresses to
lead to Christ, but only under the condition
stated. Exegetical art is called out by material
which, originating in the past, has by its inherent
worth come down to the present instinct with vital
force. In early times, it dealt with Homer and
the myths because they had meaning for religious
and spiritual life. The type was philological, and
had in view complete explanation from the stand-
point of history, archeology, philosophy, and es-
thetics. Indeed, exegesis gains its individuality
and completeness through the material with which
it deals so far as tliis is a coherent whole and has
relationship to the life of the present. Thus mod-
em exegesis has attained definite form in two
branches, jurisprudence and theology, working
upon the Corpus juris and the Bible. In these two
spheres the character of the material produces
essentially different results. Jurisprudential exe-
gesis expounds the rules and methods which Roman
law embraced, hence the interest is largely his-
torical.
Biblical exegesis deals with a work which was
the canon of the Church, the understanding and
the use of which has from the beginning been
vexed by religious postulates and dogmatic
claims. When, then, historical ex-
3. Exegesis planation of its facts brought ever
and more clearly into view departure from
Dogmatics, dogmatic conclusions or even oppo-
sition to them, questions were raised
about the Bible, its character and its authority,
and about the right of exegesis and its methods,
which must remain for each generation to solve,
since the Bible is ever the religious source for the
Christian Church. And then questions arise as to
the functions of exegesis. Is it purely explicative
or is it normative? Exegetical and ecclesiastical
interests clash. When the latter prevail, producing
the Roman Catholic tyj)e. exegesis is bound up
with the tradition of the Church, and almost be-
comes Kupererog:itory in the dogma that Scripture
is its own inteq^reter. On the otlier hand, em-
phasis upon the historical element alone without
n»ferenre to the n^ligious character of the material
makes of exegi\sis a mere (iiscii)line. Choice may
be made between a purely historical and grammat-
ical type and one which is to have somewbat d 1
dogmatic character. If the canon is a historial
development, the question appears to be deddei
The function of exegesis is to know and diBoern the
character of Scripture and why it has that chaneltf.
Their own limitations require that exegoas and
dogmatics work independently. Methodical and
reliable exegesis guarantees that dogmatics ii
building not upon mysteries and fraud; while the
necessity for a dogmatic formulation of the cot-
tents of Scripture produces in exegesia the ooa-
sciousness of the seriousness of its task. Exe^M
produces from the sources a Biblical histoiy and
theology which have no inmiediate rdation to
the task of dogmatics. It works over the Scrip-
tures independently and positively not merely to
satisfy itself with certainty, but as a support to
churchly theology by furnishing it its certaintj.
On this account there is required complete sefo^
ance from all dogmatic postulates as furthcriog
both scientific and ecclesiastical interests.
But if the purely historical character of exegni
is maintained, does it not become an exclusre
disciphne? The Old Testament containa the
remains of a national rdigioua liten*
4. Exegesis ture which presents peculiarities d
and Theo- speech, special forms of rdigioni
logical ideas, and having a purpose which k
Science, entirely different from that of the
New Testament, which has by do
means the character of a national literature and
bespeaks a movement differing in type from that
which produced the Old Testament (see Hzbbvw
Language and Literature, II). These two
parts of the Bible offer different problems to exe-
gesis, both being religious sources, and througli
the origin of Christianity historically bound to-
gether. Must there be two kinds of exegeai!
Here neither the postulates of a method alien to
the essence of the testimonies to faith in Scripture
itself nor ecclesiastical decisions regarding the
nature of the canon determine the method, which
is ruled alone by the contents of Scripture in its
reciprocal relations. From a dogmatic truth
exegetical verity does not follow, but one does
proceed from exegetical truth to dogmatic verity.
This makes clear one of the relations of exegeaa
to theological science. It has grown out of eccle-
siastical needs and is security for the pure ChriBtian
character of the Christian organization, and so has
vindicated its right to a place in theological science.
It has in view not simply the history of Israel and
the origin of Christianity, but definite testimony
to the religious spirit which has bound together
the Old and the New Testament. It employs the
underlying discipUnes of Biblical philology, intro-
duction, archeology, history of the times, and
criticism of the text. Trustworthy results are
attained only when questions of the trustworthiness
of the text are raised and settled, and so with other
problems. As a result, the exegete, like the his-
torian, has in his hand the power of palingenesis
by educing 'md strengthening the sense of the
liistorically and psychologically possible.
n. The Method: The ultimate purpose of the
exegete is reached when on the one side he under-
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Exeffesia or Hermeneatloa
nds the object of the exposition to be the same
tihat of the original writing, and on the other side
B the same point of view of the origin, purpose,
id means of attaining the purpose as the author
li He stands for his hearers as did the author
for his. This is the ideal, which in the
1. Three nature of the case can be only par-
finds of tially realized, since the gulf between
Engesis. the circumstances imder which the
text arose and those in which it exists
or the exegete can not be entirely closed. Then
00 the matter of the individuality of the author
ain{dicates the problem, since psychological anal-
poi are not sufficient ground for certainty in recon-
Inetion. Hie realities of the original speech,
lie historical conditions, and the inner life of the
jext have to be brought home to the understanding.
Of these the first two help to realize the sense, the
khiid helps to the meaning; the first two tell what
vas actually said and done, the third gives the pur-
pose of saying or doing. Exegesis falls then into
three parts: philological, revealing the structure
tadTOcabulary of the language; historical, setting
forth the text as the result of certain actual con-
<fitioitf> of origin, contents, and purpose; and stylis-
tie, building on the other two and leading to the
fihiition of the text. Other names employed to
doignate these stages or varieties are grammatical,
pi]fchological, and rhetorical exegesis.
Philological exegesis has a double problem,
kocal and grammatical. It takes into account
Dot only grammatical structure and etymology,
bat also transformations wrought in forms and
neaoiDgs of words by the ordinary historical
dwdopment of language and by new needs and
Kiations. This involves the mastery of the He-
hrew, Aramaic, and Greek as the original tongues,
•wi my require also that of the languages of the
'waioiis. The Greek of the Septuagint comes into
consideration as a lingua franca of
2. Philo- old times and as the language of the
logical Bible of early Christianity. So the
Eiqgesis. varieties of Greek in the New
Testament, from the almost classic
^'^^^ of the Lucan literature to the Hebrais-
^ eharacter of the Johannean writings demand
**^«(8ee Hellenistic Greek). The definition
^ the character of Biblical language in general
[^ of New Testament Greek in particular under
**© influence of the dogmatic view-point has
^'wne the object of dissidence since the rear-
'^ of an independent philological science which
produces rather the views of the early Fathers
*^ the dogmatic learning of post-Reformation
*ine8. Origen notes the providential readiness
•^ the Greek to receive the content of revelation
9 Sew Testament times, while Augustine speaks
f the spiritual impress the language received,
irtlculariy under Paul. In general, a new elo-
eoce was discerned in this tongue fitting it to
; as the mediator of a new divine wisdom. This
3 a point which humanism missed, and strife
t waged between the Hebraists and the purists
il Winer protested against the boundless arbi-
iness with which the New Testament Greek
handled. One of the questions remaining open
is how far insight into the words of Jesus can be
promoted by translation into the Syro-Chaldaic
spoken dialect of his times. There is needed in
this department of study not only knowledge of
language but the linguistic sense, something diffi-
cult to attain in the case of a dead tongue. To
attain it necessitates not only knowledge of word
meanings and of homonyms and synonyms and
etymology, but insight into the national life. With
this, extraordinary forms and hapax legomena and
new forms give insight into historical conditions.
And as a last aid in this matter comes philological
conjecture on the basis of parallels and analogies.
Historical exegesis arises from the fact that
complete understanding of a document necessi-
tates knowledge of the conditions under which it
was written, taking into account the circumstances
of both author and reader. The document must
be put into its historical environment. But this
involves not merely the problem of history but that
of the psychology of the writer, as furnishing the
index of his purpose and method.
3. Historical Fundamental in Biblical exegesis is
Exegesis, the consideration of the epoch-making
character of the writings. The more
necessary then becomes knowledge of their origin,
content, purpose, and influence in their total rela-
tions with the whole life of the age when they arose.
All-important here is the view of the world and of
all its relationships set forth in the documents.
And necessary too are estimates of the originality
of the conceptions contained and their relationship
to or departure from those current at the time.
For the Old Testament the current conditions of
the Semitic world were important; for the New,
the Old Testament religion, Judaism and Hellenism.
Historical exegesis takes all such considerations
into account, and attempts to understand the
author through his work and his work through the
author.
An important means to a historical understand-
ing is the correct employment of analogy. The
relation of representations in the Bible to extra-
Biblical representations, their independent or
derivative character, are matters of importance.
Two coats of like cut may bespeak the same tailor,
but do not imply similar disposition or accom-
plishments in the wearers. Paul's characterization
of ethnic cults as demon-worship does not imply
that he shared all the Jewish hatred
4. Employ- and misconception which this judg-
ment of ment carried with it in the Jewish
Analogy mind. So analogy does not imply
and wholesale transference of identity.
Hypothesis. An assistant in this same direction
is the use of hypothesis, especially
in the case of a broken connection. It assumes
a connection in the circumstances or in the train
of thought which does not appear on the surface.
A broken torso guides to a reconstruction only
when there are certain traces of the original form.
But in history the help of psychology is often
available to fill in outlines only partly discernible.
The " historical " explanation of the inner develop-
ment of Jesus and the psychological deductions
concerning the conversion of Paul are cases in
Bxeresia or Hmrmeneutioa
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
point. But conceptions that are foreign or dog-
matic merely are misleading in the use of hypoth-
esis. The mistake must not be made of confusing
historical learning with historical insight or the
historic sense. A century ago all religion was re-
garded as the production of priestcraft, and Jesus
was regarded simply as a wise teacher. In the
present, under the influence of the doctrine of
evolution, religion is regarded as the product of a
process of unfolding, and the ethical and intellec-
tual elements of the religious life suffer the conse-
quences. The antidotes for the eisegesis and
dislocations which in the interest of dogmatics
have invaded this province are reality and piety,
especially piety. The interpreter of Scripture
handles books which are religious sources for the
communities of believers. It is not his task to
infer hypothetically the religion of Israel and the
Gospel and to discover the real behind that which
is alleged, but to bring to the understanding the
actual fact as it exists. Like the historian, he
seeks the objective sense, not the subjective.
Stylistic or rhetorical exegesis, according to
Luther (Preface to Ecclesiastes), seeks to know the
scope of a book, its object and aim. This comple-
ments the work of philological and historical
exegesis, and places the document in its literary
category. When historical exegesis has shown the
purpose, rhetorical exegesis reveals the connection
of the means devoted to that purpose.
5. Stylistic This operation arranges its work in
Exegesis, rhetorical and in logical departments.
The former concerns the quality and
propriety of the expression, the turns and variety
of usage, the art or naXvet^ of the narration, the
art-forms of literary expression, and the like. The
latter looks at the thought construction, estimates
it as closely woven or flowing or disconnected, as
orderiy or of mere aggregated parts. It sets forth
the inner life and the totality of character of the
whole document. It serves to give the psycho-
logical side of historical exposition, reveals the
relation of the author to the writing, and in this
way discovers the individuahty of the author.
The writings unified in the Bible have either
little or no connection with the Greek productions
with which they are often compared. This is
especially true of the Old Testament, and almost
equally of the New Testament, particularly of the
Gospels and Epistles. These sprang out of the new
needs of missionary enterprise and the founding of
Christian communities. Consequently they have
their own modes of expression and means of ex-
planation, to interpret which requires entry into
their world of thought. Religious pragmatism,
prophetic oracle, the disclosure of apocalyptic, the
liturgical lyric and gnomic wisdom continue to
exist in the New Testament, but the center in this
case is the work of Jesus. The difference between
the sayings and parables of Jesus and the dialectic
of Plato is very great. It is therefore of importance
exactly to catch the imagery and the peculiar usage
of these writings. Whoever sees merely picture
and metaphor where the picture is the very impress,
the integrating essence, of truth makes a beast of
burden of a Pegasus. If one takes the symbolism
of a religious outlook (like Luke zvi. 19-20) or a
promise (like Mark xiv. 25) as literal, he faUte
the idea by a process of mythologizing. To tml. j
the paradoxes of Jesus literaliy as statement of t ^
law, as one might the command about baptiaq^ \
leads into absurdity. Emphasis upon the vod
'' is " in the institution of the Lord's Supper nuiM ;
one a captive to dogmatic authority. " One m^
translate literally, but that is not the way to apo*
sition or imderstanding.'' Stylistic exegesiB Indi
from the whole to the parts, and so brings the tm-
getical process to its fit conclusion.
in. Historical Review of Ezegetical Prindplcitil
Methods: The development of exegetical themf i
was parallel with the history of doctrine, or, nthi^.
there was a reciprocity of interaction, since exogarii.;
apprehends the sources in sense and meaning ua
help to the building of dogma. So the histoiy d '
the science of exegesis is not to be confused with thi :
history of exegesis, the one having to do «i&:
the theory, the other with the practise. The eu^
Church assumed the inspiration i]
1. Tranai- Scripture and sought a serviceibil
tion from theological and ecclesiastical eip^
Dogmatic sition. The growth of the historieil j
to Historical sense and the rise of an independeit ^
Principles, philosophy raised the question of tb ^
authority of Scripture, and the dopm i
of inspiration and of infallibility could not hik :
the movement thus begun. In this respect tte ,
Tractatus theohgtco-polUictLS of Spinoza (1670 ii
Eng. transl., new ed., London, 1877) was epoch*
m£^dng. The seventeenth century saw the gnuM ?
rise of a science of antiquities, which brou^ obv ^
material and new points of view. Then came thi :1
consideration that the authors of the books of thi 1
Bible were to be regarded as human authoA
Next questions of method arose, and the sehodi
of classical philology, Pietism, and rationata
expressed their aims. Men debated how far pia>
fane writers could be used in the process of duel*
dation, and unsifted material was collected hf
Grotius, Wetstein, and many others. The imtk
of all this work was summed up in WoUe's BtgtM
trigirUa hermenetUiccB ad circumspedam tervflxtm
illustratumem ex atUoribua profania utiles (LeipH^
1722). The end of the eighteenth centuiy, hf
which time greater independence had been gainedt
brought a deepening of the work, which was largeff
accomplished through the effort after a lustora
theology.
Origen was the first to construct a theoiy of
explanation of Scripture. With all patristic en-
getes he assumed that Scripture contained diritt
wisdom and the teachings of salvation, and thil
the spirit of God was the author. The sense ii
therefore in all circumstances deep, clear, true, nid
productive of salvation. But it is evident thit
many passages are obscure if the sense of the woidl i
is taken in such passages as those which refer to thft
days of creation, to the Garden of Eden, the anthio-
pomorphisms, and the "hi^ mountain"
2. Origen. in the story of the temptation. In
case the obvious sense given is nol
worthy, there must be an undersense which k
concealed and must be brou^t out. Indeed,
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Exeffeala or Hermenentioa
rresponding to the trichotomy of man, the sense
threefold. The sense of the words is the flesh
Scripture (for simple men), the soul is the moral
896 (I Cor. ix. 9), while still beyond is a pneumatic
nae (I Cor. ii. 6-7). This is what became known
i the '* theory " in exegesis or the " allegorical
Kthod." In this method Origen was the follower
f Philo (whom he would enroll among the (Jhurch
atheis). Philo's starting-point was the same and
is idea of a hidden sense the same. But his idea
as in turn borrowed from the Greeks, since Plato
id already conceived the same method in treating
famer, and the Stoics had developed the system.
Hiether Philo was influenced by the rules of exe-
eu of the Palestinian schools is an open question;
liig^ could hardly have been decided by this
ifluence. Two principles rule the exegesis of
WgHL His view of Scripture is correct; and where
efbOows this alone, his exegesis is keen yet delicate.
kt he further insists that Scripture must say what
be exegete decides is worthy of deity. When the
ifeenl sense seems im worthy, he seeks a "mystic,
lopical, analogical, or concealed " sense by means
if "theory."
In opposition to Origen the Antiochian school of
EBgesis sought to be fair to historical results both
though " theory ** and explanation. Eustathius
of Antioch (c. 325, De EngastrimythOj
3.TheAnti-ed. T. Zahn, TU, 1886) opposed Ori-
ochian gen. Diodorus of Tarsus made theory
School and allegory synonymous. Isidore of
Pelusium and Photius distinguished
htieen theoretical and historical exegesis, the
fonner leading to the moral or mystical sense, the
ktter to the precise sense. Theodore of Mopsuestia
(i about 428) regarded theoretical exegesis as
Meurate investigation and knowledge over against
iriifaRaiy discovery of a secret sense, in which he
foibwed Diodorus, and in numerous conamen-
tiries and in polemical writings assailed the con-
doaons of the allegorists as those of m3rthologi8ts.
Job was to him a dramatic poem, the Song an erotic
idebrating Solomon's marriage, while he explained
pophecies by contemporary actions and persons.
Its dogmatic and practical usefulness secured to
jfce " theoiy " of Origen its influence, and its sub-
JBetire diaracter favored correction in the interest
tfecdesiasticism. This last was continually advan-
«ttgboth in the Eastern and the Western Church.
fte tendency induced eisegesis, but was now in the
direction of illustrations and proofs of
4. Later dogma. So Augustine declares that
llitristic whatever in the divine word can not
Mefliods. be referred to a noble end or to the
truth of faith is to be taken as figura-
te, and the norm for this is the rule of faith (De
ttrma Christiana^ II., xx. 10). Against Angus-
le, Chiysostom, Athanasius, and Cyril of Alex-
dria, Gregory of Nyssa (in his Hexaemeron)
old have nothing to do with allegory, but ex-
ined the text in accordance with its evident
ming. And yet he at times rejoiced in alle-
ical exposition, especially in the Song. Jerome
lis many works binds together literal expo-
m with a " spiritual knowledge," and speaks
he progress from the littleness of the letter to
IV.— 16
the grace of the spiritual intelligence. Far su-
perior to him in deep insight and clearness is
Augustine, who works out his ideal of an exegete
(in De doctrina Christiana) and shows that he in-
forms the results of scientific exegesis with a fine
rhetorical sense (on Augustine cf. R. Simon, Hist,
critique des . . , commentateura du Nauveau Testa-
ment, p. 250, Paris, 1693). The writers on exegesis
continued to formulate rules by which to derive
a multiple sense from Scripture. Such a one was
Eucherius of Lyons (d. about 452), whose Formu-
ke spirUualis intelligenticB divides " contemplative
theology " into historical discussion and the '* in-
terpretation of spiritual knowledge," which last
is arbitrary allegorizing, turning all figurative
language to dogmatic, religious, or ethical pur-
poses. Yet in the " historical discussion " he
produces valuable comments upon Scripture pas-
sages. Thus there is produced a compromise
between the school of Antioch and Origen. Junil-
ius (d. about 552) speaks for the exegetical tra-
dition of the school of Nisibis (in his InatittUa regula-
ria divincB legis, ed. H. Kihn, Freiburg, 1880). He
would have Scripture so explained that the ex-
planation shall accord with the writer's individ-
uality and with the environment of time, place,
order, and intention. Thus patristic exegesis
involved on one side historical explanation, on the
other dogmatic, allegorizing attempts to determine
an inner sense.
The exegesis of the Middle Ages rested upon the
principles already in existence, except that the
tendency was toward an increase of eisegesis in the
interest of building up an ecclesiastical tradition
of interpretation. Its cause is well
5. The stated by Vincent of Lerins (d. about
Middle 450), when he says: " Every one in-
Ages. terprets Scripting differently; Nova-
tian has one interpretation, Sabellius
another, Donatus another, still others are by Arius,
Eunomius, Macedonius, etc." Faith founded itself
upon the authority of the divine law and upon the
tradition of the Church catholic. Thomas Aquinas
speaks not only for the exegesis of the Middle Ages
but for Catholicism when he says: " The author of
Sacred Scripture is God, in whose power it is to fit
not only words to meanings (which man can do),
but even things themselves." And then he pro-
ceeds to develop a fourfold exegesis, literal, figura-
tive, moral, and anagogical, in which the figurative
and anagogical are arbitrarily distinguished. Thus
Jerusalem signifies the city, the Church, a settled
and moral order, and the everlasting hfe.
The Reformation drew a stroke through all
these refinements and returned to the sources,
discovering anew the word of God beneath the
mounds of ecclesiastical tradition. It pronounced
the dictum: The Church is not to determine what
Scripture teaches, but Scripture de-
6. The Ref- termines what ought to be taught in
ormation. the Church. Humanism led the way
with Erasmus as its spokesman.
Luther declared it his task to translate the Scrip-
ture in its simple sense. But the orientation of
exegesis was still religious. Scripture proving itsolf
to be a book of testimonies for the reality of the
EzeflreolB or HerxnenentioB
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOO
Ml
revelation of God. Melanchthon drew the portrait
of an Evangelical theologian: "A good theologian
and faithful interpreter of the heavenly teaching
should be expert first in language, next in logic,
and then a witness." Criticism was free and Luther
spoke without reserve regarding the value of the
canonical books. Reliable interpretation was de-
manded, which contributed clearness and certainty
to faith. In the stress of the first need the inter-
preters dealt little with theory and contented them-
selves with propounding fundamentals. Scrip-
ture was defiiied as the collection of standard
sources of the Christian religion. Alongside the
formula: *' Scripture is the interpreter of Scrip-
ture " was another: " Let all knowledge and expo-
sition be according to the analogy of faith."
For the orthodoxy of the seventeenth century,
Scripture is the document containing the teaching
inspired by the Holy Spirit. The Bible could there-
fore not be self-inconsistent, and exegesis was pre-
vailingly apologetic. The textus receptus was can-
onized, and in the Old Testament the inspiration of
the pointing was maintained. Rules
7. Post- for interpretation were formulated
Reforma- anew, and the Philologia sacra of
tion S. Glass (ed. I. A. Dathe, Leipsic,
Theories. 1776) was the exegetical text-book of
the Lutheran confession. From this
point of view an important book is that of A. Rivet,
Isagoge ad scripturam sacri Veteris et Novi Testa-
menti (Leyden, 1627). For the Roman CathoUc
Church the norm continued to be expressed by the
maxim: " Tradition (or the Church) is the inter-
preter of sacred Scripture," and more attention
was paid to patristic work upon Scripture than to
philological investigation. Richard Simon laid the
foundations of a historical-critical science of Scrip-
ture, but not without a polemical purpose against
the Protestant principles regarding the Bible.
Simon's work was put on the Index because of its
critical openness; its meaning was first grasped by
Protestants when historical criticism came to its
rights. The next step in the way was taken
by the opponents of Protestant confessionalism.
Socinian exegesis remained without influence be-
cause of its subjective dogmatism. But such
work as that done by Grotius was important, and
the danger to confessionalism was discerned by
A. Calovius and attacked in his Bihlia Veteris
restamenti iUustrata (4 vols., Frankfort, 1672-76).
Meyer advanced the cause of unprejudiced reason
in a remarkable critique upon the fundamental
dogma " Scripture its own interpreter," reason
being, according to him, a gift of God displayed
both in Scripture and in the formulation of dogma.
A. II. Francke bewailed the fact that men con-
cerned themselves with criticism, which affected
only the outer shell of Scripture, and left untouched
the elucidation of the deeper sense of Scripture.
He therefore turned aside from the dogmatic valua-
tion of the Bible and applied himself to a devo-
tional ex])osition founded on scientific principles
and applying the psychological principle of the
individuality of the author. Against the Pietistic
scliool of exegesis the Reformed theologian J. A.
Turretin busied himself in the interest of a gram-
matical-historical exegesis (Tractahu biparHtm,
Geneva, 1728, ed. Teller, 1776). His prindpfei
that theology is the teaching transmitted in Senp-
ture, and to the study of Scripture the mind shodd
come as a tabula rasa, ready to receive the ixm
sense. Here also first app^ured the postulated
a presumptionless exegesis as opposed to a ^
matic. The eighteenth century saw the first a^
entific work written in German on exegesis, that
by S. J. Baumgarten, Ausfuhrlicher Vortrag ir \
biblischen HermeneiUik (ed. Bertram, HaUe, 1787).
The theology of this writer is Pietistic, founded
upon the philosophy of Leibnitz and Wolff. Hi
was preceded by J. A. Bengel (also of the Fietistii '
school), whose principal labors were upon toft :?
criticism. In the Dutch school J. Cocceiuswastkl ]
antipodes of Grotius, so that the saying tookfoim:
" Grotius could find Christ nowhere in sacnd
literature, Cocceius found him everywhere."
With Herder, Kant, and the founders of the new ]
school of history (Niebuhr) and of research inla ,
the sources of classical philology (F. A WoQ '
began new times with new results, based upei
historical investigation into the religion of the Oli
Testament and examination of the sources of mAf
Christianity. The Protestant doctrine of inspor
tion became untenable under the leadership of J.8L
Semler, J. J. Wetstein, and J. L
8. Exegesis Emesti, all imder the sway of tkl
as Affected historical spirit but still not entiic^
by History, freed from dogmatic influence. T\m
Semler held Scripture to contaia tki
word of God and therefore not to contain ineoi-
sistencies. Difiiculties were dismissed on the theoiy
of Acconamodation (q.v.). L. J. Ruckert {Comtmr ;
tar iiber den Brief , . . andie Rdmer, Leipsic, 1831)
remarked that " the exegete, as an exegete, ii
neither orthodox nor heterodox, neither a sop**
naturalist nor a rationalist nor a pantheist, ndtfaer .
pious nor godless, neither emotional nor withoi*
feeling." D. F. Strauss could not deride suffidentlf
the doctrine of inspiration held by the eariy Prote^
tants. Exegetical theory was therefore influenced
greatly by the effort to solve the historical-crititti
problems while allowing the revelational chanct*
of Scripture. The effort was making to recognfli
the human and the divine side of the Bible. Tl
this problem philosophy made no contributioM rf
importance. Kant's contribution was not phfl*-
sophical but practical. H. Olshausen's attenft
to reinstate the allegorical method met no succflU
while the work of his predecessors was summed if
in Immer's HermeneiUik des N even Testaments (^ir
tcnberg, 1873; Eng. tmnsl., Hermeneutics of the Sm
Testament, Andover, 1 877 ). F. Ltkcke attempted ta
give to exegesis a stronger theological tendency, aad
F. H. Germar sought a religious guaranty for tta ,
results of the hermeneutical processes under a
method wliich should include the historical-pWlO'
logical method and should take account of tha
harmony of Scripture. J. T. Beck endeavored to
advance the cause by a " pneumatic interpreUr
tion " on the basis that the Bible is an orgaman,
the spirit of each part of which is the author,
which spirit the interpreter must incarnate in fail
own holy life before he can explain Scriptim
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bzeffesia or Hermenentios
Lutz would have the philological-historical
ation united with the religious, ecclesiastical
matic, in which he was not far removed
standpoint of the Reformation. Hofmann
learly the same conclusion by another road.
the Bible to be the history of salvation,
y independent of ordinary development
different kind. It is the result of the work-
he Holy Spirit in the Church of Christ,
>logian, in order to interpret Scripture in
ust come as a member of the Church and as
3 of the salvation of which he is possessed.
1*8 service was then contributed in favor of
tical exegesis, recognizing, however, the his-
laracterof the Bible. The general result of
on the theory of interpretation is that for
ve exegesis, free from both positive and
dogmatic interpolations, the guaranty
njoint operation of all varieties, which gives
dves, controls and criticizes, all in order
and to expound the life which is incul-
the Holy Scriptures.
le Forms of Interpretation of Scripture:
ilts of the exegetical process may be made
; in many different forms; the exegete may
how the text is to be understood, in which
becomes a glossator, scholiast, or commen-
r he may identify himself, so to speak, ^ith
may take the place of the author and
a translation or a paraphrase. All these
ive been highly developed in the centuries
irhich exegesis has been at work,
implest form of elucidation is the gloss,
plains an obscure or uncommon expression
by a clear or usual one or substitutes
ises for a foreign term the corresponding
ilia, translation. This method has been
applied to Homer, Plato, the Corpus
B., as well as to the Bible, and the value
fults is varied. The glossator is first of all
preter, not an expounder, hence the col-
of grosses among the Byzantines were the
the lexicons, of which those of Hesychius,
and Phavorinus contain many Biblical
In the Western Church gloss came to
special meaning, and the excerpts from
ictions became the brief but authoritative
taries of scholasticism, written either after
, beside it, or in interlinear fashion. Two
lost noted are that of Walafrid Strabo and
Anselm of Laon (see Glosses, Biblical
clesiastical). The gloss extended itself
the explanation of a word and became a
I. This was originally a marginal note, and
iften were for use in the schools. No meth-
vestigation of Biblical scholia has yet been
entaries differ from glosses and scholia in
Y attempt to explain the whole of a writing
and not isolated expressions, and they
icn- have literary unity. The purpose
ind is to give a full and pure impression
^pc. of the writing so that the reader of
the commentary may be in as good a
to receive the sense as was the original
Its relation to the original is that of a
bust of Socrates or Augustus to their subjects,
though for Biblical writings that ideal is unattain-
able. A commentary of the Bible must keep in
view not merely the Bib|e, but also the history
of its interpretation if it is to present adequately
the present status. It can accomplish its end only
by division of labor, parting the work into the lin-
guistic, historical, and rhetorical or stylistic. The
danger throughout is that attention to minute
points will obscure a comprehensive view, while
regard for the total impression may cause oversight
and error in minutiae. The double purpose, to
make clear the document as a whole and to clear up
individual difficulties, has produced two types of
results, the glossatorial and the reproductive, of
which Bengel's Gnomon and Ewald's or Hofmann 's
commentaries are respectively examples. For a
rounded understanding of Scripture both methods
are necessary. It would be desirable to give a his-
tory of commentaries, since the one-sidedness of
certain periods tends to be reproduced in other
periods, but space forbids anything but the most
brief attempt. For the patristic tjrpe Origen's
commentaries gave the pattern, concerned as they
were with particulars, and turning aside for alle-
gorical meanings and applications. The Anti-
ochian school was concise and scholiastic (see
Antioch, School of). During the period of for-
mulation of dogma, exegesis tended toward catenae,
excerpts of scholia and glosses (see Catenje), and
to schematization of traditional renderings. Hu-
manism awakened the grammatical sense, but
produced few commentaries. The Reformation em-
phasized the religious content. The age of the con-
fessions tended again to heap matter together, and
philological comment reproduced scholiastic form.
Pietism roamed freely in ascetic edification. The
nineteenth century endeavored to employ the
linguistic-historical method and at the same time
to preserve the religious interests, to bind together
analysis, reproduction, and glossematic clearing up
of minutise, all this with regard to the history of
the science.
Translation of a document is the fruit and test
of complete understanding, and gives an equivalent
for the original, so far as that is possible.
3. Transla- It is limited by the fact that much
tion and in the original can not be carried over
Paraphrase, into another speech. Artistic trans-
lation must therefore move freely in
order to reproduce the original. The translation
is a new dress which enables the stranger to gage
the worth of the original. Thus Luther did not
merely translate the GospMjl, he made it German.
Translation is limited also by its aim to reproduce
the sense of the original in appropriate verbiage.
Here literalness is often no gain, as when a Greek
translator reproduced the Hebrew sign of the
accusative, though as such it had no equivalent
or meaning in the Greek. The desire to combine
the merits of a translation and of a commentary
resulted in the paraphrase, which reproduces the
sense together with what is implied though not
expressly said. Patristic exegesis did much of this
work, and Erasmus, a supreme artist in this respect,
went to school to Origen, Chrysostom, and Jerome.
Bxeffesifl or Hermenentioa
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOQ
m
The best paraphrast clings to the sense while he
develops pregnant meanings and elucidates the
obscure.
V. History of Exegesis: The Old Testament was
at first the subject of the exegctical art. In the
synagogue two methods developed, the halacha
or exposition of law, and the haggadah, which sought
the deeper sense and applied it to
I. Pre- practise. In this direction was devel-
patristic oped cabalistic interpretation, which
Exegesis, saw the secrets of revelation enclosed
in numerical values (see Cabala).
The Christian Church appropriated the Old Testa-
ment, and indeed largely in the Septuagint version
which often serves excellently as an interpretation.
Tlie methods of Jewish exegetical work on the Old
Testament influenced the writers of the New Tes-
tament. The Apocalypse is cabalistic, Paul and
Hebrews reproduce the Alexandrine methods.
Generally, however, the use of the Old Testament
in the New is original, while it is employed from a
new religious standpoint. It starts from faith in
Christ as the God-aent savior who came provi-
dentially in the fulness of time (Gal. iv. 4). On
this basis it seeks in the Old Testament in word and
in type evidence of fulfilment of promise; conse-
quently the use of the Old Testament in the New
can not be regarded as exact exegesis, it is rather
instruction in regard to the inner relation of the
words of Scripture to the facts which establish
the Christian faith (cf. Luke xxiv. 25-27; I Cor.
X. 11).
The exegesis of the New Testament alongside
of the Old began with its acceptance as canonical,
and was practised first among the
2. Patristic Gnostics. The type used by them and
and by their opponents was allegorical.
Medieval the latter attempting to avoid the
Exegesis, wilfulness of the fonner. Origcn was
the first great exegete and developed
what had been bogim by the Alexandrian school
(Clement), becoming the '* lawgiver and oracle "
for subsequent times, drawn upon by Hippolytus,
Dionysius of Alexandria, Eusebius of Cajsarea,
Rufinus, and Jerome. A turn toward the con-
struction of an ecclesiastical exegetical tradition
was taken in the works of Didymus (d. 329), Cj'ril
of Alexandria (d. 444), Ambrosius (d. 395), and
Augustine. The works of the Antiochian school
were preserved only in part, and that in excerpts
in the catenae. Of the works of Theodore of
Mopsuestia only his commentary on the Minor
Prophets survives. Other great names are Chrys-
ostom, Basil, the two Gregory's, Theodoret, Ephraem,
Isidor of Pelusium, and Ambrosiaster. For the
collections which soon began to be made the
sources in the Eastern Church were Origen and
Chrysostom, and in the Western Augustine and
Jerome. For the allegoristic method Gregory I.
(d. 604) is the principal model and source. In
both East and West tlie makers of catena> were
many; in the East were Procopius of Gaza and
Olympiodorus and Photius, and in the West Isidore
of Seville, Bede, Alcuin, Peter Lombard, Thomas
Aquinas, Abelard, and the mystics. In Spain
Jewish exegesis was fruitful; besides there was
the work of Nicholas of Lyra. Humanism, an|
closely the text, produced the critician of the Vit
gate by Laurentius Valla, the text and commeoti-
ries of Erasmus, and the commentaries of Cajeta
and Faber Stapulensis.
Of the Reformers, Luther did little strictly ex-
egetical work apart from his preaching. Mdaneb-
thon's work is scholiastic. Other exegetesvm
Cruciger, J. Jonas, Brenz, M. Flacius, J. Cameraria^
ZwingU (in sympathy with humanism). (Ecoho-
padius, Butzer, and Capito. Calvin commented
upon the whole New Testament except the Apo^
alypse, and also upon the Pentateuch, Pdn^
and the Prophets. Besides these Mui-
3. Exegesis cuius, Bullinger, and Beza (of speod
Since the importance) are to be mentioiiBi
Reforma- The exegesis of the 0)mitemf(i^
tion. mation made no use of humanixie
help, but took a polemic tone agumt
the Evangelical theologians, as in the can of
Vatablus and CHarius. Since the middle of tl»
sixteenth century the Jesuits have occupied the
field, their representatives being Maldonatus (d.
1583), Sahnero (d. 1597), J. Mariana (d. 1624),
Lucas of Bruges (d. 1629), Cornelius a Lapide (i
1637), and the Italian Menochius (d. 1685). The
results are summed up in J. de La Haye, £A(jb
magna (5 vols., Paris, 1643), and Biblia mojiM
(19 vols., Paris, 1660). The exegesis of the screB-
teenth and eighteenth centuries was bent to the
affirmation or denial of " church doctrine," the
EiHingelienharmonie of Chemnitz striking the key-
note. For the Lutherans such men as D. Chytnew
and Erasmus Schmidt, for the Reformed Church
J. Piscator and J. A. Lampe, for the SociniansJ.
Exell, and for the Pietists Spener and Bengd were
the leading exponents. To all parties, excepting
to the leaders Luther and Calvin, the Apocalypse
seemed a work of great importance and was the
object of much attention. With the earnest dog-
matic zeal of the Arminians new interest was awa-
kened, and the works of Grotius appeared, and those
of his follower Clericus. The new standpoint was
partly philological, partly practical. Gleanings
were made in the rabbinical field (Lightfoot),
in the historical field (Spanheim), in archeology
(Cunseus), and in chronology (J. Scaliger). Fruits
of these activities were the Critici sacri (9 vols.,
London, 1660), M. Poole's Synopsis criticmM
(5 vols., London, 1669-76), and J. C. Wolf's Cm
philologicce et criticce in Novum Testamentum (5
vols., Hamburg, 1741). In the philological-
theological school of Emesti the ecclesiastical
character of exegesis was no longer seen. The
fundamental question at the beginning of the nin^
teenth century was the rationalism or the super-
naturalism of Scripture. In the second third of
that century the recovery of a confessional theology
and a deep impression from HegeHan philosophy
characterized the work done. Whether any school
lias made its impress upon the exegesis of the last
third of the century, one standing in the midst of
the conflict may not decide.
The German exegesis of the nineteenth century
is characterized by division into schools which
created each its own journal and organ. Thus
k5
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bxagesia or Hermeneutios
ncfe was the confessional school of Schleiennacher,
ad the reconstructionist school of F. C. Baur,
^^ the " new Tubingen school," the advo-
i^^J° cates of the " restoration-theology "
^^T^ under Hengstenberg, and Lutheran con-
Kneteenth f^Bsionalism under J. C. K. Hofmann.
^tarj. Leaders of a philological exegesis were
Gesenius, Ewald, J. Olshausen, and
liner. Baumgarten-Crusius emphasized the re-
J^ioui dement and De Wette the critical. C. J.
A. Frituche, Reiche, and RUckert, using the
pUMogical method, strove to free interpretation
from dogmatic shackles, and were ably assisted
ly H. A. W. Meyer. The leadership of Ewald
wii followed by Hupfeld, Hitzig, Bertheau, Knobel,
Ilhuum, and Graf. The ecclesiastical ** restora-
liofr-theology ** drew as its helpers in this field
Hlfemick, Delitzsch, Keil, Tholuck, and Lange.
ISie Tubingen school directed it« efforts to the re-
(QHtniction of the history of primitive Christianity,
bdependent of this school but somewhat in the
me direction were the works of A. Hilgenfcld,
H. lipaus, H. Holtzmann, and C. Weizsllcker.
the separation of the new school, which seeks to
mite the results of exegesis with those of criticism,
I idl exemplified in the interpretation of Acts
liyDe Wette as worked over by Overbeck, as well
II in the Kurzgefasstes exegetischea Handbuch, in
tk HandkommerUar, and in the Kurzer Handkom-
wtriar.
This review has sought to present a singular
ad peculiar religious and philosophical develop-
nmi. The Bible, a book consisting of two col-
ketioDB of writings different in history and in make-
^y has proved itself through eighteen hundred
ytm the inexhaustible source of nourishment for
faith and support for the soul of Christianity.
hm its interpretation and appUcation to dogmatic
nd practical questions arose the theology of
pitrigtics. The ecclesiastical and religious needs,
changing with the times, resulted in the develop-
Qent of exegetical theories and ever new attempts
•t an improved and deepened exposition of Scrip-
fere. And for the future, given the two facts of
Qod in history and of history as wider than man's
bllx and man's wisdom, a continually deepening
ppreciation of the Bible will result in the deepen-
^ of life. (G. Heinrici.)
In French-speaking countries up to a recent
te, the critical movement had made small head-
y. Protestantism in France was a feeble force.
bsid slight part in the deepest movements of
the nation's Ufe. Its colleges were
Modem hardly better than country academies.
Wnnch Its vitality exhausted itself in keeping
xegesis. alive. For a long time the fact that
France was a near neighbor to Ger-
ly counted for little. The life of E. Reuss
^4—91) tells the story of the critical movement
•Vance. He was bom in Strasburg. He ac-
ed the critical ideal and methods in Germany.
work was published, part of it in German, part
in French. Die Geachichte der heiligen Schriften
Veuen Testaments appeared in Halle (1842, 6th
1887, EIng. transl.. The History of the Sacred Scrip-
t of the New Testomen/, London, 1884). An im-
mense and productive activity followed, crowned
by the monumental work. La Bible (translation,
introduction, and commentary, 17 vols., Paris,
1874-81), in the preface of which his lifelong feel-
ing regarding critical scholarship in France is ex-
pressed. Renan's great work, Ongines du chris-
tianisme (7 vols, and Index, Paris, 1863-83; Eng.
transl., The History of the Origin of Christian-
ity, 7 vols., London, n. d.), is in parts extremely
weak. An imagination of extraordinary bril-
liance builds with dangerous faciUty on the
original work of the Germans. But as a whole it
is an immense achievement, bringing tlie New
Testament literature into fertilizing contact with
the social life and needs of antiquity, and even when
resting on hasty exegesis giving impetus and stimu-
lus to deeper work by other men. French Switzer-
land has given one interpreter of high rank, F.
Godet (1812-1900). Spiritual discernment, clear
judgment, and an admirable expository method
characterize his commentaries on the Fourth
Gospel and the Pauline Epistles. But the critic
in him was imperfectly developed. His weakness
on this side betrays itself by the constant intrusion
of exegesis into questions of text-criticism, and by
tenacious conservatism in the field of introduction.
Holland presents conditions materially different
from those prevailing in France. Protestantism in
this land was a national faith. As a religious
principle it levied tribute on the deepest forees in
the nation's history. Moreover, it
6. Exegesis possessed great universities, strong
in Holland, both in prestige and in equipment.
Here, therefore, the critical mind that
took its start from Germany found a field ready
for the plow. J. H. Scholten (1811-85), pro-
fessor at Utrecht, opened the critical movement.
He began his theological career by a masterly
treatise on the humanity of Christ (1840). His
emphasis on this point led him into eager appro-
priation of tlie historical view of the New Testa-
ment. In his Historisch-kritische Inleiding tot de
schriften des Nieuwen Testaments (I^yden, 1855)
he defended the traditional view. But the critical
attack overcame his resistance, and he published
his surrender in Het Evangelie naar Johannes (1864).
From this time on, he became in Holland an in-
creasing foree on the side of criticism. His great
pupil Abraham Kuenen (1828-91) won his fame
in the Old Testament field. But his Old Testament
work became, in a way, representative of tlie r(»-
cent criticism of the New Testament. Kuenen's
scholars carried into the New Testament field the
methods which had achieved in the Old Testament
field such brilliant success. The history of recent
interpretation in Holland shows, more clearly than
in any other country, the prodigious influence which
the Old Testament scholar is bringing to bear upon
New Testament studies. Through his work the
modem author has been able to realize that the
hterary conditions underlying the genesis and
growth of the Scriptures arc fundamentally dif-
ferent from those surrounding the modem author;
that the corporate author rather than the indi-
vidual author prevails in the Biblical field as a
whole, and that corporate interests and hopes
Exeffesis or Hermeneutioa
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
S4I
sometimes play upon and mold the text of sacred
books for a long period before they take their final
form. Pierson, Loman, Van Manen, and Naber
with others constitute what is called the ** Holland
School." Bruno Bauer had anticipated some of
their conclusions. But Bauer's work started from
philosophical premises. The " Holland School/'
on the contrary, starts from sound historical
premises. Old Testament methods and achieve-
ments have inspired the attempt to explain the
Paul of the Pauline Letters as even more a literary
than a real personality (like the Moses of the Penta-
teuch). The prestige of Old Testament study
gives the attempt its justification. Parallel study
in the field of Homeric criticism and other ancient
hteratures increases that prestige. The " Holland
School " therefore is an important phenomenon
for the interpreter of the New Testament. He
must not yield to the temptation to sit in the seat
of the scornful, but must show by deeper study
of the Apostolic Age that the methods which are
at home in the Old Testament are to be used with
extreme caution in the New Testament field.
The intellectual leadership of England in the
first part of the eighteenth century, the work of
high promise in the field of text-criticism, gave
reason to expect that the same sequence of thought
which brought the higher criticism
7. English close on the heels of text-criticism in
Exegesis. Germany would operate here. But
there was no constructive philosophical
movement in England to endow the religious
reason with confidence. Instead, a great revival
of religion (see Methodists) grappled the Bible,
as the traditional theory of inspiration pre-
sented it, to the heart of England. Oiticism, in
breaking through the crust of tradition, had an
extremely hard task. A typical exegete, the prod-
uct of this religious revival, was Thomas Scott
(1747-1821). His Holy Bible (4 vols., London,
1788-92; see Bibles, Annotated, IL, § 8), run-
ning through many editions, was the representa-
tive English commentary down to Alford's Greek
Testament. Sir James Stephen called it " the
greatest theological performance of our age and
country." This opinion is a good standard by
which to estimate the state of interpretation in
England. Scott's Bible had great value as a devo-
tional and dogmatic commentary along the lines
of Evangelical feeling, but no historical insight.
It is sometimes mistakenly said that the critical
movement in England broke ground through
Edward Evanson (1731-1805), who published
The Dissonance of the Four generally Received
Evangelists (Ipswich, 1792). But Evanson was
not a critic. He was an antidogmatic dogmatist.
More solid ground was taken by Herbert Marsh
(1757-1839), bishop of Peterborough. He issued
a translation of Michaelis' Einleitung in die . . .
Schriften des Neuen Bundes as Introduction to the
New Testament (4 vols., Cambridge, 1793-1801). In
his own work, along the lines of Michaelis, he de-
serves high credit for the first inquiry in English into
the origin of the canonical books. While, however,
he provoked wholesale attack, his work had no ap-
preciable results. When the strain of the Napoleonic
wars was over and the revival of historical stu&i
began, the Oxford movement turned the eotin
energy of the Church of England into the chsniMii
of ecclesiastical restoration and debate. Cbadv
Lloyd (1788-1829), dreading the effect upon fi^
land of the kind of Bible-study that was csnyi^i
the day in Germany, urged on his pupil E. B.Pomr
(1800-82) the advisability of a course of stndj i,
German universities. Pusey was in Germany 11
1825 and again in 182&-27. His acquainUnoB
with German scholarship, his labors as a Hebnirt^
and the subordination of all his scholarship to faai
vast influence as a churchman made him the moii
representative man in the English Church. F. D.
Maurice (1805-72) brought to the study of the
Scriptures an ennobling mysticism and a hbentiiig
mind. But as an interpreter he wholly lacked the
historical spirit and method. The best preliminuj
work in Great Britain was done by Samuel David-
son (1806-99), professor at Belfast and Maiich» .
ter. Frankly acknowledging his debt to Gennany,
devoting all his energy to Bible^woik, he mani-
fested both the initiative and the conservatin
proper to a scholar doing a pioneer's woik in 1
difi&cult field. It is characteristic of the situatki
that the critical movement should have deand
its main Hne of approach through the demand
for a revised translation. Gathering volume bm
the middle of the century, and reaching its goal ,
in 1881, it led to the monumental text-w(»i[«l
Tregelles and Westcott and Hort, and threw opei
the entire field of Bible-study. Essays and Rerim
(q.v., London, 1860) raised a storm of contnmiqf
regarding the established views on in^intioL
J. W. Colenso (1814-83), bishop of Natal, thzo#
his Pentateuch and the Book of Joshua crdiea%
Examined (7 pArts, London, 1862-79), forced tie
Pentateuchal question to the front. The notaUi
book by Sir John Robert Seeley, Eoce Ham
(London, 1865), fixed attention on the humanity flf
Christ and thus, hke the similar work of ScbolieB
in Holland, helped to make the critical study of
the Gospels inevitable. Henry Alford (1810-71)
published a Greek Testament (4 vols., London,
1849-61) which rendered high service to a gen-
eration of Enghsh and American students, and
signalized the immense advance of English ipteipro-
tation since Scott's Bible. J. B. Lightfoot (18^
1889), bishop of Durham, published commentari«
on the Pauline Epistles which combined in an
extraordinary degree historical knowledge, cxe-
getical insight, and literary charm. B. F. WertootI
(1825-1901), bishop of Durham, in his commentaiiw
on the Fourth Gospel, I John, and Hebre^re, caor
bined deep patristic learning with the historical
method and spiritual charm. But while, tbro#
these and other scholars, Great Britain had created
a body of work possessing high interpretatioDii
value, it presented an almost imbroken consenrar
tive front to the fundamental critical questiona.
Not until the last quarter of the century did tha
critical movement invade Great Britain with power.
Here, as on the Continent, the Old Testament fiek
was in many ways the proving-ground. The name
of W. Robertson Smith (1846-94) and of T. B
Cheyne are distinguished. The publishing of th
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bxeffesls or Hermeneatlos
»narie8, the Dictionary of the Bible (1899-
l the Encyclopadia Biblica (189^1903),
8 an epoch. The International Critical
try demonstrates that critical methods
ast won their full rights in the field of
iterpretation.
sy to understand why the critical move-
uld have been late in getting under way
». The country had no inherited cul-
ture, no stores of learning, no imi-
ns versities. Population was thinly spread
over vast areas. Practical needs ex-
erted an irresistible pressure. The
country being intensely Protestant
and having few ecclesiastical tradi-
Bible alone and by itself counted for
be building of the nation than anyivhere
le world. As a result of all these con-
be established Protestant interpretation
cripture acquired an immense hold. The
religion and missionary interest in the
ter of the nineteenth century resulted
inding of a large number of theological
>eginning with Andover, 1807, which,
offered no leverage for free and critical
The dominant opinion in the various
had complete control within the semi-
fowhere was critical detachment so hard
e. The Unitarian movement, while it
sason, made no direct contribution to
tion. The philosophical movement of
uid, coming from Germany and England,
the orthodox churches with liberating
Horace Bushnell (1802-76) is a typical
ut the exegesis this movement inspired,
xegesis of (Doleridge and Maurice, lacked
ical sense and method. The prominent
1 reviews (e.g., Bibliotheca Sacra, The
Review) down beyond the middle of the
te almost wholly occupied with dogmatic,
I, and institutional questions. But the
of Germany, through translations of
ooks and through an increasing body of
had studied in Germany, was steadily
The life of Philip Schaff (1819-93) is rep-
e. The Schaff-Lange Commentary, both
1 and original work, indicated a rising
i part taken by American scholars in the
ible revision was another significant sign.
il sequence of critical BiUe-studies has
in^y true in America. The rapid rise
tament criticism in the last quarter of the
s the notable phenomenon. With the
of Ezra Abbott (1819-84), distinguished
critic, and Joseph Henry Thayer (1828-
ed as a lexicographer, the American names
t rank have been made in the Old Tes-
sld (Charles Augustus Briggs, Crawford
>y, George Moore, Francis Brown). Amer-
arship has worked with English scholar-
txiuce the two Bible dictionaries noticed
. the International Critical Commentary
itioned.
:ory of the critical interpretation clearly
it the great need of the time is patient
oigh exegema. The constructive imagi-
nation, beginning with Baur, has done its work.
The New Testament student ha§ before him all
the hypotheses that can give facile and imposing
synthesis. The task that lies ahead is the deep
study of individual documents. This is all the
more necessary because the wide gaps in our knowl-
edge of the Apostolic Age make constructive syn-
thesis as tempting as it is dangerous. The other
great need is that the student shall be on guard
against the personal equation. The critical indi-
vidual of modem Christianity is not wholly com-
petent to understand the men of the Bible, for
whom religion was a superb passion and the cor-
porate life instinctive. He needs also to remember
that the distinction between metaphysics and
religion, which has become a necessary element of
thought, was wholly foreign to the men of the New
Testament. The " critical " exegete may be, in
some ways, quite as naive as the patristic exegete.
Henry S. Nash.
Bibuoorapht: On the history of exegesis: C. A. Briggs,
Study of Holy Scripture, New York, 1809 (the besi single
book for the English reader); J. J. Conybeare. Hitt. and
lAmita of SpirUu€U Interpretation, Oxford. 1824; Z. Fran-
kel, EinHu»9 der palAttinischen Exegete auf die alexaiv-
drini9che Hermeneutik, I^ipsic, 1851; L. Diestel. Oeechichte
dea Alien Testamentt in der chriallichen Kirche, Jena, 1860;
S. Berger, De gloBBariis et eompendiit exegeticit medii ttvU
Paris. 1870; L. Wogue. Hiat. . . . de Vezfg^ae hiblique,
Paris. 1881; F. W. Farrar. Hiat. of Interpretation, Lon-
don, 1886 (covers all periods except the very modem); W.
Rosenau, Jewish Biblical Commentatora, Baltimore, 1906
(from the Talmud to the 20th century); G. H. Gilbert.
Interpretation cf the Bible; a ahort Hiatory, New York,
1008.
On the theory, but often including the history, of in-
terpretation: F. Schleiermacher, Hermeneu4iJe und Kritik,
ed. F. Lacke, Berlin, 1838; H. N. Clausen, Hermeneutik
dea Neuen Teatamenta, Leipsic, 1841; S. Davidson, Sacred
Hermeneutica, Edinburgh, 1843; C. G. Wilke. Die Her-
meneutik dea Netten Teatamenta^ 2 vols., Leipsic. 1843-
1844; S. Lutx, Bibliache Hermeneutik, ed. A. Lutz. Pforx-
heim, 1840; J. E. C^ll^rier, Manuel d'hermineutique,
Geneva, 1852, Eng. transl.. Biblical Hermeneutica, by C.
Elliott and W. J. Harsha. New York, 1881 (covers five
varieties of exegesis); A. Kuenen, Criticce et hermeneuticce,
Leyden, 1856; P. Fairbaim, Hermeneutical Manual,
Edinburgh, 1858; J. J. Doedes, Manual of Hermeneutica
for ... the New Teatament, ib. 1867; 8. R. Bosanquet,
Interpretation, London, 1874; C. H. Spurgeon. Comment-
ing and CommerUariea, London, 1876; A. Immer. Her-
meneutik dea N. T., Wittenberg, 1873, Eng. transl.,
Hermeneutica cf the New Teatament, Andover, 1877;
J. C. K. von Hofmann. Bibliache Hermeneutik, ed.
W. Volok, Erlangen, 1880; M. 8. Terry. Biblieal Her-
meneutica, New York, 1883; E. Reuss, Oeachichte der
HeUigen Schnften dea A. T., §§ 501-600. Brunswick, 1887,
Eng. transl., Edinburgh, 1884; C. F. G. Heinrid, //. Ko-
rintherbrief, pp. 552-553. Berlin, 1887; D. R. Dungan.
Hermeneutica, Cincinnati, 1888; T. Zahn. Oeachichte dea
neiUeatamentlichen Kanona, vols, i.-ii., Leipsic, 1880-02;
F. Blass. Hermeneutik und Kritik, Munich, 1806; G. Dal-
man, Worte Jeau, vol. i., Leipsic, 1808; G. A. Deissmann,
Die aprachliche Erforachung der griechiachen Bibel, Gies-
sen, 1808; P. (3ennrich. Der Kampf urn die Schrift, Berlin,
1808; B. Jowett, The Interpretation of Scripture, London,
1006.
On special phases of exegesis: C. Maitland. Apoatlaa'
School of Prophetic Interpretation, London, 1840; C. D.
Ginsburg. The Kabbalah, London. 1865; D. McC. Turpie.
The O. T. in the New, London, 1868; idem, The N. T,
View of the Old, ib. 1872; C. 8iegfried, Philo . . . aU
Aualegerdea A. T., Jena, 1875; H. Kihn. Theodor von
Mopsueatia und Juniliua Africanua ala Exegeten, Frei-
burg, 1880: F. H. Chase. Chryaoatom: A Study in Biblical
Interpretation, London. 1887; A. Clemen. Der \pebrauch
dea A. T. in den neuteatamerMichen Schriften, GUteraloh,
1805; £. Moviat, Notion auguatinienne de Vhermtneutigue,
Bxell
Exeroltia Splritualia
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
MS
Fuiii. lOQO: E. lUgjt^ub&eh, Die Allesien Ktmimrtitare £tim
Htbrikarbrie/, Lcipsic, 11107; V. Heioiach, Der Einjtu^t PMlos
av/ die oUe^^ ckrittlichc Exegeit. MUn»ief, iO(K; ooniult
kIbo the iJtemtUTQ under C^tei^t^i; KL, iv, 10S0-I121,
v^ 1844-75. aJid the articles in tlus work ou the acholars
named in th« text,
EXELL, JOSEPH SAMUEL: Church of Eng-
land; b, at Melk^ham (11 m. e.8.e. of Bath), Wilt-
8hire» May 29^ 1849. He studied at TaiU]t<»a and
Sheffield Colleges, was ordered deacon in 1881, and
ordained priest in 1882, From 1881-84 he was
curate of Westoii-flup>er'Mare, Somersetshire, and
in ISS4-90 vicar of Townstall with St. Saviour,
Somersetshire, Since 1890 ho has beeo rector of
Stoke^Fleming, Dartmouth, I>evonahire, He col-
laborated with Canon IL D. M, Spence in editing
The Pulpit Commentary (London, 1880 eqq-) and
Th€ Homiktical LihraTy (1882 eqq.); and with H. D.
M. Spence and C. Neil in editing Thirty Th&mand
ThmghU, Being Extracts Coiwnff a Comprehemim
Circle of Religwus and Atlwd Topics (6 vols., 1884—
1 888) ; he has been editor of The Lay Preacher (Lon-
don, 1875 sqq.) in collaboration with J. E. Har-
grcavas; and sole (alitor of The Study and the PulpU
(1876-77); The Homihtic Quarterly (1880 sqq.);
Heart Ch^trd^ (1SS3 sqq.); and The Monthly Inier-
preter (Edinburgh, 1885 sqq.). To the Homiktieul
Library he has contributed HomUetical Commentary
an the Book of Exodus (London, IB79} and Homi'
ktic^ Commentary on the Book of Oenems (1885;
in collaboration with T* 11. Leale): and has also
written Pradic^ Readings in the Book of Jonah
(Peterborough, 1874) and The Biblical lUusiraior
(London, 18S7 sqq,),
EXEMPTlOll: In canon law, the liberation of
one or more persons or ecclesiastical institutions
from the jurisdiction of the ordinary superior,
another, frequently higher, being substituted, espe-
cially the pope. These exemptions are allowed to
be made only on sufRctent grounds, for the good of
the Church. Apart from regular papal grant,
they may be claimed on the ground of a forty
years' unopposed preacription. The oldest and
most frequent instances are those of orders or
monasteries. Originally all the monasteries of a
diocese were subject to the bishop, 1 n the West the
strictness of some bishop^s led certain mona-^teriea
to obtain letters of protection either from the
bishops or from kings and popes. Papal privi-
leges freeing them absolutely from episcopal juris-
diction, the first of which date from the sixth and
neventh centuries, were rare until the time of Greg-
ory V, (l>9tV999); but in the twelfth and thirteenth
centuries they became frequent, and were extended
to entire orders, as well as to cathedral and col-
legiate foundations. The weakening of the epis-
copal authority and frequent conflicts between
bishops and persons enjoying exemption led to
complaiots, in consequence of wliich, at the Council
of Constance (1418), Martin V, revoked all exemp-
tions from the jurisdiction of the ordinary gnmtcd
since the death of Gregory XL (1378); and Leo
X, at the Fifth I^teran Council (1512-17), among
a number of reforming decrees* issued one which
considerably limited the system. The evils com-
plained of oontinuadi laowever, to such ^sx extcmt
that the Council of Trent took up the qtieetlan^ ii
spite of the protects of the generals of ordets ffho
were present. It required regulars to obtain tl»
license of the bishop in order to administer thi
sacrament of penance or to preach outside thdr
o^vn conventual churches, to publish in theii
churches censures imposed by the bishop, to oIk
Berve these as weU as the fast-days proeliuoied li^
him, and to take part in public proc^ssrooa. Iha^
were to be subject to episcopal jurisdiction mj
visitation in regard to the cure of souls outside of
their own members. The bishops were authoriic^i j
to take cogniisanee of any public scandal bj ng^
lars, and to punish them in case their gwi^ aupaioB
failed to do it. Other duties imposed on them m
ex of^io delegates of the apostolic see were ifci
clta^stisement of regulars living outside their to^
vents in case of mislx^havior; the disrijilintni ol
regulars who were incompetent to pieacb, lin
preached heresy or seandalons ertDr, or wbe dil
not obsen^e the decrees of the Council regadfal
the ma^i the enforcement of strict eneksuic «
nuns; the annual visitation of the churcha of ci*
empt clergy and care for the proper perfonniafli
of pastoral duties; the introduction into taoUK
teries of systematic instruction in Holy Scriptmis \
and the execution of the CouBcil's decree m
monastic reform.
Canon law distinguishes between pasare m*
empt ion, which gives the holders of the pdvikp ^
jurisdiction only over the members of thrirwa
community, the ctiurehes attached to it, aad tls
laity living witlun tlieir bounds, and active e:ai^
tion, which gives the holdera a wider and qui- \
episeopal jurisdiction. Of these latter are tb
'pralaii nullius (sc, diwceseosX who have powe^fflW .;
a definite territoTium separatum, free from <iii>ceisfi
connection and subject directly to the pot>i, if
these are not bishops, they must, of course, reswt
to the neighboring bishop for strictly episeopd
funetions. An analogous case is the excraptiflo
of certain diocesan bishops from metropi'titan
jurisdiction (see Archbishop), and their subj^cuaa
directly to Rome. In modem times, also, ih?
mihtnry and naval forces of certain cotintries ttave
been under a mihtary vicar or chaplain-getiifrsl
named by the pope, who usually had epiflMpai
orders (see Bishop, TiTtJLAK); this has been tlie
case, e.i:,* in Austria since 1720, and in Pnaai*
since 1868, with a break from 1S73 to 18S8. Tbsw '
are also exemptions from parochial jurisdietioii,
either for orders and monasteries, or for spedaDy
privileged persons or cixisses. Somewhat eimilir
exemptions from the authority of the superin-
tendent or consistory still occur in the Luth«ia
Church of Germany; and there are a number dt
cases, knoi^Ti as ** peculiafSj" in the Church of
England, the most notable being the cbapdo*
rtvyal in London and Windsor, which are under thtt
immediate jurisdiction of the sovereign, and W^i-
minster Abbey, of which the de^in is tlie ordinary.
BiBLior.itA^rtV: K. F. Wcibb, Di« kirchliche Exemtiomen im
Klmwf, BamL. \m^\ L. Ferrari H, Fnrmpta ha^v>&mm
eanonica, undjpr " lleKiiliU**.'' Rom?, lS44-iSS: P* Wm-
Mhiu5. KAtrhtnrtfht^ ii, 144 sqq,, 229 »qn » 335 «?q.. ^H
AujtaburE, 1871; E. ^voo Bobomr, KirtkmFwekt, L 40
949
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Sxell
Exeroltia Spiritnalia
0qci.. Grai, 1891; J. B. SagmQUer, KircKenrecht, pp. 219
flqg.. FreiburK. 1904; KL, iv. 1121-26; DCA, i. 643; arti-
cle " Dean" in the theological dictionariea.
EXEQUATIJIL See Placet.
EXERCmA SPIRITUALIA ("Spiritual Ex-
ercises"): A work by St. Ignatius Loyola,
founder of the Jesuits. Originally written in
Spanish* it was translated ;nto Latin and first
published at Rome in 1548 with the approval of
Paul in. The military asceticism and obedience
irfaich characterize the Jesuits are essentially the
tcsult of this book, which has promoted the
steady growth of the order through the cen-
times and extended its influence both to the
fegular and to the secular clergy. In its content
the " Spiritual Exercises " is no new creation of its
author, but is based on older rules for inward prayer
and spiritual meditation, finding close analogues
in the works of contemplative mystics of the close
d the Middle Ages, such as Jan van Ruysbroeck.
Among the more immediate sources
Sources, were probably the Abecedario es-
pirUtLol de las circonstancias de la
pomon de Cristo nuestro Sehor y otros mysterioa
(1521) of the Minorite Francesco de Osuna and the
ExerdUdorium spiriltiale (1500) of the Benedictine
abbot Garcia de Cisneros. From the former book
may have been derived much pertaining to the
meditations on the Passion in the " third week "
of Loyola's course, while the latter furnished the
basis for the threefold way of purification, illu-
mination, and union. Manresa, where Loyola
^rote the " Spiritual Exercises," is situated near
Montserrat, where the Exercitatorium was composed,
M> that Ignatius doubtless came under the same in-
fluences which had inspired De Cisneros. This is
*'H)wn conclusively by the Benedictine Antonio
^ Ypez (d. 1621), while the older Jesuits main-
'^ed that the ExercUia had been miraculously
'Wealed to Loyola at Manresa by the Virgin.
Modem Jesmts, however, recognize more or less
^ulJy the dependence of Loyola's book on the
Exfrcitatyrium, although they emphasize the
superiority of their founder's work over that of
iiis predecessor both on account of its more prac-
tical form and because of the special rules for
examination of conscience and care of souls which
are lacking in the composition of De Cisneros.
The ExercUia spirilualia, which contains be-
sides its main topic, additions, annotations, and
instructions, is based upon a series of meditations
divided into four weeks. These meditations treat
of purification through contemplation of the sinful
corruption of mankind, illumination through con-
templation of the incarnate and crucified Redeemer,
and mystic union with the risen and glorified Savior.
The first week, or via jmrgaiiva, leads to conscious-
ness of sin and repentance for it by five daily
meditations on the purpose of man
Arrange- and complete resignation to the divine
ment. will, the fall of man and angels, the
guilt incurred thereby, and the eternal
punishment of hell. In the course of each day one
who practises these exercises is required to examine
his conscience, and to watch and combat liis be-
tetUng sins, while in the evening he must review
his general conduct during the past day. The via
illuminativa occupies two weeks. The first half
is devoted to meditations on the mysteries of the
sending of the Redeemer from the time of his
resolve to become incarnate to liis Passion, closing
with the requirement to choose between Christ
and the world. The second half of the via illu-
minativa is devoted to meditations on the Passion,
deepening and strengthening the resolve to follow
Christ. The fourth week is filled with meditations
on the resurrection and exaltation of Christ, wherein
he who has died with Christ rises again as a new man
united with God. The exercises close with a
prayer of absolute resignation to God in Christ in
memory, intelligence, and will. Certain ascetic
practises are recommended for the promotion of
meditation, but these are spiritual, such as the
reading of ascetic writings, or frequent confession
and communion, rather than fasting, scourging,
and the hke. To the ExercUia are appended cer-
tain ** rules for harmony with the Church," in-
tended to reconcile one who has gained union with
God through the three ways wholly with the car-
dinal doctrines of the Roman Catholic Church,
thus guarding him against a heretical mysticism,
and at the same time ignoring all teachings out-
side the Roman Catholic body.
Through their skilful adaptation to the require-
ments of Roman Catholic devotions, as well as
through their elasticity, which rendered them
suitable for use both within and without the Order
of Jesus, the ExercUia spirUitalia proved victorious
over the attacks made upon it immediately after
its appearance, even by Roman Catholic theolo-
gians. The Dominican Melchior Cano aroused
opposition against the work in the University of
Alcala, and aided the archbishop of
History and Toledo to forbid its use and dissemi-
Influence. nation in 1551. Yet within a few
decades Loyola's book met with the
universal approval of the entire Roman Catholic
world, including the Dominicans themselves. St.
Charles Borromeo had it recommended by a pro-
vincial synod of Milan in 1576, while Francis of
Sales, Juan and Theresia de Avila, Vincent de Paul,
and others lauded it highly. A series of papal
bulls sanctioned it, especially after 1593, when the
Diredorium of Aqua viva, the General of the Order,
required its use among the Jesuits. In an abbre-
viated form the ExercUia spiritualia was recom-
mended even to non-Jesuits, both clergy and laity.
Paul V. granted a plenary indulgence to all who
should practise the Exercises for ten days (May 23,
1606); Alexander VII. granted similar privileges
to the laity for a period of eight days (Oct. 1 2, 1657);
while Benedict XIV. reduced this minimum to five
days (July 15, 1749), and later even included those
who " should pass but a single day under the
direction of the Jesuits as a preparation for a good
death " (Mar. 29, 1753).
In this double form of a four weeks' course for
members of the Order of Jesus, to be performed at
least twice, once during the novitiate and again
after the completion of the education, and of an
abbreviated course for non-Jesuits, the ExercUia
spiritualia is in use at the present day and is an
EzUe of the IsraeUtas
Bxtrame XTnotion
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
M
important factor in modem Roman Catholic
religious thought and life. (O. ZOcKLERf.)
Biblioorapht: The " Exercises " were published in Eng.
traosl. from the Latin in London, 1847. 1860. 1870, and
from the Spanish, ib. 1000. Consult: P. Stdger. Die
asketU<Jie LUeratur aber die QeisUichen Utbungen, Regens-
burg, 1850; A. Steinmetx, Hiei. of the Jeeuita, London,
1850: E. Gothein, Igruu von Loyola, pp. 26-36. Halle,
1885; F. H. Reusch, Index der rerbotenen BUcher, ii. 2W-
205. Bonn. 1885; J. Brucker. Die geietliehen Uebunoen dee
heilioen Iffnae, Freiburg. 1800; O. Zdckler. Askeee und
Mdnchtum, pp. 504-500. Frankfort. 1808; Heimbucher.
Orden und Konffreoationen, ii. 50-63.
EXILE OF THE ISRAELITES. See Israel, Hib-
TORY OF, I., § 9.
EXODUS, BOOK OF. See Hexatkuch.
EXODUS OF THE ISRAELITES. See Israel,
History op, I., § 4; Wandering in the Wilder-
ness.
EXORCISM: The expulsion of evil spirits by
conjuration or magical or religious exercises; see
Demoniac, §§ 4-6; also Benediction; Divina-
tion; Sacramentals. This article is confined to
exorcism in connection with the rite of baptism.
It is easy to understand how the primitive Church
came to use the rite of exorcism on its catechumens;
it is also obvious that in so doing it departed from
the Scriptural standpoint. Resting its practise
on the healing of demoniacs by Christ, it undertook
to heal by exorcism a large number of morbid con-
ditions, which it considered of diabolical origin. It
had a class of officials set apart for this function,
though not originally by any form of ordination;
according to the Apostolic Constitutions (viii. 26)
they pK)ssessed a ** gift of healing,'' and their work
was thus the exercise of a gift rather than of an
office. Their method of treatment included prayer
and laying on of hands. In the third century this
sort of exorcism was applied to catechumens com-
ing from paganism, on the theory that the pagan
world was the realm of evil spirits, and that those
who came into the Church from it must thus be
delivered from the power of evil. In thus deserting
the original ground of exorcism, as an influence
brought to bear in order to cure a morbid condi-
tion of the psychico-physical organism, for an at-
tack upon the ethical power of the kingdom of dark-
ness over souls, the practise entered upon a career
which led toward fantastic magic. Satan was com-
manded to come forth from the catechumens; and
the thought that the winning of each new convert
from paganism to Christianity was a manifestation
of the victory of Christ over the prince of this world
finds dramatic expression in these exorcisms.
The first certain evidence of the employment
of exorcism in the case of catechumens is offered
by Cy|)rian in 256; it is found here in use both in
the Catholic Church and among heretics, so that
it is evidently no new thing. Another mention
of it, possibly somewhat older, is found in the
Canones Ilippolyti. It is doubtful whether Ter-
tullian knew of the practise, or whether the Clem-
entine Homilies (iii. 73) intend to refer to it in the
description of the daily laying on of hands during
the preparation for baptism. At the Carthaginian
council of 256 in which it is first clearly mentioned,
certain bishops requested that it, together with
baptism, should be employed at the reception o
heretics into the Church; the reason given, thai
** heretics are worse than pagans," shows boi
definitely exorcism was still connected with th§
thought of paganism. In the same context it ii
interesting that an early Greek form for tim
reception of a convert from Judaism contaioi t
renunciation, but no exorcism (Assemani, Codki
lUurgicuSf I. 105 sqq.). When exorcism m
thus once brought into connection with baptiiB,
it was applied to the baptism of infants in the nam
unreflecting way as were the other ceremomei
originally belonging to adult baptism. As in thi
service for infant baptism the various lituigieil
acts of the catechumen's preparation were eon-
bined into a continuous fimction, the various exiv-
cisms which found a place in that were here iko
included. At the outset came the exsufiatio, i
thrice-repeated breathing in the face of the cUld,
with the words " Depart from him, thou ODcIai
spirit, and give place to the Holy Spirit, tb
Paraclete " ; after the giving of salt, there was along
exorcism, three times repeated, each time with i
different command to the devil to depart from tbe '
child. This remained substantially the same until
the end of the Middle Ages. The Ritiuile Ramaam \
of 1614 condensed it considerably, retaining oolf j
the exsuffiatio at the beginning with the last of the i
three exorcisms and its introduction
Luther saw no objection to the exorcism in the ,
baptismal office, which he retained in his own of
1523, abbreviating it, indeed, but not on any theo* '
logical ground. In that of 1526 it was furthff
abbreviated, and the exsuffiatio omitted; but refiei
of the Roman function passed from this into the
majority of the Lutheran service-books, to exdte
bitter controversy later within the Lutheran ruM
and to be the subject of reproach on the part of the
Calvinists. When not forced by such attacb to
defend the practise, the Lutheran theologisos
freely admitted that it was a non-essential, and it
the Cassel Conference of 1661 expressed their will-
ingness to cliange it to a prayer for delivcranoe
from the power of Satan. In the rationalistie
period at the end of the eighteenth century, it
finally disappeared from one service-book after
another, and now, since its general abandonment
by the Lutherans, the ceremony has no jdace in
the rites of any Protestant Church.
(G. Kawerau.)
Bibliography: Bingham, Originee, III. it., X. ii. 8; G.
Gerber, Hietorie der KirchenrCeremonien in SeAt^
Leipsic, 1732; J. M. Krafft, Hietorie vom Exorcitmo,B»m'
burg. 1750; G. T. Strobel. in Miecellaneen, iv. 173 m*
Nuremberg. 1781; F. Hdfling. Dae Sakrament der fn^
i. 376 Hqq.. Erlangen. 1846: J. Mayer, Geeekickk i»
KatechumenaU, Kempten. 1868; F. Probst, SakremtM
und Sakratnentalien in den drei ereien cfcrutfscfcem Jdt-
hunderten, pp. 16 sqq.. 128 aqq.. TObingen, 1872; G. TN
Zezschwitz. Katechetik, i. 286 sqq.. 340 sqq.. LetpM.
1872: W. E. Addis and T. Arnold, Catholie iKdioMri.
p. 362. London, 1903; L. Duchesne, Chrietian Wonkip,
ite Origin and Evolution, pp. 206, 299, 303, 317, 322. ibw
1904; C. II. H. Wright and C. Neil, A Froteelant Didtmh
ary, p. 215. ib. 1904.
EXPECTANCY (Exspectantia, exspectoHva, groti*
eispectaiiva): In canon law, the right of succes-
sion to an ecclesiasical office not yet vacant, by
virtue of which the person on whom it is con-
REUGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bxlle of the Israelites
Bxtreme XTnotlon
icceeds when the vacancy occurs. Such
it come into notice in the twelfth century.
3urpo6e of rewarding deserving clergy and
but also, especially later, in order to pro-
ncome or a higher income for officials and
of the curia, or to please secular rulers,
s began in the period named to give letters
endation to bishops and chapters regarding
9wal of benefices, whether vacant or not.
ion assumed a mandatory character, and
ice with them was enforced by special
and by the employment of ecclesiastical
, the right to issue them having been held
accent III. as a part of the papal powers,
stance of the persons regularly entitled to
B to such offices brought about the formal
on of whole classes of benefices to the pope
lERVATiONs, Papal). To the expectancies
1 above was added in the fifteenth century
mof papal nomination of perpetual coadju-
1 right of succession, either to avoid long
s or contested episcopal elections, or to
lee to a member of a particular princely
r, especially in the Reformation period,
on of assured loyalty to the papal system.
expectancies conferred by the popes, an-
ss came up in the thirteenth century, in
[ and collegiate foundations, varying ac-
o their con.stitution (see Chapter), giving
0 the first vacancy in a limited chapter,
e the number of canons was not limited
of prebends was) conferring the title of
» mpemumerarius with a right to the first
!ebend, or promising both title and prebend
Again, expectancies developed from the
>f the jus primariarum j/recumy according
from the thirteenth century the emperors,
1 of France and England, and later a num-
gtty German princes and even empresses
tis of England, claimed the right on their
or coronation to request from each en-
lundation or monastery in their territory
nment of a benefice or position, vacant or
acated, to their nominees. This claim,
first on custom, was confirmed by papal
uid fell into disuse only at the beginning
leteenth century. Many of these develop-
ere in direct contravention of the ancient
I principle which forbade appointments to
;ical offices before they were vacant, and
uired evasion of the ruling of the Third
Council of 1179 to the same effect. The
however, went on until bishops, founders,
asteries were obliged to protect themselves
il papal indults against the misuse of the
The Council of Trent again forbade all
expectancies, only allowing the pope to
; a coadjutor with right of succession to a
r head of a convent in case of necessity.
[libition has, indeed, been interpreted as
not to the pope but to other ecclesiastical
s; but practically, in the altered modem
inces, the matter is no longer of impor-
'he same thing applies to the Protestant
of Germany, which at one time allowed
aes to exist in the bishoprics and chapters
that became Protestant at the Reformation or the
Peace of Westphalia.
Biblioorapht: P. Hinscbius, Kirchenrecht, ii. 66, 60, 84.
255. 474. 639, 652. iii. 113. 6 vola., Berlin. 1869-97; J. H.
Bdhmer, Jua eccleBiasHcum proteatantium, iii. 8, SS 9 sqq..
4 vols., Halle. 1756-63; H. C. de Senckenberg. De jure
primarum precum, Frankfort, 1784 ; A. Mayer. Theaaurua
novus juria eecletiaatici, i. 249, Regensburg, 1791.
EXSUPERIUS (EXUPERIUS), SAINT: Bishop
of Toulouse; d. Sept. 28 (?), year not known. His
early life is unknown, but from allusions in Jerome's
letters (liv. 11, cxix., cxxiii. 16, cxxv. 20) it has
been conjectured that in 394 he was a presbyter at
Rome; he was bishop of Toulouse in 404, and in 411
was still living. In 406 Jerome dedicated his
commentary on Zechariah to him. Jerome pays
a glowing tribute to his self-sacrificing charity
during the disturbances in that part of France in
411. From the letters of Pope Innocent I. (Epist.,
vi.) it appears that in Feb., 405, Exsuperius applied
to the pope for advice respecting Biblical and episco-
pal matters. He completed the basilica of St.
Satuminus, begun by his predecessor, Silvius.
Biblioorapht: ASB, Sept.. vii. 623-630; Tiliemont, MS-
moirea, vol. x.
EXTREME UNCTION.
1. In the Roman Catholic Church.
History ({ 1).
Doctrine (S 2).
Preparation and Administration (f 3).
11. In the Greek Church.
Extreme imction is one of the minor sacraments
of both the Roman and the Greek Churches.
L In the Roman Catholic Church: Extreme
unction is mentioned as the fifth sacrament by
Peter Lombard who brings it into close connection
with the sacrament of penance. He
I. History, uses two passages as Biblical authori-
ties, Mark vi. 13 and Jas. v. 14-15.
These passages have, however, httle to do with the
sacrament as developed in the Church of Rome.
Extreme unction is not often mentioned in the
early Church. Augustine, Chrysostom, and Ire-
nseus speak of it, but do not treat it as a sacrament.
Oil was, however, frequently used by Christians in
private Ufe, chiefly for the anointing of the sick.
Tertullian, for instance, mentions the healing of
Severus, the father of the Elmperor Antoninus, with
oil. Popular superstition soon exploited these ex-
periences, and used the oil in the church lamps.
Some bishops, e.g., Cluysostom and Decentius, did
not object, but hmited the employment to members
in good standing. Innocent I. also mentions the
anointing of the sick, but not of the moribund; in
case a priest was not available, laymen might per-
form the ceremony. Toward the end of the eighth
century extreme unction entered upon a definite
course of development, and was brought into rela-
tions with remission of sins; it received, conse-
quently, a sacramental character in connection with
penance. The question of the repetition of extreme
unction was raised in the twelfth century. A
popular superstition held that a Christian who,
after participation, had been restored to health was
to be looked upon as one departed: he was not to
touch the ground with bare feet, eat meat, or
cohabit with his v^ife. When Theodulf of Ori^ani
Bxtrame TTnotion
Bzekiel
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
recommended that the anointing should take pbice
in the church, he had not in mind either exclusively
or chiefly the application to the moribund. Hugo
of St. Victor (Summa serUeniiarumf vi. 15) was
the first theologian to treat extreme unction sys-
tematically. He deals, however, only with two
questions, the institution and the repetition of the
sacrament. From that time on, extreme unction
received more detailed attention, particularly by
Bonaventura and Thomas Aquinas. The latter
treats it from two points of view : (1 ) the sacrament
itself, its effect, matter, and form; (2) its adminis-
tration and use, the recipients, repetition, and parts
to be anointed. The principal features of the sacra-
ment were thus fixed, and received ecclesiastical
sanction at the Council of Florence (1439) through
Eugene IV., and its final and definite form at the
Council of Trent.
Extreme unction was instituted according to
Peter Lombard by the apostles, according to Alex-
ander Hales by Christ, according to Bonaventura
by the Holy Spirit through the apos-
2. Doctrine, ties, according to Thomas Aquinas by
Christ, but was promulgated by the
apostles. The Council of Trent declares that,
according to Mark vi. 1 3, Christ suggested the sacra-
ment, and that James, his brother, promulgated
and recommended it. The material which is to be
used in extreme unction is ohve-oil consecrated by a
bishop, and, according to a decision of Paul V.,
given in 1655, the oil is not effective unless so
consecrated. Gregory XVI. (1842) confirmed and
further limited this decision by declaring that not
even in case of extreme necessity could a priest
consecrate oil for the purpose. The form of the
sacrament was settled only after many discussions.
With the growing tendency to look upon anointing
as sacramental, tlie form of prayer was changed
from the precatory to the declarative, and tliis was
confirmed by the Council of Florence. The specific
purpose and effect of extreme unction is somewhat
indefinite. The Ck)uncil of Trent declares that this
sacrament completes not only penance, but the
whole Christian life. Nevertheless, it does not
occupy nearly the important position in the doctri-
nal system of the Roman Church taken by baptism,
the mass, and penance; it is merely an annex to the
latter sacrament to which it gives the character of
preparation for death. A specific effect has never
been attributed to it officially. Peter Lombard
gives as the puri)ose the remission of sins and the
alleviation of physical infirmity. Albert the Great
declares that extreme unction could purify only
from the renmants of sin which prevent the entrance
of the soul into eternal rest. Thomas Aquinas de-
fines these remnants as a spiritual weakness and
lassitude which disqualify man for the full enjoy-
ment of the life of grace and glory, and states that
extreme unction is a medicine for both. He speaks
of physical healing as a secondary effect, taking
place when the primary puq:)ose of the sacrament
is not hindered but promoted. Bonaventura, on
the other hand, teaches that the specific effect of
extreme unction is the remission of venial sins wliich
were completely obviated by this sacrament owing
to ita strengthening effect upon soul and body.
The Council of Trent repeated all the positiTe (hs-
trines of the theologians, and added the dodai
of unction with the Holy Spirit as the ipi
effect. These differences concerning the effeet ail
purpose of extreme unction were unsati8factoij,ail
attempts were made at greater predaon. Tk
Roman Catechism assumes two effects, the veoih
sion of venial sins, and the removal of spiritol
weakness and of any remaining traces of an. Bd>
larmine, finally, attempts a precise defimtioDoftb
'' remnants of sin '*; they are mortal or venial ni
which man might commit after penance ud tb
Eucharist; or sins which were not atoned forpn)p>
erly, because sick persons had unwittingly leoimd
in an improper manner, and, therefore, without tk
due effect.
The olive-oil used in extreme unction is eoM-
crated during the mass on Alaundy Thundif.
Each deanery receives a certain amount for di»>
tribution among the parishes. The oil which is not
used up within a year, is buniBdii
3. Prepara- the sanctuary lamp; if there be daopr
Hon and that the supply will be txhsarisd
Adminis- before the end of the year, small qoan*
tration. titles of unconsecrated oil may bs
added. Only a priest or higher ^
nitary may administer this sacrament. Eventb
pope can not authorize deacons and hymen to do
so, although Innocent I. implies that they may la
case of necessity. The administrator acts as a
representative of the whole Church; and for thii
reason it is desirable that several priests be prent
to take part in the ceremony. The regulatkas
concerning the degree of sickness which entitks a
person to receive the sacrament vary, but agree in
the particular that the probability of recovery is
excluded, and that the recipient must be consdoos.
The oil is to be applied to the eyes, ears, bands,
nose, and mouth, and to the abdomen and the feei
of males, but not of females. The sacraments of
penance and of the Eucharist should as anile
precede extreme unction.
n. In the Greek Church: The usage of the Giedc
Church differs widely from that of Rome both in
methods of administration and in doctrine. Thereit
is simply an anointing of the sick, and its purpose
is the restoration of health, physical and spiritual
The place of administration is the church, if pos-
sible. The ritual is elaborate, and requires seven
priests if they are procurable. The oil is conse-
crated on each occasion by the senior priest, and
each priest repeats the full ceremony while seven
selections are read each from the Epistles, Gospels,
and collects. On Maundy Thursday the feast ol
euchelaion (" oil of prayer ") is observed, in which
the whole congregation joins and is anointed. The
frequent use of the sacrament is reconunended.
The Nestorians never use extreme unction; the
Armenian Church has discontinued it.
(F. Kattenbusch.)
Biblioorapht: On the Roman sacrament oonralt: KL,bL
712-725; E. Mart^ne, De antiquia eccUtia ritihu*, L. ehap.
7. Antwerp, 1736: A J. Binterim, DenkwQrdioleeUen, yl
3. pp. 217 »qq.. Mains. 1831: J. C. N. Aosusti. Deaib-
wurdigkeiten. \x 455 sqq.. Leipsic. 1828: J. H. Bhmt,
SacramerUa and Sacramenial Ordinances, London. 1807;
idem, Dictionary of Doctrinal and Hiitorical Tlutoton, V^
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bztremo T7notioB
Esekiel
.lfTl-773, ib, 1870; F. Probst, Sakramente und Sakra-
wmr-*-''-" pp. 373 sqq.. Tubingen. 1872; J. H. Oswald,
JK* dogmaiiaehe Lekre von den heiligen Sakramenten, ii.
2S7 iqq.. MQnster, 1877; M. Heimbucher. Die heilwe
Olibma. Regensburg, 1888; P. Sclianz, Die Lehre von den
m Sakramenten, pp. 639 sqq.. Freiburg, 1803; W. E.
I and T. Arnold, Catholic Dictionary, pp. 363-366,
an. 1903.
r~ For the Greek Church consult: W. Gass, Symbolik der
grimkiachen Kirche, pp. 292 sqq., Rerlin, 1872; F. Katten-
^ bnadi, LekHmdi der vergleiehenden Konie»»ion%kunde, i.
4S4 sqq.. Freiburs. 1892; A. von Maltsew, Die Sakra-
7 mntt der orthodox-kaiholiachen Kirche, pp. cecxxiii. sqq.,
^ 480-553, Berlin, 1898; K. Beth, Die orientaliscfte Chrie-
^ ttmktUder MittelmeerUinder, pp. 316 sqq., Berlin, 1902.
^ KYLERT, RUHLEMAim FRIEDRICH: Evan-
E giBHeal bishop of Prussia; b. at Hamm (20 m. s.e.
t «| Mfliiater) Apr. 5, 1770; d. at Potsdam Feb. 8,
ff 1852. After completing his theological education
at Halle in 1794, he became pastor in his native
town, and in 1806 was appointed preacher to the
eouit and garrison at Pot^am. Eleven years
Uter he became bishop of Prussia and a member
of the council of state as well as of the ministry
for religion and education. Far more important
than his official activity, however, was the influence
which he exercised on Frederick William III. The
derdopment of Eylert was from rationalism toward
orthodoxy, although he never reached a sure dog-
mitie position. He was deeply interested in the
and in the movement for union, and re-
in active service until his resignation in
1844. Eylert was a prolific writer, his chief works
being as follows: BetracfUungen iiber die trostvoUen
WokrheUen dea Ckristentums bei der letzten Tren-
nmgvonden Unsrigen (Dortmund, 1803); Homilien
«5cr die Parabdn Jesu (Halle, 1806); Predigten
*6er BedHrfnisse unsera Herzena und Verhdltnisae
w»m Lebens (1813); Ueber den Wert und die
^irhmg der fur die evcmgelische Kirche bestimmten
Lihargie und Agende (Potsdam, 1830); Das gute
^frk der Union (1846); and, above all, Charak-
^Hqe und hiatorische Fragmente aua dem Leben
Priedrieh WitheLm III. (3 vols., Magdeburg, 1843-
1846; Eng. transl. Characteriaiic Traita and Do-
utittie Life of Frederick WiUiam Ill.y King of Prua-
«a, by J. Birch, London, 1844). He also collabo-
rated with J. H. B. Dr&seke in publishing the
Magoiin von Feat-, Gelegenheita- und anderen Pre-
digten (4 vols., Magdeburg, 1816-20).
(AUGUBT THOLUCKf.)
Bduoobapht: Neuer Nekrotoo der Deut$chen, Weimar,
1852; ADB. vi. 458.
EZEKIEL.
I. The Prophet.
II. The Book.
Divisions and Contents (f 1).
Literary Peculiarities (f 2).
SsrmboHc Actions (f 3).
Other Characteristics (f 4).
Theological Character (f 5).
Relation to the Priest Code (f 6).
L The Prophet : Ck)nceming Ezekiel, the earliest
exilic prophet, his book teaches (i. 2,3, iii.l5, xxix.
17, xl. 1) that he was the son of Buzi, of priestly de-
scent (through the Zadokites), that he lived by the
river Chebar not far from Tel-Abib among the cap-
tives whom Nebuchadrezzar had deported with King
Jehcnachin, and that he labored there as prophet
from the fifth to at least the twentynseventh year
of this captivity (593-571 b.c). The statement
of Josephus {Ant, X., vi. 3) that he was still a boy
when carried into captivity is not probable, since
he was well acquainted with the temple and its
service. The river Chebar must not be confused
with the Habor of II Kings xvii. 6, xviii. 11 (the
modem Khabur), which empties into the Euphrates
(q.v.) near Carchemish, on which the exiles of the
Northern kingdom were settled; it must be sought
in Babylonia and is probably the canal Kabaru,
not far from Nippur. Ezekiel enjoyed the authority
of a prophet among the exiles, and they often
sought his counsel though it was generally contrary
to their desire, and in secret they gave vent to their
wrath (ii. 6). He exercised a pastoral care among
his people and formed a spiritual center for those
who were cut off from their land and its temple
(viii. 1, xiv. 1 sqq., xx. 1, xxiv. 18, xxxiii. 30-31).
II. The Book: The prophecy of Ezekiel, the
third of the books of the major prophets in the
arrangement of the English Version, was no doubt
put in systematic form by the prophet himself; it
divides into two main parts which correspond to
the two periods in which Ezekiel prophesied. The
first (i.-xxiv.) closes with the beginning of the
siege of Jerusalem by Nebuchadrezzar
I. Divi- (588 B.C.); the second (xxxiii.-xlviii.)
sions and begins after the destruction of the
Contents, city (586 b.c). The interval is filled
in by prophecies against foreign na-
tions not arranged in strict Chronological order
(xxv.-xxxii.). Each main part opens with utter-
ances upon the importance and responsibility of
Ezekiel's office. The contents vary in a character-
istic manner. As long as Jerusalem was standing,
the announcement of coming judgment predomi-
nated; what had been God's kingdom was to fall
utterly; when that had come to pass, the work of
reconstruction was to begin. " While in the first
half Ezekiel buried the material hope of Israel,
which rested on the continued existence of Jerusa-
lem and the Temple, in the second he rebuilt in
spirit land and people, city and temple " (Kloster-
mann). Pronouncement of judgment on the world-
nations formed the transition to the establishment
of the theocracy in Israel; the episode belongs
therefore to the second part.
The literary peculiarities of Ezekiel's book are
connected with his position as an exile during its
composition. He differed from the earlier prophets,
even from his older contemporary Jeremiah, by
being removed from the actual theater of history,
thus being denied an immediate influence in the
developments of his time, and this
2. Literary affected the form of his oral and writ-
Peculiari- ten speech. His prophecies were no
ties. casual addresses to fit passing events,
but were worked out in quiet medita-
tion and prepared with Hterary art, for which he had
an evident liking. Not that the short, striking,
oracular utterance is wholly wanting; but Ezekiel
more often discusses his subject at leisure and his
deliverance develops deliberately before his pro-
phetic eye (compare the detailed description of his
first vision — chap. i. — with the brief sketch of the
similar vision in Isa. vi.). He is not satisfied with
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOQ
a few characteristic strokesj but rather aims at a
perfect picture which affects the spectator less by
its immediate power and warmth than by its gran-
deur and harmonious finish. The frequency of the
visions attests also his inclination toward quiet
meditation. That he could not come into imme-
diate contact with the concrete objects may, fur-
thermore, have helped to cause the figurative
descriptions which are peculiar to him. His con-
temporaries complained of his figurative speech
(xx. 49), and the enigmatic character of his writing
has always tried the patience of Jewish as well as
Christian interpreters, while it has yielded the
richer material to mysticism. Figurative utter-
ance is found in Ezekiel in various forms — now as
simple metaphor, now approaching the parable
(xv.; xxii. 18 sqq.), now as true allegory (xvii.).
He delights especially in personifying nations and
covmtries or in representing them under the image
of animal or plant. Thus he portrays Judah
(Jerusalem) and Samaria as prostitutes (xvi.,
xxiii. 1 sqq.); the house of David as a lion's den
(xix. 1 sqq.), or a vine (xix. 10 sqq.; cf. xvii. 6),
or a cedar (xvii. 3); Egypt as a cedar (xxxi. 3 sqq.),
or a crocodile (xxxii. 1 sqq.); the Chaldean power
as a great eagle full of feathers of diverse colors
(xvii. 3). After giving the meaning of his cryptic
utterances, he again takes up the allegoric form.
He shows himself a master in describing the great
and sublime, and some portions of his book are
specimens of the most beautiful and the most ten-
der lyric poetry — e.g., the elegies, characteristic
of him as of Jeremiah, in which he laments the lot
of the foreign powers (xix. 1 sqq., xxvi. 17 sqq.,
xxvii. 2 sqq., xxviii. 12 sqq., xxxii. 2 sqq.). To
consider Ezekiel only a writer, however, who did
not actually dehver his addresses, is not admissible;
but it is true that the written form was of special
importance to him, particularly as his spoken
words could benefit only a small part of his people.
Once again, Ezekiel's position, his exclusion from
all share as an active participant in the events of
his time, was accountable for the symboHc actions
with which he accompanied his discourses and
made them impressive. His whole person was
called on to ser\'e his oracles in most varied panto-
mime. Dumbness (iii. 26), motionless constraint
(iv. 4-8), eating and drinking (iv. 9
3. Symbolic sqq.), cutting of the hair (v. 1 sqq.).
Actions, stamping with the foot and clapping
of hands (vi. 11), sighing (xxi. 11),
and trembling (xii. 17) were all made ** signs."
What happened to the prophet was emblematic of
the fate of his people (xxi v. 14 sqq.); in his own
person he represented also that of his king (xii.
3 sqq.). Partly because of the triviality of such
symbolic signs it has been denied that they were
actually employed, and they have been regarded
as mere literary devices. But considering Oriental
skill in interpreting such symbols and the readiness
of the Israelites to attach importance to the acts
of a prophet, actual performance is the more natural
assumption, though vii. 23 and xxi v. 3-5 are prob-
ably parables. In other cases a mere recital of
what happened to the prophet would have lacked
significance and contributed little as illustration.
But what an impression it must have made win
people found him in the condition described n
iv. 1 sqq. with hostile look directed for weeks oi
Jerusalem and with arm uplifted against itf Tb$
picture was a most eloquent epitome of the ftte of
the city. Klostermann attempts to make thelo^
immobility of the prophet more intelligible hf
finding here the symptoms of severe catalepiy.
Dumbness, indeed, seems to have been imposed qb
the prophet, to judge from expressions which Ctt
not be referred to mere silence (cf . iii. 26-27, xm,
27). Such a disease might be considered a meui
God-ordained for prophetic purposes.
To the solemnly ceremonial style of Eieldd
belongs also the stereotyped recurrence of oerttti
solenm formulas. The sayings are generally d-
troduced by " thus saith the Lord Yahweh " (117
times according to' Zunz) or "tb
4. Other word of Yahweh came unto me.''
Character- The prophet is alwa3rB addreeeed If
istics. God and the angels with the elaewbeDi
imusual name '' son of man "; and
many other recurring phrases give the book t
uniform cast. Like Jeremiah, Ezekiel draws fte- j
quently from former prophets. His muse ii is- \
spired by the entire sacred literature of the pul^ j
especially by the " Mosaic " law, but also by acnd *
history and tales of prehistoric times (cf., e.g., Gm. '
ii. 8 and Ezek. xxviii. 13; Gen. i. 28 and EnL
xxxvi .11). Beside this is his artistic realism, wfakh
everywhere produces concrete forms from thl
material furnished by the historical, archeologMal
and literary store of the theocracy. He was db
mere '' scholar," as he has been called, but rather t
creative genius who made his knowledge of thi
past useful for new ideas. His sentences are in-
volved, often diffuse, and his language is moR
Aramaized than that of Jeremiah; but the clums-
ness of expression in Ezekiel's book is partly dm
to corruption of the text, which in many paamgBi
can be corrected from the Septuagint.
Passing to the spiritual significance and theokg-
ical character of Ezekiel, he has marked points d
contact with Jeremiah, who remained in Jeruaakm.
Both declare with all emphasis the destructioD d
the Jewish commonwealth to be unavoidable and
near at hand, destroying relentlessly the flhtfoiy
hopes of the patriots and strongly condemning the
fraudulent policy of the princes who were traffickmf
with Egypt. The Levitical character of Eieloel'k
prophecies, which portray the atjd
5. Theo- God and its cultus under a net
logical regime and in its details, springs from
Character, his sacerdotal education and dispo-
sition. The Levitical side of Eiekid
in recent times has been exaggerated in two wayi.
In the first place it is asserted that he wae th8
originator of the priestly legislation with its tabe^
nacle, its orders of sacrifices and priests. In the
second place he is charged with having pushed aads
or destroyed by his formulas and outward injinfi-
tions the free ethical religion of the prophets, be-
coming the father of the bigoted postexilic Judaim
and Pharisaism. It is true that for Ezekiel, aafoi
the Mosaic law, external order and ethical com
munion with God are inseparably connected. B
\^
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
iprds it as hi^y important that the holineeus of
iod be preserved by the ceremonial purity of his
mmsters and by the exclusion of the profane.
But chap, xviii., which exhibits EzekiePs ethics,
pots beside the first command, to worship God
oity, the other which is like unto it, to love one's
BC^bor, and emphasizes the truth that every one
if judged by God according to his personal conduct.
Apinlkl passage is fo\md in xiv. 14 sqq. But how
Ittk the prophet expected salvation from mere
fonnal fulfilment of commandments is shown by
iL 1^20, xxxvi. 25-27; complete obedience is
tlK result of a new heart written over with God's
kw, which the Lord is to give with a new spirit (cf.
ie, xxxi. 33), so that regeneration and sanctifica-
tioo appear as God's work. With Ezekiel the
1^ of God was the highest good. The people's
odsfortune was a just punishment for great guilt.
Future salvation, however, was to come not be-
CUR of man's merit (xxxvi. 22), but for the sake
rf God's name. This sovereign God w^as not
ubitoary or cruel; his will purposed the conversion
aid life, not the destruction, of his sinful people
fcndii. 11). The awakening of the congregation to
aewlife is exhibited in a hopeful allegory (xxxvii.).
The Davidic royalty was again to be established.
Ikmd, the servant of the Lord, i.e., a future heir
of the mind and power of David, was to rule his
ntire people in the name of his God (xvii. 22 sqq.,
czxiv. 23, xxxvii. 24). Ezekiel does not stop
•ith the portrayal of a favored ruler from this
imily; he describes in detail a last attack by the
leatben world upon the law of Yahweh already
lODOunced by former prophets. In this whole
lefineation the relation to Joel is to be observed
[cf. C. V. Orelli, Die zwdlf kleinen Prophetcn,
Hnnich, 1896, p. 43). The closing vision (xl.-xlviii.)
has no connection with these other prophetical
utterances. The description of the new temple is
not merely a sketch for its reestablishment. The
■eer b raised above existing conditions. On the
other hand, his sketch and his arrangement are well
€QD8idered and are so clear that one can as easily
nuke a sketch of Ezekiel's as of Solomon's temple.
Tie question of the priority of Ezekiel to the
FiieBt Code reenters here. Popper and Graf, break-
ing with tradition, declared the conception of the
MoiMc tabernacle (Ex. xxvi.-xxvii. and xxxvi .-
^Exnii.) to be later than Elzekiel's picture of the
teuple and they are followed by most of the
CQ&8. There are some, however, who with equal
Confidence advocate the preexilic origin of the
JWert Code. A close relationship exists between
the earlier addresses of Ezekiel and
^ Selttion the so-called Law of Holiness (Lev.
••thePrieat xvii.-xxvi.). Graf and Kayser con-
Code, sider the prophet the author of the
latter, which Klostermarm has ex-
taatively shown to be wrong. He prefers to
flODsider this law a kind of catechism in use
JHDoog the exiles, which the prophet also followed,
ftntach also, though following Graf in the main.
vnnes to the conclusion that a large part of the
Mw of Holiness was prior to Ezekiel and was used
f him as a basis of his discourses. This being
Jmitted, the same should also hold good for the
rest. Otherwise it would be difficult to explain
how later men imitated the prophet's style, but
boldly opposed his revelations. Baudissin by an
impartial comparison arrives at an essential affirma-
tion of the priority of the Law of Holiness and the
Priest Ckxie (jipart from Lev. xvi. which may be a
later interpolation). Dillmann considers the Law
of Holiness as much older than Ezekiel, which
however (especially Lev. xxvi.) was revised during
the exile with the use of Ezekiel's utterances. The
main argument for the opposite view is found in
xliv. 6-13, according to which only the Levitical
priests of the house of Zadok are the priests proper;
the Levites, however, who had worshiped in the
high places, were to perform the lower functions.
Here may be perceived the first distinction between
classes of Levites. In Deuteronomy such a dif-
ference does not exist; the door to the sanctuary at
Jerusalem was open for the priests of the high
places (Deut. xviii. 6 sqq.). In the Priest Code,
however, the sharp distinction between priests and
Levites is traced back to Moses; Ezekiel stood
between. But it must be remembered that Ezekiel
nowhere stated in what respects the new temple
was to resemble the present or differ from it. But
he certainly censures as a transgression of the
covenant, and as a breach of Mosaic order that
strangers should perform the lower temple services.
This supposes that that order provided for other tem-
ple servants, no doubt Levitical (see Levi, Levites).
Another obvious difference is that Ezekiel does not
mention the high priest. But from this it can not
be certainly inferred that the prophet did not know
the office and that in the preexilic period a head
of the priesthood did not exist. History proves
the contrary. His silence may be explained from
the same point of view as the fact that in place of
the preexilic king he puts a modest prince (xliv.
3 sqq.). It is possible that xxi. 26 sqq. is an after-
thought, where it is said: ''Remove the diadem,
and take off the crown." The prophet presupposes
an ancient ordinance traced back to Moses (xx.
10-11, xliv. 7-8), according to which he reforms
depraved practise, but with prophetical liberty he
is not afraid to change ordinances to prevent future
abuses or to give a purer expression to the spiritual
idea. That Mosaic ordinance is nothing else than
the Priest Oxie, whose directions Ezekiel intensifies
in many points in the interest of the holiness of
God. It is therefore untenable that he is the law-
giver who created this legislation. It must not be
forgotten that he established neither a complete
code nor one serving for an immediate use; as a
teacher of the Mosaic law he could therefore move
more freely in order to emphasize those things
which served his prophetic purpose.
C. VON Orelu.
Bibliography: The betit text i« by 8. Baer, with Amyrio-
lofpcal notes by Friedrich Delitznch. Leipfdc. 1886. cf.
C. H. Toy in SBOT, 1899. Commentaries »re by H.
Ewald. GdttinRen. 1841; F. Hitzig. Leipdic. 1847; P.
Fairbairn. Edinburgh, 1851: E. W. Hen^HtenberR, I^r-
lin. 1867. EuK. trannl.. RlinburKh. 1869; C. F. Keil,
Leipnc. 1868: E. Hendernon, EdinburRh. 1870; G. Curry,
m Bible Commentary, vol. vi., London. 1876; R. Hmend,
Ldpftic. 1880; C. von Orelli. Munich, 1896; A. B. David-
son, in Cambridge Bible, 1892; J. Skinner, in Ezpo»iUjr*§
BibU, LondoD, 1895; A. Bertholet. TObingen, 1807: R.
Ezion-Geber
Ezra and Nehexniah
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
iM
Kraetzschmar, Gottingen. 1000; P. Scbmalzl, Vienna,
1901; C. M. Cobern, New York, 1901; H. A. Redpath,
London, 1907. For questions of criticiHm oonnult: C. H.
Cornill. Daa Buck de» Propheten Ezechiel, Leipsic, 1886;
H. Graetz, EmendationcB, vol. ii.. Breslau. 1893; D. U.
MQlier, Ezechiel-Siudien, Berlin, 1894; T. K. Cheyne, in
Critica Biblica, Ix)ndon, 1903. Varioufl phases are treated
in: J. J. Halmer-Ilinck, Dea Propheten Ezechiel Gesicht vom
Tempel, Banel. 1858; B. Bftntsch. Da» HeUiokeiUgeteU,
Erfurt. 1893; A. Bertholet, Der Verfasaungtentxcurf dea
Hesekiel, Freiburg, 1896. More personal are C. H.
Cornill, Der Prophet Ezechiel, Heidelberg, 1882; H. Meu-
lenbelt, De Prediking ran den profet Ezekiel, Utrecht,
1888; L. Gautier, La Miseion du prophkte ^zSehiel, Lau-
sanne. 1891. Consult also X>5, i. 814-820; EB, ii. 1456-72.
EZION-GEBER (EZION-GABER). See Elath.
EZRA.
His Powers as a Royal Commissioner (ft 1).
His Principal Acts and Methods (J 2).
His Joint Activity with Nehemiah (| 3).
Opposition and Final Success (S 4).
Ezra, postexilic leader of the Jews and lawgiver,
was through his ancestor Sc^raiah (II Kings xxv.
18) connected with the Aaronic line (Ezra vii.
6). Doubtless this relationship induced him to
acquire that familiarity with the law of Moses by
reason of which he is called " a ready scribe "
(verse 6), which can mean only that he had so
mastered its principles and provisions that he was
able to give answers on points submitted for his
decision. It was Ezra's purpose to bring this law
into authoritative application to practical life, a
thing which could be done only in the
I. His independent community in Judea.
Powers as a He therefore put himself diligently to
Royal Com- the study of the law so as to set forth
missioner. in Israel what belonged to duty and
order. Evidently Ezra had gained in
the senate of the Diaspora a position of authority
as an expert in the written law like that which
Zadok had gained under other conditions as a
priest-prophet (II Sam. xv. 27). It was only
through the authority thus gained as the one man
acquainted with the law that he could urge the
king (Artaxerxes I.) to grant liim his mission,
which had to do with political as well as rehgious
conditions. So that he was commissioned to " in-
quire concerning Judah and Jenisalem " (Ezra
vii. 14), and '*to appoint magistrates and judges"
(verse 2o) and to execute judgment upon all who
were disobedient to the law of God and of the
king (verse 2G). He was also commissioned to
carry the royal gifts and those of the nobility
and to draw from the king's treasury other sums
up to a s]>ecified limit for the reestablishment
of the temple st^rvice. Such powers are conceiv-
able only in case he was recognized as the trusted
representative of the Jews regarded as a rehgious
community apart from the state. This relation
influenced the permission of the king for all Jews
who wished to accompany Ezra on the return to
Jerusalem. But the religious side of his mission most
concerned Ezra, and by this he was so engaged
that he refused to ask an escort from the king (viii.
22). When he arrived at Jerusalem (458 B.C.) he
appeared not only as the king's representative;
he was the leader of a reenforcement of the Jewish
community amounting to 1 ,600 males and the
of bringing rich gifts. So that his coming
the material strengthening of the Jewish
wealth and the conveyance of the king's fafor.
The way in which he went to work demoostntad
that he was concerned not to act acccffding ti
arbitrary and selfish ends, but was there to foDow
the recognized order of procedure.
The record of the doings of Ezra after his eooiig
to Jerasalem given by himself possesses great aeeo-
racy and completeness, as even the mutilated Hebrew
text indicates. He evidently delivered the gifts
of the king to the appointed authorities, lod
the firman of permission to the Persian repl^
sentatives in the land. There are traces also of a
census of the Jews already settled
2. His there, for his next task was to mvcBti-
Principal gate the condition of the Jews as a
Acts and community. The first discoveiy m
Methods, that the practise of intermanying
with the heathen round about had
been so common that it had invaded even the
priestly families. It is characteristic of the mia
that he did not deal with this matter as the npie
sentative of royal authority but as a reli^
leader, reminding them of their duty to the God
who was recalling the nation from death to a fr
newed life. His pleadings were effectual, and the
local leaders of the people were induced to join with
him in the movement ^to purify the community
from the evil into which it had fallen. A commiaioB
was created to look after the matter, and the budneBi
was completed within three months (Ezra ix. 1-
X. 17).
It is a matter of regret that neither in the mem-
oirs of Ezra nor in the words of the author is
there any information concerning the twehre yean
between the event last narrated and the coming
of Nehemiah. On the one side it is clear that the
man whose mission was to restore to honor the house
of God and who had brought with him a host d
those expert in the direction of the serNices would
not be a laggard in the matter of the
3. His Joint organization of affairs so important
Activity with to the commimity and in attempting
Nehemiah. to bring the practise of the people into
accord with the rehgious ideals. In
accordance with the conamands given him, he found
as a prime necessity the awakening in the commu-
nity of the sense that the norms of conduct were
expressed in the law. On the other hand it is
admitted that it was after Nehemiah had come
from the king as a prince and with mihtary escort,
had with strong hands seized the reins of direction
and had overborne the opposition which developed,
that the full achievement of the desires of Ena
was accompUshed. The explanation of this doubt-
less is that Ezra purposely abstained from appeal-
ing to his own authority and from decreeing and o^
daining the changes which he wished to bring about
by awakening the popular conscience. Another
side of the explanation is the opposition which was
naturally aroused on the side of the heathen, and
of a part of the community itself. The very rigor
of the separation enforced between Jews and
heathen did much to sharpen the oppoeiUon and
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
BBlon-Qeb«r
b and Nehemlah
to strengthen the enemy. It Ib not improbable
the attempt to stop the building of the walls
off Jerusalem which was denounced as the antcce-
. ^ffkt of political revolt had some connection with
^]ie reform in the marriage customs of the Jews.
^^nd the reports of Nehemiah have something to
gay about a secret agreement of priests and Levites
•with the opponents and of an antipatliy which had
lieaa aroused. It is indeterminable whether under
the stress of opposition and hindrance
4. Opposi- Ezra was temporarily absent from
tkm and Jerusalem, or whether he definitely
Final limited himself to the service of those
Success, whose allegiance came willingly until
the arrival of Nehemiah, or whether
these two men had come to an understanding as
to the methods to be employed. At any rate, it is
L desily stated that Ezra and Nehemiah were imited in
L the work of the restoration of the law at the celebra-
* tion referred to in Neh. viii. 8 sqq. It was only after
repeated effort that the law-book was estabhshed
(in 444 B.C.) as the authoritative guide of the peo-
ple in the feast lasting seven days, which is recorded
- in Neh. viii.-x. The one thing which stands out
is that Ezra's recourse was not to force and author-
ity, but he awaited, as did Zerubbabel and Joshua,
the voluntary submission of the community to the
demandB of the law itself. And in the institution
of the law as the norm of action, he created a close
bond between the home community and the Jewish
diaspora. Whoever considers with unprejudiced
mind the reports by Ezra and about him can not
doubt that for him and his companions and for
the circle to whom he came, the book of the law.
Wttrideiing its full effect, must have been an
wthority of long standing. The citations which
•Ppear in the books of Ezra and Nehemiah and
fhe references in the prayers estabUsh that what
* there adduced is practically the Pentateuch.
?ut even that the Pentateuch was not wholly
I ^ ite present form in the time of Ezra is dis-
' Cwsed, according to some scholars, by the tax of
Jjbe half shekel of Ex. xxx. 13 which must he-
*ong to a later time than the third of a shekel
of Neh. ix. 33. It Ib to be noticed, however, that
* difference should be made between the desires
^ the possibilities of an oppressed people, which
may account for the earUer tax.
Out of the curiously embellished recollection of
tbe epoch-making service of the real Ezra and from
the fact that after the time of Ezra and Nehemiah
the Jews and Samaritans remained strictly separate
communities, and that the Samaritans possessed
tbe law in the old character while the Jews had it
in the square character, many of the statements
concerning the traditional form of the books of
the law have originated. Some of these attribute
the newer form to Ezra, others to Ezra and the
Great Synagogue, who affixed the punctuation (Neh.
viii. 8), and others assert that since the law had
been forgotten by the Jews Ezra had come from
Babylon and reestablished it de novo,
(A. Klostermann.)
BnuoomAPHT: Consult, besidea the literature given under
EniA ksa> Nkhkhxah. Books or, DB, i. 820-821; EB, ii.
1473-78: JB, ▼. 821 sqq.
IV.— 17
EZRA AlH) NEHEMIAH, BOOKS OF.
I. Transmission of the Text. The Corrections Traced
1. The Arabic Version. to Their Source ({ 2).
Exra Based on the Septu- 4. The Latin Version.
a«int (51). 6. The Hebrew Text.
Nehemiah a lievised Sjr- II. Compositionof the Books,
iac (S 2). Analysis of the Bookb
2. The Syriac Version. (§1).
3. The Greek Version. The Sources Employed
Its Fidelity to the Hebrew {% 2).
(S 1) The Author's Purpose
(§3).
L Transmission of the Text — 1. The Arabic Ver-
sion: In the London Polyglot the two books bear
the title " First and Second Books of Ezra the
Priest," and there are indications that the two
books were translated by different hands. This
is substantiated by the fact that Ezra was trans-
lated from the Scptuagint and Nehe-
b' ^"^ miah from the Syriac. As a result,
the^Sep^- *'^^® ^^^ *® untrustworthy. But while
^jj^^ misunderstanding of the basal text
is frequent and mistakes are numer-
ous, it is clear that the Septuagint was by the
translator regarded as authoritative, especially the
recension represented by the Alexandrine and
Vatican codices, particularly by the former.
The text of Nehemiah is much shortened, and that
this is not due to gaps in the exemplar before the
translator is shown by his especial dislike for the
lists of names; e.g., Neh. vii. 6-72 is omitted for
the stated reason that it duplicates Ezra ii., and for
the names given after Pashhur (Neh. x. 3) to xii.
27 he substitutes " and the remainder of their com-
pany," and similar omissions occur in the lists of the
builders in chap. iii. as also in chap. xii.
^Nehe- 33_34 41 The traces of origin from
"^^■ed ^ the Syriac are exceedingly numerous,
Syrlao. consisting not merely in the trans-
ference of renderings peculiar to that
version but in construction and arrangement and
in misunderstanding of the original text. To these
must be added the fact that the Arabic has errors
which can be explained only from a misreading or
misunderstanding of the Syriac. Yet it must be
remarked that in the passages in Nehemiah which
have parallels in Ezra, the Arabic translator of the
former was influenced by the Arabic of the latter.
While the principal dependence of the translator
of Nehemiah was the Syriac, there are evidences
also of other influences. This is shown by the form
the name Geshem takes in ii. 13, by the departure
from the Syriac text in the corrupt passage iv. 23,
by agreement with the Septuagint against the
Sjrriac in vi. 18, by the late form of the word " Si-
loam " in iii. 15, by the probabihty that " Beth-
lehem " in iii. 14 is derived from the Greek Beth-
acham (forHebr. Beth-Hakkarem)^ and by the fact
that in xii. 39 " strong-gate " (for Hebr. " fish-gate ")
misreads the Greek ischuran " strong " for ich-
thuran " fish." There appears in a number of
cases reference to the original Hebrew, often ac-
companied by true exegetical insight, correcting
the sometimes senseless reading of the Syriac and
of the Septuagint. Such a case is presented in the
literal rendering of the Hebrew " behind their
backs" (ix. 26), and another in iv. 10 in the render-
ing " The heart of the Jews was bold and tho
Bm and Nehemiah
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
M
bearers of rubbish were many, but we could not
build." So an attempt is made to improve oh the
Syriac rendering of xiii. 24 by translating " spake
half Hebrew, half Aramaic, according to the lan-
guage of the heathen/' The Arabic translation has
therefore a mixed character and varying worth.
2. The Syriao Version: Here the printed text is
often untrustworthy. An arbitrary change is made
in pointing ** kingdoms ** as plural in Neh. ix. 22
against all the witnesses, while Ndamyah'iB read for
Hebrew Yramyah and Syriac Nramyah in Neh. xii. 34.
Similar mistakes appear in Ezra vii. 5-6, viii. 1; Neh.
iv. 23, and elsewhere. Instances occur, however, in
which the original Syriac is corrected after the He-
brew text, as in Neh. viii. 15-16 in the alteration of the
words " when they heard " to " that they should
hear "; while in Neh. ii. 13 the Syriac *' hill-fountain "
is a slip of the pen for " dragon-fountain." But the
Syriac has also a preference for the ending " -el "
instead of " -yah " in names compounded with the
name of God, e.g., in Neh. xii. 26 " Nehemiah "
appears as " Nehemel." Double translations also
occur, as in Ezra ix. 7; also paraphrases instead
of translations as in vii. 9, 28, viii. 18, 31. The
rendering is not consistent, the same word in the
original being translated by different words in
different passages. Parallels in other books of the
Bible are drawn upon for illustration by way of
paraphrase, as when Num. xiv. 4 is employed in
Neh. ix. 17. Misunderstandings of the original
are numerous; as when the place-name Addsm is
translated *' at that time " (Ezra ii. 59), or " the
tower of the furnaces " is displaced by " the neg-
lected tower" (Neh. iii. 11), while the figure of
" shaking the lap " in Neh. v. 13 is totally mis-
apprehended. The word " servants " presented
such difficulties for the translator that he trans-
lated it at one time " sons " (Neh. v. 16), at another
time as a proper name (Ezra ii. 58), though in the
parallel to the last passage (Neh. vii. 57) he trans-
lated correctly.
8. The Qreek Version: There are many indica-
tions that the work of the translators Aquila and
Theodotion have been embodied m the text of the
Septuagint. But the character of the translation
in the two books is so different that evidently two
hands have done the work. Nehemiah often shows
a strong feeling for the Septuagint method of ren-
dering as opposed to that of Aquila, as when in
ix. 7 all the manuscripts read for " Ur
deUty to ^^ ^^^ Chaldees " " the land of the
the Hebrew. C^^^ees. * ' This tendency is obscured
'both in Swete's text and in Lagarde's;
and unfortunately Swete's undertaking to give the
text of codex B as the groundwork of his text is not
consistently carried out, a fault which is somewhat
mitigated by the giving of notes which enable one
to correct the text. Lagarde's text is especially
full of errors, particularly such as seem due to
oversight in proof-reading. A comparison of the
t«xts of codices A B with S from Ezra ix. 9 on shows
that in the first there is an endeavor to reproduce
the Hebrew or Aramaic with so great fidelity that
regard for Greek grammar has often gone by the
board, and when even that would fail, the original is
transliterated. This attempt at fidelity is especially I
notable in proper names, as when SifmorOn is leicj
instead of the usual Greek form Samareia. A fm-
ther result of this comparison shows that the thm
codices go back upon a common exemplar. Thji
conclusion is not vitiated by the differences wfaiel
exist between these codices, since many of them an
expUcable by mistakes of the eye and the ear, bj
dittography, or omission caused by catching tb
same word in a passage further along. And faiths^
the archetype of these three codices must have «&>
hibited the qualities noted, especially an intelligat
and well-directed desire for a faithful reproduce
of the Hebrew and Aramaic text. Many di tl»
changes in the individual codices are due to attenpli
to correct and make intelligible the strange eoa-
binations brought about by this desire for fidelity.
Of this class are the corrections noted by TIkIm-
dorf and Swete in the St. Petersburg codex, andthl
source of these corrections has been discovered in
a manuscript seen by Pamphilus. These oom^
tions are seen at their best in Neh. n.,
2. The Cor- j^ which the gaps are filled in wM
J^^^'^" made of the Greek text a mere torn,
Their *^^ ^^ l^eh. xii. where only the fiat
Source. ^^ ^^^ ^^^^ classes of priests were gifot
So that the extant Greek text htf
reached its present condition through proceonof
smoothing, of correction by comparison withtb
original and through glosses which have been in-
corporated into the text. Under the Ludan teit
must be seen the text of Origen, and into the latts
were taken the additions of Theodotion. In tlii
way can be explained the differences between tki
Lucian text and that of the manuscript of Fuft*
philus.
In the Greek, as in the Syriac, there are numentf
double renderings, explainable on the ground d
glosses brought into the text, a notable case of
which is found in which " nor we " is introduced
before '* kept thy law" (Neh. ix. 34.) Sometimei
the lengthened text is due to a comparison of a
parallel text or to reference to a passage wUnk
was thought illustrative.
4. The Latin Version: This exemplifies voy
much the same errors in transmission as haie
come to light in examination of the other veniooii
Inconsistent translations of the same expiesaoo
occur (cf. Neh. xii. 31, 40 with verse 38). Onthi
other hand Jerome renders by the same expre«oa
different words (cf. Neh. viii. 7 and 11, tifeirfw*
faciebant). And apparent lacunae are filled in to
make the Latin construction complete. He did
not follow blindly the instruction of his Jeirt
teachers, often following the Greek; sometiBUi
rendering mistakenly, as when he wrote de i^^
Chald(eorum for " Ur of the Chaldees." But Ul
main reliance was the Hebrew text and the Giwk
versions which came nearest to it. SomeUmei
he combined in a conflate reading the rendenng
of two versions, as in Ezra i. 11, where the reaifinp
of Lucian and the Septuagint are united. Occir
fiionally where a word was ambiguous, two poasibli
renderings arc presented (Neh. v. 10 b, 11 b).
5. The Hebrew Text: The foregoing study of tb
versions gives as a result the greater value of tb
Hebrew and Aramaic, though the errors are nunM
REUQIOUS ENCTCLOPEDIA
. and N^wnlah
* errors and omissions in the text the
zra is sometimes serviceable (Ezra v. 15).
the lacims in the text are evident, and
Uy the evident completion of the sense
athered from the context (Esra iii. 12-13).
e likely that the lacuna between Ezra iv.
is not to be laid to the charge of the author,
irelessness or to arbitrariness on the part
sts. That changes have taken place in
»n of the verb, particularly from the first
lird, is one of the matters of which note
taken in a critical discussion of the text,
nposttion of the Books : This is understood
;he arrangement of the material and by its
The one book Ezra-Nehemiah is the second
large work, of which I and II Chronicles
jst half. The divisions of Ezra-Nehemiah
» i.-vi., vii.-x., Nehemiah i.-xiii. These
three parts are constructed on the
^*^same plan, each narrating the story
' of a return of the Jews under special
authority and with grants from the
dngs under Zenibbabel and Joshua, Ezra
miah, and telling the weighty consequences
temple community in the Holy Land,
suited the completion of the temple, the
>n of the public service, the binding to-
' the community by prohibition of foreign
s, the securing of political independence
;ighboring peoples through completion of
of the repeopled capital, and adoption by
Qunity of the law-book of Moses (Ezra vi.,
iii. sqq., viii.).
results are interwoven into the history of
3. The first step was taken under Cyrus
inued under Darius, the second in the
^ear of Artaxerxes, the third in the twen-
thirty-second year of the same Artaxerxes.
an succession was well known to the author,
Ezra iv. 5-7 names successively Cyrus,
Xerxes, and Artaxerxes. During that
11 the decrees which were the legal basis of
h commimity and the contests the success-
of which consolidated that community
ressed upon it a distinctive character,
nth year of the Artaxerxes of Ezra vii.
can not be regarded as the seventh
^ year of an Artaxerxes who lived some
*- sixty years later under whom the
events of Neh. i.-xiii. happened,
it be held that the author dealt with fic-
lee and decrees. Such suspicions are ex-
f the quality of the material, which the
s brought together and made to serve his
The books are a mosaic. The author
obtained the list of the returning exiles
Books of the Kings of Israel and Judah.
nployed the " Memoirs " of Ezra, those of
I, and a reputed report of Tabeel and his com-
Szra iv. 7) directed to Artaxerxes. Here the
text is the result of a complete misunder-
The author of it made out of the original
permission of Mithredath ' ' the series * ' Bish-
redath," producing a triple authorship for
lit which is only referred to and not given,
document in Ezra iv. 11-16 is specifically
stated to be by others (verses 8-9). It is to be
noted also that iv. 12 refers to the building of the
city and iv. 24 to the building of the temple,
and that if the traditional theory were correct, the
author would have confused entirely different
events and blended the accounts as though they
referred to one and the same thing. Similarly out
of the reports of Nehemiah, narrated in the first
person, the writer built up a story in which seven
successive steps in the progress of the work of re-
building the wall appear, which is a reconstruction
by the Chronicler of the order of events as they
probably lay in the original documents. Into this
is woven an accovmt of the introduction of the law-
book, explained by the union of efforts by Ezra
and Nehemiah for that purpose. This part is
probably taken as an excerpt from the memoirs
of Ezra.
In defense of the author's stylistic method it must
be remembered that he was writing for his contem-
poraries, probably using documents stored in the
Jewish archives; that he was not concerned with
historical matters of detail the interest in which is
8 The S^'^t to modems; and that he had
Author's * comprehensive view of the . whole
Purpose, work of restoration of the Jewish
commonwealth, which he put for-
ward in the shape of a mosaic the joining of which
is not always close and the parts of which are not
well coordinated. It was his idea to set forth that
as the Samaritans of the time of Zenibbabel
hindered the work commanded by Cyrus, so they
continued their attempts at hindrance in the days
of Artaxerxes. He desired in his notes of time
(Ezra vii. 1; Neh. i. 1, ii. 1, viii.-xiii.) to indicate
the cooperation of Ezra and Nehemiah in the work.
The question has been raised whether the narrative
as it stands is the result of wilful perversion of the
sources, or of misunderstanding, or whether it
conforms to the facts. Nehemiah reports that to
him had come sad accounts of the ruinous state of
the waUs and city of Jerusalem; the apology of
Tabeel narrates that the work of reconstruction
had been prohibited and forcibly prevented through
a denunciation to the Artaxerxes who sent Jews
back to Jerusalem. But who could be so influen-
tial and so secure in bringing about the restoration
of Jerusalem as those who had come with letters
missive from the king directed to the accomplish-
ment of this task of restoration? The general out-
line of history as made out by the author agrees
with the facts as presented by his sources.
(A. Kl/OBTERMANN.)
Bibuoorapht: Texts are issued by S. Baer in the Baer and
Delitueh series, Leipsic, 1882; in the Polychrome Bible,
by H. Guthe, New York. 1901; and a new text is by M.
Ldhr in the new Biblia Hebraioa begun by R. Kittel,
Leipsic. 1905. The best commentaries are by J. D.
MichaeUs, Frankfort. 1720; C. F. Keil. Leipsic. 1870.
Ens. transl., Edinburgh. 1873; G. Rawlinson and others
in Pulpit CommerUary, 1880; E. Bertheau and V. Ryssel,
Leipsic. 1887; H. E. Ryie. in Cambridge Bible, 1893. Dis-
cussions on special topics are: R. Smend, EHe Listen der
BUcher Eera und Nehemiah, Basel. 1881; A. van Hoo-
nacker. NShhnie et Eadraa, nouvelle hypothHe stir la chrono-
loffie, Gand. 1890; idem, Nihfmie en Van tO d'Artaxerxet
/. el EedraaenVanTd'Artazerxeell., ib. 1892; idem, Zoro-
babelel le 9econd temple, ib. 1892; idem, Nouv^Ue itudeenar
la re9tawra»ion ;uioe, Paris, 1896 (a reply to Kostert, bs-
Bara
Faber
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
M
low): P. H. Huntor. After the Exile, Edinburgh, 1890:
G. liawlinflon, in Men of the Bible Series, Liondon, 1801;
W. H. KoHtert). Het HertUl van Israel, Leyden, 1803;
A. H. Sayce, Introduction to . . . Ezra, Nehemiah and
Esther, London, 1893; idem. Higher Criticism and the
Monuments, ib. 1894; E. Meyer, Entstehung des Juden-
tums, Halle. 1896 (of. J. Wellhausen in OGA, 1897. ii.
89 sqq.); C. C. Torrey. Composition and Historic Value of
Ezra and Nehemiah, in ZATW, GicHsen, 1896; T. K.
Cheyne. Jewish Religious Life after the Exile, New York.
FABER, fa'ber, BASILIUS: Teacher and writer;
b. at Sorau (56 m. s.s.e. of Frankfort), Lower
Lusatia, c. 1520; d. at Erfurt 1575 or 1576. He
studied at Wittenberg after 1538; was private
tutor in the house of Joliannes Spangenberg,
preacher in Nordhausen; then rector of the Latin
school in that place; and later held a similar posi-
tion at Frankfort, and from 1557 to 1560 at Magde-
burg. For the next ten years he directed the abbey
school at Quedlinburg. On account of his refusal
to subscribe the Corpus dodrincc Philippicum, he was
dismissed on Dec. 5, 1570; and the following year
he was called to the new Latin school at Erfurt,
where he remained as head of the Alumnat^ until
his death.
Faber 's influence was great, both through his
pupils (among whom were men like (^yriacus Span-
genberg and Johannes Caselius, qq.v.) and as author.
His grammatical works enjoyed great acceptance;
likewise his Lihellus de disciplina scholastica (I^ip-
sic, 1572, 1579); but above all the Thesaurus
erudiiionis scholasticcD (1571 and often), which was
intended to be more than a mere dictionary, — a
veritable treasury of helps to a knowledge of the
Latin tongue and the interpretation of the Latin
writers. It was repeatedly reviscMl and was used
even into the eighteenth century. As theologian,
Faber was a devoted supporter of Luther and his
doctrine; he translated into German Luther's
commentary on Genesis, chaps, i.-xxv.; was col-
laborator in the first four " Magdeburg Centuries "
(q.v.); and wrote certain edif>'ing, in part eschato-
logical works. He also issued in 1563 a German edi-
tion of SdTonia, by Albert Krantz (q.v.).
Geo HO MCller.
Bibliooraphy: Ersch and Grubcr, Allgemeine Encuklo-
pOdie. I. xl. 2, pp. 12 13. I^ipsic, 1844; ADB. vi. 488-
490; J. Janssen, Geschichle des deutschen Volkes, ed. L.
Pastor, vii. 56 »c\(\., 220, Freiburj?, 1893.
FABER, fe'ber, FREDERICK WILLIAM: Eng-
Hsh Roman Catholic; b. of Huguenot ancestry at
the vicarage of Calverley (5 m. w.n.w. of Leeds),
Yorkshire, June 28, 1814; d. at the Brompton ora-
tory, London, Sept. 2G. 1863. He studied at Bal-
liol College, Oxford, and won the Newdigate prize
in 1836 for his poem The Knights of St. John. He
was made fellow of University College in 1837 and
was ordained priest in the English (Jhurch in 1839.
In 1842 he accepted the rectory of Elton, Flunt-
ingdonshire. In Oxford he became an ardent
admirer of John Henry Newman and an earnest
advocate of the Tractarian movement (vsee Tr.\c-
tariaxism). The greater part of the years from
1840 to 1S44 he spent with a pupil on the Conti-
nent, and during tliis time his feelings changed
1898; P. W. H. Kettlewell. Books of Ezra mid Nt
London. 1901; E. Schrader. in T8K, 1867. pp. 460^
idem. KAT, i. 294-297; DB. i. 821-824; EB. iL Ifll-
1488. Consult also the works on the hdsUay dhui
and on introduction to the Old Testament, ei|ieQi|f
Driver, Introduction, pp. 507 sqq.
EZRil, NON^ANONICAL BOOKS OF. See
Apocrypha, A, IV., 1; PsEUDEncRAPHA, Ou
Testament, II. , 7-8 F.
i^ith reference to the Roman Catholic Church; lis
impressions are recorded in Sights and TAott^te
in Foreign Churches and among Foreign Ptojia
(London, 1842). He Wsited the Continent in 1813
with the distinct purpose of observing Roman Ci-
tholicism and furnished with letters from Caidiul
Wiseman. His Life of St. WUfrid (London, 1S«)
showed clearly his Roman tendencies, and in ISti
he abjured Protestantism and was reoniainedia
1 S4 7 . He formed a rehgious society at Binninghaa
wi t h t he name Brothers of the Will of God, and apin
visited the Continent, being received at Rome by
Gregory XVI. In 1848 he joined the Oratory d
St. Phihp Neri in London (see Phiup NEia,S.U3iT)
and in 1S49 became head of the congregation, I^
maining in this position till his death. He w
created D.D. by Rus IX. in 1854.
Faber and Keble were the chief religious poets ]
of the Oxford movement and the fomier's perniar |
nent fame rests upon his hymns, which are maiked
by fervid piety and grace of language. The mort
beautiful, jwrhaps, are *' O gift of gifts, 0 grace of
faith " (from a longer poem, Conversion), "WoA-
man of God, O lose not heart " (from The Ri^
Must Win), and " Paradise, O Paradise." Hev»
a prolific author of religious and devotional woite,
including An Essay on Beatification, Canonitaticfi,
ami the Processes of the Congregation of Rites (Ixffl-
don, 1848); The Spirit and Genius of St. Phiip
Xeri (1850); The Blessed Sacrament (1855); Uta
of the Canonized Saints and Servants of God (42
vols., 1847-56, continued by the brothers of the
Oratory); Devotional Sotes on Doctrinal ofuiSpin-
tual Subjects, ed. J. E. Bowden (2 vols.. 1866).
His hymns were first published in a small collection
in 1848, enlarged editions appeared in 1849 and 1852,
and the final edition (150 hymns) in 1862.
D. S. SCHAFF.
Bibliography: J. E. Bowden. Life and Letters of F. ^■
Faber, London. 1869. new ed.. 1888; F. A. Fabcr. Brid
Sketch of the Early Life of F. W. Faber. ib. 18W (by his
brother): S. W. Duffield. English Hymns, pp. 6(»-508.
xNew York. 1886; JuUan, Hymnology, PP. 361-362; MA
xviii. 108-111.
FABER, GEORGE STANLEY: English con-
troversialist, uncle of Frederick William Faber
(q.v.): b. at Calverley (5 m. w.n.w. of Leedfl),
Yorkshire, Oct. 25, 1773; d. at Sherbum Hospital,
near Durham, Jan. 27, 1854. He studied at Tni-
vorsity College, Oxford (B.A., 1793; M.A., 1796;
B.I).. 1803), and was fellow from 1793 to 1803,
when he became his father's curate at Calverley-
In 1805 he received the \acarage of Stockton-upon-
Tees, in 18aS the rectory of Redmarshall, and in
1811 that of Long Newton, which he held tiU 1832,
161
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Ezra
Faber
^ben he was made master of Sherburn Hospital.
In 1830 he was given a prebendal stall in Salisbury
dihedral. His voluminous works, devoted largely
to prophecy, belong to the apocalyptic school of
Bildieid interpretation and are now of little im-
portance. To be mentioned are, Hotcb MosaiccB
(pxford, 1801), Bampton Lectures delivered in
1801; The Origin of Pagan Idolatry (3 vols., Lon-
don, 1816); and The Sacred Calendar of Prophecy
Pvols., 1828).
BnuoGRAPHT: A Memoir by his nephew, F. A. Faber, is pre-
fixed to an edition of The Many Mansions, London, 1854.
Oonrolt abo: Gentleman's Maoatine, May and June, 1854;
a V. Cox, RecotUctions of Oxford, p. 203, London, 1870;
JWB.xviii. 111-112.
FABER, fa'ber, JOHAWWES: The name of three
Roman Catholic theologians of the sixteenth cen-
toy.
I. Johannes Faber of Augsburg was bom in the
aeond half of the fifteenth century at Freiburg,
nddied c. 1530; the place of his death is unknown.
About 1515 he was prior of a Dominican monastery
it Augsburg, and in 1516 was instructor in theology
•tfiobgna, but was soon appointed court-preacher
iiid eonfessor of the Emperor Maximilian I. At
' the recommendation of Erasmus he became court-
pieacher to Charles V., and sought to further a
policy of mediation in the Lutheran controversy.
Erasmus seems later to have become hostile to him.
Hk only writing known to have been composed by
' ym is a funeral oration over Maximilian (Augs-
bog, 1519). (J. A. WAOENMANNf.)
B&uoqrapht: J. Echard and J. Quetif, Scriptores ordinis
rniieatorum, iL 80. Paris. 1721; C. Khamm. Hierarchia
Atgutana Aronotoffiea, tripartita, i. 306. Mains, 1709;
lis IT. 1170-1171.
a. Johannes Faber of Leutkirch was bom at
Leotkirch (40 m. s. of Ulm) in 1478, and died at
fiiden (12 m. s.s.w. of Vienna) May 21, 1541. He
Mied theology and canon law at TObingen and
Raburg, and was successively vicar and rector
tf lindau, rector of Leutkirch, and canon and epis-
opil official at Basel. In 1518 he was appointed
vittr-^eral of the diocese of Constance and re-
«i?ed the title of prothonotary from Pope Leo X.
Ike course of events forced him gradually to break
vith such humanists and Reformers as Erasmus,
CEcoUmpadius, Zwingli, and Mclanchthon, and to
dttn^ from their friend to their opponent. He
<i»pproved of the preaching of indulgences by
ficnhardin Sanson in Switzerland, and was in com-
onnication with Zwingli (1519-20) and even with
hather, while his condemnation of Eck was undis-
gmd. A radical change took place in his attitude,
Aowcver, and though he had not yet broken with
Luther, he was planning polemics against him and
Oulstadt in 1519. His attitude was strength-
ened by a journey to Rome in the autumn of 1521,
vim he dedicated to the new pope, Adrian VI.,
hii 0pU8 adversus nova quadam dogmata Lidheri
Borne, 1522). Faber returned to Germany a firm
pponent of the new movement. On Jan. 29, 1523,
e attended the disputation of Zurich as a delc-
ite of the bishop of Constance, but was unable to
rove the doctrines of the mass or the invocation
aaints either from the Bible or tradition to the
satisfaction of Zwingli and his adherents. In the
same year he attended the Diet of Nuremberg,
where he seems to have met the Archduke Ferdinand,
and in 1524 he was a delegate of his bishop at
Regensburg, where he and Eck were the chief
representatives of the projected Counterreformation.
At the same time he republished his polemic against
Luther under the title Malleus in hceresin Luthe-
ranam (Cologne, 1524), and was invited to the court
of Ferdinand as chaplain, counselor, and confessor.
In September of the same year he took part in the
heresy trial of Kaspar Tauber at Vienna, and was
later employed in various affairs of state, endeavor-
ing in 1525 and the following years to win the Ro-
man Catholic cantons of S\^itzerland from France
to Austria, and acting as ambassador to Spain and
England in 1527. In 1528 he was consecrated
bishop coadjutor of Wiener-Neustadt (now St.
Polten), and in the following year became provost
of Of en. He was active in promoting the Roman
Catholic cause, taking part in the burning of Bal-
thasar HUbmaier (Mar. 10, 1528), defending the
execution in his anonymous Ursach warum Bal-
thasar Hubmaier verbrannt set (Dresden, 1528), and
urging the theological faculty of the University of
Vienna to action against Lutheran heresy. As the
court-chaplain of Ferdinand he attended the Diets
of Speyer and Augsburg. On the death of Johannes
de Revellis in 1531, Faber succeeded him as bishop
of Vienna, and was also administrator of the dio-
cese of Neustadt until 1538. In the midst of his
episcopal duties, rendered doubly difl&cult by
Protestantism and Turkish invasion, he found
time to establish an institution for impoverished
theological students and to attempt to improve
the university and theological faculty of Vienna.
He was an author of note, liis works including, in
addition to those already mentioned, De Moscovi-
tarum religione at juxta mare glaciale religio (Basel,
1526) and De fide et bonis aperibus (Cologne, 1536).
(E.MIL Egli.)
Bibuographt: A collection of his smaller polemical wri-
tings appeared, Leipsic, 1537; another collection, princi-
pally of polemical works, 3 vols., Cologne, 1537-41. Con-
sult: C. E. Kettner, De J. Fabri vita acriptieqite, I/eipnic,
1737; J. Echard and J. Quetif, Scriptoree ordima prosdi-
catorum, ii. HI, Paris, 1721; R. Roth. QeschichU der . . ,
Reichattadt Leutkirch, i. 200, ii. 90 pqq., Leutkirch, 1872;
A. HorawitJB, J. Heigerlin, Vienna, 1884; KL, iv. 1172-76.
3. Johannes Faber of Heilbronn was bom at
Heilbronn (26 m. n. of Stuttgart) about 1504, and
died at Augsburg after 1557. He was a Dominican
of the monastery of Wimpfen and was educated at
Cologne at the expense of liis city. He was later
called to Augsburg as preacher at the cathedral
and was a zealous opponent of the Reformation.
The most of his writings are polemics against Prot-
estantism and include the following : Ricardi
Pampolitani Anglo-Saxonis enarratio in Psalmos
(Cologne, 1536); Qriod fides esse possit sine caritate
(Augsburg, 1548); Enchiridion bibliorum (1549);
Fructxis quibus dignoscuntur hasretici (Ingolstadt,
1551); Testimonium Petrum Romas fuisse (Antwerp,
1553); Der rechte Weg (Dillingen, 1553); Was die
evangelische Mess sei (Augsburg, 1553); and Johel
in Predigten ausgelegi (1557).
(J. A. WAOENMANNf.)
Fab«r
Fabzi
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
Ml
Biblioorapht: J. Echard and J. Quetif. Scriplare9 ordinia
pradieaiorum, ii. 161. Paris, 1721; J. N. Mederer, AnnaUa
IngoUtadiensi* Academia, Ingoldstadt, 1782; P. I. Braun,
Cttuhiehte der Biachdfe von Auorinirg^ Augsburg, 1813-
16: KL, iv. 1171-72.
FABERy PETRUS. See Favre, Pikrrb.
FABER (FABRI), STAPULENSIS, JACOBUS
JACQUES LEF&VRE D'i^APLES): The most
prominent among the men who in the beginning
of the Reformation in France prepared the way for
Calvin and Farel, at the same time a promoter and
renovator of the genuine Aristotelian philosophy,
foimder of a better exegesis of Holy Scripture, and
translator of the Bible; b. at Staples (120 m. n.n.w.
of Paris), Picardy, c. 1450; d. at N^rac (66 m. s.e.
of Bordeaux), Bdam, 153d Nothing is known of
his family or of his youth except that he was or-
dained priest and came early to Paris, attracted
by his love of knowledge. Here he devoted him-
self earnestly and zealously to classical studies.
Jerome of Sparta became his teacher in Greek,
and with him, as well as with Paulus ^milius of
Verona, Faber lived in intimate intercourse, although
his Latin style and his knowledge of the Greek
language were always very defective. He became
teacher, and in 1492 traveled to Italy, where he
sojourned in Florence, Rome, and Venice, studying
Platonism and works of mystics, but chiefly Aris-
totle. Returning to France he renewed his ac-
tivity as teacher in Paris, with a clearer insight.
He became professor in the college named after its
founder, Cardinal Lemoine, and exerted an influ-
ence beyond the lecture-room by intimate inter-
course with gifted students and by Latin transla-
tions of the Church Fathers and introductions and
conunentaries on works of Aristotle. He inspired
respect and love by his extensive knowledge, his
talents as a teacher, his piety, modesty, and gentle-
ness, and found numerous admirers and friends.
When Guillaume Briyonnet (q.v.), his former pupil,
was made head of the famous Benedictine abbey
of St. Germain des Pr6s (1507), he appointed Fa-
ber librarian, and they lived together imtil 1520.
About this time, Faber, already more than fifty,
laid aside secular studies, and devoted himself to
the Bible. Two critical essays on Mary Magdalene
which he published in 1517 and 1518 gave the
Sorbonne occasion for an accusation of heresy;
and Natalis Beda (No6i B^dier), syndic of the theo-
logical faculty of Paris, had the book formally con-
demned by a decree of the faculty, Nov. 9, 1521.
Beda, who suspected a secret Lutheran in Faber,
wanted to institute further proceedings against
him, but was prevented by the interference of
Francis I. and Marguerite of Navarre. In 1520
Faber bad to leave Paris and gladly followed an
invitation of Bri^onnet to come to Meaux as director
of the hospital for lepers. In 1523 the bishop ap-
pointed him vicar-general. After the battle of
Pa via (1525), the captivity of the king gave Faber's
opponents opportunity to proceed more severely
against the adherents of so-called Lutheranism,
and a special commission was appointed by parlia-
ment to investigate the heresies in the diocese of
Meaux. Several preachers who had been installed
by Brigonnet, were arrested; others recanted;
Faber fled with his friend Gerard Rouasd (q.T.)
to Strasburg, imder the pseudonym of Pereg;riiini,
early in Nov., 1525. After the return of Fnmdi L
to France, both were recalled. Faber even bedoi
private tutor of the king's children and lived n
librarian in the royal castle at Blois. As conditiaif
grew more menacing for the adherents of the Bef-
ormation, the Queen of Navarre took Faber to her
residence in N^rac, where he spent peacefully tb
remainder of his long and active life. Faber bMj
avowed the principles of the Reformation, but o-
temally remained in the Roman Church, hopiDg
that the renovation of the Gospel might be effected
without rupture with papacy, and being uiieqal
to an open battle with hostile powers.
Faber's theological productions may be divided
into two classes — editions of Chiurh Fathers and
mystical writers, and translations and oommnr
taries on Holy Scripture. The first result of \m
Biblical studies was his PsaUerium qumtujht
(1509). The preface to his conunentary on tb
Pauline Epistles is remarkable because Faber hen
propoundeid the principles of the Refonnatio^
five years before the Wittenberg theses of Luthet
He maintained the authority of Holy Scripture ill
the unmerited grace of redemption, combated tb
merit of good works, the celibacy of priests, and
discussed the necessity of a reform of the Chmtk
In 1522 appeared his commentary on the fov
Gospels and in 1525 on the Catholic Epistles. Hen
he first discovered the errors of the Vulgate and If
his exposition of the text prepared the way for a
better exegesis. The Bible is for him the only nil
of faith, and he is not afraid of offending aguart
the dogmas and usages of the Church. At the ia-
stance of the king and his sister, BriQonnet indoeed
Faber to translate the New Testament into fVeneL
The translation was made from the Vulgate ind
appeared at Antwerp in 1523; the Psabns fol-
lowed in 1525. In Blois Faber prepared a FienA
translation of the whole Bible (1530). which be*
came, at least for the New Testament and the Apoe-
rypha, the basis of R. Olivetan's translation of tin
Bible (1535) sanctioned by the Reformed ChuiA
of France (see Bible Versions, B, VI., § 3) and
so very useful. (G. Bonbt-Maurt.)
Bibuoorapht: The best souroes for a life are Natalif Btdt.
Annotationea in Fabrum et Enumum (c 1526); GQiDinM
Farel, EpUire h tou» Seigneura (o. 1548); Tbeodoie Bmi»
Iconea, Geneva. 1580. and A. B. Herminjard. Camrm
dance dea RiformeUeura, i. 3-4, 89. 132. 158-216. Pin^
1878. Later works are: K. A. Graf, in ZHT, 1852. parti
1-2; De Sabatier Plantier. Lefivre d*itaplea, Mootanlm,
1870; J. Bonnet, RScita du xvi. aiMe, Paris, 1875; H. JL
Baird, Hiat. of the Riae of the Huouenota, vol. i.. efaapw iL,
London, 1880. On his Bible consult; P. Qui^vreiui, La
TradttcHon du Nouveau Teatament de LefHre, Paris. l8Ms
A. Laume. La Traduction de VAnden Teatament da L»
fhrre, ib. 1896.
FABIAN, f 6'bi-an : Pope Jan. 10, 23&-^aii. 20. 2M
martyr in the Decian persecution. In the Cknm
con Paschale he is called Flavian, while the Gopta
Synaxarium terms him Palatian. According U
Eusebius (Hist, eccl., vi. 29), he was choeen to suoeeei
Anterus because a dove descended from heava
and lighted on the head of Fabian, a bishop wb
had been summoned to Rome with otfaen to elee
5M8
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Fab«r
Pabrl
s new pope. Fabian was pope during the reign
4C Philip the Arab. Origen addressed to him a
^mttse defending his teachings, while Cyprian
aations a letter written by Fabian with regard
to Privatus, a heretic (and probably bishop) of
Cblonia Lambesitana in Numidia. Macarius Mag-
MB speaks of Fabian as a worker of miracles, and
mnes him together with Polycarp, Irensns, and
Qyprian. Cyprian occasionally mentions this pope
irith respect, but the ordinances of Fabian in the
time letters of the pseudo-Isidore and the twenty-
one decrees of Gratian are forgeries.
Though few details are actually known concerning
Fabian, it is clear that he was one of the most im-
portant popes. His reign was in a period of ex-
tnordinarily rapid development of the Church,
torit was the time in which the Gnostic heresies, the
Ghristological controversies, and the schism of
Hippoiytus were crushed, when penance increased
npidly, when the city of Rome was divided into
nven or fourteen parishes, when the minor clergy
118 fonned into five grades, and when the tem-
poral power of the Chiuxh was greatly augmented.
h all these measures Fabian must have been the
leading spirit. It was due to him, moreover, that
(he Decian persecution found a far more sturdy
power of resistance in Rome than in Carthage,
and that the Roman Church was able to maintain
80 honorable a position in the year which elapsed
between the martyrdom of Fabian and the election
of fab successor, Cornelius. (A. Harnack.)
Bduoqbapht: Liber pontificalia, ed. Duchesne, i. 148-149,
Fuis, 1886, ed. Mommaen in MOH, Oeat. pont. Rom., i
(1806), 27; R. A. Lipsiufl, Chronoloffie der r6miaehen
BiaAdfe, Kiel. 1800; J. B. Lightfoot, Apoatolic Father§,
I Ckment of Rome, London, 1885; Harnack, LiUerahir, i.
618, II. i. 144 sqq.; Bower. Popes, 1. 23-24; Milman.
LtK^Chrittianiiy, i. 82.
FABRI, fa'bri (not Fabcr), FELIX: German
Dominican; b. at Zurich 1441 or 1442; d. at Ulm
^. 14, 1502. He belonged to a distinguished
fifflrily, and in 1465 entered the Dominican order
^ Basel. He studied theology and was sent to
Ulm in 1477 or 1478 as lector and preacher. From
^y childhood he desired to visit the Holy Land,
and his longing was increased by pilgrimages to
Aix-la-Chapelle in 1468 and to Rome in 1476.
fie fim visited the East in 1480, but remained only
Jttne days in Jerusalem. In 1483-84 he made a
•<^d journey of longer duration, visiting Jeru-
•^^ and other parts of Palestine, as well as Mount
^^ and Egjrpt in company with four Swabian
?P*>lemen. Except for frequent trips in behalf of
Jj* Order, such as his visits to Venice in 1486-87,
"® «pent the remainder of his life as a teacher and
P'^^her in his monastery at Ulm, though he was
*^ a preacher in neighboring nunneries. His
Dorics, which are mostly unpublished or lost, show
**^ observation, piety, sincerity, and humor,
^^^ough they are marred by their lack of critical
acumen, while their Latinity is strongly monastic.
^civerthelefls, he is the most important and in-
•tnictive of the pilgrims of the fifteenth century.
Ks chief works are as follows: Evagatorium in Terra
Sonaa, Arabia et jEgypli peregrincUianem (ed. C.
D. HAMler, 3 vols., Stuttgart, 1843-49; £ng. transl.,
The Wanderings of Felix Fabri, in Publications of
Pilgrims' Text Society ^ vols, vii.-x., London, 1897);
Eigentliche Beschreibung der Hin- und Wiederfahrt
zum heiligen Land (Frankfort, ? 1556); Gereimies
Pilgerbiichlein (ed. A. Birlinger, Munich, 1864);
and Historia Suevorum (partly edited by M. Gold-
ast, in Suevorum rerum ScriptoreSt Frankfort,
1605, Ulm, 1727). The most important portions
of the Descriptio Suevice were published by H.
Escher, in Quellen zur Schweizer GeschichtCf vi.
107-202 (Basel, 1884), while G. Veesemneyer has
edited the Tractatus de civitate Ulmensi (Stuttgart,
1889). Die Sionspilgerin is partly printed in
Verhandlung des Vereins fUr Kunst und AUertiimer
in Ulm und Oberschwaben, new series, i. 30 sqq.
G. BOSSERT.
Bibuoorapht: An early account ia: H&berlin, De vita,
Uineribue et ecriptie Felicie Fabri, Gdttingen, 1742; J.
Echard and J. Quetif, ScripL ordinia prcediceUorum, i.
871. Paris, 1721; O. Loreni. DeutachiatuU Oeeehieht^
quellen, i. 91, 106, 209. 347, BerUn, 1887.
FABRI, FRIEDRICH GOTTHARDT KARL
BRNST: German theologian; b. at Schweinfurt
(22 m. n.n.e. of WUrzburg) Jime 12, 1824; d. at
Wtirzburg July 18, 1891. He was educated at
Wtirzburg, Erlangen, and Berlin, and in 1846
entered the seminary for preachers at Munich.
In 1848 he was appointed municipal pastor and
instructor in a technical school at WOrzburg, and
then published his first work. Die materieUen Not-
stdnde der protestantischen Kirche Baiems (Nurem-
berg, 1848), which was followed by his Ueber Armut
und Armenpflege (1851). In 1851 he became pas-
tor at Bonnland near Wilrzburg, and while there
published his L^e&er Kirchemucht im Sinn und Geist
des Evangeliums (Stuttgart, 1854), in which he dep-
recated public admonition and excommunication.
He first became widely known, however, by his
Briefe gegen den Materialismus (1855), a criticism
of the theories of Darwin and Lyell. From 1857
to 1884 Fabri was president of the Rhenish mission
at Barmen. He successfully opposed the denomi-
national strife which threatened to disrupt the
organization and raised the educational standard
for those who were to go to the mission-field under
the auspices of the society, making the preliminary
course two years and the seminary training four.
The candidates gained both in number and in
ability, and branch schools were erected for younger
pupils in Barmen (1856), Stellenbosch (1860,
1865), and GUtersloh. Under his auspices the
mission increased from twenty-nine stations,
thirty-five missionaries, and 6,600 converts in
1857 to forty-seven stations, sixty-four mission-
aries, and 25,800 converts in 1884. In 1866 he
founded the general conference for missions, which
henceforth convened triennially, and in connection
with missionary activity he wrote Die Entstehung
des Heidentums und die Aufgabe der Heidenmisaion
(Barmen, 1859) and Der sensus communis das Organ
der Offenbarung Gottes in aUen Menschen (1861).
In 1865 Fabri established a conunittee for German
Protestants in southern Brazil, which was enlarged
in 1883 to comprise all Protestant Germans in
America. He was also keenly interested in in-
spiring the Greek Church with a spirit of Evangel-
Fabrioa EcoIeslaB
Faffnani
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
icalism, as was shown by his MiUeUungen aus
Mazedonien (Elberfeld, 1877).
The political events of 1866 presented unexpected
ecclesiastical problems to Prussia which Fabri
sought to solve in his Die polUischen Ereignisse des
Sommers 1866 (Barmen, 1866), a work followed by
his Die polUische Lage und die Zukunft der evange-
liachen Kirche in DeuUchland (1867), Die Unions-
und Verfassungsfrage (1867), Stoat und Kirche
(1872), and KirchenpolUisches Credo (1872). In
Jan., 1871, he was summoned to Strasburg on
account of the ecclesiastical situation which had
arisen there, and he gladly obeyed, successfully
seeking to secure independence for the Evangelical
Church of Alsace-Lorraine. In the same spirit
he later wrote: Wie weiterf Kirchenpoliiische Be-
tracfUungen zum Ende dea KuUurkampfes (Gotha,
1887).
By his Bedarf DeiUschland der Kolonvenf (1879)
Fabri gave the first impulse to the colonial move-
ment in Germany, proposing the foundation of
agricultural and mercantile colonies. A number
of associations were accordingly formed, and the
course of events proved the wisdom of his counsels,
of which his last work, Fiinf Jahre deuUcher Ko-
lonialpolitik (1889), gave a final survey. On Oct.
2, 1889 he was appointed honorary professor in the
Evangelical theological faculty of Bonn.
(E. Sachsse.)
Bibuooraphy: tiouroes for a life are the Akten der rhei-
niachen Misaionsgeaellachaft in Barmen; L. voa Itohden,
Oeschichte der rheiniscfien MUHonageaelUchaft, Barmen,
1888; and the Nachrufe in BerichU der rheiniachen Mi»-
eionageaeilschaft for 1891, p. 260, appearing in AUgemeine
MiaeionszeitschrifU 1891, p. 477.
FABRICA ECCLESIJE: LiteraUy *'a church
building," but used as the technical name of that
portion of the funds appropriated for the main-
tenance of the building. At first a part of the gen-
eral revenue was set aside for this purpose, but
later this was kept up only in case of cathedrals
and collegiate churches, where a special magister
or procurator fabricce had charge of the fund. The
difficulty, however, of obtaining the means neces-
sary to maintain church buildings led to the forma-
tion of special fabric-funds in ordinary parishes,
which became the object of many rules and regula-
tions according to custom and local law. The pro-
vision of church utensils and the requirements of
divine service, especially the lighting, were also in-
cluded. There was no general regulation as to how
the fund should be provided; usually it was made
up from oblations, tithes, burial-fees, and the like.
The fabric-funds have had special importance in
France and the adjoining German lands on the left
bank of the Rhine, where they w^ere alloweil to con-
tmue when the church property was confiscated (de-
cree of Apr. 22, 1790) and have occasioned much
subsequent legislation. See Church-Building,
Taxation for.
FABRICIUS, fa-brish'i-us, JOHANN: German
theologian; b. at Altorf (13 m. e.n.e. of Nuremberg)
Feb. 11, 1644; d.at Konigslutter (9 m. w.n.w. of
Helmstadt) Jan. 29, 1729. He studit-d theology at
Helmstadt (1663-65), and then traveled extensively,
especially in Italy, where he was preacher to a con-
gregation of Evangelical merchants at Venice, h
1677 he accepted a call to a professorship at Altai( i
but twenty years later went in the same capidly
to Helmstadt, where he became abbot of Kb^
lutter in 1701 and counselor of theconsistoiyinlTQL '
His specialty was comparative symbolics, aDdtotli \
was devoted his most important work, Coiuidoiji
variarum coniroversiarum (Helmstadt, 1704). hi i
this book, however, he displayed a latituduuna- I
ism which exposed him to severe critidsn; ai
his position became still more difficult vfaen be
pronounced a formal opinion, prepared at then-
quest of Duke Anton Ulrich and based on dabonte
arguments, that the Princess Elizabeth ChiiitiK
might conscientiously become a convert to tk
Roman Catholic faith to wed the King of SpoL
This brought upon him a storm of oppositioQ bm
the court-chaplains, but their arguments nm n-
f uted and they were deposed, while Fabridus and
the duke were supported, on the whole, by the
ruling of the theological faculty of Helmstadt and
a number of other scholars. He then finally sue-
ceeded in overcoming the religious scruples of the
princess, and her conversion took place at Bamberg
on May 1, 1707. In the previous year he bui
published anonymously a pamphlet entitled Erir-
ierte Frage Herm Fabridi, does zwischen der (ugm~
burgischen Konfession und katholiachen Bdiginffm
kein sonderlicher Unterschied set (HehnsUuH [&1
1706). Throughout the Protestant world, aiftd
especially in England and Holland, the most vio-
lent indignation was excited, and the elector ol
Hanover, moved by his hopes of gaining the Ea^-
lish crown, obliged Anton Ulrich to deprive Fabri-
cius of his professorship. He accordingly reagned
in 1709, but remained abbot of K5ni^utter, md
occupied the closing years of his life in beautiffin^
his estate and preparing his Historia h^iothBca
FabriciancB (6 vols., Wolfenbiittel, 1717-24).
(G. UHLHOB-Vf.)
BiBLiOGRAPmr: Sources for a life are found in his own work
last mentioned above. The subject is treated in ^
Getchichte der Dogmatik by W. Gam. ii. 183. Berlin, 1857.
and in G. Frank's GetchichU der Theaiogie, ii. 226. Lap-
sic, 1865. Consult also J. Beate, GeaAidOe dtr Iww
achweigiachen Landeakirche, pp. 334-346. Wolfenbaitd
1889.
FABRICIUS, JOHANN ALBERT: Gennan theo-
logian and bibliographer; b. at Leipsic No?. H.
1668; d. at Hamburg Apr. 3, 1736. He studied
theology, philology, philosophy, and medicine in
Leipsic, and in 1693 removed to Hamburg, where
he assisted Johann Friedrich Mayer, the chief pastor
of the city. Six years later he was appointed
professor of ethics and rhetoric at the gymna-
sium, and from 1708 to 1711 was also rector of
the Johanneum. He possessed a Ubrary of some
32,000 volumes, and was an extremely prolific
writer. Several of his works are still unsuper-
seded. Among his bibliographical writings spe-
cial mention may be made of the foUowing*.
Bibliotheca latina (Hamburg, 1697; best edition
by J. A. Emesti, 3 vols., Leipsic, 1773-74): Bit^-
otheca grasca (14 vols., Hamburg, 1705-28; best
edition, though incomplete, by G. C. Hariess, 12
vols., 1790-1809); Bibliographia antiquaria (1713);
866
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Fabrica EocleslaB
Faflmani
BibliothKa ecclesiasiica (1718); and Bibliotheca
yina media ct infimoc atatis (5 vols., 1734-36;
completed by J. D. Mansi, 6 vols., Padua. 1754).
b thcologj' his work is antiquated, although men-
tion may still be made of liis Hydrotheoloffie (1730)
tuA Pyrolheoloffve (1732), written to show the good-
ness of God in creating wator and fire; as well as of
the Centifolium Lutkeranum (2 vols., 1728-30), a
nmewbat crude bibliography of Luther and the
Refonimtion, and of the Salutaris lux Evangelii
ta ojhi exoriens (1731), with a valuable list of over
4,000 bishoprics. He likewise published a number
d classical authors, but his only editions of per-
manent value were his Codex apocryphua Novi
Taiamenii (2 vols., 1703; enlarged, 1719) and his
Coda pseudepigraphus Veteris Testamenti (1713;
HiUrged. 2 vols., 1722-23), both of which are still
indispensable in a study of their subjects.
BuuoGBApnr: S. Reimarus. De vita et Mcriptia J. A. Fa-
Wrii. Hamburg. 1737; KL, iv. 1191-92.
FACULTIES: Tlie term applied in canon law to
powers conferred by an ecclesiastical PU{>erior upon
a subordinate. The most imi)ortant are tlie papal
faculties. These are conferred on missionaries for
certain cases of dispensation and absolution, espe-
ejallyontheheadsof missionary orders; since the six-
tenth century on papal nuncios in countries where,
ttin(iennany, the Roman Catholic Church is cndeav-
oringto recover her former footing; and on the bishops
t&d archbishops, who arc regarded as missionaries.
Ttee powers have alwa3rs been limited by a regard
to the special needs of the region over which they
arc to be exercised. Those which are conferred
qxHi bishops in certain countries are usually good
fw a period of five years (hence called facultatea
fiwiuennales), and are normally renewed on their
expiration. Besides these traditional faculties,
there are certain special ones wliich may be re-
pidod as an extension of them, allowing arch-
bishops and bishops to reduce masses on a founda-
tion, to designate certain altars as privileged, and
to nominate synodal examiners. All these facul-
ties are revocable at the will of the people. They
are attached to the person of the bishop in respect
of his coimection with a particular diocese, and
F terminate by his death or removal from the par-
ticular office, but not by the death of the pope who
granted them. The bishops in their turn can con-
fa" faculties upon their clergy, especially deans and
vicars-general, to perform certain functions be-
bnging to the ordinary jurisdiction of the bishop
(e.g., absolution in cases reserved to the bishop);
and they can also, when this right has been ex-
pressly given, subdelegate the exercise of the
powers conferred on them in their facultatea quin-
quennaks to such officials. (P. HiNSCHiusf.)
Bibucxsrapbt: O. Mejer. Die Propaganda, ihre Provinten
und ihr Reeht, i. 39 sqq.. ii. 201 nqq.. Gottingen. 1852;
P. Hiii8chiu». Kirehenrecht, in. 807 sqq.. Berlin, 1882;
N. NiUe0, in ZKT. xv (1891). 550; A. Konings, Commen-
taiio in facuUaiet apoMUdicas, New York. 1893.
FACUHDUS of HERMLANE: Bishop of Her-
miane, in the North African province of Byzacena;
d. aft^r 671. He belonged to the leaders of the
anti-imperial opposition in the so-called Three
Chapter Controversy (q.v.) and in 548 submitted
to Justinian a work in twelve books Pro defcnsione
trium capitulorum, in which he sought mainly to
prove tliat the emix?ror's design of condemning
the Antioc^hian theology might seriously impair the
authority of the Council of Chalc^don. A second
treatise. Liber contra Mocianum schola^ticum, in
opposition to the judicalum by which Pope Vigilius
had condemned the Three Chapters, shows that
he was already estranged from Rome, yet the date
of composition is uncertain. A tliird work is the
Epistola fidei catholicvs in defensione trium capitu-
lorum. The three treatises are in MPL, Ixvii. 521-
878, and in A. Gallandi, Bibliotheca, xi. 063-821.
G. KrCgek.
Bibliooraphy: A. Harnack, TLZ, v (1880), 632-635; H.
Kihii. ThetKittr von Moj)9U€atia, pp. 60-51, FreiburR, 1880;
O. Bardenhcwcr, Patrologie, pp. 562-563, ib. 1901; DCB^
ii. 444-445.
FAGIUS, fa'gi-us (PHAGIUS, BUCHLEIN),
PAULUS: German theologian; b. at Rheinzabem
(9 m. s.e. of Landau), Rhenish Bavaria, 1504; d.
at Cambridge, England, Nov. 13, 1549. He
studied at Heidelberg (1515) and at Strasburg
(1522), whore Capito taught him Hebrew; he
became rector of the school at Isny, 1527; was a
student of theology at Strasburg, 1535; returned
as Evangelical pastor to Isny, 1537, and became
pupil in Hebrew of Elias Levita; he succeeded
Capito as pastor and theological professor in Stras-
burg, 1542. Violently opposed to the Interim
when it was introduced (1549), he accepted Cran-
mer's invitation to come to England and became
professor of Ilebnjw at Cambridge and soon died
of a fever. Under (Jueen Mary his and Butzer's
bones were exhumed and burned (Feb. 6, 1557)
and their university honors were taken from them;
but Queen Elizabeth ordered that the university
fonnally restore to them their honors (July 22,
1560; cf. Foxe, ArtA and M<mument8f ed. Townsend,
viii. 282-295, and A brief Treatise concerning the
Burning of Bucer and Phagius with their Restitution,
London, 1562). Fagius liad a gn»at reputation as
a Hebrew scholar and his publications are upon
Old Testament exegesis and Hebrev/ philology.
In the bibliography of his writings in La France
protestante, iii. 71 s<|q., also in Strype's Memorials
of Archbishop Cranmer, p. 845, twenty-three works
are cited, but none luus any present interest.
Bibliooraphy: An account of hiH life ii« containeil in the
Historia de vUa Buceri, Strasburg, 1562. Consult: Sch&f-
fer, Paul Fafjiua, dcr zweite evangeliache Prediger am
Jungen St. Peter in Straasburg, Strasburg, 1877; ADB,
vol. vi.; DNB, xviii. 120.
FAGNANI, fQ"nyQ"ni, CHARLES PROSPERO:
Presbyterian; b. in New York City Oct. 29, 1854.
He was graduated at the College of the C^ty of New
York in 1873, Columbia College Law School m
1875, and Union Theological Seminary in 1882.
He taught in the public schools of New York 1873-
1879, and was chapel minister of Grace Mission of the
Fourth Avenue Presbyterian Church 1882-85 and
pastor of Westminster Presbyterian Church, Yon-
kers. N. Y.. 1885-86. The five years followmg
were sijent in Europe, and in 1891 he was appointed
instructor in Harvard Divinity School, but was
unable to accept on account of ill health. Sinot
THE NEW SCHAFF-HER20G
1S92 he has been iDStnictar and professor of He-
brew IB Union Theological Seminary, In theology
he belongs to the advanced school of Presbyt-erian-
iam. He has written A Primer of Hebrew (New
York, 1903).
FAGNAKI, PROSPER: Roman canonist; b.
159S; d. in Rome* li>7S. At twenty ha wioi grad-
uated aa a doctor of law at Perugia, and two years
latc-T he was given the important poeition of secre-
tary to the Cmigr^galia eaTwUiif which held he for
fifteen years. He w^as afterward succeeaively sec-
retary to other congregations and probably profes-
sor of canon law at Rome, The commentary which,
at the instance of Alexander VII., he wrote on the
decretals (^d vols,, Rome, ItiSl) is still appealed
to by canonists. He was blind from hia forty-
fourth year.
Bia[4oaad.PBT: KL, iv. 12CH~12D5.
FAHRNERf FRANZ IGNAZi German Roman
Catholic; b. at Richtoliishcimj Alsace, Aug. 27,
1865. He atudied at the theological seminary at
i^trasbiirg l8S7-^>2 and at the University of Munich
(D.D., 1902), was chaplain at Markirch 1892-97
and vicar of the cathedral at Strasburg 1897-
19tJ0. He became professor of moral theology at
the Btrasburg theological seminary in 1902, and in
1903 was appointed associate professor of canon
law in the Univertiity of Strasburg, where be
has been professor of moral theology since
1905. He has written Geschichte der Eh'scheid-
ung im kanonischen Rcchtf i. UnaufifisiichkeUsprln-
zip uTtd voUkommene Scheidung der Ehe (Freiburg*
1903),
FAIRBAnLN, ANBRBW MARXm: Oongrega-
tionalist; b* near Edinburgh Nov. 4> 1838. He
studied in Edinburgh (B,A., I860), at the Evan-
geUcal Union Theological Academy j Glasgow (1850-
l861),andtheUnivemtyof Berlin (1865-67), Aft^r
being minister of Evangelical Union Congrega-
tional churches at Bathgate, West Lothian (1860-
1872), and St, Paul St., Aberdeen (1872-77), he was
principal of Airedale CJoUege, Bradfonl, England,
until ISSO; and M ana field College, Oxford, from
1W80 till his retirement 1909. He was chairnmn of
Congregational Union of England and WaJe^ in
1883 and a memb*-^r of the royal commission on
secondary education in 1894-95, of the theological
board and theological examiner in the University
of Walcii in 1895-1904, ar.d ot the advisory com-
mittce to the theological faculty in the University
of Manchester in 1904. He was Muir l^ec tuner in
the University of Etlin burgh in 1878^82, Lyman
Beecher lecturer at Yale in 1B91-92, Gifford Lec-
turer in the University of Aberdeen in 1892-04,
Haskell Lecturer of the l*nivcrwity of Chicago in
India in 1898-99, and Deems L^^cturer in New York
University, 1906, He has wTitten Studies iji the
Philoaophtf of Retigwn and HisttTTy (Loniion, 1S76);
Btudim in tfie Life of Chrki (1881): The C% of
God (1882); Rdigitm in HwUrfy and in Modem
IdfB (1884): Christ in Modem Theology (1893);
Christ in the Ceniuries (1893); CcUhMcism^ Roman
and Anglican (1899); and The Philomphy of the
ChHsHan Religi&n (1902).
FAmBAHUf, PATHICK: Scotch Ptesbyteriai ^^
b. at HallyburtoQ (32 ni. s.e. of EdjnbuT|jb)^
Berwickshire, Jan. 28, 1805; d^ at Gla^>w X'og.
6, 1874, He was educated at the Univemty d
Edinburgh, waa licensed to preach in 18,^. mA
from 1830 to 1S36 was located in the Orbir
l£ilanda. In 1833 he w^as transferred to Brtd|?^laQ,
Glasgow, and in 1840 to Salton^ in East LotlMu,
In 1843 he left the Established Church, but n^
mained in Balton as paiitor of the Free Qmtk
In 1853 he was appointed professor of diviaitr k
the theological college of the Free Chun^h at ibo^
deen, and in 1856 he waii transferred 'to the Fiw
Church college at Glasgow, He was appoiMid
principal of the institution on Nov. 4 of the saint
year and held this position till his de^tb. la 1%&
he waa moderator of the General Afisemblj, lul
in 1867 a member of the Bcotch delegatitiD ifi-
pointed to vieit Presbyterian churched in the United
States. He was algo one of the company for re-
vising the Old Testament. His principal worbi»»
The Typology of Seripiure (2 vob., Edinliui]^
1845—17; new ed., New York, 1900; a guide in the
interpretation of Biblical symbolism), Etekitl md
the Book of his Prophecy (1851 ); Prophtcif Vweed
in itn Distinctive Naluret Us Special Fundumt^ 9mi
Us Proper inierpretcdion (1856); HermeTieuticdUatf
ual (185S); and Fo^tor^ Theology, %vUh c Bm^
graphical Sketch of the Authtfr, by J. Dodds {1S75)*
He also edited Th€ ImperiM BihU i>idwmaJ| (2
vols., London, 1800) and translated aeveral tko-
logical works from the German.
BiftLiooitAPttr: Bedd» tbe iketch by X Dodd«, ol i«i«
oonault DNB, xviii. 123,
FAIRCHILD, JAMES HARRIS: QmgrtfitioiK i
alist; b. atStockbridge, Mass., Nov. 25, 1817; lU '
Oberlin, O., Mar. 19, 1902. He was gmduatedi'
Oberlin CoUege in 1838j and in it waa suceeadielf ]
tutor (1838), professor of Latin and Greek (i843)ri
of mathematics (lJm7), moral philosophy and ^jj
tematie theology (1853), and president (18M-W)*I
Prom 1889 till beeoming emeritus professor {lB95)kl ]
taught systematic theology in Oberlin Theol«^1
Seminary, As a teacher he was clear, phDoacjib-j
leal, and impressive. As a theolo^an he sueeedrf ^
Charles Grandison Finney, with whom he apwl
in general* though not without difiereneea eprin^
from hi« strong individuality. He taught a '' o^
school " Calvinism, in which the fre^om of tit
will waa emphasized to the e^ential modifioitioai «l
the system. The general cast of his system wn
practical and concrete rather than metaphysieal;
but he maintained the divintty of Cbrrat and tla
trinity, the atonement (govemmental theory) » uid
the endless future punishment of the ineorrigibly
wicked. He maintained alio the ethical doetnoeto
which earlier Oberlin had given prominence, tbeanik-
p licit y of moral action, but minimised the docirint
of perfection which had been associated with it,
teaching the possibility of perfection in this M^
though laying no emphasis upon it, and not aesntim
its probability. The foundation of moral ob%atioo
he found in the essential worth of sentient being, in
immediate pereeption of this, and in the intuitrft
affirmation of obligation to promot« unlv^r^ weUp
being, by conscience. But his greatest serviee to
67
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Faomanl
FSTth
was as an adminifitnitor, being difitin-
I for his business capacity and good sense, his
■banity and patience, his entire unselfishness, his
idiibiUty, his interest in individuals, his extraor-
fory skill in handling men, and his power to bring
AngB to pass, so under him the institution throve
po^. He edited the memoirs of President Finney
(Sw York, 1876), and the latter's Systematic Theolr
^(Oberlin, 1878). His other publications include
tfffol Philosophy; or, The Science of Obligation
e?ew York, 1869); Woman*a Right to the Ballot
(1870; an affirmative statement); Oberlin, the
Oia^and the College (Oberlin, 1883); Elemenia of
rinlo^y. Natural and Revealed (1892).
Iduooiapht: A. T. Swiog, Life ci Jarnn HarrxM Fmr-
dUU, New York. 1907.
FAITH.
L The New Testament Conception.
The fiackground (f 1).
The Teaching of Jesua (f 2).
Pwil (I 3).
E The Doctrine in Theology.
Before the Reformation (f 1).
Tlie Reformation and Modem Theology (f 2).
Faith in Systematic Theok)gy (f 3).
ITbeNew Testament Conception: Like every
lev Testament conception, the idea of faith goes
to the Old Testament for the key to its meaning,
ft was bom when the political fortunes of Israel
otoed on their decline. The division of the
kingdom and the increasing helpless-
I. The ness of a small state lying across the
Back- highway between Mesopotamia and
(nmnd. Egypt conditioned its growth and
character. It dealt with the future
•f tie nation (laa. vii. 9, viii. 17, xxvi. 1 sqq.,
ttviii. 16). As secular conditions grew less
fanaUe, the mind of the representative Israel-
is the prophet, stayed itself more and more on
fbltviDg God, the base and spring of the nation's
tateoce. Thus the idea of faith is inseparable
fan the development of prophetic monotheism.
It k bound up with the unity and holiness of
(lod and with the divine dominance over nature
tidhistoiy.
Faith is man's part in the self-revelation of God,
Ae method of which is vitally connected with its
Bitter. God reveals himself through the experi-
■ee and history of the chosen nation, and faith is
mi's assent to God's self-revelation in and through
le nation's experience. By means of faith, the
vine control over nature and history in the in-
tet of a distant but authoritative moral end is
mDj apprehended so as to constitute the very
h and marrow of man's moral nature. It is an
I of trust, a bias and bent of the working will in
n's breast, a mood in which he waits steadfastly
I josrously for God's assertion of his right of
r in history (Isa. xxxviii. 16; Hab. iii. 17-19).
a prophetiam a supreme conception is only half
:ked out. The essential quality of faith is dis-
ed, but its scope and method are not clearly
rebended. Judaism did much to supplement the
k of later prophetism (Jeremiah and Ezekiel).
subjective side of life was developed. The
on ceased to Ib the exclusive unit of thought
emotUm, ancf^the individual came, in some
degree, to his rights. In apocalyptics (the Book
of Daniel, etc.) the divine control of history is
wrought up into a splendid imaginative presen-
tation that has vast power of appeal to the com-
mon consciousness. All this helped to enrich the
conception of faith. But with the gain came a
heavy loss. The apocalyptist weakened the con-
nection between the moral ideal and the forces of
history, so that the moral end becomes more or
less detached from the moral process.
It was the Savior who restored the sound con-
nection between prophecy and history. The staple
of his thought was the messianic
2. The idea, the national hope of Israel.
Teaching But by fulfilling the ideal of the suf-
of Jesus, fering servant of the Lord he tran-
scended Judaism. Of the two meth-
ods which his age proposed to him, the violence of
the zealot and the dualistic p>essimism of the
apocalyptist (IV Esdras), he chose neither. He
realized the kingdom of God in character, the
character of man built upon the character,' that
is to say, the fatherhood of God. The kingdom of
God is in the heart and under the eye of those
who have eyes to see (Luke xvii. 21). The law of
its realization is the law of service (Mark x. 45).
The thought of force is expelled from the idea of
God and the conception of man (Matt. xxvi. 52).
The Savior carried the messianic idea out of politics
(Matt. xxii. 21), but without weakening the hold
of the moralizing will in God and man upon his-
tory. Saving faith, with Jesus as with the proph-
ets, means an entire confidence in the divine con-
trol of nature and history. But by laying the
foundations of eschatology in character, the Savior
fulfilled the logic of prophetism and achieved
spiritual and moral universalism without the loss
of social vigor and organizing power (Sermon on
the Mount; John xiii.-xvii.).
The work of Christ was sunmied up in the found-
ing of a church or community devoted to his per-
son and committed to his views and claims. This
community was a new type. Its dominant mental
quahty was the open vision of the kingdom of God
manifesting itself in ecstatic forms (the glossolalia,
and I Cor. ii. 9 sqq.; see Ecstasy), not capable of
translation into terms of the common good (I Cor. xiv.
20-25). But its fundamental quality was construct-
ive prophecy (I Cor. xiv. 12), the ethical interpreta-
tion of contemporary society and history (" signs of
the times ") in their bearing on the well-being and
destiny of the Christian communities. The creed of
these communities was the belief in the triumph of
the crucified Savior (Acts ii.-vii.), expressing itself
in the impassioned conviction of his resurrection
and second coming. This faith was the cleansing
element in life (Acts xv. 9), freeing the heart of the
believer from fears regarding the inabiHty or un-
willingness of God to keep the promises made to
the fathers (Acts iii. 20), and inspiring a joyous
confidence in the end of the Christian's personal
and social existence, wliich gave to the imitation
of Jesus a saving and redemptive aspect (St.
Stephen's dying prayer). This community is a
messianic commimity. Dedication to the eternal,
the common good, is the essence of its life (hapanta
Faith
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
kaina, Acts ii. 44, iv. 32). The entire community
is pledged to belief in the reality and imminence of
God's sway (parousia). And faith in its essence is
this practical Old Testament conviction, made
radiant and all-controlling by the life of Christ.
It is this stage of the New Testament development
of faith that is represented by the Epistle of James
and the First Epistle of Peter.
It was the work of Paul to go to the root of the
great conception first shaped by the Hebrew proph-
ets. He did this, not by outgrowing the primi-
tive Christian eschatology (for Chris-
3. Paul, tianity is fundamentally eschatologic),
but by applying the work and mind
of Christ to the ultimate problem, the problem of
character as personality. His conversion flushed
his emotions with the feeling of the divine creative-
ness (I Cor. xv. 8; Eph. iii. 8). His work as mis-
sionary to the Gentiles deepened this exf)erience.
It was given to liim to build congregations of
Christians from the ground (I Cor. i. 26 sqq.; Rom.
iv. 17-18). The creative character of God mani-
fested in Christ became the starting-point of his
thinking.
When the Judaizing Christians denied his stand-
ing as an apostle and sought to stamp his work
with their own views, he was driven to a fundamental
analysis of the prophetic term faith, and to turn
its creative and critical force against the Pharisaic
conception of religious merit (erga nomou). How
is true character or personality (dikaiosunS) pos-
sible? Of course the Pauline conception of right-
eousness differs from the conception entertained
by the Hebrew prophets; four centuries of Judaism
have intervened; the subjective mood is far
stronger; the individual is the center of gravity.
Yet the apostle continued to think along prophetic
lines. He differed broadly from the monastical
individual of a later age. While the salvation of
the individual is his conscious aim, he thinks about
the individual's blessings in terms of the common
good (I Cor. ii. 9-10, xiii.). The point in question
is God's ability and willingness to keep his promise
of a heavenly commonwealth (Rom. iii. 4; II Cor.
i. 20). To be saved by Christ is to have been
brought into quickening relation with the supreme
hope (Rom. viii. 24). The two great ethical terms
righteousness and right, which with the separation
of Church from State become more or less separated
and specialized, must be brought together in
thought if we are to interpret aright the words of
Rom. i. 16-17.
Paul's monotheism is best contrasted with Aris-
totle's. To use more or less inaccurate terms, Paul's
conception is an " ethical monotheism," while
Aristotle's is metaphysical. That is to say, Aris-
totle's final statement is in terms of pure reason,
whilo Paul's is in terms of common and social well-
being. It is in the unity between Jew and Gentile
that for him the mystery of things centers (mr/s-
ienon, Rom. xi. 25 sqq.; Eph. ii. 11-iii. 19). The
rehgious and social unity of the Mediterranean
world was his supreme object. As with Isaiah,
BO, on a different level, with Paul, the creative
and vitalizing unity of God invading history through
Christ is the all-controlling thought. God can
efficiently manifest himself only in temu of bona
unity (Rom. iii. 27 sqq.; I Cor. i.-iv.; Phfl. 127-
ii. 11). A saving faith is, necessarily, a creatinlf
social faith (the two editions of the trilogj: I
Thess. i. 3, and I Ck>r. xiii. 13). Faith in Chnt
pledges the redeemed man to the realiiatioD d tk
kingdom of God (Gal. v. 6).
In the Epistle to the Hebrews the HdkoirtK
or metaphysical element enters, coming from Aki*
andrine Judaism and its reflective view of re-
lation. But the Hellenic element is controlled and
directed by the prophetic element. Faith is de-
fined (xi. 1) as that state of the heart and that fani
of will in men which gives substance to thiogi
hoped for and secures a solid conviction Rgirdii|
the reality of things unseen. Here as elsewhen,
faith is inseparable from the kingdom of QsA.
The things hoped for are the messianic Ueoingi
promised by God through the prophets. Faith i&
Christ gives them a body, imparts to the coO'
science moral certitude touching the e&d lod
issues of history. Owing to the blending of the
philosophical and prophetic elements in thii
definition the Church catholic adopted it as its
working conception.
The different shades of meaning in New Testa-
ment writers serve to bring out more clearly the
decisive agreement. Faith is the saving assent (rf
the heart to Christ's proclamation of the suprane
moral order described as the kingdom of God.
The creedal conception of faith grows out of this
conception, under the historical conditions of a
later {)eriod in the Church. But, owing to thoie
conditions, the creedal conception is not wholly
true to the New Testament emphasis on the Idng-
dom of God. Faith, in the New Testament sewe,
is man's perception of the spiritual and monl
order of experience and life offered to man by God
in Christ. But it is more than a perception. It is
the supreme form of will-power in man. By faith
he perceives, and in faith he wills and, under God,
ordains the moral equality and the moral end of
human history. Through the believer's 8elf-«u^
render to the divine plan for the nation and the
race, God gives him a righteousness that hiis vital-
izing and unifying power among the complications
of life, and at the same time, gives to society the
promise of justice and right. Without this organ-
izing power, faith shrivels to the individual's con-
fidence in his personal salvation.
Henby S. Nash.
n. The Doctrine in Theology: Faith, in the
language of religion, is that personal attitude by
which (iiWne revelation is subjectively appropri-
ated. With Paul it was the all-sufficient ground of
righteousness and justification (Rom. iv. 22 sqq)^
a view which was soon obscured in the
I. Before Christian Church. With the Apos-
the Refor- tolic Fathers the connection of faith
mation. with the attitude of love was more a
postulate than an inherent necessity
(I Clement x. 7, xii. 1; Shepherd of Hennas, Sm.
VIII. ix. 1). Moralistic and intellectualistic
thoughts of foreign origin penetrated Christianity
and as early as Clement of Alexandria faith was
supplanted by love as conditioti of salvation and
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Faith
i as the knowledge of revelation, and became
more than a rudimentary step in the devel-
of the Christian. For Augustine, too, faith
nly the * * beginning of religion . " To believe
um assenaione cogitare (De prcedeatinatione
my V.) and assent is obedience to the law of
1 authority which primarily is Scripture,
Q also the Church. Faith is decisive for
ption of salvation only in so far as it is
brough love. The consummating effect of
therefore the inspiration of love (inspiratio
is). Similar thoughts were advanced by
of Canterbury, and Peter Lombard first
he expressions fides informis (=mere faith)
!» formata (= faith connected with love).
.\quinas defines faith on the basis of
le's formula (cum assensione cogitare) as an
be intellect which is impelled to assent by
. Although in the last instance related to
cause or deity, faith has reference prin-
0 the Church; it is a faith of authority.
;eformation gave back to faith its immediate
to the revelation of salvation and under-
again in the Pauline sense as the personal
Dsion of divine grace in Christ. Luther
8 faith as a liWng trust of the heart. The
I, according to him, is an assenting impulse
of the will which originates in the
Ref- impression of the truth of the divine
Um word upon the conscience and heart,
dem God's revelation, which awakens faith,
igy. sets all spiritual powers of man into
motion, and the assent to his Word
»wledge of his grace are bom only with the
i salvation. Love can not be separated
ith. Melanchthon taught the same views,
he later form of his Loci distinguished be-
wtUia, assensuSf fiducia, and prepared the
• the mechanical view of the later ortho-
K)ol which regarded notitia and assensus
tninary steps of fiducia. Johann Gerhard
d this view. According to it, a rational
Ige of divine revelation is necessary before
inwardly assent to it. David Hollaz drew
istent conclusion that such an abstract con-
oi the truth of Scripture can be only a
authority.
dem theology Schleiemmcher's conception
on as an original inner experience, dis-
ed from knowledge and action, has exer-
lecisive influence upon the treatment of the
on of faith, by the establishment of a
»gical scheme; but owing to his insufficient
tion of historical revelation, his doctrine
bears the traits of a general religion rather
the Christian faith of salvation. R. Rot he
1 the way for a more definite grasp of Chris-
h by emphasizing more strongly the his-
nd yet at the same time supranatural ele-
revelation. A. Rftschl defined faith as
ducia) in the revelation of God in Christ
anded rightly that the faith of providence
be understood as the realization of the
I faith of atonement; but his connection
ication with the existence of the commu-
»elievers led him to the conclusion that the
reception of the forgiveness of sins forms rather
the presupposition than the content of individual
faith. In general it may be said that there exists
in modem Protestant theology an agreement on
the following points: (1) Faith does not originate
from logical processes, but from an immediate inner
experience. (2) It is not a human achievement
and not the acknowledgment of a human authority,
but an effect of God through his revelation. (3) The
assensus in the sense of conviction of faith and
knowledge of faith can not be separated from
fiducia. (4) Tmst in salvation presupposes an
awakened knowledge of sin and the desire for
salvation. (5) The new moral life of the Christian
has as its basis the forgiveness of sins, which has
been received in faith.
The conception of faith is usually treated in
systematic theology both in a general way as the
principle of Christian knowledge, and more spe-
cifically, in the doctrine of salvation, as the
medium of the appropriation of sal-
3. Faith in vation. In the former case it refers
Systematic to revelation in general and is
Theology, treated in its relation to knowledge;
in the latter case it refers to the
salutary gift of the forgiveness of sins and is
treated in its relation to repentance and works.
Since Christian revelation culminates in redemp-
tion, only the faith of salvation is the truly
Christian faith of revelation. In redemption God
reveals himself as holy love which saves the
sinner; the faith of the Christian bears there-
fore the character of a grateful tmst in God
who effects his salvation in Christ. This tmst has
its basis and support in the revelation of salvation
which is appropriated by the believer. Faith may
therefore be traced back to two primary elements,
to an activity of God, in which he reahzes his holy
love through redemption, and to an experience of
man in which he recognizes and seizes the revelation
of salvation as his own possession. Because trust
of salvation is based upon historical revelation,
it includes a certain representation of God and his
activity which develops into knowledge of faith;
but because this revelation can be understood only
by him who seizes it in tmst, knowledge of faith
can not exist without experience of faith. Objec-
tions might be raised against the statement that
faith rests upon an inner experience because in
this way its objective basis in God's revelation
might be obscured; but the origin of faith must be
traced back to the effect of God and not to man's
o>Mi decision. The fundamental act of God which
awakens Christian faith is to be found in the send-
ing forth of Christ and in his work of redemption.
The deciding motive of faith is Christ as he is rep-
resented in the testimony of his first disciples.
Although faith is a spontaneous and original ex-
perience which can not be derived from anything
else, a definite psychic disposition may be spoken
of without which faith of salvation does not origi-
nate; namely, knowledge of sin and its misery.
Christ as the redeemer can be seized with real trust
only by him who desires to become free from sin.
Therefore it is pertinent that the reformatory doc-
trine of salvation places repentance before faith.
jraitn
Fallows
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOQ
970
Nevertheless, the repentance which prepares the
way for faith is neither a perfect knowledge of sin
nor a complete deliverance from it. It is only &
longing for justification. It ija therefore true that
repentance, without which faitli of salvation does
not come into existence^ becomes an accomplished
fact only with that faith. The division of the um-
forro function of faith into the three acts of notUiat
asaensus, and fiducia is misleading, if it ia to be
understood as rational explanation of the origin
of faith, NotUm and wmefutus have to do with
religious faith only if they are included in fidnciu.
It is Belf-evident, of course, that trust of salvation
can not originate without hearing of the message
of salvation, but the assensus as a certain con*
viction of the power of redemption of Christ
and of the reality of a transcendent God can
take place only in and with fiducia. AM cer-
tainty and knowledge of God and divine things
1ms its origin in fiducia. To this certainty which
faith gives, belongs before everything that trust-
ing certainty of one^s personal ealviition which
the Refomiation opj>oi*ed to the uncertainty of
solvation as taught by the medieval Charch and
the Council of Trent. It is upheld by the tcstt-
nxony of the Spirit; i.e.^ by the inwartUy experi-
enced union with Christ and God. But in this
communion with God there is at the same time
the source of a new moral activity. There is no
appropriation of the divine grace of salvation which
does not include tijc appropriation of the holy wOl
of God; but even as the principle of Christian
morality, faith doei not lose its receptive character.
The will to do good docs not originate from a power
which faith possesses in itself, but from the power
which it continually receives from its union with
Christ, On the same ba;sis there aristes for the
Christian finally the knowledge of faith which is
distinguished from other knowledge in so far as
it prcsuppoaea the individually conditioned ex-
perience of salvation and in so far as it is the per-
ception of existing reality in the hght of the tran-
scendent knowledge of God, a perception sub itpecie
teternitaii^. As knowledge of faith bos been
acquired at the highest Bummit attainable to man,
it must necf!ssarily decide before everything his
view ol the wo rid j although it is true tliat its con-
nection with the knowledge of the world presents
special difficulties on account of its different origin
and point of viewj nevertheless, it is the ii^dis-
penaable task of Christian theology to find the right
met hod for a harmony. (O. Kiun.)
BmuTooiiAPirv. A larRo littrstwre in English id indicafed id
J. R HurntK Li4^mliire 0f Theol^if. pp. 706-707, New
Ycirk, IS&fl. Ou tbe New TpfltAtnerit id<?a consult: A.
flrhliittcr, Der Glauht im N. 7"., Btutigart.. I&fl6; F. C,
fiaiJT, Paitius, 1 1., ppirt i., chop, 4, H^tuttgart. lB4fi, Eng.
Irsnfll., Paul th* ApQxtU, London. IS7.5 (not to be nffff-
lected); O. Pfleidcrer, Paulini^mus, pftrt i.. chap.iv.. Lcip-
i*ic!, 1S73, Bntr. tmiiEiL. Fatdinitm^ London, 1877; and the
woTkd on N. T. theoloRy by Wi?ie8. TteyBch1ii«, and GouJd
montionPid in or under fiaihirAU TfTROUJCiT.
For f^th an a (hr>n(o|z;ieiil concept corLHult: T- C. Up-
hftm. The Life of Fmth, Boston. 184*1; J. Milllpf. Dttff-
matUehe Ahfmn^lunffen, Brpmen, 1S70; J. H Newman*
Grammar at AtaeTU, London. 1S70: H. Waw. 7"** Fm*n-
datUfnt of Faith . ib. 1880; J. Kaftan, Ghmbe und Ditoma,
Bielefeld. 1889. id^mH Truth of (he Christmn Rtliffmn.
vol. li*. London, lSS*3j A, RitachI, Fide* implicilo. Bonn,
1390; A. Hanxack, in SSeit*thHfi fUr Th^oloffif wuf Kit^
i (1891 K 82 »qq.; F. E. K&aig. Dm- Gtavbemaki 4e^ Ckm^
ten, Leipeic, ISOI; P. Stmtt, Ths Nishtre ttf FmA, hm-
don, 1891; J. Kdflllin. Die B^erUmiung vncmr -f**^
rdigi^ten UetK^Meu^i^r^ Berlin, 1893; idem, Dtr €k^
und imne Btdeutunff far Erkenntniss. Ldftn xtmd Kwda^ ,
Ih. 1895: J. Haue^ldter, Greifwtroider St^itii, p^ Ul I
Hqq., Greifdiwald. 1895; K. Thieme. Dim tiMidk !Hi>
krafi dt^ QUxufMtnM, Leipffir, lg95; G. Vorbradt, fi|^
it>iri* det GlavthfTu, QMtine^n. 1895; M. KAIiler, £W t^
namUt hiatorUchi J€wu* und der ^amsAItAI^u^ ftilHiirili
Jmu*. Leip»jc, 1896; F. Ei«ffert, Di* mrmtkn tm^ J
ioaitchen Forsdiunfffti Uber Bu«h vnd Giaubt, Bo^
1803: W. Jamn, The WUi to Believe, Nev York, IMI^ i
M. ReiicMc. in ZeitMchrift fQr Thmkt^ wnd K^dk, 4 ;
(1897). iii.t idem, ChrUait^ OlauJbmMlehrr. EMik, 1101; !l
W. Bright, The Law of F4iiih, London, 1899; G. A Ob^ 1
don, Ultimate Camieptiont of Faiih. Boston. 1903: A. C 1
A. HaU, RiUj^Hofu of Faith and Life. London, {90S; f .
Bchmidt, ModsmB Tke&lagie d^ alttn Qla-i^Knt. Gaicdo^
1906; and the liiermtuTB under DoauA^ DoaMATtO.
FAITH, RULE OF, See Hegolj. Fidel
FAKHL S€e HiNt>maH, I, § 1.
FALASHAS. See AfiYsfitKiA axd tek An^
BiNiAF Church, §J I, 7.
FAL€OITER, ROBERT ALEXANDER: Piwfaf
terian; b, at Chariot tetowTi, Prince Edward h^
Feb. 10, 1867. He studied in LoDdon (B.A^ WSSk
Edinburgh (M.A., 1889; B.D., 1892), Berlin, Lb^ ,
iic, and Marburg, stvid since 1892 has been cotuiai^
with the Presbytenan Cottega, HalifaHf NovaS^sliii
aa leetvirer in New Testaraent exegesii (189245)^ j
professor of the same subject (18S5-1904) andt»iB-
cipal (since 1904), He has written TheTraik^ "
the ApoaU^ic Gospel (New York, 19(H).
FALCONIO, DIOMEDE: Eoman Catboik udb^
bishop and apostolic delegate; b. al PeseD&OiUaio
(73 m. n. of Naples), Italy, Sept. 20, 1842. Ha j
entered the Franciscan Order in 1860, aiw3 fiw j
yeam later was sent to tba United States ii odF 1
sionaty. In 1866 he was ordained priest^ aod wn j
professor of philosophy and vice-president of 8L ":
Bonaventure*s College, Alleghany, Pa. {1866), \
professor of theology and secretary of the FriB- ,
ciacan Province of the Immaculate Coti«pti(i!
(1867), and president of the College and Semiaiif
of St. Bonaventure (1868^71). He was BccretJiJ
and admintstmtor of the cathedral at Harbor HTdm,
N. F., 1S71-S2, and after a year in the Umtod
States returned to Italy and was elected provin-
cial of the Franciscans in the Abniazi. He w»
later reelected, and in 18S8 was oommiasaiy and
visitor-general for the province of Pu^a, beocvn-
ing in 1889 synodal examiner for the diocese dL
Aquila and conrnilaaaty and visitor-gejierBl for Ihe
Franciscan province of Puglia. He was proeu-
rator-general of his order and ^dsitor*gene^al In
various Franciscan provinces from 1SS9 to 189(2,
when he was consecrated titular bishop of L*oe-
donia, being elevated, three years l^tet, to be arob-
bishop of Aeerenza and Matera in Basilieata. Hi
was Apostolic Delegate to C4inada 1 899-1 902« tnc
s[nce 1902 baa been apostolic delegate to tbi
United States*
FALK, f5lk, JOHAinfES DAlflEL: Oermu
philanthropist; b. at Danzig Oct, 28. 1768; d, i
Weimar Feb, 14* 1826. He wa^ the son of a wig
maker wbo belong to the Eeformed Cliui«li« am
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
^^
lit a limited education, until, by the inter-
friends and relatives, he was allowed to
dc, and to take part in the musical en-
ats in the Catholic Church. In his home
e opportunity of learning French, which
illy supplemented by a knowledge of
In 1787 he was awarded a stipend which
im to pursue the study of theology at
iTsity of Halle, but gradually he forsook
or philology and literature. Filled with
a literary career, he settled in Weimar,
ordially received by Wieland, Goethe, and
Falk's trend was essentially satiric, and
in^y began to criticize the weaknesses
sistenciee manifested by the social and
>nditions of his time. The events which
agitating Germany finally caused Falk
< more practical in his tendencies, and in
began the publication of a periodical
i the belletristic TaschenbiU^, The
of this journal Elysium und Tartarus^
reminiscent of his former tendency, but
e, Zeilung fur Poesie, Kunst und Zeit-
revealed a new interest in life. On
: its freedom of expression, however, the
was suppressed before the battle of
. 14, 1806).
oflict marked a turning-point in Falk's
The French commission chose him as a
between itself and the populace, and in
on he was enabled to prevent many an
and to alleviate much suffering. In
1 of his services the grand duke of Weimar
m a Legatumarai, while the people hon-
with the title of " the benevolent coun-
be war claimed still other services from
ly orphaned children sought refuge with
be took them into his home in the place
. children, who had fallen victims in the
Together with Horn of Weimar he
Me Gesellschaft der Freunde in dor Not
sty of Friends in Need), and remained
5 spirit. This society assumed the task
ting the orphaned children in the homes
, although Falk made it a rule to keep
lem in his house imtil he could form an
sir capabilities, while a teacher's training
those who showed an aptitude for learn-
ared with Francke the pedagogic tend-
lake confidence in God the center and
activity; not in the punctilious spirit
, but with freedom and joy. His lofty
jr of Pestalozzi in his insistence on the
panionship of teacher and pupil. The
ongs, such as 0 dufrdhliche and Was kann
in, which he wrote among and for the
orm a fitting close to his literary career.
devoid of essentially religious training,
ig denominational character, Falk's ac-
jrecursor of Reint baler's Martinet if t at
I Wichem's Rauhes Haus at Horn , may
have been a forerunner not only of edu-
cieties, but also of home missions. This
voiced by himself when he said, " The
pursued by our society for eleven years
seems a form of missionary work, a saving of soids,
a conversion of heathen; not in Asia or Africa, but
in our own midst, in Saxony and in Prussia"; and
he himself characterizes the great turning-point in
his life in the following words: " I was one of a
thousand scamps in German literature, who thought
that they served the world if they sat at their
desks, yet by the grace of God I was not, like the
rest, made into writing paper, but was used as
lint, and placed in the open wounds of the age.
So they tear me and pluck me the whole day long,
for the wound is deep, and they use me to stanch
it as long as a shred is left of me."
(Theodor Schafer.)
Biblioorapht: Rosalie Falk, ErinnerungabUiUer, Weimar,
1868; W. Heinaelmann, J. Folk und die QeseUschaft der
Freunde in der Noth, Brandenburg, 1879; Daa Leben dee
Johannee Falk, Hamburg, 1892; W. Baur, Oet^ichte-
und Lebenabilder aua der Emeuerung dee religidaen Lthena,
p. 223, ib. 1893; P. Wurater, Die Lehre von der Inneren
Miaeion, p. 32. Berlin, 1895; ADB, vi. 549.
FALKENBERG, JOHAimES: Dominican, pro-
fessor of theology at Cracow; d. at Liegnitz (40
m. w.n.w. of Breslau), Silesia, after 1438. In the
light of his writings thus far published and what
has been published about him, he is noteworthy
only on account of the accusation brought against
him by the Polish delegation to the Ck)uncil of
(instance. Commissioned by the Teutonic Order,
with which Poland was then waging a hot contest
for its existence, he had written an impassioned
tract against the Polish king, to the effect that as
the king had supported infidels in warfare against
believers, he was himself to be treated as an
unbeliever. After Martin V. had occupied the
*' orphaned " see of St. Peter, the Polish envoys
succeeded by brutal proceedings, in bringing Falk-
enberg to trial. By the condemnation of Falken-
berg, which was pronounced secretly as early as
May 14, 1418, the pope secured, in Jan., 1424,
the Polish support against a new council. Falken-
berg was then set free, and after still plying
his envenomed pen against the Teutonic Order,
which had not rewarded him to his satisfaction, he
is supposed to have died on the way home.
B. Bess.
Biblioorapht: Sources are certain of his tracts in Oer-
eonii Opera, ed. Du Pin, v. 1020-29, Antwerp, 1706;
Monumenta . . . res geetas Poloniee illuatrantia, viii
(1883). no. 681, xii (1891), 113, 170-174. Consult B.
Bess, in ZKQ, xvi (1892), part 3.
FALK LAWS. See Ultramontanism.
FALL OF MAN. See Sin.
FALLOWS, SAMUEL: Reformed Episcopal
bishop; b. at Pendleton (a suburb of Manchester),
Lancashire, England, Dec. 13, 1835. He emigrated
to the United States at the age of thirteen and was
graduated at the University of Wisconsin in 1859.
He was vice-president of Galesville University,
Galesville, Wis., in 1859-61 and a minister of the
Methodist Episcopal Church from 1859 to 1875.
He served in the Union army during the Civil War,
and was promoted colonel and brevet brigadier-
general. After the cessation of hostilities he was
pastor of a Methodist church in Milwaukee. He
was a regent of the University of Wisconsin 1865-
1874 and state superintendent of public instruction
^:S!i!^i^'SSiri^lM^tionn THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOQ
Bn
for WiFConi^in 1870^74, In 1874-75 he was presi-
dent of llUiiois Wesleyan University, Bloomington,
111., but in 1875 withdrew from the Methodist
Episcopal Church for the Reformed Episcopal
denormnation. Since 1875 he ha^i been rector of
St. Paura Reformed Episcopal Churchy Chicago,
and has been a bishop of the Chureh einee 1876.
He has been elected presiding bishop Beven times.
In 1876 he founded the ReformeU Episcopal Appealj
which he edited for four years. Among his wri-
tings mention may be made of Bright, and Happy
Homes (Chicago, 1S77); The Home Beymd (1879);
Paxt Nom (Cinciimnti, O., iSSfJ); The Bible Look-
ing Glass (Napemlk, ill., 1898); Fojmlar and
Criikal Btblie<d Dlctimiary (Chicago, 1901); and
Chrktian Phihsophj {im^^)
FAMILIAR SPIRIT. See Divination, { 1,
FAMILIARES: A term appUed to domestic
servants or craftsmen employed tn the service of
a monaBtery, who, without being either monks
or lay brothers, were considered as belonging in
a sense to the order, and were thua required to
join in certain religious exercises,
FAMILIARITAS (COMMEHSALITIUM) : In can-
on law, a term describing one of the grounds on
which a bishop may ordain a man who does not
strictly belong to his diocese. It is not required
that the candidate shall have literally lived in the
bishop '4 houi^and sat at hiH table, but he must have
rt^coiveil his support from the bmhop'a personal
funds^ and have been for throe years in such close
communication mth the bishop that the latter shall
have Iind full opportunity to acquaint himself with
his character, A benefice must also be provided
for him by the bishop within a month after Ina
ordination.
FAMILIST3 (Family of Love; Huis der Liefde;
Familia caritati«): A short -lived religiotit com-
munity, founded in Emden, East Frie^tand, about
1540 by Hendrik Niclaes, or Niclas. and exercising
a certain amount of inHuenco in the
The religious eon fusion of the later Eng-
Founder, Hsh Revolution* as well as in the Phila-
delphian Society of Jane Lead (q.v.).
Bom of Roman Catholic parentage on .Ian, 9 or I Q*
1502 or 1501 J possibly at Miinster, Niclaes spent
the firat twenty-nine years of his life in his native
city as a merchant. He wa^ originally a tie voted
follower of the ancient faith, and even in his career
as the leader of a sect he felt still formally con-
nected with Roman CathoHcism. However, he
entered into spiritual eommunion with many who
were inclined toward the Reformation, and in
1528 he was imprisoned for a short time, but was
released for lack of evidence. Some time before
1.531 he settled in Amsterdam, remaining there
more than nine years. The only details kno^n
concerning this reKidence are that within a year
he waa again imprii^onedt and tliat after his speedy
release lie lived in i^eeluMion, devoting himself to
a life of PietisTTi. ft wa*? not until his thirty-ninth
year that Nielaes became- n figure of importance,
and claimed that revelations had aasured him that
God had poured upon him the '' spirit of the true
love of Jesua Christ," and had chosen him from bis
youth to be the prophet to prepare the way for
the approaching end of time. In thiis period b
began to eommit his revelations to writing, and kf
twenty years (1540- 60), Enaden was the ccu6r
both of his mercantile activity and hii religidai
propaganda, while he journeyed thjou^oat Hol-
land and Flanders, and also visited Pim tod
London. To this period belong the majoritr d
his writingSr of which the most important wot
Den Spegd der GherecfiticheU^ dorch den (kid dr
Lie jf den unde den ijergodeden Mensch H. .V, i4
de hemm^U^che WarheU belOgd, and EvangtHa
affie eine frdlicke Bodeschop des Rycke godes indr
Chri^ii (Eng. transL, An Introduciion to ihf Vnkh
standing of the G!as§€ of Righteousne9»j by C. VittiH
1575 [?]). Most of these works were printed seeretl^^
hut, a^ IB now certain, partly by the press of tb
famous Antwerp printer Plantin, who bad beocm
a convert to Nielaes* views about 1550, despite
the fact that later he was the *' prototypo'
gi^phus ** of the king of Spain and printer to tiM
Holy Bee. Nielaes liimself continued to be ostai-
sibly a strict Roman CathoUc^ his worku being dif>
seminatcd by Ms closest diseiplej, while he ium*
self e^stablished his Familia caritatis at Emdea.
This wa5 essentially a community of mpm
indiiTercntism, only loosely connected with hirtow
Christianity. While the te^chiop
Doctrines of the Bible and the Churcli wat
of the not denied, they were practioHf
Fomilists. ignored, being regarded either u i
mete preparation for the i§t d |
love, or being reduced to allegories. The \»m
of the system is a mystic pantheism, whidi d'
plains how Nielaes could believe that God ind
Christ had become incarnate in himself ^ althoagk
others also might thus partake of God. On tbi i
other handt the self-consciousness of the i<miim,
who did not hesitate to terra himself an incamitki '
of God or Chris ti often defeated the logical torn-
quences of pantheism; and the organisation of the
sect, with its twenty-four elders, archbishaps, four
classes of priests, and '* aupreme bishop/* tm
entirely monarchical. A centralised administnf
tion wai3 necesaitatcd, moreover^ by the oomplicitii
system of priests professing poverty, a coniDitnritr
giving tithes, and an involve-d law of inhentaaO^
There is no reason to suppoee, however, tbil
Nielaes was a conscious hypocrite, althou|Ji bii
my^iticism of love had an antinomian tendcDGJi
and both the organisation of the sect and ma^f
practises of the community were not free from peA
The propaganda of Nielaes did not escape tbfi
notice of the authorities of Emden. Nicla^ }mr
self esejiped in 1.560, before proceedings could bt
taken against him, and lived the life of a FefufHI
for several years, residing successively at Kampeo,
Utrecht, probably again in England, and, afl»
1570 in Cologne. He seems to have died in 1580^
the year in which appeared his Terra PocM,
Wdre Getugenimc van uU geistetiek Landsehap da
Fredes (Eng. transL, Terra Pijei^, A Tn« Ttttf-
ft cation of the SpiriiwiU Lande of Ptomyst^ 1575
[?]). His success on the Continent had been com-
paratively slight. At the time of his death he had
disciples in Amsterdam, Antwerp^ Dort^ Kuiapen,
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Familiar Spirit
Family andKarriaffe Belatioii
n, £2mden, Cologne, and Paris, but in all
iee the community seems to have sur-
f a short time, the last certain mention
ating from 1604.
land the influence of the Familists was
nd more lasting. The entering wedge
seems to have been a Dutch congrega-
tion in London, with whom Niclaes
I came in contact, especially as this
community included adherents of
. David Joris (q.v.) and similar fanat-
ics. Christopher Vitel, a native of
city of Joris, was, moreover, long the
le En^h Familists, but the movement
d to genuinely EInglish soil, and the most
ritings of Niclaes were translated into
In 1574 the English government pro-
;ainst the Familists, whereupon they
to Parliament An Apology for the Service
d the People that Own it, and in the fol-
ir issued A Brief Rehearsal of the Belief
iwilling in England^ which are named the
Love. They were answered by John
d John Knewstub, and on Oct. 3, 1580,
issued a proclamation against them
iemned their books and directed that the
hemselves be imprisoned. A week later
of abjuration was promulgated, and
ist the Familists soon followed. The
>t disappear, however, and James I. was
by them in petitions soon after his ac-
it in vain. The new monarch was ex-
tagonistic to them, and had declared as
le preface to his Basilicon doron in 1599,
rere responsible for the rise of Puritanism.
fall of the Stuarts, they were opposed by
rington, but in the Republican period
the works of Niclaes were reprinted,
IS been suggested that Bunyan's Pil-
agrees owes its inspiration to Familist
They were also closely connected with
5rs of the Commonwealth. After the
Q the Familists vanished, and by the
of the eighteenth century but one aged
' the sect was known to be alive.
faithless disciple Hendrik Jansen of
, writing under the pseudonym of Hiel,
long survived his teacher. Of his
life little is known, although in his
' later years he himself says that he
L led the life of a wanderer. He was
closely associated with Plantin and
who printed the greater part of his
is chief work being Het Boeck der Ghe-
van den verborgen Ackerschat, published
at Antwerp in Flemish and French about
1 discarded the hierarchic and ceremonial
)f his master, and declared all external
natter of indifference, thus rendering it
the famous Antwerp printer to remain
I the Roman Catholic Church, and to
the Spanish Catholic party despite his
with the Familists. (F. Loofs.)
r: The fimdamentAl work for a study of
1 his sect is F. Nippold, Heinriek Niclaes und
«r Lube, in ZHT, xxzii (1862). 323--I02. 473-
'.—18
563. which uses original and newly discovered sources,
all of which and others are noted by J. H. Hessels, Notes
and Queries, Oct.-Nov.. 1869. The article in DNB, x\
427-431 is exceedingly valuable. Consult further: Q.
Arnold. Kirchen- uni KetMer-Hialorie, ii. 123 sqq.. 4
vols., Frankfort. 1700-15; C. A. Tiele. Chrietophe PlanHn
et le eectaire myatique Henrik Nielaee. in Le BiUiophiU
Beige, iii (1868), 121-138 (uses original sources |>artly
the same as Nippold 's, ut sup.); M. Rooses. Chrieto-phe
PlanHn, pp. 441 sqq., Antwerp, 1882 (sets forth Plan-
tin's relation to Niclaes and the sect); A. J. van der Aa,
Biofiraphiach Woordenboek der Nederlanden, xiii. 177-185,
Haarlem, 1868; J. H. Blunt, Dictionary of Seete, Hereaiee,
. . . , pp. 158-160. Philadelphia, 1874 (wieful for refer-
enoes to books treating of the sect in England).
FAMILT AND MARRIAGE RELATIONS,
HEBREW.
Patriarchal Constitution of the Family (( 1).
Marriage Effected by Purchase (( 2).
The Wife's Property Rights (5 3).
Polygamy the Rule (5 4).
Tendency toward Monogamy (f 5).
Ethical and Social Limitations and Preferences (f 6).
Divorce (5 7).
L^^al Status of Woman (( 8).
Sodal Position of Woman (f 9).
Wedding Customs (( 10).
Legal Position of the Widow (f 11).
The Levirate (f 12).
Desire for Children (( 13).
Customs at Birth {% 14).
Legal Status and Training of Children (f 15).
Position of the First-bom (S 16).
In historical times the Israelite family was patri-
archal, i.e., kinship, tribal affinity, and inheritance
were determined by descent from the father; though
there was a time when matriarchy existed among the
Semites, these relations then being determined by
the mother. And it must be admitted
I. Patri- that among the Hebrews traces are
archal Con- found of former matriarchal con-
stitution of ditions, e.g., the position occupied by
the Family, such women as Leah, Rachel, Bilhah,
Zilpah, Keturah, and Hagar. Expres-
sions found in Gen. xlii. 38, xliii. 29, xliv. 20 (cf.
Judges ix. 2) show how long the feeling persisted
that relationship was determined by the mother.
Descent from the same mother but not from the
father formed a barrier to marriage. This is shown
by marriage with half-sister, stepmother, and
daughter-in-law, a practise which continued till
the exile (Ezek. xxii. 10-11). Characteristics of
the matriarchy were: derivation of name from the
mother (Gen. xxx. 3), inheritance through her
(Gen. xxi. 10), marriage of the girl through the
brother's initiative (not the father's; Gen. xxiv.;
only in verse 50 is Bethuel's name added), and
marriage of the man into the family of the wife
(Gen. xxiv. 5; Judges xiv., xv. 2).
Marriage was effected by purchase. The legal
relation was founded upon an engagement accom-
plished by the payment of purchase-money. The
engaged girl became the property of the man, and
in case of rai)e or infidelity was treated as a married
woman. Written marriage-contracts,
2. Marriage which were customary among the an-
Effected by cient Babylonians {Code of Hammu-
Purchase, rabi, § 128), are not mentioned until
a late period (Tobit vii. 14). The
father received the purchase-money; but in course
of time this custom changed and a part of the
FamUyandXarrUffeBelatloxui THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOO
91
money went to the bride. On an average the price
was about fifty shekels (Deut. xxii. 29; cf. Ex.
xxii. 16-17; Code of Hammurabi, § 139). This
obligation could also be met in other ways: Jacob
served as a hired hand (Gen.xxix. 15 sqq.), others
accomplished feats of war (Josh. xv. 16; I Sam.
xvii. 25, xviii. 20 sqq.). While not explicitly stated
in the Old Testament, it is implied that the un-
justifiable withdrawal of the bridegroom caused
him to lose the purchase-price. If the father-in-
law withdrew, he had to repay the money two-
fold (Code of Hammurabi, §§ 159, 160).
All that the wife brought with her were the pres-
ents, if any, received from the groom (Gen. xxiv.
53, xxxiv. 12; cf. Code of Hammurabi, § 159), and
those from her family (Josh. xv. 16 sqq.), including
particularly slaves for her personal
3. The service (Gen. xvi. 2, xxiv. 59, xxix.
Wife's 24 sqq.). There is no mention of a
Property dowry, properly speaking, until after
Rights, the exile (Tobit viii. 21; Ecclus. xxv.
22; I Kings ix. 16 proves only the
Egyptian custom). Daughters could not inherit
paternal property; but whatever they brought
into matrimony with them remained theirs. The
husband had no authority over the personal slaves
of the wife (Gen. xvi. 6, xxx. 3 sqq.). In the ab-
sence of any express statement to the contrary,
it must be assumed that in case of separation or
death of] the husband, the wife received back her
original property (cf. Code of Hammurabi, §§ 137,
138, 171, 172).
The consent of the girl was not necessary to the
engagement, though it is probable that she was
usually consulted (Gen. xxiv. 58). The negotia-
tions were conducted by the girl's father or guardian
(Gen. xxiv. 50, xxix. 23, xxxiv. 12); for the un-
married daughter belonged to her father, who had
the right to sell her (Ex. xxi. 7). The seduction
of a girl was a trespass against the father, who could
demand of the offender the usual price of a wife
without being required to give the girl in marriage
to the seducer (Ex. xxii. 16-17).
In contrast to the custom in ancient Babylon,
polygamy was the rule in Israel. In Babylon
(Code of Hammurabi) a man could marry only one
principal wife, but he was allowed
4. Polygamy to keep another woman in addition,
the Rule, unless his wife gave him one of her
slaves as a concubine. In Israel the
only limit to the number of wives was ability to
support them. Wealthy men made extensive use
of their rights (cf. II Sam. v. 13; I Kings xi. 1 sqq.);
still the law of the kingdom, referring covertly to
Solomon, forbade the King to take many wives
(Deut. xvii. 17). The Talmudista allow to the
king not more than eighteen wives at one time,
to a man of the people not more than four. Pre-
sumably the commoner in Israel, like the modem
peasant in Palestine, was content with one or two
wives. If the first wife remained barren, the hus-
band was entitled to either another wife or a con-
cubine, in which case the wife might voluntarily
give him her handmaid (Gen. xvi. 1 sqq., xxx. 3
sqq.; cf. Code of Hammurabi, § 144).
But even this limited polygamy caused much
inconvenience, particularly in the status of th
childless wife (Gen. xvi. 4 sqq.; of. xxx.; ISia,
i. 1 sqq.). The later law took the part of thedb.
carded wife (Deut. xxi. 15 sqq.); a4
5. Tendency the former custom of manyiDg tut
towar4 sisters at the same time was pn.
Monogamy, liibited (Lev. xviii. 18). The dn4»
opment was toward monogamy; uA
Gen. ii. 18 sqq., as well as passages in the Prop{id%
where the relation of God to his people is chaia»-
terized as one of marriage, shows that monoguBy
was regarded as the normal state. The pnuaeof
the virtuous wife in the Proverbs and elsewlMn
proves that the later period saw in monogamj tbs
ideal marriage (Ps. cxxviii.; Prov. xii. 4, xviii. fl;
xix. 14, xxxi. 10 sqq.; Ecclus. xxv. 1 sqq., etc.).
Impediments to marriage were unknovn to
ancient custom, except that marriage betveei
father and daughter or mother and son was alwa|i
looked upon as an abomination. Theoretid^f
the young man might choose a wife wheiefer lii
pleased; practically, he was limited. Since it wn.
a question of admitting a woman into thefamil|f,
marriage became a family affair. The father diM:
the bride for his son (Gen. xxiv. 2 sqq., xxvm.1
sqq., xxxviii. 6), and it was uDseeaff
6. Ethical for the son to marry against the il
and Social of his parents (Gen. xxvi. 34-H
Limitations xxvii. 46). Yet the preferenceB i
and the young people were taken ioti
Preferences, account; and, since there were ^
particular restraints on the mM
intercourse of the sexes, there was ample oppo^
tunity for the development of such attachmoril
(Gen. xxiv. 58; Ex. ii. 16; I Sam. ix. Il,et4
Yet by custom, marriages outside of the tribe vat
interdicted, while marriages with relations i«t
preferred (Gen. xxix. 19; Num. xxvi. 59, andoto
in patriarchal history). Particularly the couil
on the father's side was chosen as a giri's wooer
(cf. the cases of Isaac and Rebecca, Jacob ini
Rachel), a custom that still exists. Tobesoi^
settlement in Canaan brought changes, and mu^
riages with Canaanites and other foreigners WB»
not infrequent (Judges iii. 6; II Sam. iii. 3; 1
Kings xi. 1, etc.). In the regal period frienddip
for the Canaanites turned to hatred, and manisgai
with heathen peoples, except the Egyptians uA
the Edomites, were prohibited (Deut. vii. 1 sqih
xxiii. 4 sqq.; cf. Ex. xxxiv. 16). Still, the ln
was not carried out, and no lasting change wi
effected till the time of Ezra (Ezra ix. and z.]
The law sought also to limit marriages with reb
tions and forbade marriage with stepmother, wH
sister or half-sister, and with mother-in-law (Den
xxvii. 20, 22). But even this did not break tl
popular custom (Ezek. xxii. 10-11). Finally, tl
priest-code forbade marriage with mother or ste
mother, niece or aunt, with the wife of an un
on the faher's side, with mother-in-law or daughti
in-law, or with the wife of a brother (Lev. xv
6 sqq.; cf. xx. 11 sqq.). The prohibition of mi
riage with a daughter is probably omitted thioa
error in the text. Thus, union between uncle a
niece, between nephew and widow of the mothi
brother, and between the children of brothen a
m
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Vamlly and Kanlaffe Belations
■sten was permitted. On the whole, these regu-
ktkms correspond to pre-Islamitic Arabian custom,
finch Mohainmed enacted into law.
Tlie husband could divorce his wife at will, since
rf» was his property (so in Code of Hammurabi);
InH he forfeited the purchase-price and the wife's
property. In the Code of Hammurabi, if the wife
iinot to blame, the husband must compensate her.
lUs t^ded to limit divorce. On the other hand,
the wife and her family suffered no injustice thereby;
at least no moral blemish attached to
7.Di?orce. the wife. The law in Deuteronomy
evidently attempts to limit divorce.
It demands a written bill of divorce (xxiv. 1 sqq.),
deprives the husband of the right to divorce a wife
stall in two cases (xxii. 19, 28), and decrees that
I divorced woman who has married again can not
letum to her first husband when she is free a second
time (xxiv. 1 sqq.), in contrast to the earlier cus-
tom, which corresponded to the Arab usage (Hosea
E3; cf. II Sam. iii. 14). Finally, this law re-
qoRS that there must be cause for divorce. Hil-
U'b school interpreted this to mean that any cause
118 sufficient for a divorce, particidarly any un-
nemly behavior. The more austere school of
fihimmai found that immoral conduct was meant.
Unfortunately the true meaning of the law can not
be learned from the Old Testament, and by way
of comparison one may well consult the Code of
Eommurabi (§§ 141-143), where an unwifely atti-
tude, extravagance, etc. are made grounds for
ifirorce (cf. Ecclus. xxv. 18 sqq., xlii. 9). In Deu-
tennomy the tendency is toward a higher position
(or the wife; and Malachi (ii. 13-14) condemns
diroTces imconditionally. Unlike the women of
ndent Babylon {Code of Hammurabi, §142) the
Hebrew woman had no legal right to leave her
b>b&nd and no means of freeing herself.
The legal status of the Hebrew wife was lower
thin that of the wife in ancient Babylon, where,
II regards property at least, she enjoyed a degree
of mdependence (see Hammmurabi and His Code).
In ancient Israel the wife was simply
8. Legal a possession; but it must be added
Status of that her position had compensations.
Woman. In bearing sons she gave to the tribe
its most valuable possession; and the
rights of the husband over her did not extend to
&er person. She was not a slave that he might
■ell, as he could his daughter; nor coidd he sell
ber handmaid that had become his concubine.
While her lot may have been a rather unhappy
one, since a considerable part of the hardest work
WS8 imposed upon her, yet the Hebrew woman was
ij no means intellectually and morally in the
xntion of the Mohammedan townswoman of the
ireacnt. She had much more freedom, and there
I DO indication that she was secluded. The wife
lad ber private rooms, which no strange man was
allowed to enter (Judges xv. 1, xvi. 9;
9. Social II Sam. xiii. 7; I Kings vii. 8); but
Positioii of she was by no means forbidden to
Woman, associate with men and might even
take part at banquets (Ex. xxi. 22;
knit. xxv. 11; Ruth ii. 5 sqq.; II Sam. xx. 16;
[att. ix. 20, xii. 46, xxvi. 7). Women enlivened
the popular feasts with song and dance (Ex. xv.
20-21; Judges xvi. 27, xxi. 19 sqq.; I Sam. xviii.
6). As already mentioned, the position of the wife
was gradually improved in the course of time; and
in the account of creation J makes her the helpmate
and equal of man. Still, the jealousy of the hus-
band continued to deprive her of property-rights.
Death by stoning was the penalty for adultery by
the wife (Deut. xxii. 22 sqq.; cf. Exek. xvi. 40,
and John viii. 5, 7). The sus[)ecting husband could
force his wife to submit to the ordeal of the bitter
water (Num. v. 11 sqq.). The law imposing a
penalty for false accusation of a wife (Deut. xxii.
13 sqq.) never became effective. However, this
austerity did not prevent the prophets from com-
plaining again and again about adultery (Jer.
xxiii. 10, Hos. iv. 2; Mai. iii. 5, etc.).
Very little is known of wedding festivities among
the Hebrews. The principal feature was the bring-
ing of the bride into the home of the bridegroom.
This ceremony signified the entrance of the girl
into the family of the husband. On
10. Wedding the day of the wedding the bridegroom,
Customs, in wedding-ornaments (Isa. Ixi. 10)
and accompanied by friends (Judges
xiv. 11-12; cf. Matt. ix. 15), went to the home of the
bride and conducted her to the home of the groom,
or to that of his parents (Jer. vii. 34; Cant. iii.
6 sqq.; Matt. xxv. 1 sqq.). The bride was like-
wise ornamented but veiled (Isa. xlix. 18; Jer. ii.
32, etc.) and was accompanied by her girl friends
(Ps. xlv. 14). Only seldom was the bride conducted
to meet the bridegroom (I Mace. ix. 37-38). The
wedding-banquet took place at the home of the
groom; and in families of wealth and distinction
this extended over a week or two (Gen. xxix. 27;
Judges xiv. 12, 17; Tobit viii. 20).
The lot of the widow was a sad one. She had no
hereditary rights whatever in her husband's prop-
erty (siniilarly the Code of Hammurabi, § 172),
but, in the earliest period, was a part of the estate.
Even during his father's lifetime Reuben wanted
to enter upon his inheritance (Gen. xxxv. 22),
Absalom showed himself his father's successor by
seizing David's harem (II Sam. xvi. 20 sqq.),
Abner's intercourse with Saul's concubine was a
trespass on the rights of Ish-bosheth (II Sam. iii.
7), and in Abishag Adonijah demanded
II. Legal a part of Solomon's inheritance (I
Position of Kings ii. 22; cf. 15). In spite of the
the Widow, law to the contrary, marriages with
the stepmother were not unusual
even to the time of Ezekiel (xxii. 10; cf. I
Chron. ii. 24 in the Septuagint). The story of
Ruth shows that, even if there were no chil-
dren, the heir had to accept the widow along
with the real estate, though not obliged to marry
her. He might give her in marriage to another;
or, if he chose, lie might renounce the entire inheri-
tance in favor of another heir (Ruth iv. 5 sqq.).
The story of Tamar illustrates the right of the
heirs to the childless widow: Judah refused to
marry her, but he retained his right over her and
regarded her intercourse with other men as adul-
tery (Gen. xxxviii. 24 sqq.). At the same time,
the story shows that the right of the widow to
Vltmlly
Farel
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOO
m
marry again was recognized. Yet these old cus-
toms fell more and more into disuse. Deuteronomy
(xxv. 7 sqq.) even allows the brother of the de-
ceased to decline to marry his childless sister-in-
law, a thing that was formerly a duty. Otherwise,
this law is outspoken in the interest of the widow,
assigning her legal rights (Deut. x. 18, xxiv. 17,
xxvii. 19), and recommending her, together with
the Levitts and the poor, to the benevolent care
of the people (Deut. xiv. 29, xvi. 11 sqq., xxiv.
19 sqq.). Not till a much later period were certain
rights in the property of the deceased conceded to
the widow, concerning which the rabbis promul-
gated detailed rules. The law determines nothing
concerning a second marriage, except as to mar-
riage with the brother-in-law.
Intimately related to the hereditary right just
discussed was the institution of the levirate. In
the earliest period the right to inherit the widow
had already become a duty to marry her if the
deceased had left no sons. If there was no brother-
in-law to marry her, this became the duty of the
father-in-law or of the agnate who inherited, who-
ever he might be; and the first son of this marriage
was regarded as the son of the deceased. Since
levirate marriage is found chiefly among peoples
who hold to ancestor-worship (Indians, Persians,
Afghans, etc.), it is probable that
12. The herein lies the explanation of this in-
Levirate. stitution in Israel. It is significant
that the law in regard to such a mar-
riage was made in favor of the deceased, not of the
widow, the purpose being to provide him with descen-
dants (Gen. xxxviii. 8; cf. II Sam.xviii. 18). After
this form of belief had lost its significance the levirate
marriage continued, having acquired new impor-
tance after the settlement in Canaan, in view of
succession to property. At this time the custom
served to secure the family property. Since the first
son of a levirate marriage was reckoned to the
deceased, this son inherited from liis putative not
from his real father. Thus was accomplished what
the law had often attempted: the disintegration of
property and its acquirement by strangers was pre-
vented, and the family to which it belonged was
perpetuated. Deuteronomy had limited this mat-
rimonial duty of the brother of the deceased,
allowing him to decline to marry the ^idow, but
such a course brought him into disrepute. The
ancient ceremony of the shoe is given an entirely
different meaning in Deuteronomy: after having
been publicly rejected by her brother-in-law the
widow was to go with him to the proper authorities,
tear his shoe from his foot and spit in his face
(Deut. xxv. 5 sqq.). Later, in default of sons,
daughters were given the right to inherit, that in
this way the family estate might be preser\'ed
(Num. xxvii. 4); and then the levirate became
limited to cases where the deceased had left no
children at all. The priest-code tried to prohibit
the custom entirely, as being incestuous (Lev.
xviii. IC, XX. 21); but the ancient custom proved
more potent than WTitten law (Matt. xxii. 24 sqq.).
It was the heart's desire of the ancient IsraeHte
to have numerous children. For a woman to be
sterile waa considered a great misfortune, even a
punishment from God (I Sam. i. 5 sqq.); forM
the mother of a son the wife held a posidoo of
distinction in the family (I Sam. i. 6-7; cf.Cke.
xvi. 4, XXX. 1 sqq.). For the man to have no an
was even worse, since this threatened the extiB^
tion of his house. It is noteworthy that the c»-
tom of adopting a strange child, prevalent in »•
cient Babylon (Code of Hammurabi^ §§185 aqq.)
is not found in ancient Israel. Ratk
13. Desire the slave was allowed to inherit (Gea.
for XV. 3). Sons were especially de-
ChlldreiL sired because they alone perpetoitid
the family and the family wonfaip,
since the daughters married into other familia;
and only the sons belonged to the kahal, " congw-
gation," or body of men able to bear arms. Thar
precedence is shown especially by the fact that they
alone could inherit (see Law, Hebrew, C^nriL m
Criminal), in contrast to the custom in ancient
Babylon (cf. Code of Hammurabi, §§180 sqq.).
However, these views were not peculiar to the
Israelites, being found also among the Arabs. TV
fact that a girl could be sold into matrimony and
was therefore not without value, formed a sort ol
counterpoise to the disdain in which she lai
usually held. At all events, no trace is found in
the Old Testament of the thorough contempt for
the girl prevalent among other f)eople6; and, 10
far as can be seen now, the custom of killing female
infants, a frequent occurrence among Arabs, was
never practised by the Hebrews.
The distinction between legitimacy and il^
gitimacy in their present significance did not exist.
In so far as the father was known, all children were
legitimate, whether borne by concubines or lawful
wives (Gen. xxi. 10). Even Jephthah, the son of
a prostitute and, in the strictest sense, illegitimate,
was reared with the father's legitimate children;
and if later these thrust him out it was only a case
of might (Judges xi. 1 sqq.). The hereditary rights
of such a son may not have been the same as
that of the sons by lawful wives. There seems to
have been no rigid custom regarding this, much
depending upon the good- will of the father.
The Israehtish women had the reputation of
bearing children with great ease (Ex. i. 15 sqq.);
though even in the earliest period they employed
midlives (Gen. xxxv. 17; Ex. i. 15 sqq.). At the
time of Jer. xx. 15 the father was not present at the
accouchement. Job iii. 12 has been interpreted as
expressing a symboUc act whereby the father a^
knowledged the child, similar to the custom of the
Roman father of Hfting the child from the floor
as a token that it was to live. If this be correct,
the passage is the only reminiscence of a former
custom of child-murder. After the
14. Customs navel had been cut, the newly bom
at Birth, babe was bathed in water, then rubbed
with salt and wrapped in swaddling-
clothes (Ezek. xvi. 4). The peasants of to-day
think that salt strengthens the child; originally
it probably had religious significance. The mother
nursed the children herself (Gen. xxi. 7; I Sam. i.
22; I Kings iii. 21), and only exceptionally did she
resort to nurses (Gen. xxiv. 59, xxxv. 8). This
custom seems to have become more common later
W7
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Family
Farel
itth the wealthy (II Sam. iv. 4; II Kings xi. 2;
d. Ex. ii. 9). Nursing continued two or three
years as in modem Palestine (cf. II Mocc. vii. 27; ac-
mding to the rabbis two years). Weaning was the
oeeaaon of a family celebration (Gen. xxi. 8; I Sam.
[ L 21). The birth of a child rendered the mother
I nclean (see Defilement and Purification,
Cehemo.vial). This notion, still common to im-
drOized peoples, was generally held by ancient
pnpies. The foundation of this belief was either
tbe new that child-birth was a disease and like
other diseases, under the influence of certain
doDODs; or else, that it was protected by some
firit, together with other processes of sexual Hfe.
For circumcision and naming see Circumcision;
Names.
The father had almost unlimited power over his
cfaOdren. He could sell his daughter as a bride,
or even as a slave, but not to foreigners (Ex. xxi.
7sqq.). To assault or even curse the father was
ID offense deemed worthy of the death-penalty
(El xjd. 15, 17; for the later period cf. Lev. xx. 9;
hov. IX. 20; Matt. xv. 4). There is no mention
rfanaj5e-limit to the father's authority, though in
pnetiBe this was attained when the son married
nxi founded a home. During the early years the
education of the children was an affair of the mother
(hov. xxxi. 1 ). Boys and girls were left together
in the harem where the girls remained
15. Legal till marriage. When the boys began
SUtus and to grow up they came under the care
Thdning of of the father, or, if the family was
Chfldren. well-to-do, they might be entrusted
to special tutors (Nimi. xi. 12;. II
King!!x. 1 sqq.; I Chron. xxvii. 32; Isa. xlix. 23).
Special weight was laid upon early religious train-
*g (Ex. xiii. 8; Deut. iv. 9 sqq.); othemise the
Biin thint; was to impart practical knowledge of
. ««ne industry. The wealthier class a!^o learned
I ittding and writing, an art that was probably
> ^ well known at the time of Isaiah, and even
I «rfier (Isa. viii. 1, x. 19; cf. Judges viii. 14). In
the Old Testament there is no mention of a school.
Not till a much later period were schools estab-
Uied,and then only in the larger cities (Joscphus,
Ant, XV., X. 5). After the exile particular stress
HB laid on the study of the law; and Deuteronomy
eoDtains numerous admonitions to instruct the
duklien in the statutes and sacred history. Prov-
erbs and Ecclesiasticus contain a sort of pedagogy.
StresB was laid on education rather than instruction;
and ail knowledge was summed up in fear of God
and obedience to parents (Prov. i. 7, and often).
Strict discipline was to be maintained, nor was the
lod to be spared (Prov. x. 17, xiii. 14, xxiii. 13,
xzix. 17). These precepts applied to sons only.
The first-bom son occupied a position of dis-
tinetion among the remaining children; and as heir
be received a double portion.. The father might
deprive him of his prerogatives and put
[6u Fodtion the favorite younger son in his place
qf the First- (Gen. xxi. 1 sqq., xlix. 3 sqq.; I Kings i.
bom. 11 sqq.); but custom did not approve
of this, and later it was prohibited
T>eut. xxi. 15 sqq.). In return it was the eldest
od'b duty to take care of the female members of
the family, since he became the head of the family
at his father's death. Unfortunately it is not
known whether landed property was partitioned or
whether it all went to the eldest son, who then
settled in some way with his brothers. This cus-
tom rested upon a religious foundation. The
first-bom was thought to take a certain precedence
in holiness, since in him the common blood of the
tribe flowed in its purest state (Gen. xlix. 3; Deut.
xxi. 17). This superiority was deduced from the
particular claim of Yahweh to all the first-bom
(Ex. xxii. 29). The supposed sacred character of
the first-bom accounts for his consecration to the
service of Yahweh (I Sam. i. 11, vii. 1). But
usually the first-bom was redeemed (Ex. xiii. 13,
xxxiv. 20); for the worshipers of Yahweh had al-
ways opposed the sacrifice of children, a custom
common among their Semitic neighbors (Gen. xxii.).
The idea of deilicating the first-born to Yahweh
was first introduced into the law in the Priest-code,
according to which all first-bom belonged to Yah-
weh. Since, however, the first-born in Israel
could not always maintain the purity necessary
for the service of the sanctuary, the Levntes (q.v.)
took their place (Num. iii. 39 sqq., viii. 16 sqq.).
1. Benzinger.
Bibuooraphy: The best single book in Enfclish covering
the whole subject is K. Day, SocieU Life of the Hehrewa,
New York, 1901. Of hi^h value are: G. M. Mackie,
Bible Mannera and Cuetome, London, 1898; Beniinger,
Archiiologie; Nowack. ArchAolot/ie; DB, i. 846-850. ii
341-342. iii. 262-277; EB. ii. 1498-15a5. iii. 2942-51.
On the primitive institution: Smith, Kinahip (the im-
portant book for Seniitps); idem, in Journal of Pfiilology,
ix. 75 sqq.; J. F McLennan. Primitive Marriage, in
Studiea in Ancient History, London, 1876; G. A. Wilken.
Daa Matriarchal bei den cUten Arabem, Leipaic, 1884;
C. M. Starcke. Primitive Family in its Origin and De-
velopment. London, 1889; E. Westermarck, liiat. of Hu-
man Marriage, ib. 1901 (the standard work).
On Hebrew marria(;e: J. Sclden. Uxor Hebraica, ib.
1546 (collects the Talmudic material); M. M. Kalisch,
Matrimonial Ixiwa of the Hebrewa. in his Commentary on
Leviticua, ib. 1872; C. Stubl)e. EHr Ehe im A. T., Jena.
1886; J. F. McCurdy, Uiatory, Prophecy and the Monu-
menta, ii. 36-77, New York. 1896; T. Engert, Ehe- und
Familienrecht der Hebriier. Munich, 1906; F. Wilke. Dan
Frauenideal und die SchHtzung dea Weibea im Alien Testa-
ment, Leipsic, 1907.
(Consult also: G. M. Reilslob. Die Levirata-Ehe bei den
Hebr&ern, Leipaic, 1836; D. W. Amram, Jeunah Law of
Divorce according to the Bible and Talmud. London, 1897
(important); J. Simon, L' Education dea enfanta chea lea
anciena Juifa, Nfmcs, 1879; U. Strassburger. Eraiehung
bei den laraeliUn, Stuttgart, 1885. For the Code of Ham-
murabi see the literature cited under Hammurabi and
His Code.
FAREL, fa"rel', GUILLAUME: French Reformer;
b. of noble family at Gap (46 m. s.s.e. of Gre-
noble) 1489; d. at NeucMtel, Switzerland, Sept.
13, 1565. After finishing his studies in Paris he
taught in the college of Cardinal le Moine, wliich
was part of the University, and was led to adopt
the Reformed views by his teacher Faber Stapu-
lensis (q.v.) In 1521 he went to Meaux and preaclied
the new faith. Bishop Guillaume BriQonnet was
personally favorable to these views, but Farel's
preaching was so direct and unsparing that it gave
great offense to the adherents of the old Church
and the bishop silenced him, Apr. 12, 1523. Thus
early he exhibited a zeal which, much greater than
his discretion, was to involve him in continual
Fast-Day
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
178
trouble. After vimting Paris and Gap he wandered
to Basel, where (Ecolaiiipadius received him as an
ally and where he participated in the rehgious
conferenee of Feb., 1524^ and discussed the thirteen
theses wliich he Imd prepared. (For text cf. Her-
fninjard, Correspondancc, i* 194). But his Bpeechea
aad publications w^ere bo outspoken and Uieendiary
that the authorities were alarmed and abruptly ex-
pelled him at Whitsuntide. He h next heard from
at various places in southern Germany and Switzer-
land, preaching the Word with great boldness to
FrencWpeaking people and everywhere in imminent
danger of hii* life. In Oct., 1 532, he came to Geneva
and was successful in inclining the authoritiea to
adopt the Reformation by edict of Aug. 10, 1535,
But he waj not the man to conduct the dif^cult
and delicate controversies, both rettgious and per-
sonal, which preceded and followed the adoption
of the Reformation, as he waa well aware. When,
therefore, the rising theologian^ John Calvin, in
whom he divined the qualities which he lacked,
came to Geneva, Farel laid hold upon him in a
memorable inter^Hew in the latter part of July,
15S6, and fairiy compelled him to join in his work*
But the opposition was too strong and they were both
©JcpeUed from the city Apr. 23, 1638. Farel went
to Neuch^tel and thence to Metz and the neigh-
boring Gorza In 1543 Gorae wws attacked by the
troops of the Cardinal of Lorraine and Farel barely
escaped with his hfe. He went to Stmsburg but
soon after returned to Neuch4tel and for the
remainder of his life made it the center of hia
activities.
Farel's publications have only relati%^e impor-
tance and there is no collected edition of them.
Carl Schmidt gives a list in hia life of Farel, p. 38,
to which should be added Le r/sum^ de^ octm dt la
dispide de Rive, ed. by T, Dufour, Geneva, 18S5.
BlfiJ.toni^4]^Bt : For Farere coiruspondenee esotiAult : the
Opem Calmnu vols. *. 2-xx,; A, L. Herminjard'A Corrt-
tpondiance lie* R^formateura, 0 vols.. GetievBt lS7il-97.
An Eng. tranfll. of lett«ni to bim by Calvin ii» given from
Bonmt'fl text [2 vols.. Paris, IS54), 4 vuli., PbiladeU
Uifl biography was written first atiofiymotisly, prob-
ably by Olivier Perrott teprintptj in G, K, von Hall«r.
BiMiothek der SehweineFgetthiehte. in,, no. 751* & vols.,
B«m, 1785 88. Modern Uvw are by M. KirohLoffrr. 2
vols.. Zurich. 1831-33, Eng. tmnpl.. London, 1837; C.
Scbmidtt in I^ben urtd autjfewahUK Sehriffen der Vattr
. . . der TthrmirUn Kirch^, vol. »jl, Elb«rfrld, 1861;
W. Blackburn . PbiladelphiJi, 1865; C. Junod. NeucbAlel,
1865; G. GoffueJ, Montbdliard, 1873; F. Bevan, Lay-
ROJine, 1884^ l^Inff. tmnsi,, London, 1893.
FARFA: A Binieilictine abbey situated on the
river Farfa, about half-way between Rome and
Reate. It was established about the middle of
the sixth century by Laurentiua, bishop of Spoleto.
Destroyed by the Lombards, it was restored by the
priest Thomas of Maurieana in 681 and soon be-
came one of the mo.?t famous monasteries of the
Middle Ages. At the bepfinning of the tenth cen-
tury, after a siege of acvon y^^ars, it was destroyed
by the Saracens, After lying desolate and deserted
for forty-eight years it was restored by Hugo of
Burgundy about 950, and later berame notorious
for the Itcentiousness and dissipation of its monka.
However, toward the end of the tenth century
the reform of Cluny was Lutroduced at F&rfa, and
the monastery then gradually resumed its bnaer
importance. To this period bclonp the Qromiot
Farfense^ written between 1 105 and 11 I9bj Gtepny
of Catina^ the librarian of the inonAstety. Fran
the close of the fourteenth century the incsnMWqf
was held tn commendam by candinak, and In 184!
Gregory XVL annexed it to the eardiaal-biiiupQs
of Babina.
BiBLiooRArRT I Ori^&Kl BDiircea for a luitocy tn ii JfGff,
SmpL. xi OEM). £19-5fK>. iknd MGH, Pmim LiMdtii
Car&iini, ii (1884). 654-ti55, trf, L. A. Uva.tQCi. Bv.M
script., val. ii.i part ii.. MiJiui, 1723. CDonilt: L L
Poole. Englith /fulortml Reri&e, r (1800}. ^1411^
G. lUirbt, DU FvUi^imtik im ZtitaUtr Grt^an VIJ. fp.n-
7a LeiptHc, imi; WaUeDbach^ DGQ. ii (Igse). lf| ii
US04). 220.
FAJUKBOir, AKTHONY: Royalist midster; K
at Sonning (12 m. w. of Windjor), Bed^liirep 1391
(baptised Bee. 24); d. in the country n&a L(Hid»
Oct. 9, 1658. He was educated at Trinity Cci^,
Oxford (B,A„ 1616; M,A., 1620; B.D., 1629).
In 1634 he was presented with the ^dcanii ol
Bray, and in 1639 with the divinity leeturadq) it
the Chapel Royals Windsor, but was depriviiS d
both preferments during the civil war. la \U1,
through the patronage of Sir John Ro^asoti, bi
received the pastorate of St* Mary MaiEdaleoe't,
in Milk Street, London, which he probably bid
till Jan. 1, 1656, when sequestered preacltcts KtR
forbidden to preach in public. He has been pnt-
nounced the best preacher of hie day. Of hia 131
printed sermons, thirty-one were published by
himself, A'A^Y, Sermmis; . , . to whkh u mrntud
a Serjrwn prtoched at the Funerall of Sir G. Wk^-
mere (London, 1657), the reat by his ejcecutocs.
There is a complete edition of his sermons with a
Life by T, Jackson (4 vols,, Loudon, IU%
EiBUOORAPnT; CoosuJt, beeide tbe Lift by Jack»a,A.i
WcxwJt Ath^ner OTonierimM, ed- P. Blisi, iii. 457, 4 TBb.,
London, 1813-20; DNB. rviii. 20S-206.
FARLEY, JOHN MURPHY: Roman Catholic
archbishop of New York; b. at Newton Hajnilton,
County Armagh, Ireland, Apr, 20, 1842. He was
educated at St. Marcartan's College^ MoDAgban
(185ft-64), St. John's CoUege, Fordham, N. Y.
(1864-65), St. Joaeph^s Seminary, Troy, N. Y.
(1865-66), and the American College. Rome(l86&-
1870). He was ordained to the priesthood in Rume
in 1870, and after befug^ assistant rector of St,
Peter's, New Brightoa, Staten Island, in 187&'72
was private secretary to Arehbifihop MeCloakey
until 1884, when he was appointed private cham-
berlain to Pope Leo XIIL with the title of mon-
signore, and in 1891 became vicar-general of the
archdioce!ie of New York. In 1892 he was made do-
mestic prelate of the pope, and in 1 895 was appointed
prothonotary apostolie and consecrated titular
binhop of Zeugma and auxiliary bishop of Nev
York. On the death of Archbishop Corn pa of
New York in May. 1902, he was appointed admin-
istrator of the archdioeede^ and five months later
himself became archbishop.
FARMER, HUGH: Dissenting English minister
and theological writer; b, near Shrewsbury Jan. 20,
1714; d, at Walthamstow (7 m. n*n.e. of London),
Essex, Feb. 5, 1787. After studying five years
(1731-36) in Philip Doddridge's academy in North-
m
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Farel
Fast-Day
■fPtoQ, he look charge of the congregation at
fitth^nttow in 1737, whose pastor he ri^mairicd
ll 17B0, In 1761 he ivmoved to London, where
lens &fterDOon preacher at Salterns HaU (1761-72)
■dilBo one of the preachers of the " merchantn'
^bm " on Tuesdays (1762-80). In 1762 he was
dieled a trustee of Dr. Williams' fouDdationfi and
fjK & trufitee of the Coward trust. Uia works,
vnttcQ in a vigorous style and characterized by
mm mdepen deuce and freedom of thought than
«fli i20ual in his day, exercif^ a decisive inEuenee
m ciBTCnt opinion. The principal onea are. An
in^mfif ifiio the S'alure atid Design of Christ's
Tcptpfflfion m the WUdtrness (London, 1761;
fitbed., 18*22), in which be contends that our Lord's
tanpta^tion was merely subjective, a divine vision:
APrntrtMiou 0n Miracles (1771); An Essay tm the
Bmmka of the Xew TeBiament (1775), in which he
iiiti:iUln» that demoniacs are only persona afflicted
wttli certain diseases; and The Gener<d Prevalence
ff At W&rghip of Human SpiritB in the Andent
SiOtSK Nelians (1783).
ftaiDaMifBT: 11, DodiiOD. Memoir* of the Life and Wn-
fap ^ Hmh Forma: London^ 1804; A, Kippi4. Bio-
§mtl^ Biiiannim. V. e64-M5. jb. 1793; a Pulmer, jVim-
mfimmiU* MvmariaS, iii. 492-^3. ib. tS03; DNB. xviii.
FARKOVTUS {FAKKESroS),STAKISLAUS: Po-
M aittitrinitarian; b. in the first half of the
Kteaitli centufy; d. apparently after 1622. The
fcti «?eiit know^ in his life is that he was at Mar-
luif mMar., 1564, when Johannes Pincienus gave
liim A letter of recommendation to BuUinger.
Tift mcmths later he matriculated at Heidelberg,
bot «aB drciady an Arian and was accordingly
QpeUed. After the Synod of Lancut, Galicia, in
15fi7 be eftablished and conducted a school in
Budec in the same province, separating from the
PdiA Unitarians who denied the preexistemce of
Christ and becoming the impassioned leader of the
km Vttitariaiis who asserted the preeminence
d thi Father over the Ron, but admitted tiie pre-
taumte of Jesus, He regarded the Holy Gho«fc
■ ipereon, but opposed any invocation of this
■Hiber of the Trinity, In regard to the baptism
of adults hy immersion, he w^aa in complete sym-
^j with the other Unitarians of Poland. After
tfae death of Famovius, his followers wc^re absorbed
^ tk great body of Unitarians or by the Cal-
™ta. (F. Loors.)
*«»u«i4peT; The early life in by; V. SmAldiw td. 1022).
prow in G. Zeltnier, HUioria crrP&>-^5oinrtii>mi. pp, 1168-
JM| Lapait. 1729. CoosuU: St*iiisl»u!i Lubienieduii,
«C itf onnofumu Poloni&a, Fmialndt. 1685; C. B&ndiuH,
yMtflfl anUtrinikxrwrum, Freistadt, 10^4; J. G,
^^^ SeUffioHumiiiakmten , . . au99fr der evangetwh-
■*»i«4ni ffircae. iv, 142-143, Jena, 173fl: F, S. Bock,
** tntUtiniiariiirum, i. 334-340, Leipflic. 1774: H.
^■hitD. Beit-Affe tur GeMekidite der evanodiidi^n Kirche in
**i*»t toL iiL. Berlin, ISaS,
JlHAm, FREDERIC WILLIAM; Dean of
•^iterbuFy; b. at Bombay, India, Aug. 7» 1831;
^it Cwiterbuiy >Iar. 22, 1903. He studied at
-% WDliam's Cbllege, Isle of Man, King's College,
Wou (B.A., 1852), and Trinity College, Cam-
6ri4s® (B,A.. 1854). He was ordered deacon in
U^ and ordained priest in 1B57, and was assistant
tiiier is Marlborough College (1854) and Harrow
School (1855-'7l), and head master of Marlborough
College (1871-76). He was select preacher at
Cambridge in 1868^9, 1872, 1874, and frequently
afterward, honorary chaplain to the queen 186&-
lS7S and chaplain in ordinary aft^r 187^^, Hiikean
Lecturer at Cambridge in 1870, and Bampton
Lecturer at Oxford in 1885. In 1876 he was in-
italled rector of St. Margaret, Westminster, and
canon of Westminster; and in 1883 was appointed
archdeacon of Westminster and nxral dean of St,
Margaret and St. John the Evangelist. In 1890 he
became chaplain to the House of Commons and in
1891 examining chaplain to the bishop of Worcester.
In 1895 he w*as made dean of Canterbuiy. In all
these positions he won distinction. As a teacher
he had the admiration of Ms i»cholar^, and as an
ecclesiastic he discharged his duties with peculiar
efficiency. His sermons, though written hastily
and marked by a somew^hat exuberant eloquence,
were listened to by thousands. His rare powers of
advocacy were specially devotetl to the improve-
ment of public school education and the cause of
total abstinence.
Dean Farrar's publications were numerous and
in varied fields. The earlier of them dealt with
pedagogy and philology and included three famous
stories of English school-life— £ric (EkUnburgh,
1858), Julian Home (1859), and St. Winifred's
(London, 1862). He prepared the commentary on
Judges (1883) for Bishop EUicott's commentaiyp
Kings (1893-94) and Daniel (1895) for the Ex-
posUor'a Bible, Wisdom (1888) for H. Wace's com-
mentary on the Apocrypha, and Luke (ISSO) and
Hebrews (18S3) for the Can^ridge Bible for S^^ooU
and CoUeget and for the Cambridge New Testameni.
Probably his beat known book was his Life and
Work of SL Paid (2 vols., London, 1879), though
his Life of Christ (2 vols., 1874) passed through
many editiotis. With these may be mentioned
The Early Bays of ChristtGniiy (2 vols., London,
1882); The Messages of the Books (1884) j Lives
of the Falker$ (1889); and The Life of LiifU: Further
Stvdies in the Life of Chrkt (1900). His Hulsean
and Bampton Lectures were published under the
titles respectively of The Witness of HiMory to
ChriM (1871) and The History of Interpretation
(1886). Of his many volume of sermons the moat
important was Eternal Hope (1878 )j containing five
discourses preached in Westnunflter Abbey in 1877.
Herein and in Mercy and Judgment (1881 ) he de-
fended the doctrine that though there may be for
some an endless heU because they resist the grace
of God beyond the grave, there is no hell of material
fire, and for the great majority, through God's
mercy and Christ's ^crifice, a complete purification
and salvation.
Bt&uaaaAfav: EeginAld Ffirrsx, LifA of Frederic WUlmm
Farrar, LDiidon. 1904 (by his son). A memoir by Dean
William Lefray of Norwitrh w»i prefiied to tbe Life of
Christ. LonilDn, 1003. Consult aleso Three Sermon*
pruached in Cathvirml of ChriMi Church. Canterburv, Mnrch
£9, 1 90S, bu A. J. MuDfi and others, ib. 1003.
FAST-DAY: A day specially appointed for
[Mjnitcnce and prayer. Repentance is a demand of
God upon hmnanity which has fallen into sin. It
ever remains the duty of the individual as well as
Fast-Day
Fastinff
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOQ
of the Christian congregation, and has at all times
been acknowledged by the people of God, who
give public expression to it by observing general
fast-days, when the individual is reminded not
only of his own sins, but also of the fact that his
sin stands in the closest connection with the sin of
the whole, — " Whether one member suffer, all
the members suffer with it " (I Cot. xii. 26; Eph.
iv. 16).
In Israel the Day of Atonement (Lev. xvi.) was
a general fast-day and special fast-days are men-
tioned (Judges XX. 26; I Sam. vii. 5-6, xxxi. 13;
Joel i. 13-14; Jonah iii.; Matt. xii. 41; see Atone-
ment, Day of; Fasting, I.). In the first centuries
of the Christian Church Wednesdays
Special and Fridays were fast-days, and
Fast-days, special seasons of fasting arose (see
Fasting, II.). In Protestant coun-
tries special fast-days have been appointed and
annual fast-days have beea instituted. For exam-
ple, in Germany, the elector John George I. of
Saxony ordered a day of general repentance and
prayer in 1633 because of the misery following the
Thirty Years* War, and at the outbreak of the
Franco-German War in 1870 the king of Prussia
appointed a fast-day for his realm. The number
of annual fast-days has varied from one to four.
As early as 1852 the effort was made to have a com-
mon fast-day for all Germany, and at present the
Wednesday before the last Sunday after Trinity
is so observed in Prussia and in most States of
North and Central Germany. (J. L. Sommer.)
The New England Fast-day of the early settlers
was an inheritance of Hebrew, Continental, and
EInglish custom, and has significance as indicating
the recognition of divine providence in colonial
affairs. The history of its observance naturally
falls into two periods: (1) The period
The New of special fasts, preceding 1694; (2)
England the period of regular annual fasts.
Fast-days, since 1694 (in Massachusetts only to
1894). The story of New England fast-
days begins at Plymouth, where a prolonged drought
in the early summer of 1623 was the occasion of an
order of the governor appointing July 16 (old style)
as a day of humiliation and prayer, an event fol-
lowed almost immediately by refreshing showers.
In 1636 a new law code at Plymouth pro\ided
for the civil appointment of both fast and thanks-
giving days as occasion should demand. In the
Massachusetts Bay colony the first fast-days were
church observances, and such were frequent in
later history, entirely independent of civil appoint-
ment. The first fast-day sermon now extant in
full was that of John Wheelwright, preached Jan.
19, 1637, in the midst of the Antinomian Contro-
versy. Connecticut observed special fasts almost
from the beginning. Various causes produced these
particular appointments, such as drought, devas-
tation of insect plagues or of epidemic diseases, In-
dian wars, earthquakes and religious indifference.
The days were observed with scrupulous religious-
ness after the manner of the Puritan Sabbath, and
after 1675 they were for some time made the
occasion of a renewal of church covenants to pro-
mote spiritual reformation.
In the later years of the theocracy the pnetw
prevailed of observing an annual fast-day in Ihi
spring. In Massachusetts this became fixed daag
the troublous years of charter alterations, h
Plymouth it became regular after King Ffaili|i%
War. In Connecticut it began even earlier. Oa^
of deference to the Episcopal Church Conneeticit
made Good Friday the fast-day of the State inlTN^
and it became the regular custom. New Hinp-
shire had followed the same practise a few Ham,
but like Maine was influenced by Massachufletts It
adopt the first Thursday of April. Rhode Idtad
has never adopted fast-day. The ministers of ikt
colony were active in promoting the obflervanoi
of the day; and after its appointment became
purely a civil function their influence remained m
the manner of observance and often in the wordmg
of the proclamation. The character of the annud
fast long remained religious. Until the nineteenth
century two church services were held, oocupyiag
most of the day; and the people abstained fim
food until late afternoon. It was only later thift
they presumed to walk abroad, to visit, and efa
to indulge in sports. With the passing of time it
took on a more secular, and even political chancts^
until at last it was abolished in Massachusetti by
act of the legislatiu^ Mar. 16, 1894. Its idigioDi
observance has been transferred in a measure to
Good Friday, and its holiday features to Patriotic
Day on Apr. 19. Fast-day never enjoyed perai*
nent national observance, though on special ooei*
sions it has received recognition.
Henry K. Rowi.
Bibliooraphy: W. D. Love. Faat and ThankaQivi$ig Dm
of New England, Boston, 1895 (oontains biblkign|ilr
of sermons delivered on those days); J. B. Fdt, ia L
(Coleman. Ancient Chriatianitu ExempliM^ PhilftddpUi^
1860. A very valuable collection of Fast and Thuib-
g:iving Day Sermons is possessed by Union TlwolQiidl
Seminary, New York.
FASTIDIUS: One of the few literary repreflent-
atives of the old British Church. Gexmadiui
(De mr. ill., Ivi.) says that " Fastidius, a bishop <rf
the Britons, wrote a book on the Christian life to
a certain Fatalis, and another on keeping widowhood
sound in doctrine and worthy of God " ; he pboei
Fastidius between Pope Celestine I. (d. 432) ttd
Cyril (d. 444). An extant writing De vUa CkristiaM
is ascribed in one manuscript to Fastidiiw, ift
another to Pelagius, in others to Augustine (printed
in MPL, xl. 1031-46, as pseudo-Augustiniaa;
in 1. 383-402, as by Fastidius). The question d
its authorship was first thoroughly investigated ty
C. P. Caspari {Briefer Abhandlungen, und Prtdit
ten axis den zwei letzten Jahrhunderten des kirddit^
AUertums und dem Anfang des MUtelaUerSf Cto**
tiania, 1890, 352 sqq.), who decides, because it »
addressed to a woman and in other respects do*
not follow the notice in Gennadi us, that the ascnp*
tion to Fastidius can hardly be based upon tw
notice. Tlie ascription to Pelagius has diSBBculti*
(Caspari, 371), and that to Augustine is out of t)»
question. Morin (Revue bMidictine, xv. 481-490,
1898) has shown that the Vita was probably I
work of Pelagius, that therefore Fastidius is tb
probable author of the five treatises attributed b
Caspari to Agricola. The first of these is the Vil
181
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Fast-Day
FaaUnff
nentioned by Gennadius. Whether Fastidius really
wrote two books, as Gennadius says, must remam
vdecided. The VUa Christiana is pervaded by a Pe-
lig^spirit and mode of thought, but this could easily
kfeescaped Gennadius, since the author ** indicates
tnd betrays his Pelagianism rather than speaks it
oat openly and directly " (Caspari, 360). It also
bai points of contact with the letters of the Pelagian
Agrkola (Caspari, 375 sqq.; see Agricola). The
Sfiti. ad fastidium of Fastidius is in Pitra, Analecta,
1134, sqq., Paris, 1888. (N. Bonwetbch.)
Bouooeapht: H. Wharton, Hitt. de epiacopit et decanit
Lndinennbut, p. 6. London, 1095; TiUemont, Mimoirea,
irtirie "8. Germain "; KOnstle, in TQS, Ixxzii (1900). 193-
2M.
FASTING.
L Hebrew. The Fast Before Easter (§ 3).
a In the Church. The Advent Fast (§ 4).
Weekly Fasts (§1). Other Fasts (§ 6).
The Coneeption of Fast- Mode of Observance (§6).
ioK (§ 2). The Present Practise (§ 7).
L Hebrew: The word commonly used in He-
brew to express the idea of fasting is a common
Semitic possession, is used by Arameans, Arabs,
lod Ethiopians, and appears in both the early and
the Ute Old Testament writings (II Sam. xii. 16;
Dtt. ii. 3). In Isa. Iviii. 3 " fasting " is in paral-
kSsn with '' afflict the soul,'' a phrase often used
toezpress the idea (Lev. xvi. 29, 31 ; Num. xxix. 7).
Hk occasions of fasting among the Hebrews ap-
pear to have been three: (1) As a preparation for
ime religious duty. Thus Moses remained fasting
€0 Sbai for forty days and nights when about to
receive the tables of the decalogue (Ex. xxxiv. 28),
lid Daniel fasted for a considerable time before
reeeiving his revelation (Dan. ix. 3, x. 2, cf. T.
Kiildeke, GeschichU dea Qorans, G5ttingen, 1860).
(2) As an accompaniment or manifestation of
■ouning. So the Jabesh-Gileadites and David
noumed Saul (I Sam. xxxi. 13, II Sam. i. 12).
1^ fact that David did not mourn after the death
of his child by Bathsheba caused surprise in his
ittendants, and this suggests the customariness
of fastmg after a death. There was doubtless some
»Bfigiou8 significance in the act (cf. Wellhausen,
^tidaUum, p. 182). (3) As an act of self-abnega-
tttn and humility to conciUate deity (I Kings xxi.
28; Jer. xiv. 12). Specific cases are: David, when
Ik feared the death of his chUd (II Sam. xii. 16);
Abab, to avert the disaster predicted by EUjah
Qffings xxi. 27-29); Nehemiah, over the sad con-
<to« of Jerusalem (Neh. i. 4); the whole people
^M in times of peril or misfortune (II Chron. xx.
^} Jer. xxxvi. 9; I Mace. iii. 47). In postexilic
^JOesthe days on which disasters had occurred were
•^fcbrated as fast-days (2^h. vii. 3), and it be-
^•me a manifestation of consciousness of sin (Neh.
^ 1; cf. I Kings xxi. 9). The fast was also em-
W^red to secure a happy issue out of dangerous
^oeumstanoes (I Sam. xiv. 24; Esther iv. 16). By
^Law only one fast was ordained, that of the
Mijo^ Atonement (Lev. xvi. 29, cf. verse 21; see
InWEiaEiirr, Day of). Accompaniments of the
M were ceremonies like the rending of clothing
id placing of ashes on the head. The usual
nod of abstention was one day (I Sam. xxiv. 14),
High it might be three days (Esther iv. 16) or
during seven days from morning till evening (I
Sam. xxxi. 13). In postexiUc times the tendency
was to multiply fasts, in face of the clear pro-
nouncements of the prophets (cf. Isa. Iviii. and
Zech. vii. 5-6). See Synagogue. (F. Buhl.)
n. In the Church: The primitive Church took
over the custom of fasting from Judaism. Jesus
did not oppose the practise which he found preva-
lent (see above); he condemned only the ostenta-
tious fasting of the Pharisees (Matt. vi. 16-18).
From Judaism also the Church took the oldest
injunctions concerning Christian fasting. The
Jews had observed Monday and Thurs-
I. Weekly day as fast-days, and whoever wished
Fasts. to fast did so on those two days, though
there was no general command to fast.
There were also optional fast-days. The Gentile-
Christian Churches appointed Wednesday and Fri-
day. That from the beginning two days were thus
distinguished shows the dep>endence on Judaism,
although a protest is also evidenced by the change
of days. In the time of Paul no definite Christian
custom seems to have existed (Rom. xiv. 5-6), but
there was one by the time of the Didache (viii. 1).
In Tertullian's day the oi)tional character of fast-
days was still emphasized (De oratione, xviii.);
later they became obligatory, and all that was left
to the individual was the extent of the fast. It
usually lasted to the ninth hour. Fasting was based
in principle upon the sufifering of Christ. The com-
memoration of the death of Jesus on Friday seems
to be very old, and it is possible that from the
beginning (cf. Mark ii. 20), as the resurrection of
Jesus was commemorated every Sunday, so was his
death every Friday. For the observance of Wednes-
day it was not so easy to find such a motive; and
the various artificial derivations of the usage from
the history of the Passion, designating it as the day
on which Jesus was betrayed, or on which the San-
liedrin decided to kill him, are obviously later
justifications of the choice of a day. From the
beginning of the third century a third weekly fast,
on Saturday, was instituted in Rome. The expla-
nation of this varies. The statement is clearly
legendary that Peter before his struggle with
Simon Magus induced the Church at Rome to fast
with him on Saturday, and that this practise had
been maintained ever since (Cassian, De institiUis
ccenchiorum, iii. 10). But it is not impossible that
the Saturday fast was considered a weekly repeti-
tion of the fast before Easter, as Innocent I.
{Epist.j XXV. 4) and Augustine (Epiat.j xxxvi. 21)
state. It is possible, too, that an anti-Jewish
temper may have led to the institution, and that
afterward, because the Jews celebrated Saturday as
a festival, the Christians dishonored it by fasting.
The Roman custom did not spread widely. The
East always declined to adopt it and from the end
of the fourth century 6onsidered Saturday as well
as Sunday a holy day. Even Milan refused to
adopt the Roman custom, and in Africa it was
observed only here and there (Augustine, Epist.,
xxxvi. 31). When in the West three fast-days in
the week appeared too many, Wednesday, not Sat-
urday, was given up. But the most important
and solemn fast-day was always Friday.
Fastiiiff
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
The conception of fasting was the one generally
customary in antiquity. It was considered an
exercise of piety, not directly required by God but
pleasing to him, like almsgiving and
2. The Con- prayer. Mechanical formalism was
caption of occasionally opposed by the remark
Fasting, that a devout Life is more important
than frequent fasting (Shepherd of
Hennas, SimilUudo, v.). How accurately the per-
formance was balanced may be seen from the
linguistic distinction between 8tatio/'& half-fast,"
jejunium, "a complete fast," and superposiiiOf "an
additional fast " (till the next day). And how
strictly the rule w^as adhered to may be seen from
the fact that it was even thought necessary to
abstain from the Lord's Supper on fast-days (Ter-
tullian, De oratione, xix.). Every personal misfor-
tune induced pious Christians to abstain from
food and drink, and in a general calamity, such as
a persecution, the bishops usually appointed a
fast-day for the Church; in both cases the regular
days were usually chosen. The length to which
some went is seen from the prohibition of fasting
on holy days, on Sunday, and in the time between
Easter and Pentecost, on the ground that fasting
is a sign of sorrow and consequently incompati-
ble with festal seasons. The connection between
alms and fasting was early emphasized by the
custom of giving to the poor provisions saved on
fast-days.
Abstinence from eating and drinking before
religious rites and sacred festivals springs from
another conception. It is a very old and wide-
spread belief that with food demons enter into the
body of man. Hence he who wishes to have inter-
course with God, must be abstemious in order to
become a pure vessel of the Spirit.
3. The Fast For this reason the prophet prepares
before himself by fasting for the revelation
Easter. (Shepherd of Hermas, Visio^ ii. 2,
iii. 1, 10); and concerning exorcism
it is written (Matt. xvii. 20) " This kind goeth not out
save by prayer and fasting." [ITiis verse is omit-
ted in the critical text, and the word " fasting " is
omitted in the parallel, Mark ix. 29]. Absolution
and ordination were preceded by a fast. In the
Di(iac}ie (vii. 4) both the baptizer and the candi-
date fast before baptism; and the Lord's Supper was
to be received fasting. Out of such ideas the fast
before Easter developed. Easter is the only very
ancient annual festival of the Church, and to ap-
point a general fast before it was only to observe
a custom which was everywhere considered a
matter of course. The first clear evidence of the
custom occurs in the second century. Here only
the day before was observed as a fast-day, there
two or more days; others again fasted for forty
hours (Eusebius, Hist. eccL, V., xxiv. 12-13). Ap-
peal was made to Matt. ix. 15 and this fast was re-
garded as a sacred obligation of every Christian. On
the basis of the passage cited, the duration of the
fast seems to have been made coextensive with the
time of Christ's resting in the grave. On the night
before Easter the faithful assembled in the church.
With the moment at which Christ rose the fasting
ceased, and the Paschal Eucharist was celebrated
(Syriac LHdascaliaf xxi.). In the couTBe of the ikui
century the fast was extended to the six days of Ho^
Week, but the innovation was combined with ii ;;
ancient custom by making the fasting on the lart j
two days stricter. At the beginning of the foortl 1
century, in the time of the great persecution, ths 'I
forty days' fast was introduced, on the analogjrflf . j
the forty days' fast of Jesus (Matt. iv. 2), of Mom {
(Ex. xxxiv. 28) and of Elijah (I Kings xix. Q. |
The oldest testimony for the Quadragesima ii (1m ]
fifth canon of the Council of Nicsea (325); in thi 1
West it is found first in the time of Ambme: ^
Again a combination of the new with the old wm j
attempted by making Holy Week a special time
of fasting. But it was done in different mjL
Athanasius includes the '' six holy and great dayt" ,
in the Quadragesima, and makes Lent begin ivith
the Monday after the first Sunday in Lent, al i
days, even Saturday and Simday (except F^
Sunday), being fast-days, so that he gets predi^
forty days. Epiphanius, on the other hand, malm
the forty days' fast precede the six days' fast, and,
as with him Sundays are not fast-days, Lent begtH
on Sexagesima-Sunday, eight weeks before Eaatff
(Hasr., bcxv. 6; De fide, xxii.). In the AportoBe
Constitutions sdso (v. 13), the forty days preoedl
the Passover fast; but the Saturdays too are ei-
cepted, so that only five days in the week remaiL
The distinction between the two seasons of faatiag
seems to have disappeared by the end of the fourth
century, so that the forty days of Lent are ti»
regular fast days before E^aster. Though the custoi
of different churches varied in the fourth ceotuy,
in the fifth a certain amount of hannony mi
reached by fixing the fast either at six or at vem
weeks according as Saturday was treated as a lut^
day or a holy day (Sozomen, Hist, ecd., vii. 19).
Rome observed six weeks, beginning with tfal
Monday after the first Sunday in Lent. In ti»
seventh century the fast was made to begin with
the Wednesday after Quinquagesima, or AA
Wednesday. This is the present custom of tto
Latin Church. In the East the fast-season wai
also extended in the seventh century from seven to
eight weeks, which, with five fast-days in each,
makes up the total of forty. But a trace of the
older custom is still visible in the treatment of the
first or " Butter Week " [so called because in ft
butter, milk, and eggs are allowed] as a sort of
preparatory fast. See Ash Wedkosbdat; Hotf
Week; and Lent).
From the middle of the fourth centuiy the birth
of Jesus was celebrated on Dec. 25, first in Roffl^
and before the end of the century in the East aln>
It was but natural that, like Easter, the new high
festival should also be preceded by a forty day^
fast. The reckoning of the forty day*
4. The differed in the East and the West, ae-
Advent cording as Saturday was considend
Fast a holy day or a fast-day. Milan uA
the entire territory of the Gallicanlitr
urgy followed the East. The fast commenced then
with St. Martin's day. Nov. 11, and Advent mi
therefore called Quadragesima Martini; nowadays
Advent commences in the East on Nov. 15. Tbi
Roman custom appointed a shorter time aik
M
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Fastinff
ftcTwani reduced the original time still further to
be present four weeks.
In the Greek Church there is another season of
■Ming preparatory to the feast of the apostles
Vter and Paul on June 29. This also was orig-
BiDy intended to be a period of forty days; but
ince that would have conflicted with the feast of
teitecost, its beginning was fixed for the Monday
ifler the octave of that feast, which reduces it
B Bome years to only nine days. There is evidence
if a fast after the long festal season from Easter to
tatocost from the end of the fourth century in
ifferent parts of the Church, Western as well as
Eutem, apparently connected to some extent
■ith the feast of the apostles, though no trace of it
Bov remains in the West beyond the single day's
vigfl. A fast before Epiphany was customary in
the fourth century within the domain of the Gallican
Ktoigr, in northern Italy, France, Spain, so far as
the ecclesiastical power of Milan then
S Other reached. It seems to owe its origin
Fasts. to a rivalry with the Roman Christ-
mas festival; as the latter had its
fan, 80 it was thought necessary that the older
Ipqihany festival on Jan. 6 must have its fast
loo. The fast of the Virgin is the most recent of
tbfour great fasts of the Greeks. The festival of
the death of Mary, Aug. 15, was introduced by the
Bnperor Maurice (582-602); the fast lasts from
Mt 1 to Aug. 15. On the other hand the ember
fcrtia a Roman custom. The quaituor tempora,
aeeording to Leo I., occur before Easter, before
ftatecost, in September and in December. The
Biet date has been differently fixed; since Urban
fl. (1095), they fall in the weeks after the first
Aaiday in Lent, Pentecost, the Exaltation of the
Om (Sept. 14), and St. Lucy's day (Dec. 13).
Tbey are observed by fasting on Wednesday, Fri-
dqr, and Saturday, the three ancient Roman fast-
days. The meaning seems to have been originally
ttttt of supplication for a blessing on the fruits of
the earth. In some countries the second ember-
•eMon was referred to the corn-harvest, the third
to the vintage, the fourth to the olive-harvest, and
tbe first was omitted.
The mode of observing the fasts was various even
is the oldest times. In considering the large nimiber
of fast-days observed in the first Christian centuries,
it must not be forgotten that the population of the
Sooth, and especially that of the East is satisfied
vith meager and primitive food, and hardly knows
anjr regular times for meals. None the less, the
i^qoirement of fasting during the whole of Lent
seemed too difficult, and even in the
(• Kode of fourth century all Christians were not
OfcNrfaiice. enjoined to fast during the whole
forty days. Most fasted two or three
^•eb (Chiysostom, Ham. xvi. ad papul. Anii-
^Blm.). By fasting was generally understood absti-
inee from all food till evening, or one meal a day;
nd this was to be as simple as possible. In the
ht centuries only bread, salt, and water was
Ibwed. Afterward fruits and eggs, sometimes
ih and even poultry were allowed, so that the
sting was finally limited to a prohibition of fiesh
id wine (Socnites, Hist, ecd,, v. 22). To limit
thus the enjoyment of food to the barest necessi-
ties, or to refrain from certain designated articles
of food constitutes " abstinence " in the teclmical
sense. The injunctions were at first only of local
or provincial authority. During tlie Middle Ages
a vast system of casuistry developed in the Roman
Chureh touching upon questions of permitted and
forbidden food, indulgences and dispensations. In
the fourth century (canons 1., li. of the Council of
Laodicea, c. 360) ecclesiastical legislation made
Lent a tempus clausum, by prohibiting anniver-
saries of martyrs, weddings, and birthday cele-
brations.
At present the laws of the Greek Church are
stricter than those of the Roman. It still observes,
besides the four great seasons of fasting, also the
vigils of the Epiphany, St. John
7. The Baptist's day and Holy Cross day.
Present and the weekly fast on Wednesday
Practise, and Friday; so that half of the year
is spent in fasting. The people are ssfid
as a rule to observe the fasts with strictness, but the
educated classes have in large measure emanci-
pated themselves from these regulations, and even
the clergy are not enthusiastic advocates of their
observance. In the Roman CathoUc Chureh the
influence of changed social conditions and climate has
brought about a mitigation of the law of fasting.
Advent has partially lost its character as a season
of fasting, and the rules for Lent are generally
very lenient. The ember-days are still observed.
Of the three weekly fast-days Friday is retained,
though as a day not of strict fasting but of absti-
nence from meat. The Church of Rome cares less
for the amount of fasting than for the act of
obedience performed by its members in observing
its rules on tiiis point. [These vary considerably
in different places. Speaking generally, the obli-
gation of fasting is not imposed upon any persons
imder twenty-one or over sixty; and those who are
boimd to fast are allowed to take, besides the one
meal a day of the older use, a small piece of bread
with tea or coffee in the morning, and a light meal
or collation in the evening. The fast before com-
munion, on the other hand, is absolute, not allow-
ing even a drop of water from the preceding mid-
night.]
In the Lutheran Church the fast-seasons arc
continued in days appointed for penance and
prayer (see Fast-day). They are generally ob-
served about the time of the old fast-days, e.g.,
the ember-days, or are specially appointed on
account of pu&lic calamities, great wars, destruc-
tive storms, and the like. Lent is still spoken of
as a season of fasting, and is considered by stricter
Protestants as a time in which music, dancing,
games, public amusements, and weddings are pro-
hibited. In many places the people still abstain
from eating and drinking before receiving the
Lord's Supper; otherwise fasting is considered a
Roman Catholic practise. [Calvin, whose views
were generally adopted by the Reformed churches,
commends the practise of fasting, if guarded against
superstition; and the Westminster Confession says
that " solemn fastings " are " in their times and
seasons " to be used in a holy and religious manner.
Fatalism
Fauatiis of Biez
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZCXJ
m
Thus in Scotland it was long customary to observe
a yearly fast on some day in the week preceding the
Communion Sunday: but the religious side of this
observance has largely fallen into disuse, and the
day has become merely a public holiday. For the
history of the New England usage, derived from
the Puritans, see Fast-day. The Church of Eng-
land has a table of fasts in its Prayer-book, in-
cluding all Fridays, Lent, the ember-days, and
certain vigils, but merely enjoins a special measure
of devotion and abstinence on these da3rs, laying
down no precise law for their observance.]
H. ACHELIS.
Biblioobapht: I. Bensinger, ArchOologie, pp. 165, 464, 477;
Nowaok, ArchAoloifie, ii. 270 sqq.; SchQrer, Getchichte,
ii. 489-491 and consult the indexes of original and of
Eng. transl.: Smith. Rel. of Sent., pp. 433-434; BD, i.
854-865; EB, ii. 1505-08: KL, iv. 1251-52.
II. A list of early treatises, mostly in Latin, is in
Hauck-Her»og, RE, v. 770, and in J. E. Volbeding, In-
dex diaaeriationum, pp. 119-120. Leipsic, 1849. The best
treatment of the subject is L. Duchesne, Chriatian Worahip,
Eng. transl., London. 1904. Ck>nsult: Bingham, Originea,
book xxi.; J. C. W. Augusti, DenkwGrdigkeiten, x. 309-
420; H. Liemke, Die QuadraoenmaUFaaten der Kirche,
Munich. 1853; J. H. Blimt. Dictionary of Doctrinal and
Hiatorical Theology, pp. 2:10-27 b, London. 1870; A. Lin-
senmayr, Entwicklung der kirchlichen Faatendiaaiplin,
Munich. 1877; F. X. Funk, in KirchengeachichtlicKen
Al^ndlungen, pp. 241-278. Paderborn, 1897; T. Zahn,
SkixMen aua dem Leben der alien Kirche, pp. 359-360. 368-
373. Erlangen. 1898; W. E. Addis and T. Arnold. Catho-
lic Dictionary, pp. 371-373; DCA. i. 661-665; KL, iv.
1241-51.
FATALISM: The doctrine that all events are
determined by fate, instead of by natural causes,
and that nothing that man can will or do affects
the course of events. While in the fatalistic view
of the world everything is ruled by necessity, this
is quite a different kind of necessity from that of
Determinism (q.v.), with which fatalism is often
confused. Indeed, fatalism and determinism are
diametrically opposed to one another. The deter-
minist, or necessitarian, says that events take
place with necessity, but that they are made neces-
sary by events immediately preceding, to which
they stand in a relation of cause and effect. The
fatalist, on the other liand, eliminates natural
causes entirely. In his view the ultimate result
will remain the same, no matter how much the
antecedent causes be varied. For example, be-
lieving that a blind fate has decreed his death at
a certain time, the fatalistic soldier goes into the
battle with the firm conviction that he will not
meet his death a moment sooner than if he had
stayed at home. While fatalism bears a resem-
blance to predestination it is essentially a heathen
view, and leaves no room for freedom of the wifl,
or for any personal relation between man and God
the Father. Fatalism appears in Greek philosophy,
and sometimes in modem pantheism, but it has
found its fullest expression in the fanaticism of
Mohammedanism.
Bibliography: Abbd Plouquet. Examen du fataliame, Paris.
1757: A. Monod, Le Fataliame, ib. 1858; B. Conta. The-
orie du fataliame, BnisselH, 1877: D. Bosurgi, // Fata-
liamo «... liberth morale, Catania. 1893; A. Lalande.
in Revue philoaophique, xlii U896), 225 sqq.
FATHERS OF CHRISTIAN DOCTRINE. See
Christian Doctrine, Society of.
FATHERS OF THE CHURCH. See Caumm
Fathers; Patristics, Patrouxjy.
FAUCHET, fO^shA", CLAUDE (AIM FaticM)t
French bishop and revolutionist; b. at Doinee (Q
m. s.s.e. of Nevers), Department of Ni^vre, SnC
22, 1744; executed in Paris Oct. 31. 1793. fij
devoted himself to the Church and sood
famous as an orator. He was grand vicar of thi
archbishop of Bourges, preacher to the Idn^ tai'
abb4 of Montfort-Lacarre, in Brittany. In 17S|
he was deprived of his office as preacher to the kl|
on account of his revolutionary views; and
July 14, 1789 he was one of the leaders in theattai-
on the Bastile. He was a member of the Cominni^
and was chosen by that body to deliver an ikff.
civique de Benjamin FranlUin (Paris, 1790). Ki
De la religion nationale (Paris, 1789), led to W
appointment as constitutional bishop of Calvadoik
1791. The same year he was elected deputy to tk'
legislative assembly, afterward to the conventk^:
At first a Jacobin, he was forced by the executioDcf
the king, which he had opposed, to side with (hi
Girondists. He was arrested on July 18, 17M^
and guillotined with the Girondist deputies on OtL
31 . Besides publbliing a number of revfAutioBttf j
addresses, he edited La Bouche de Fer and thi
Journal dea Amis. His (Euvres choisia are ii '
J. P. Migne's Collection . . . des orateurs taaii,
vol. Ixvi. J
FAUCHEUR, fo^shOr', MICHEL LE: FmA
Protestant preacher; b. at Geneva 1585; d. ■
Paris Apr. 1 , 1657. At eighteen he began preadaqg
at Dijon and early won a great reputation at ii .
orator. He was pastor at Montpellier 161M1* ;
and from 1636 till his death he preached at Cham- \
ton. In the interim he had been reduced to aikofli '1
by Richelieu, who was trying to unite the tM <
branches of the Church. Besides a large number cf <
sermons, which are still worth reading, he pub-
lished, Train de la Cbne (Geneva, 1635); tad
TraU6 de Inaction de Voraieur (Paris, 1637). A ,
translation of his sermon, " The Wages of Sin ud ;
the Reward of Grace '' is found in Ingram Cobbta^ ;
The French Preacher (London, 1816). ^
Bibliography: G. Tallemant dea Reaux, Lea flirtriiflU '
Paris, 1834-35; A. R. Vinet, H%mL de la pridication, ?t^
1860.
FAULHABER, faul-hfl'ber, MICHAEL: Gcmai .
Roman Catholic; b. at Heidenfeld (18 m. n^rf
Wttrzburg) xMar. 5, 1869. He studied in Wfln-
burg (D.D., 1895), and after being prefect of tb '
theological seminary in the same city, 1893-0^
spent the years 1896-98 in libraries in RomeiiKl
other Italian cities. He became privat-dooeot ii '
the University of WUrzburg in 1899, and in 19(13
was appointed professor of Old Testament exegeii
in the University of Strasburg. He has writta
Die griechischen Apologeten der klassischen Vattr^
zeit, I., Eusebius (WOrzburg, 1896); Die Prophdmr
Catenen nach romischen Handachriften (Froboi^
1899); Hesychii Hierosolymitani interprelatio IwM
prophetai (1900); Hohelied-, Proverbien- %tnd PfBdi-
ger-Calenen (Vienna, 1902); and Die Vesperptdmm
der Sonn^ uudFeiertage (Strasburg, 1906).
EELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
FanatiiK of Ries
■P^ fiUIKHBR. JOHN ALFRED: MethodM Epis-
^^^^Mdkn; b. at Grand Pr^, N. S., July 14, 1S57-
^1e was graduated at Acadia College, Wolfville,
^^. S, ia 1878 and at Drew Theological Seminary
^n ]^>l, supplementing hia studiea at Andover
*X*lieologieal Seminary and the uiiiveraities of Lc*i|>-
m^t and Bonn. He entered the Methodist Episcopal
^^"jmi^ry in 1883 and licld pastorates at Beach
X^e, Pa. <1883-84). Ytitesville, Pa. (18S4-&5),
:PDirk?hcf^, Scmnton, Pa. (1885-87), Taylor, Pa,
Cl'^^-^t-'. tireat Bend, Pa. (1892-94), and Che-
tnin^Tf ^tn-H, Binghamton, N, Y. (1894-97)*
Since 1897 he has been professor of historical
^Jieology in Drew Theological Seminary » He has
'wattea The Methodisis (New York, 1903), Cyprian
ftajdnnnti, O., 1906), and Erasmus (1908).
FAMCE, WILLIAM HERBERT PERRY: Bap-
tte; b. at Worceater^ Masa.. Jan. \5, 1 859- He was
piduated at Bpotuti University in 18S0 and Newton
Tbeolapcal Institution in 18M. He was instructor
ia aatbematics in Brown Univeraity 1881-82, and
m pifltor of the State Street Baptiiit Church,
ipri^ld* Mass., 18S4-S9 and of the Fifth Avenue
Baptist Church, New York Oty, 1889-99. Since
JiB9 he has been president of Brown University.
^ was elected president of tbe Religious Education
^«Bodation in 1906, He lectured before the
uiriiity School of the University of Chicago in
'898^99 and has been a resident preacher at Har-
^hrd University. He has niTitten Roger WUimtns
^fidkk Doctrine of Soui Liberty (Boston, 1902).
FAUSSET, AHDREW ROBERT; Church of Eng-
wd; b. near Enniskillen (75 m. w,s.w. of Belfast),
bounty Fennanagh, Ireland, Oct. 13, 1821. He
studied at Trinity College. Dublin (B.A., 1843), was
ordered deacon in 1847, and ordained priest in
1S4S, and wan curate of Bishop Mitldleham, Dur-
luun, 1S47-S9. Since 18-59 he has been rector of
8t. Cutbbert's, York, and has been canon of York
Minster since 1885, He was chaplain at Bex,
Switseiiand, in 1870 and at St. Goar on the Rhine
ia 1873, In tbeolo^ he belong to the Evangelical
achool of the Church of England. He has written
Scripture and the Prayer Book in Harmony (l^ondon,
1854); Harm P&almw^ (1877); The EngiiJihman's
Critical and EzposOory Cyclop(Mia (London, 1878);
The Church and World {iSTSh The Milknnium
(18S0); The Signs a/ ihe Times {imi)i Propheey a
Sure Light (18S2): The LaUer Rain (1883); True
Science Confirming Genesis (18S4); The Personal
Anlichriid (1884) ; SpirUualiem (iSStS): Criikul and
Exp&eUoTy C&mmmtary on the Book of Judges
(ISSa); and Gnide to the Study of the Book of Com-
wum Prayer ( 189*1). He has edited various classical
authors od well as the EngUsh translation of J. A.
Beogeri Gnomon Nmd TeMamenti (5 vol.'i., Edin-
byf^gh, 1857-58), and A. R. Vinet's Homiimque
(London, 1858), and wrote the second and fourth
volumes of The Critical and Expianatftry Pocket
Bibi^ (4 vols,, Glasgow, 1862), and the third, fourth,
and sixth volumes of the Crilical, Ejtperimmiial, and
Practical Commentary (G vols., London, 1871).
FAUSTTNUS: Preabyter at Rome under Pope
Liberius (352-366), prominent in the Luciferian
agitation (see LuciFfiH of CAtJi.EiB and tbm
LtJciFERiANs)* Conjointly with the otherwise
unknown preeb3rter Marcellinus, he delivered to
the emperor Theodosius at Constantinople in 383
or 384 a document (Libtlius precum. ad impera-
tores) entitletl De confemione mrw fidei el OBtenia*
livne sacrfF communion i£ el persecutiotie adr^rsan-
iium veritalin (MPL, xiu. 83-107; CSEL, xxxv,
5-44), wherein he defended the Luciferiani and
entreated the emperor for protection against their
advetsariea* His deductions are largely over-
draiftTi and partisan. The prmfalio t« this raeraorial
is not the work of Faust inus, but of an Ursinian
(see ITrsinuSj Antipope). Another work by
Faustinua is the unimportant tract, De trinilole $im
fidd advenms Arianm (MPL, xiii, 37-^80).
G, Knt^oER.
BiRuooBAFKT; G«iuiAd] uh, Dt viT. UL. chsp. irvi.; liidore
of Bpun, De \fir. UL, chap, xiv.; G^ Krttger, iuft/W tea
CalariM. pp. 62-S3. SS-SBh 94 sqq., LBipnie, 1880; O*
Raupchen, Jnhrhtirher der t^^^iHehfn KiTchs untef . * »
Thtfid&thiM. pp, 140, 199-200. Freiburg, 1S07; DCB, iL
40^.
FAUSTUS OF MILEVE, See MANirHEANS, § 14.
FAUSTUS OF RIEZ (Lat. Reji; Famtm Rtjemis):
Prominent representative of Semi-Pelagianism in
the south of Gaul: b. between 405 and 410; d.
toward the end of the fifth century. He w*aj
probably of British origin, according to the posi-
tive assertions of Avitus and Sidonius; against
this there m nothing but the description of him
a^ a Gaul by men at a distance like
Life, PoBseasor and Facundus. He re^
ceived a good philosopliical edu cation »
and knew not a little of the Scriptures, but he was
neither an original thinker nor a thoroygh theolo-
gian. At an early age he entered the monastery
of L^rins (q.v.), then in a very flourishing slate
under Abbot Maximum, whom he succeeded in 433.
He kept his monks in strict discipline, and defended
the interests of his monastei^ against the bishop
of the diocese, Theodore of Fp6jus, winjiing liis case
when it came before a synod held by the metro-
poUtan Ravenniua (the Third Bynod of Aries,
probably in 456). He was subs^^quently chosen
bishop of Riez (in Basses AJpes, 50 m. n,e. of Mar*
seilles), not later than 462, in which year he appears
in Rome as a bishop; the date of his election is
probably between 458 and 400. He continued to
distinguish himself by liis ascetic life, and became
known as a preacher. A Bjmod wa^ held at Arlea
c* 475 to deal with the case of Lucidus, a teacher of
thoroughgoing predeatinarianiam, and another one
soon after at Lyons. Acting at the request of thefle
synods, FauHtus succeeded in inducing Lucidus to
sign a fairly complete retractation, and also wrote
a hirge work De gratia in wliich he took a Semi-
Pelagian po^ititm. He was ali^o a prominent figure
in the Christologic^d and Pncvmiatological contn>
veraies of his day, Iti 474, with other bishops,
he conducted negotiations in the emperor's nam©
with Euric, king of the Visigoths, and later, prob-
ably by Euric 's conquests, was driven into an exile
which apparently terminated in the year of Euric 's
death, 485, His own death probably followed from
five to ten yeai^ later. The Church of his province
PaustUB cf HI ex
f eaatfl stnd FaatlvalB
THE NEW SCHAFF-HEHZOG
honored him aa a aaint, altbough the title waa not
sanctioned by the wider body on account of his
Semi -Pelagian teachings.
In hie calalogue of authors Gecinadius gtv^ a
list, avowedly incomplete, of the wri tings of
Fauatus [NPXF, 2 eer., iii. 399], This in*
ciudea first a treatise in two books De Spiriti*
san^Oj defending the divinity of the
Writings. Holy Ghost against Macedoniuji, and
the two books De gratia, in the ex-
tant text of which there are evident gaps; and
Bergmann brings forward, though uncon\^ncinglyJ
the theory that it has suffered from interpolations
of an August inian tendency. Gennadi us further
mentions " a small book against the Arians and
the Macedonians/^ which, in epite of various at-
tempts at Identification, may be taken as hmt;
another " against those who say tliat there is
something incorporeal in creatures, affirming by
Scriptural and patristic tee^timony that there is
nothing incorj>oreal except God/' which is extant
as the fourth epistle of Faustufi; a letter addressed
*' to a certain deacon named Grcecus who, leaving
the CathoUc faith, went over to the Nestorian
impiety"; and *^ a religious epistle to Felix, the
pretorian pn^fcct, exhorting to the fear of God/'
given by Engelbrccht as EpUL vL, and related to
his Eput. ix. Be6ideiJ those mentioned by Genna-
di us, there are other letters undeniably authentic —
that to Paulinus of Burdegala {EpiaL w in Engel-
brecht), that to Lucidufi (Episi. i.), and five to
Ruricius (viii.-xii,). Of special interest are the two
homilies on the baptismal symbol, which since Gas-
pari'i investigations have been generally attributed
to Faustus, although more recently W. Bergman n,
Sitidf4m mi einer krlttxchcn Siehlungder aUdgalliMhen
PredigtliMeratur derS. und 6. Jahrhunderten, Leipsic,
1898, has contested thia attribution, on grounds which
are worthy of notice if not conclusive. It remains to
mention a large number of serfnons which are said
to have been current, although the obscurity which
still rests upon the whole question of early Latin
homiletical literature prevents the determination
of the exact extent of tliis activity. Engelbrecht,
indeedi asserts that there are extant two collec-
tions of the Bc^rmons of Faust us, one of twenty- two
in the ninth or tenth eentuiy manuj^cript known as
Durlach 36 (now Carlsruhe S40), and seventy-four
originally attributed to Eusebius (printed in the
BMiotheca maxima ^ VI. 618 sqqO- But this
aBBumption is hazardous. In the Durlach codex,
nine sermon a bear the name of Faust inns, but it ia
both uncertain whether thLn name points to Faustus
and whether the remaining sermons are even by
the Bame author; while both here and in the other
collection certain sections may be certainly iden-
tified as the work of Ccesarius.
The historical position of Faustus is conditioned
by his support of the Semi-Pelagian theology (see
Semi-Pelagiakism). Afcording to him, all men
are bom in original sin; but although
Theology, the freedom of the human will is
weaken etl by sin, it yet remains an
integral part of human nature even m the sinner,
Grace cooperates with free will to establish good
in man; but man, through his freedom, takes the
initial step. In Faustus' mind grace coasolei
practically preaching with its promises and vim-
ings; grace as an adjtUorium divinunu, in the Aai*
gustinian conception, an interior tmnsfofming power, j
is unknown to him. The passages whicb seeoi
to recognise such a power are to be e-Tpbioed,
by the fact that Faustus regards the natural
of the will aa a gift of grace, or looks upon the Wp
ings of the circumstances of life in somethkf dj
the same light, as in his treatment of the paciy^
of the prodigal son. In spite cf a casual
(in the same sense) of gratia caoperanx or
adjtUorium, and of Ms strong condejaaatioi]
Pelagius, he really takes a Pelagian position, i
ther removed tlian Cassian from Augusttofi^ I
destination is made dependent on forekiKn^e(||^
God wills only what is just and right, bat
freedom to terminate in evil. In Trinitariaa ■
Chnstological questions Faustus adheres to ll
orthodox Augustinian formulajs. (R. Bzeb^o.)
BiBLJooHAPtf r: The handiest ed, of the wriciiiei «f Fui
in by Eni^lbrcf^ht, in CSEL, xxi., Vittmi, ISOt; i
moat import&nt axe iq MPL^ LTiii. 7i3 iqq.: tbe lilli
of FauAtui and RuriciUB, ed,^ Knudtw »n in MQB, IM
ant, viii CtS87). 205 sqq.. cf. pp. liv, iQq.; for tut
iition of th© creed consult C. P. Quroim, Umd
. . , Qudlm tur Gs»diiehte de* Taaftjfwtboit^ ii. IS
Chmtianitt. 1S69; idem, Antidata, i. 315 sqq.. fbt I ^
and the tract De tymbolt*, ed* C^spari, jj in Alk imd JTm
Qu^ttn. ib. 1879. CorLMult: A. Koch. Dff- h&ti^
tua, Stutteart, 1S95; Tillpmont, Af^mwv*, xiri. lOlqU
Hintoin litt^raire iU £a Frane$^ ii. BB5 H|q.; O&Hut^ hh
tiurt mcrfa, x. 420-437; A. Engelbrecbl, Bhidv*, fkf
die Schriften dr» Bitchof§ ran Rrii^ Faustu*. Vi^nki, IMS;
ZetUdirift /fir die ^tirrmchltchen OymfuuitH, IWfk f(h
2S0 sqq., 4S1 sqq.. 677 *qq.: Moria, ia Bmru0 hiitMidbi^
ix (1S92}. 40K|q.. cf. vili US&l). 97 iqq.: C. F. iisdl,
Cd*aj-iu# iiofi Arelatt, pp. 324 aqq,, Ldpde, iSM; S«»-
ijer. Chritlian ChuriA, ii. 700-707 et pusm; Bmmi^
DoffTtm, iv. 314, v. 252 aqq. et paaaim; KL, ir. 1779-8L
FAVREp fft'vr, HERHE (PETRUS FABHl):
Jesuit; b. at Villardet (now ViUard, 3 m. w,d
Beaufort), Savoy, Apr. 13, 1606; d, at Baidfloi
Aug. 1, 1546. He wa^ one of the seven ori^iDil
associates of Ignatius Loyola (q.v.), who took wtli
him the solemn vow Aug. 15, 1534, in Mi.
He was the first to gather followers in GenowJ*
and he educated them by tlie E^treUia Spn-
tualia (q.v.) while he waa attending the rdifflO*
eoUoqnies of WonuB (1540) and Regensburg (iMlJt
During hiit residence at Cologne (1543-44), tf i
clear from the first volume of his Carim ^ <*»
eserUos (Bilbao, 1894), he vigorously opposed Areli-
bishop Herman of Wied (q,v.), who bchned to-
ward Protestantism, He then beg^ a suca^
propaganda in behaU of his order in Portug»l od
Spain, and was appointed to take part in the «^
sions of the Council of Trent, but died at BarcdflO*
on his journey thither. K, BmimM^
Bi^L.ioonJii'iT'ir. The " Letters and Lltfirmry Wotto" •
FavTC wero ptibliobed, 2 voU.* BiLbBO, 1894, yvI a. ^
taioA also the Af^THoriaie. ed. M. Bouix. I^xIa, lS7i 0*
Bult. IL Comely. Ltbtn dew mtigen Fetru* Fattf, F*
burg. 1873; E. Ootheia, ienoHv* von Lovota, pfn SH
nqq., S63 stiq.. Hfille, 18f^5.
FAVRE (FABER), PIERRE FRAHffOIS:
Catholic: b, at St, Bartbelemi, canton of Viad*
Switzerland, in the beginning of the eigfateeatih
eentnry; d, at Assens in the district of EchiUfiA
canton of VEud, about 1780. He bacuae pnmk t
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
VanstfUi of Blei
Feasts and FestiTala
TjBSOdea, in Ix>wer Languedoc, and accompanied
V^a&QoiB de la Baume, bishop of Halicamassus, on
A tcHir of visitation to Cochin-China, as his secretary
and confessor. The bishop arrived at Macao in
1738 and was detained and made a captive there,
aft the instigation of Portuguese Jesuits who re-
aented an investigation of their intrigues against
the French missionaries. In Mar., 1739, the bishop
ii»B able to continue his journey and after two
months landed in Cochin-China. He admonished
the missionaries to forget their quarrels and restore
hannony. Complaints were brought against the
BoTtuguese Jesuits who had excommimicated many
QQ the pretense of Jansenism, and when the bishop
opposed the Jesuits, he was accused of Jansenism
himfldf and of disturbing the public peace. Letters
horn Rome, addressed to him, were intercepted
lUid never reached him. As he saw that peace was
Unpcesible, he divided the provinces between the
Jesuits, the French missionaries, and the Francis-
Cans; but sorrow and ill treatment (or poison)
Caused his death in 1741. Favre took his place,
and not being able to prevail against the Jesuits,
'ivent to Rome to give an account of his visitation.
Thence he returned to his native country where he
published in 1746 his Lettres idifiantes et curieuses
Mur la visile apoatolique de M. de la Baume d la
Coehinchine en Vannie 17 /fi, giving a report of
Jesuit misdemeanors and intrigues. The book was
eondenmed by the bishop of Lausanne and pub-
licly burned at Freiburg, and the Jesuits bought up
every copy they could. (J. Pfotenhauer.)
BiBUoaKAPHT: M. MQlbauer, KatKoliache Mianonen in
O&Undien, pp. 171 sqq., 262 sqq.. Freiburg, 1852; G.
Wameck, ProtettayiH^he Beleuehtung der rumitehen An-
griff € auf dim evangdUcKe HeidenmiMion, pp. 388 sqq..
Gtltenloh. 1884-^5.
PAWCETT, JOHN: English Baptist; b. at
Lidget Green, near Bradford (10 m. w. of Leeds),
Yorkshire, Jan. 6, 1740; d. at Brearley Hall, near
Wainsgate (14 m. s.w. of Leeds), July 25, 1817.
Converted under George Whitefield's preaching at
sixteen, he joined the Baptist Church at Bradford
in 1759, and in 1764 entered the Baptist ministry.
He settled in the parish of Halifax and remained
there till the end of his life, preaching first at Wains-
gate, then at Hebden Bridge, where a new church
was built for him in 1777. In 1772 he declined a
call to London as the successor of Dr. John Gill
(q.v.), and in 1793 the presidency of the Baptist
Academy at Bristol. In addition to his work as
a pastor and author, he conducted an academy
at Brearley Hall, and also, for a short time, an
institution for the training of Baptist ministers.
Of his Hymns (Leeds, 1782), numbering 166, the
best known are, " How precious is the Book divine,"
*• Thus far my God hath led me on," and " Blest
be the tie that binds." He also published a number
of works on practical religion, including. Advice to
yoii<A (Leeds, 1786); and An Essay on Anger (1787);
also The Royal Devotional Family Bible (2 vols.,
London, 1811).
BnuooaAPHT: J. Fawoett, The Life, Minittry, and Wri-
tinoe of . . Jdfin Fawxtt, London, 1818 (by his son);
DI^B, zviii. 257-268: S. W. Duffie d. Engliek Hymns, pp
79-74. New York. 1886; Julian. Hymnotogy. p. 373.
FEAST OF THE ASS. Sbb Ass, Feast of the.
FEAST OF FOOLS. See Foolb, Feast op.
FEASTS AND FESTIVALS.
I. Hebrew.
Terms and Underlying Principles (§1).
Provisions of the Priest Code (J 2).
Ck>mparison of Other Codes (J 3).
Order of Development of the Codes (§ 4).
Changes in Character of Festivals (§ 6).
II. Christian.
Sunday and Sabbath (§1).
Annual Feasts (S 2).
The Protestant Churches (§ 3).
I. Hebrew: To express the idea of religious fes-
tival , the Hebrew has two words, mo*edh and ^agh
(At. hajj). Mo*edh denotes a set time for coming
together, and can be employed for any festival
(Ezek. xlv. 17) except Sabbaths and new moons
(II Chron. viii. 13; cf. Isa. i. 14). IJagh means
particularly a festal dance, comes to mean festival
in general, and is then applied to the
1. Terms three great feasts at which pilgrimage
and was made to the great sanctuary, and
Underlying particularly to the feast of booths
Principles, (tabernacles) in autumn. No single
principle determines the character of
feasts in the Old Testament. The feast of new moon
and perhaps the Sabbath are lunar, and upon the
sabbath reckoning in larger cycles depend the
Sabbatical and jubilee years. The feasts of un-
leavened bread, of weeks and of tabernacles are
determined by the season, at least on their agrarian
side. The Passover is a liistorical-religious commem-
oration, into connection with which the feasts of
unleavened bread and of booths are brought, and
in post-Biblical times Pentecost was brought into
this circle. The same is true of Purim and the
feast of dedication. The day of atonement is
purely religious with no fast ties to any special
date. The festivals can be considered also in their
relations to the family, to sanctuaries, to commu-
nities or to the central sanctuary.
For a historical review of the festal system the
priestly document furnishes the basis, since it is
the most developed. The classical passages are
Lev. xxiii.; for the Passover Ex. xii. 3-20, 43-50;
for the Sabbatical and jubilee years Lev. xxv.; the
institution of the offerings is in Num. xxviii.-xxix.
The result of these enactments is as follows:
Through the twofold daily offering each day becomes
a religious festival and to this daily offering the
special offerings of particular occasions are addi-
tions (Num. xxviii. 3 sqq.). The Sabbath (q.v.)
is a day consecrated to God ^ith absolute rest,
convocation at the sanctuary, and special offerings
(Num. xxviii. 9). The Passover is a house festi-
val celebrated on the fourteenth day of the first
month in commemoration of the immunity of the
Israelites in the final Egyptian plague; the pas-
chal lamb is eaten with unleavened
2. Provi- bread and its blood is sprinkled on
sions of the the door-posts. The feast of un-
Priest Code, leavened bread begins on the fifteenth
day of the first month and continues
seven dajrs; during the whole period special offer-
ings are made, and the first and last days are rest
days with special convocations. Ex. xii. 17
brings it into connection with the Exodus, Lev.
Vaaats »nd VastlTals
THE NEW 8CHAFF-HERZ0G
xxiii. 9-14 connects with it the feast of first-fruits,
after which the new harvest might be enjoyed.
Pentecost or the feast of weeks depends upon this,
occurring seven weeks later, celebrated as a rest
day and time of special offerings and convocation.
The feast of tabernacles begins on the fifteenth day
of the seventh month and continues eight days,
the first and last of which are days of convocation,
each day having its special offering. While this
feast commemorates the sojourn in the wilderness,
Lev. xxiii. 39 brings it into connection with the
harvest. The new moons are celebrated with
special offerings (Num. xxviii. 11-15); the new
moon of the seventh month is a rest day with convo-
cation, blowing of the trumpet, and special offerings.
The Day of Atonement, occurring on the tenth day
of the seventh month, is an absolute rest day with
convocation and its own ritual of offerings, a peni-
tential festival with fasting and high-priestly
atonement for sin and impurity. The Sabbatical
year occurs once in seven years, the land is not
cultivated, and the products are common prop-
erty. The jubilee year falls at the end of a cycle
of seven Sabbatical years, therefore every fif-
tieth year. It begins on the day of atonement
with the blowing of trumpets, involves a complete
rest of the land, and the people recover their earlier
possessions and Hebrew slaves their freedom.
The basis of this is the idea that the land is Yah-
weh's, while his people are his guests, his servants,
and therefore not man's servants. The religious
interest is dominant throughout. Passover, un-
leavened bread, and the feast of tabernacles are
commemorative. Especially closely connected with
religious ideas are the day of atonement, and
the Sabbatical and the jubilee year. All, with the
exception of the Passover, are celebrated with con-
vocations at the sanctuary with collective offer-
ings, among which offerings for sin are constant
excepting at the daily and Sabbath sacrifice. The
times are fixed by the months, yet the feasts of
unleavened bread, of Pentecost, and of booths are
related to the seasons and to agriculture.
Ezckiel (xlv. 17-xlvi. 15) omits Pentecost, and
locates the Passover on the fourteenth day of the
first month, with a seven days' use of unleavened
bread, witli daily sacrifice of burnt offerings, food-
offerings, and sin-offerings. And he places the feast
of tabernacles on the fifteenth day of the seventh
month, continuing seven days with special offering?.
On the days of new moon and Sabbath, offerings
are required, and a daily morning offering con-
sisting of burnt offering and food-offering. On
the first day of the first and of the seventh month
the sanctuary is to be cleansed by tlie blood of a sin-
offering. Thus Ezekiel is close to the Priest Code,
though the prince makes the offerings in the name
of the people, the feasts are fewer, atonement day
appears to be semiyearly, and the
3. Compari- household Passover is not mentioned,
son of The Deuteronomic passage is xvi. 1-17,
Other and deals with three great festivals at
Codes. the central sanctuary. In the month
of Abib occurs tlie Passover, not a
celebration at home, but at the central sanctuary
and for a single day, though unleavened bread is
to be eaten for seven days in memory of tb
hurried flight from Egypt. Pentecost is celebntcd
seven weeks after the commencement of harvotit
the central sanctuary with enjoyment of the giUti
brought. The feast of tabernacles is loosely plaeed
at the close of the harvest and vintage and is tin
celebrated at the central sanctuary. Thus Deuto-
onomy differs from the Priest Code and Ezekielinnot
fixing exactly the time of celebration, the aocom-
paniment of sin-offering is lacking, and the offering
are not those of the community as a whole, but an
enjoyed as festal meals. The Sabbath celebratioii
is provided for in the Deuteronomic decalogue, and
the basis is humanitarian. There is no Sabbatieil
or jubilee year, though a release of Hebrew debton
and slaves takes place. The festival of new mon
does not appear, still less the day of atononeot or
the double temple cleansing of Ezekiel. The ex-
position of the Yahwistic Code is complicated bj
Deuteronomic redaction of the passages wfaick
deal with the festivals (Ex. xxiii. 10-17, xiri?,
18-26; cf. xii. 34, 39, xiii. sqq.). As they stand
these passages involve a seven days' festival d
unleavened bread in Abib (commemorative), ft
harvest festival (of first-fruits), and a feast d
ingathering at the close of the year. The Sabbatk
has the same humanitarian basis as in Deuteronomyi
and the products of the land in the seventh year
are conunon property. Ex. xxxiv. mentions agiift
these same three festivals, but the feast of weeb
bears the same name as in Deuteronomy, and
verses 25, 19-20 indicate that the Passover did not
originate with Deuteronomy.
This review shows that the Priest Code and tie
Yahwistic Code stand at the two extremes of tibi
development, with Ezekiel and Deuteronomy coo-
ing in between; and, further, it is clear that tibi
order is JE, Deuteronomy, Esekiel, and P. Tte
historical writings confirm this result
4. Order of Thus in Neh. viii. 14 sqq. mention ii
Develop- made of a festival of the Priest Coda
ment of the (feast of booths) of which it ia «-
Codes. pressly said ** since the days of Joshua
. had not the children of laael
done so." In II Kings xxiii. 21-23. is found an-
other note of similar character, related to the cele-
bration at the central sanctuary. The prophetical
writings are in coimection with the Yahwistic Code,
and earlier history also accords with this. A
sacrificial feast in the city of Samuel is mentioned
in I Sam. ix. 12 sqq., and a family festival snd
sacrifice in Bethlehem in I Sam. xx. 6. There are
pilgrimages also to sanctuaries where a festal meal
is eaten (I Sam. i. 3 sqq.; cf. Hos. ix. 4-5). Mo-
tion occurs often of an ancient festival (Jud^
xxi. 19; I Kings viii. 2), while a festival of the
northern kingdom is placed in the eighth month
(I Kings xii. 32) which is probably the retaition
or reinstitution of an old custom, and has rdi-
tion to the feast of booths. Frequent mentk«i
occurs of the Sabbath and the new moon, thoufji
the latter was not legislated for in the earliert.
codes. I Sam. xxv. 2 sqq. and II Sam. xiii. 23
mention a festival of sheep-shearing, the chara^
teristic of which was a somewhat exuberant joy
The ethical character of the religion of Israd pei
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Feasts »nd Festivals
X) the exclusion of this festival from the
bservances.
I examination leads to the conclusion
'als of an agricultural character became
observances, and at the same time the
aracter of family or local celebration
id took a national form. The separation
from the natural circumstances of their
M celebration is marked by exact deter-
> mination of dat^s, while new occasions
I- of purely religious significance came
in, such as the two purifications of
Ezekiel and the day of atonement.
my is the turning-point, where the festi-
ave as a motive rejoicing before Yahweh
cvi. 11); but the first step toward the
of the festivals from the environment of
id which they arose and the determina-
religious purpose was taken in the cen-
of the cultus. Only in the case of the
he Priest Code breakJs with Deuteronomy
el and makes the celebration a home
the lamb loses its sacrificial character.
character of these celebrations was not
t under the Priest Code, as is shown by
of booths; and Lev. xxiii. still retains
1 of the connection of the three principal
h agriculture. The question whether
?, the feasts of imleavened bread, Pente-
abemacles, were instituted prophetically
>r arose among the Hebrews by adoption
[)anaanites has been variously answered.
s ix. 27 gives an account of a festival
to the feast of booths. No ground exists,
for deriving from that source the cele-
the Sabbath (cf. Amos viii. 5). On the
1 the assertion that a Sabbath rest could
ate among a pastoral people is contra-
fact« from the life of the Arabs. The
festival probably arose under nomadic
, in spite of the silence of the earliest
That the sheep-shearing festival was
; is clear from Gen. xxxviii. 13, and that
^er had pre-Mosaic antecedents is shown
18, V. 3, viii. 21 sqq., etc. Just what its
was in its earliest form is not clear, ex-
the connection with the first-bom which
had suggests that it was the occasion of
the first-fruits to deity. An Arabic fes-
j same purport existed,
the festivals already mentioned, two arose
mes. One of these is Purim, the origin
Isther purports to give, called in II Mace
Day of Mordecai. In Maccabean times
feast of the dedication of the temple,
on the eighth of Kislew, celebrating the
n of the temple after its defilement by
Epiphanes (I Mace. iv. 59; II Mace. x.
mbtless the title of Ps. 30). See the
the different festivals; also Synaoooue.
(F. Buhl.)
stian: The primitive Church apparently
ecial feast-days at the first. With the ab-
f the Mosaic law, its feasts also ceased,
»ed for perverted Judaizing legality to
n (cf. Rom. xiv. 5; Gal. iv. 9-11; Col.
V.-19
ii. 16). The original theory was that for a re-
deemed Christian every day was a feast-day. At
the same time, the need of common
1. Sunday devotional festivals in which all could
and take part led to the practise of keep-
Sabbath, ing these on the day of the week which
from the beginning enjoyed a cer-
tain distinction as that of the Lord's resurrection
(see Sunday; cf. Acts xx. 7; I Cor. xvi. 2; Rev.
i. 10; Epistle of Barnabas xv. 9; Ignatius, Ad
MagnesioSf ix. 1; Justin, I Apol., Ixvii.). The
Sabbath too was observed to some extent, espe-
cially in the East and among the Jewish Christians.
Yet it was secondary to Sunday; only the Apostolic
Constitutions demand the like solenmity for both.
In the Roman Church, fasting was observed on the
Sabbath; but Gregory the Great declared the pro-
hibition of labor on the Sabbath to be the work of
Antichrist — a decision which later contributed a
cause for ecclesiastical separation of East and West.
The early Church also came to observe Wednesdays
and Fridays as days of prayer and partial fasting
in commemoration of the condemnation and cruci-
fixion of Jesus (see Fasting, II.).
There were also annually recurring feasts in the
earliest time. Probably the paschal feast (see
Easter) was always celebrated in some way, pre-
eminently by the Jewish Christians in connection
with their former celebration of the
2. Annual Passover, for memorial of the cruci-
Feasts. fixion and resurrection of Jesus. It
was succeeded by a fifty-day season of
rejoicing, from which afterward Ascension and
Pentecost (qq.v.) grew forth with peculiar solem-
nity, and was preceded by a season of mourn-
ing, attended with fasting of varying length and
observance. The institution of these festal cele-
brations was held to be an affair of ecclesiastical
ordering, and often required special justification
in the light of New Testament liberty. The first
Christian festival which had no connection with
feasts of Israel is that of the Epiphany (q.v.). It
was fixed oa a definite day of the year (Jan. 6)
and is thus an ** immovable feast,'' unlike Easter
and the festivals dependent on it, which vary from
year to year (see Church Year; Easter), and
hence are known as " movable feasts." The
Epiphany was originally the festival of Christ's
baptism. The nativity festival (see Christmas)
first occurs in the West from the middle of the
fourth century. In the East, so late as the fifth
century, they still celebrated both the birth and
baptism of the Lord on Epiphany. In the sixth
century, the feast of the circumcision of Christ was
introduced as the octave of Nativity; preceding
that time, the first of January had been widely
observed as a penitential day, with attendant fast-
ing, in order to restrain Christians from the pagan
new year festivities (see New Year Festival). The
Christmas feast was ushered in by a preliminary
festal season (see Advent), originally of longer
duration, but afterward restricted to four weeks;
this, too, was a season of penance and fasting in
the West (see Fasting, II.).
The three principal festivals, Easter, Pentecost,
and Christmas, which with their preceding and
jfMum »na jrasviTaiB
Feine
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
MO
following seasons gradually embraced the whole
year (see Church Year), were supplemented, from
time to time, by many minor feasts, many of them
introduced only in particular districts, as appears
from ancient local calendars (see Calendar, the
Christian). Only the most important can be
mentioned here. The festival of the Trinity (see
Trinity, Festival op the) was not appointed for
the Church at large imtil 1334. The feast of the
Blessed Sacrament (festum corporis Christi) occurred
in the diocese of Li^ge from 1246, and was gener-
ally adopted in 1264 (see Corpus Christi). Cer-
tain festivals of the cross originated in the East,
and two of them became current in the West also
(see Cross, Exaltation of the; CJross, Inven-
tion OF the). Among the feasts of Mary, the
.Vnnunciation (Mar. 25; see Annunciation, Feast
OF the) is no doubt the earliest. This and the
festival of the Purification (Feb. 2) were sometimes
regarded as feasts of Christ as well; they date from
the fifth century (for the Purification and the many
other feasts of the Virgin, see Mary, the Mother
OP Jesus Christ). Apostles, evangelists, and other
New Testament characters all came to have their
days; and by degrees the practise grew up of ob-
serving an annual commemoration of martyrs on
the day of their death, and especially at their
tombs (see Anniversarius). This was extended
to confessors, virgins, and other saints, until nearly
every day in the year had its liturgical commemora^
tion of some saint, event, doctrine, or sacred object.
The large number of " holy days of obHgation "
(i.e., in the Roman Cathohc system, days which
must be kept by attendance at mass and abstinence
from unnecessary servile work) ob-
3. The Prot- served in the coimtries of Western
estant Europe in the latter part of the Middle
Churches. Ages constituted a real economic
difficulty, and there were many com-
plaints of it. When the Reformation began, its
tendency was to sweep away the far greater num-
ber of such observances. Luther was at first in-
clined to think that Sunday alone should be kept;
but in 1528 he and Melanchthon recommended the
observance of Christmas, New Year's Day (Cir-
cumcision of Christ), Epiphany, Easter, Ascension,
and Pentecost, and allowed, as feasts of the second
class, those wliich had Scriptural warrant. Ger-
man custom often postpones the celebration of
secondary feastis to the following Sunday. The
Church of England retained the feasts just named
and certain others commonly called (from the old
rubricated printing of the prayer-book) " red-
letter" days, with special services, and kept a num-
ber of ** black-letter " or minor festivals in the
calendar, with no provision for their observance.
The American Episcopal Church retained the red-
letter days, and even added to them at the last
revision the Transfiguration of Christ (Aug. 6),
but omitted the black-letter days from the calen-
dar.* In the Reformed churches as a rule all
* According to the Anglican prayer-books the feasta to be ob-
served throughout the year are as follows. All Sundays; the
Circumcision (Jan. 1); the Epiphany (Jan. 6); the Ck>nver8ion
of St. Paul (Jan. 25); the Puriacation of the Blessed Vir-
gin (Feb. 2); St. Matthias the Apostle (Feb. 24; in leap-
festivals except Sunday were abolished. Sinee
the middle of the last centuxy there has heesi a tend-
ency to appoint new festivals; e.g., the demua
Reformation festival (end of October or begiimiog
of November) and so called festival of the deid
(on the last Sunday of the church year in maoKj
of all who have died in course of the year), harveii
festival, children's day, missionary Sunday, and the
like. National memorial days are often cdebiated
with rehgious services. The New En^and fnU
day (see Fabt-Dat) and Thanksgiving (q.v.) de-
serve special mention. The custom of celebntiag
Easter and Christmas with floral decorations, specnl
music, and sermons on the events commemontad
is increasing among all non-liturgical churches.
The tendency in the Roman Catholic Ghmek
since the Reformation has been constantly to add
new saints' days and other feasts to the calendar,
with liturgical observance, but on the other hand
to diminish the number of holy days of obligate;
thus in the United States at the present time than
are none (outside of Sundays) but the Feast of thi
Circumcision (Jan. 1), the Ascension, the Assump-
tion of the Blessed Virgin (Aug. 15), All Sainti^
Day (Nov. 1), the Immaciilate Conception (Dee,
8), and Christmas.
Biblioorapht: I. J. F. L. George, Die OUeren jiduim
FmU, Berlin, 1835; H. Ewald. De feriamm HeftrcorM
arigine et ratione, Gdttingen. 1841; idem, Alkrtkimtt
pp. 130 sqq.. 151 sqq.. 441 sqq.. ib. I860. Eng. taUHL,
pp. 89 sqq., 113 sqq., 334 sqq.. Boston, 1876; H. H«^
feld, De primUiva el vera feetantm apvd Htbraoe rcHMk
HaUe. 1851-65; F. Bachmann. Die Feeloeeebe dm Pmk»
teuehe, Berlin, 1858; J. Wellhauaen. Pnkoamem, pfi
83-120; A. Edersheim, The TempU: Ua Mimutt mi
Servicee, pp. 144-300. London, 1874; B. Sude, 09-
echidUe laraeU, i. 498-503. BerUn. 1884; W. H. GfMi.
The Hebrew Feaete in their Relation to Reemd CrVtd
Hupotheeee, New York, 1885 (anticritieal); J. T. de Vii*
ser. Hebreeuweche Archaeolooie, i. 412 sqq., Utrecht, ISH;
J. Robertson, Early Religion of lerael, passim, EdinbwA
1892; H. Sohults. Old Teatament Theotogy, i. 850-3«f»
passim, ii. 87-100, London, 1892; Bensinger. Ardidf'
Oie, pp. 388 sqq. et passim; Nowack. AnMologie, ii. 138- j
203; Smith, PropheU, pp. 38. 56. 384; idem, OTJC, ;
passim; DB, i. 859-863; EB, ii. 1505 sqq., 1509 •f]q.;/ll i
V. 374-378; XL, iv. 1436-47.
II. Bingham, Orioinee, book XX.. cf. XIU. ix. ^7! <
J. C. W. Augusti. Handbudi der chrietliehen ArekiMtk \
i. 457-595. Leipsic. 1836 (especially useful); R. Ndm. *
FeetivaU and Faate of the Church of England, nprialed
London, 1810; F. Creuser. Symbolik und MyAolegit it
alien Vdlker, iv. 2, pp. 577-614. Leipsie. 1821 (oompmi
Christian cycle of festiyals with pre-Christian oelebntiaai);
A. J. Binterim, DenkiDikrdigkeiten, ▼. 1. pp. 119 UVU
Mainz. 1829; A. Butler. Movable Feaeta, Fotii . . . if
the Catholic Churdi, Dublin. 1839; J. H. Hobart, /«<»•
vaU and FeaeU, London. 1887; H. Grotefend. M-
red^nung dee deutachen MiUekUlen und der Neutnt, Hn*
year Feb. 25 in the Roman Catholic Church); the Ai-
nundation of the Blesaed Virgin (Mar. 25); St Mtfk thi ■
Evangelist (Apr. 25); St. Philip and St. James the Apof
ties (May 1); the Ascension; St. Barnabas the Aportli
(June II); the Nativity of St. John Baptist (June M); ft>
Peter the Apostle (June 29); St. James the Apostle {Mt
25); the Transfiguration (Aug. 6; in the American Epseopri
("hurch only); St. Bartholomew the Apostle (Aug. 24);8t
Matthew the Apostle (Sept. 21); St. Michael and All Aifrii
(Sept. 29); St. Luke the Evangelist (Oct. 18); St. Sinst
and St. Jude the Apostles (Oct. 28); AU Sainto (Noff. I);
St. Andrew the Apostle (Nov. 30); St. Thomas the ApoUli
(Deo. 21): the Nativity (Deo. 25); St. Stephen the Martfr
(Dec. 26): St. John the Evangelist (Dec. 27); the Holy U>
nocents (Dec. 28); Monday and Tuesday in Easter-wMk;
Monday and Tuesday in Whitsuooweek.
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Feasts »nd FestlTals
Feine
-W; L. Dnehesoe, ChriHian Wonhip, passim,
904; J. G. Greenouch, CkrisHan Festivals, Man-
OS; DC A, i. 669-671 and espedaUy ii. 2054-
e a list is given; KL, iv. 1391-1436; and liter-
T the articles on the seyeral festivals, also under
"RATER, Book of; Calendar, the Christian.
»S' TAVERN ASSOCUTION: A society
clergy and laymen formed in the later
eighteenth century to secure a revision
;lifih liturgy, named from the fact that
irs held their meetings in the Feathers'
the Strand, London. An agitation for
arted by John Jones with his anony-
and Candid Disquisitiona (1749), had
head with the publication of Francis
'8 The Confessional (1766). As a corol-
[Siillingworth's principle that the Bible
;ion of Protestants, Blackbume argued
stant ministers should not be required
i to anything but the word of God. He
ish subscription, not only to the liturgy
irty-nine articles, but to the creeds as
I woric was published anonymously;
1 Blackbume spoke out openly. On
this year he and his friends held their
ig at the Feathers' Tavern to consider
g of a petition to parliament. The gist
itition agreed upon, which was an
atement of Protestant individualism,
he danmatoiy clauses of the Athanasian
stricken out, and that Protestants be
> interpret Scripture for themselves.
3n, opposed in a strong speech by Ed-
:e, was rejected by parliament by a vote
1. The petition was signed by Deists,
d Socinians; and of the 250 names it
bume's was the only one of much im-
Men like Bishop Edmund Law, Dr.
ad Dr. Paley, while in sympathy with
aent, declined to conmiit themselves,
ad 1774 the subject was again brought
liament, but without any result. The
Tavern Association was short-lived and
ed nothing.
rr: J. A. Baxter, Church Hist, of England, p.
on. 1849; J. B. Blarsden. Hist, of Christian
nd Stets, i. 314, ib. 1856; J. H. Overton and F.
« EngUsh Churdt . . . 1714-1800, pp. 209-211,
b, 1906.
7, DANIEL: English controversialist
t; b. at Charlton (7 m. n.n.e. of Oxford),
e, Bfar. 15, 1582; d. at Chelsea, London,
S45. He studied at Corpus Christi Col-
nd (B.A., 1601; M.A., 1605), and soon
power for Protestantism. From 1610
was in Paris as chaplain to Sir Thomas
the English ambassador. He was
hapUdn to George Abbot, archbishop of
', and afterward chaplain of Charles I.
e became rector of Lambeth, and in
3ton. He was provost of Chelsea Col-
tO. Dmring the Civil War his property
fied, and on two occasions he narrowly
sassination. He was a member of the
3r Assembly and was the last of the
members to withdraw from that body.
ward he was imprisoned, but was re-
leased a short time before his death. Among his
voluminous works are, Ancilla pietatis, or the Hand-
maid to Private Devotion (2 pts., London, 1626), a
favorite book with Charles I., and often reprinted,
also in foreign languages; Mystica Clavis: a Key
Opening Divers Difficult and Mysterious Texts of
Holy Scripture (1636); Roma ruens, Rome's Ruin
(1644), an anti-Catholic work written at the re-
quest of parliament while he was in prison; and
T?ie Dippers Dipt (1645), the result of a contro-
versy with four Baptists at Southwark, Oct. 17,
1642.
Bibliography: The early account of Featley is by John
Featley, Featlcei palingenesia, vfiih a succinct Hist, of his
Life and Death (London). 1660. Consult: D. Neal. Hist,
of the Puritans, iii. 47, 68, 78-79, 267-269, 4 vols., Lon-
don, 1732-38, 6 vols., Bath, 1793-97; A. k Wood, Athena
Oxonienses, ed. P. Bliss, iii. 166-169, 1264, London, 1813-
20; DNB, xviii. 276-280 (where a full list of literature is
given).
FEBRONIUS, JUSmniS, FEBROmAIOSM. See
HONTHEIM, JOHANN NlCOLAUB.
FECHT, feHt, JOHANNES: German Lutheran,
an opponent of Pietism; b. at Sulzberg, in the
Breisgau, Dec. 25, 1636; d. at Rostock May 5,
1716. He studied at Durlach and Strasburg, and
in 1661 began a wandering student life of five years,
visiting a number of German universities and re-
siding for a considerable time at Wittenberg and
Giessen. In 1666 he was recalled to Sulzberg, and
in 1669 was appointed court chaplain and professor
of theology. He was then superintendent in Durlach
until the capture of the city by the French in 1689,
when he fled to Calw, and met there the duke of
Mecklenburg, who invited him to Rostock. He
removed to that city in 1690 and remained there
as superintendent and professor until his death,
enjoying the utmost esteem and refusing flattering
calls to other imiversities. He was a genuine rep-
resentative of the conservative theology of the
seventeenth century, and, despite his later repu-
tation as an impassioned polemist, was at heart a
man of peace in the eyes of his contemporaries.
EUs opposition to Pietism was sincere, nor did he
fail to respect its good qualities. He was a pro-
lific writer, beginning with philosophy and classics,
and later touching every department of theology,
although he gradually came to restrict himself to
dogmatics and polemics. His principal works are:
Historia coloquii Emmendingensis (Rostock, 1694);
Selectiorum ex universa theologia controversiarum,
recerUiorum prcBcipuet syUoge (1698); Philocalia
sacra (1707); and the posthumous Lectiones theo-
logiccB (1722) and Compendium universas theologice
(Zerbst, 1744). (K. Schmidt.)
Biblioorapht: The ** Life " of Fecht, by his son, was re-
produced in Fechtii compendium, Zerbst. 1740. Consult
F. A. G. Tholuok, Ld)enszeugen der lutherisehen Kirche
aus alien SiOnden, pp. 183 sqq., Berlin, 1859.
FEDERAL THEOLOGY. See Cocceius, Johan-
nes, AND HIS School.
PEINE, foi'ne, PAUL: Lutheran; b. at GolmB-
dorf (5 m. n.e. of Jena) Sept. 9, 1859. He studied
in Jena and Berlin and, after teaching in a gym-
nasium in the former city (1884-86), was private
tutor in a noble family until 1889. Then until
Felmnlukaer
Felix ■ ■ -
and Factiia
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
1893 he taught in a gymnasium at Gdttingen, and
in 1893 became privat-docent in the university of
the same city. In 1894 he was appointed professor
of New Testament exegesis in the Evangelical
theological faculty at Vienna and in 1907 accepted
a caU to Breslau. He has written Eine vorkanonische
Ueberlieferungdea Lukas im Evangelium und Apostel-
geschichle (Gotha, 1891); Der Jakobusbrief (Eise-
nach, 1893); Da8 geseUesfreie Evangelium des
Paultis (Leipsic, 1898); Jesus Christus und PauLus
(1902); Die Emeuerung des paulinischen Christen-
tums durch Luther (1903); Der RoTnerbrief (G6t-
tingen, 1903); Das Christentum Jesu und das Chris-
tentum der Apostel in ihrer Abgremung gegen die
Reliffwnsgeschichte(Stuttgai,Tt, 190i); and Paulus als
Theologe (Berlin, 1906).
FELGENHAUER, fePgen-hau^er, PAUL: The-
osophist and pantheistic mystic; b. at Putsch wits
(district of Podeream, 45 m. w.n.w. of Prague),
Bohemia, Nov. 16, 1593, old style; d. not before
1060. His father was a Lutheran minister of
Putschwitz. He studied theology at Wittenberg
and became deacon there in the Schlosskirche.
Being obliged to leave Wittenberg soon afterward,
he returned to Bohemia and circulated his remark-
able views in writings, affirming in his Chronologie
(1620) that the world was created 4,234 years before
the birth of Christ, and tliat the end was imme-
diately at hand. Persecutions of the Protestants
compelled him to leave Bohemia. He was at
.Amsterdam in 1623, tlien is found in the vicinity
of Bremen, again in Holland, and lastly at Hamburg
as late as 1660. His manifold chiliastic and mysti-
cal tracts, wherein he described the existing Church
as an obdurate Babel, were eagerly read by people
of the lower classes. Theologians more than once
attacked his doctrines, particularly Georg Rost,
court preacher of Giistrow, and the clergy of Ham-
burg, Bremen, Lul>cok, and LQneburg. He was
imprisoned for a time by the authorities of Cellc
and Hanover. It is not knovsTi when or where he
died. A partial list of his numerous writings is in
Adelung, pp. 400 sqq. Carl Bertheau.
BiBUoaRAPHT: C. H. Starke, Lubeca lutherano-erangeliea,
Hamburg, 1724; G. Arnold, Kircken- und Ketzerhiatorie,
ii. 373 (tqq.. SchafTbauHen. 1741; [J. C. Adelung.] Ge-
Mchichte der menschlicfien Narrheil, iv. 388-407, Leipsic,
1787; ADB, viii. 278-279.
FELICISSmUS. See Cyprian, § 2.
FELIX: The name of four popes and one anti-
pope, who is sometimes counted as a fifth pope.
Felix L: Pope 269-274. He succeeiied Dio-
nysius, becoming po{>e on Jan. 5, 269. The only
positive fact known of his pontificate is the state-
ment of lOusebius {Hist. eccL, VII., xxx. 19; cf. 23)
that in the controversy in Antioch instigated by
Paul of Samosata (see Monauchianism, III.) the
Emperor Aurelian decided tliat the church building
should Ix^ given to " tliose to whom the bishops of
Italy and of the city of Rome should adjudge it."
From this it is probable that Felix exchange<l
liitcrw communicationis witli Domnus of Antioch,
and that he expressed his opposition to Paul of
Samosata at greater length in a letter to Maximus
of ^Uexandria. The latter document was tampered
with in an ApoUinarian sense at the end of thefoui^
century, and in this shape was considered by the
Council of Ephesus (431). According to the
Depositio episcoporum (354) Felix died a natml
death, and was buried in the catacomb of 8L
Calixtus, Dec. 30, 274. (H. BAhmil)
Bibuoorapht: Caialoffua lAberianuat ed. T. MaiiiiMa,ii
MOH, AucL ant., ix (1891). 75; Uber pontf/hafii. d.
Duchesne, i. 168. Pairia, 1886; idon. ed. T. lloiBiBMi,ii
MQH, QesL pont. Rom., i (1896), 37: Jaffl R^tm, i
23; J. Langen, GetdkacAle der rCmiat^en Kmki^LmU
pp. 306-309. Bonn. 1881; DCB. ii. 479^t8a
Felix n. : Pope 355-358. When liberius (q.T.)
was banished at the end of 355 by the Empoor
Ck)n8tantius, whose policy he had oppoeed, tie
Roman clergy took an oath not to recogmxeuHXhs
bishop as long as Liberius lived; but the oath m
soon forgotten, and the Archdeacon Felix ts8 pa-
suaded to become bishop. He was coniecnted
by three Arian bishops, including Acadu of
Csesarea, in the imperial palace, and, though not a
Arian himself, he supported the policy of extaml
union favored by 0>nstantius and held communiia
with the Arians. The majority of the Roon
clergy were won over by imperial favors to support
Felix, but the people remained true to Liberiii
and refused allegiance to the former. Constantiv
on coming to Rome, Apr. 28, 357. found » modi
discord that he expressed his willingness to rertoR
Liberius, after he had agreed to sign the thirf
Sinnian formula of the sunmier of 358 and to nk
jointly with Felix. But on the approach of li-
berius to the city, Felix was driven out, and, after
unsuccessful attempts to regain his position, (fied
at Porto Nov. 20, 3C5. From the sixth century
on a curiously inaccurate legend grew up about Iw
name which made him a venerated saint and martyr.
The oldest evidences for this are the LUfcr p<m-
tificalist the Acta Felicis, and the Ada EusAH
Dollinger thinks this the result of a confusion with
an African bishop and martyr of the same name,
whase remains were translated to the same spot
on the Via Aurelia where later the church named
after Pope Felix was erected. (H. BOhmeb.)
Bibliography. Sources are: Faustiniu and Ibroeffiim,
Libellu9 precum ad imperatoref, in MPL, xiii. 81; Athft-
nat>tU8. Arian Hiatory, chap. 75. in NPNF 2 ser.. if. 298:
SocratCH, Hist, eccl., ii. 37, in NPNF, 2 ter., ii. 61-«;
Soiomen, HiH. ecci., iv. U sqq., in NPNF, 2 aer.. il
306 sqq.; Theodoret. Hist, ecd., ii. 13. in NPNF, 2 mt.
iii. 77-79; Jerome, De vir. ill., chap, xcviii.; Ubtr p»-
Hfiealia, ed. Duchesne, i. 211, Paris, 1886; idem, ei T.
Mommsen. in MGH, Oeat. ponL Rom., i (1898). SO^l-
Consult: J. Langen. GeachidUe der r&miachen Kirdt to
Leo I., pp. 471 sqq., Bonn. 1881; DCB, ii. 480-482:
Bower, Popea, i. 37; Milman, Latin ChriaUanitn. I 104-
105. On the Felix fable consult the Ada Fdidt, ed.
£. Baluse. Miacellanea, i. 33 sqq., Paris, 1761; J. i I-
Ddllinger. Die Papatfabeln dee MiUelaUen, pp. 125-145.
Munich. 1863. Eng. transl.. Fables, pp. 183-209, New
York. 1872.
Felix m. : Pope 483-492. He was the son of *
Roman presbyter of the same name, and wtf
probably attached as a deacon to the Church of
St. Paul when, in the beginning of Mar., 483, vith
t he assent of Odoacer, he was chosen pope. AppM^
ently he had been married before this and had
several children, from one of whom Gregoiy ^
Great was descended. His priacipal impoftAD^
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Fel|r«nlukaer
Felix and Fastas
was the st&nd wbich be majjie against the
fsiie policy of the Emperor Zeno, from whom
riliiig to Aooounce bk election ^ deitmnded
idtiDii of Peter Mongua, the moderate
site let up by the emperor us patriarch of
m (see Mqnofhtsiteb , | } 5 ^qq, ) . He wrote
mfi time to Acacius, boldly fiummomng him
r for judgmeot in Home, and declaring in
the Council of Cholcedoo. Zeno threw
ui k^teB into pnson, and Acacius worked
untU they agreed to hold communion with
oentattves of Peter Mongus. When FeHx
thjfi, he deposed both thena and Acacius
M). There was a thorough breach be-
ut and Westt and in the former Felix's
m stricken from the diptycha. But the
repented their haaty action* Before 489
them had opened negotiations with Felix ^
r the death of Acaciiui, Zeno agreed to the
of an orthodox prelate of the name of
to the patriarchal throne, and the noti-
if his election to Felix. The pope assumed
de of reserve, and even after the acceeaion
emperori Anastaaius, be was still obliged
Ain a firm position, requiring the re&-
of the decrees of Chalcedon to their nght-
ion, the deposition of the opponents of
id the erasure of the namee of Acacius and
>m the diptychs. With equal energy he
the cauje of the persecuted orthodox
s m the Vandal fcingdoni, and showed him-
very way a worthy successor of Leo the
Qe died at the end of Feb.« 492, and is
orated as a aaint on Feb. 25.
(H. BOHMKB.)
^mt: Boiiroea mm: Liber ponHfioaii*^ vd, Du-
k t3 iqq., Pftrifl, IBSfi^ iijetn, ed. T. MDmmMsn.
r. QmL j^nL Rom., i (1§6SK 114-115^ Eiragriuv.
1, iiL 14 pqq.; Victor ToEin«iLEi«il«. Chronita, «d.
mma, to MGH, Aud ant, -a (IBOaX I00-19L
: B, Bik:£m&Vti, DiM FoliHk der P&p§U. t. 15-1 &,
... Mi iVitoJaiiJ /,► |>p. 140 sqa,: Bower. Pojw*,
82; Hilmuu La^n CArtilutnitv, i, 32^-33 1; B€B,
m,
[?.: Pope 526-530. He was a Samnite,
if Canton us, elected under tf»e inflnenci^ of
ie after John I, had died in prison , and was^
ted JuJy 12, S26. After Theodoric's deiith
26 or 30. discontent with his high-handed
broke out, and the senate sent an embassy
una to ascertain the attitude of the new
halaric, toward Felix. Athakric* however,
in Felix's favor, and he remained in un-
ad occupation of bis see until iiis death,
t date of which is contested His pontif-
mportsjit only for the part which he took
mi-Pelagian controversy, by approving t he
)f Cffisarius of Aries on grace and free mil,
ling at the same time to the bishops of
1 Gaul the celebrated capCiu/a which were
ited as canons by the Synod of Orange,
i29 (see C^sabiub of Arlgb; Sel&ii-Pela-
(h; BaHMER.)
fbt; UbsF jxmii^coli*. ed, Ductesne. i. 106, 279^
ii l^mi id«m, od. T. UommKn. ia MQH, QtU,
HB, I nSOS). 138; CiwaiiKlorus. Varia miL epi9-
. T. yomwitin, la MQUn ^uct. oa^, xii (1804),
240; R. Bajmimnn. Die PoiUik dwr /*djule. L 30, Elber-
feld. 1S68; J. Ui^emn, Gf*chidi$e dm- rtimUtA^ Kirdu,
ii. SOOoctq.. Bonn, 1SS5; Bower, P^pu^ L 327-331; DCB,
Felix V. (Duke Amadcus of Savoy): Antipope
(or pope) Jan» 5, 1440-Apn 7, 1449, He waa bom
Dec. 4, 13S3, and as ruler in Savoy and the county
of Geneva proved himself mild and successful, and
won a reputation for piety. He abdicated in 14^
and retired to Ripaille, on Lake Geneva, where he
lived in retirement with a few friends. His wife
(Maria of Burgundy) was already dead. He was
elected pope by the Council of Baael, Nov. 5, 1439,
after it had deposed Eugenius IV> (see Basel^
Council of). Although he had neither a theo-
logical nor a canonical education and must now
for the first tunc study Latin, AmadeUB acceptedi
called himself Felix V., and delected a curia which
consisted mostly of Frenchmen. The majority of
those whom he tried to make cardinab declined.
When, on July 24, 1440, he waa con^iecrated btshop
by the cardinal of Aries and was afterward crowned
with the tiara, for want of cardinals his two sons
ministered at the mass. No country promised
allegiance to him. Without ecclesiastical state
and without income he resided at Lausanne and
Geneva. No Improvement in his position followed
the death of Eugenius tV. (1449), and Germany
acknowledged aa the latter'S successor Nicliolos V.
In 1449 Felix voluntarily resigned the pontificate
and advised hia foUowera to acknowledge Nicholas
V. as pope. For this he received the title of Car-
dinal of Santa Sabina, the dignity of papal vic^r-
general of all estates of the house of Savoy, the
dioceses of Baael, Strasburg, etc. He again retired
to Ripaille and died at Geneva Jan. 7, 1451, regarded
as a worthy old man. Paul Tscuackj^t,
EiBLioaRAFHT: G. Voift. Pi^ 11., vol, i» BerUn. 18B0;
BowerK Pop€€, ii\. 22&-237; Milman. LoHn ChHaHnnitt/,
viii, 6S-102- Creightofi. Papacy, Ui. 22-111; Paator.
Fepa, L 32S-330 at punlm.
FELIX, SAINT : Ftret bishop of the East Angles;
d. 647. He was a Burgimdian who came to England
inspired by missionary zeal, and was sent by Hono-
rius, arehbishop of Canterbury, to East AngUa.
The foothold of Christianity in the land was then
very slight ^ but a Cliristian king, Si^sert, came to
the throne about the time of Felix's arrival, and
the two together aoon accomplished the conversioo
of the people. Felix was consecrated bishop by
HonoriuB in 331 and fixed his seat at Dunwich, a
town on the Suffolk coast, long since washed away
by the sea. He obtained teachers from Canter*
bury for a school founded by Sigbcrt, and, with the
help of an Irish monk, Fursa (q-v.), introduced
monastic life. Under Fursp's influence Slgbert
resigned his throne and retiied to a cell. Felix's
day is Mar, 8.
Bibuoohapht: The one aounse is Bode, Hiat ti'd., li. 15,
iir. 18* 20^ CotUitllt A. JeRBCipp. in the Diooeaan Histories
Non^Uh. LoemIoq, 18S4: and Dr. Btubba. jo DCB, ii 489-
490.
FELIX AND FESTUS: Two Roman governors
of Judea. According to the Book of Acts (xxiv.
10) the former had been ruling for many years at
the time of the imprisonment ol Paul in 58 or 59*
Felix and Festus
Felton
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
894
He was the husband of a Jewess by the name of
Drusilla, and two years later was succeeded as
procurator by Porcius Festus (Acts xxiv. 24, 27).
Both Josephus (Ant. XX., vii. 1-2) and Tacitus
{Hist.f V. 9) state that Drusilla was the wife of
Felix, the former making her a sister of Agrippa II.
and the latter a granddaughter of Antony and
Cleopatra, while according to Suetonius {Claudius,
xxviii.), Felix was " the husband of three queens."
Josephus (Ant. XX., viii. 5) states that Felix was
sent to Judea as procurator by Claudius at the
request of the high priest Jonathan after the depo-
sition of Ventidius Cumanus in 52 or 53. Tacitus
(Annates, xii. 54), on the other hand, dates his
appointment much earlier, asserting that he was
procurator of a portion of the province of Samaria
together ^ith Cumanus, and that he first gained
entire control of Judea after the deposition of
Cumanus by Quadratus. Whatever be the recon-
ciliation of the conflicting accounts of the classic
writers, the statement in Acts remains unimpugned.
It is clear from other sources that Felix was the
brother of the imperial favorite Pallas, and that
he was a freedman, apparently of Antonia, the
mother of Claudius. According to Schiirer, Felix
seems to have been recalled in 60. while Festus
died two years later; Hamack dates the fonner
event in Oct. 55 or 56.
In the case of the Jewish persecution of Paul,
Felix received the prisoner with a letter of the
tribune stating that the charge was concerned
solely with differences of religious opinions among
the Jews (Acts xxii. 25-30). This was fully con-
firmed by the trial before Felix (Acts xxiv. 1-21),
but Felix deferred decision on a frivolous pretext
(verses 22-23). Paul was accordingly imprisoned,
and when Felix retired from office tw^o years later,
he left the apostle still in confinement. Festus
resumed the case (Acts xxv. 1-12) and, despite the
absence of all proof of the prisoner's guilt, threatened
to deliver him to the Jews, whereupon Paul saw
himself obliged to appeal to the emperor. The
motive of both procurators seems to have been the
desire to curry favor i^nth the Jews, Felix showing
himself to be a common man of little character and
Festus being represented as a frivolous cynic.
The former, influenced by his Jewish wife, lis-
tened to a presentation of the Christian faith by
Paul. Touched in conscience by the apostle's
words, he devised a pretext to rid himself of his
unflattering monitor, yet sought to induce his pris-
oner to offer bribes for release (Acts xxiv. 24-25).
Festus, on the other hand, cynically distorted the
facts of the case in conversation with Agrippa
(Acts xxv. 13-21), and, humoring the king's curi-
osity, turned the trial into a farce for the amuse-
ment of his guests (verses 22-27), declaring the
apostle a madman (Acts xxvi. 24).
In the ** War" (II., xii. 8-xiii. 7) Josephus men-
tions merely the energetic opposition of Felix to
revolutionary movements in Judea, but in the
"Antiquities" (XX., vii. 1-viii. 8), he makes no
attempt to disguise the fact that in the suppression
of the " robbers " Felix had not only been merciless
in his cruelty, but had stooped to perfidy and
assassination, thus preparing the way for the out-
break of the Sicarii . Although his attitude in oppo*
sition to the " prophets " and the rd)ellioui Jni
of Csesarea was irreproachable, it is evident tint
his administration was both immoral and iOe^d,
so that after his retirement to Rome aceuntioM
were brought against him by the Jews, which vac
averted only by the intercession of his povofai
brother. The unfavorable characterixation of tiii
procurator given by Josephus is oonfiimed faf
Tacitus (I.e.).
The statements of Josephus regarding Feetn
(Ant. XX., viii. 9-ix. 1; War, H., xiv. \)mk
more scanty, being confined to a recogniUoDofiH
reckless energy against the rebellious Jews ud to
an agreement made by him with the Jewish kingai
opposition to the religious interests of the pe(^
It is evident that the account of Luke leginfii^
both Felix and Festus rests on personal knovledgt
and deep insight into their history, relations, isd
personalities. See Governor. (K. Schmtot.)
Bibuoobapht: The best discussion and
SchOrer. Ge9dkichte, i. 571-582, 500, Eng. tnaaU L i
174-187, 190, whoie further literature is gins. Gob-
suit also: W. M. Ramsay. SL Paul the Tnvttttr, ppi aN
sqq.. New York, 1896; O. Holtamann, NeutnimuA\k
Zeit(/e»d^iehte, TQhinsen, 1906; and the worb oo tb
life of the Apostle Paul.
FELIX AND REGULA: Martyrs, known y
the patron saints of Zurich. According to tbe
legend, they came to the neighborhood of Zurich
on the advice of St. Maurice, and were penecuted
by the emperor Maximian; after suffering frigbtfd ;
tortures, but encouraged to endure by a voice from
the clouds, they were beheaded, and then earned
their heads in their hands to the place where their
bodies were to lie. This legend probably does not
antedate the oldest manuscript in which it is given,
of the early years of the ninth century, during
which a foundation of canons grew up in conne^
tion with the church dedicated to the martyrs.
(Emil Eoli.)
Bibuooraphy: The anonymous Paaaio is in ASB,desL,
iii. 763-774. Consult: Furrer. in TkeologwAe ZMfitt
der Schxceiz, vi. 1889; G. Heer. Die Zurcher-HeOisn 8L
Felix und Regula, Zurich, 1889. The legend is e<L by A.
LQtolf. Die Olaubenaboten der Sdiweiz ver St. Gdhit. Lo-
ceme, 1871; cf. Wattenbach. DGQ, i (1893). 272.
FELIX OF URGEL. See Adoptionism.
FELL, JOHN: Dean of Christ Church and
bishop of Oxford; b. at Longworth (9 m. wj.w.of
Oxford), Berkshire, June 23, 1625; d. at Oxford
July 10, 1686. He was educated at Christ Church
(M.A., 1643), and was an enthusiastic Royalist,
being ejected from his studentship in 1648, the
year after his ordination. At the Restoration he
was made canon of Christ Church, in place of the
ejected Ralph Button. He became dean four
months later (Nov. 30, 1660), and also chaplain
to the king. As dean of Christ Church, Fell was
active in restoring the ritual banished by the Puri-
tans and in rebuilding portions of his college. He
was vice-chancellor of Oxford in 1666-69, and in
1675 was consecrated bishop of Oxford. Despite
his multifarious duties. Fell was a prolific author
and editor. Special mention may be made of his
Interest of England Stated (London, 1659); Grm-
matica rationia, aive inatUuHones logiea (Oxford,
m
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Felix and Festus
Felton
m); and The Vanity of Scoffing (London, 1674).
Hii ehief editions arc those of Aratus and Eratos-
tkoes (Oxford, 1672) and Cyprian (1682).
teuooEAPHT: A. k Wood. Athena Ozonienaes, ed. P. Bliss,
iv. 193. London. 1820; Bvme^a Hiatary of My Own Time,
aapflment, edited by Miss H. C. Foxcroft. pp. 47, 214.
IM, 600 note. Oxford, 1002; DNB, xviii. 203-205.
FELLER, fel'er or (French) f6"lar', FRAN-
((8S ZAVIER D£: Belgian Jesuit; b. at Brus-
■b Aug. 18, 1735; d. at Regensburg, Bavaria,
fsf 23, 1802. He entered the order of Jesuits
B 1754 and later held professorships at Lux-
•Dburg, Ll^ge, and Tymau, Hungary, whither
k had gone on the expulsion of the Jesuits
bom France. In 1771 he returned to Belgium,
nadbg in Li^ge and Luxemburg. In 1794 he
ROioved to Paderbom, and in 1796 to Regensburg.
ffii worios, including the Journal de Luxembourg
(70 Tols., 1774-94) of which the wrote the greater
piri, number some 120 volumes. The works by
fffaieh he is best known appeared under the name
Ikderde lUval, probably an anagram. They are,
^Miiame philoeophique (Li^ge, 1773); Didionnaire
ktrforifiitfef lUUraire (8 vols., 1781; frequently re-
printed, with additions, under the title, Biographie
mteneUe (new ed., 8 vols., Lyons, 1860); and
Cwp d*<nl sur le congrke d^Ems (2 vols., DOssel-
duf,1789).
BttuoQSAPBT: NoHee aur ta vie et lea ouvragea de Mr.
tAhU de FeUer, li^. 1802; /CL. iy. 1322-23; C. A.
Bnder. Lexicon . . . baieriaeher Schrifialellert 4 vols.,
Avbuxi. 1824-25.
FELLTHAM, OWER: En^h author; b. at
Xntford, Suffolk, c. 1602; d. at Great Billing
(3 m. e.n.e. of Northampton), Northamptonshire,
1668. He was probably chaplain to the family of
tltt Earl of Thomond, at Great Billing, and is
known chiefly by his Resolves, Divine, Moral,
Ptiitkd (London, 16207), a collection of 100 short
•mys. This work, subsequently greatly aug-
BKnted, passed through numerous editions.
IkiuoaiAraT: An extended notice will be found in DNB,
xviiLa03-3O4.
FELTENy PETER JOSEPH: German Roman
Oi^blic; b. at DOren (18 m. e. of Aachen) Feb. 9,
1851. He studied in Bonn, MOnster, WQrzburg
pj)., 1876), and Louvain. He was ordained priest
B 1874, was professor of St. C^thbert's College,
Borham, England, 1877-86, curate at Sdchtehi,
1^86-88, associate professor of New-Testament exe-
Pw at the University of Bonn 1888-92, full pro-
fc"« since 1892. He has written Papst Gregor der
^«mte (Freiburg, 1886); Robert Grosseteste, Bischqf
*MltWn (1887); Apostelgeschichte Obersetzt und
•WW (1892); and Die Grundung und Tatigkeit des
^^^ vom Heiligen Karl Borromams (Bonn, 1895).
%T01I, HEHRT: English clergyman; b. in
^ parish of St. Martin-in-the-Fields, London,
feb. 3, 1679; d. at Barwick-in-£lmet, near Leeds,
Yafahire, Blar. 1, 1740. He was educated at West-
MODster school, Charterhouse, and Saint Edmund
flafl, Oxford M.A., 1702; B.D., 1709; D.D., 1712),
of wfaich he was made principal in 1722. On his
•dniflBion to priest's orders in 1704 he left
ibe university to preach in and about London.
DaiDg 1706-09 he was pastor of the EngUsh
Church in Amsterdam. On his return he became
domestic chaplain to the duke of Rutland, retain-
ing this office under three successive dukes. In
1711 he was presented to the rectory of WhitweU,
Derbyshire, and in 1736 to that of Barwick-in-
Elmet, Yorkshire. He was an eminent preacher
and his tracts and sermons received considerable
attention. His principal works are, A Dissertation
on Reading the Classics (London, 1711; 4th ed.,
1757), very popular in its day; The Resurrection of
the Same Numerical Body and its Reunion to the
Same Soul (Oxford, 1725), an Easter sermon
preached at Oxford to refute Locke's idea of per-
sonality and identity; The Christian Faith Asserted
against Deists, Arians, and Socinians (Oxford,
1732), Lady Moyer lectures delivered at St. Paul's
in 1728-29, forming his greatest work; and Ser-
mons on the Creation, FaU, and Redemption of Man
(London, 1748), published, with a sketch of Felton,
by his son.
Bibuoorapht: DNB^ xviii. 305.
FELTON, JOHN: English Roman Catholic layman
(d. 1570). He was bom of an old Norfolk family, in-
herited large means, and lived in the dissolved abbey
of Bermondsey, near Southwark, on the Surrey side
of the Thames (in present London). He was an
ardent Roman (Catholic, and his wife had been a
maid of honor to Queen Mary. She was a child
friend of Queen Elizabeth, and remained on friendly
terms with her. When the papal bull excommu-
nicating Elizabeth arrived in England he procured
copies from the Spanish ambassador and circulated
them. One of them he affixed to the gate of the
palace of the bishop of London, then in St. Paul's
churchyard, between two and three in the morning
of Thursday, May 25th, 1570 (Corpus Christi Day).
The bull is dated in Rome Feb. 25th, 1570. In the
list of buUs it is called Regnans in excelsis, from its
opening words. After a brief introduction, in which
mention is made of the *' One Holy Catholic and
Apostolic Church, out of which is no salvation," it
asserts that heresy was introduced into England by
Henry VIII., purged away by Mary, but reintro-
duced by Elizabeth. It then specifies Elizabeth's
offenses in abolishing the mass and other rites and
ceremonies of the Roman Church, permitting heret-
ical books to be circulated, and in depriving the
Roman Catholic clergy of their positions and im-
prisoning many of them. It then goes on to say:
*' We make it known that Elizabeth, and as many
as stand on her side in these matters, have run into
the danger of our curse and to be cut off from the
unity of the body of Christ. We also make it known
that we have deprived her of that right which she
pretended to have in the kingdom aforesaid, and
also from all and every authority, dignity, and priv-
ilege of hers. We declare that all, whosoever by
any occasion have taken oath to her, are forever
discharged of such oath, and also from all fealty
and service which was due to her by reason of her
government, and we deprive the said Elizabeth of
all legal claim to reign and of the allegiance of the
abovesaid. We charge and forbid all and every one
of her nobles, subjects and people, and others afore-
said, not to be so hardy as to obey heri or her will
Fttnoinff the Table*
Fenelon
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
M6
or commandments, upon pain of a similar curse
upon them." Then follows the order for the pro-
mulgation of the bull. Naturally such a bull was
a great offense to all loyal subjects of Elizabeth,
and he who had had the hardiness to promulgate it
was considered a traitor. The culprit was quickly
found out, arrested without opposition the next
day, and conveyed to the Tower. On Friday,
Aug. 4th, he was condemned at Guildhall on the
charge of high treason, and sentenced to death.
He remained in Newgate prison till Tuesday, Aug.
8th, when he was drawn on a hurdle to St. Paul's
churchyard, hanged on a gallows opposite the bishop
of London's palace, beheaded, quartered, and par-
boiled. He met his fate with courage, and won an
honorable place among the Roman Catholic martyrs
under Elizabeth. This position was officially estab-
lished on Dec. 29, 1886, when Pope Leo XIII. pro-
claimed his beatification.
Biblioqrapht: For hia trial see CobMt^a Complete CoUee-
Hon of StaU Triala, i. 1086-87, Loadoa. 1809 sqq. For
the text of the bull see Bishop John Jewel's Works, ed.
for the Parker Society, iv. 1131-32, with Jewel's racy
comments and partial translation of the bull in his dis-
course entitled, A View of a Sedilioua BuU Sent into
England from Piua Quintua, Biehop qf Rome, the same,
pp. 1133-60. For Felton's beatification consult The
Tablet (London) for Jan. 15th, 1887, pp. 81-82.
FENCING THE TABLES: A Scotch-Presby-
terian term for the address made at the table before
the administration of the Lord's Supper, because
in it the character of those who may and may not
partake is described.
FENEBERG, MICHAEL NATHANAEL: Ro-
man Catholic; b. of peasant parents at Ober-
dorf (37 m. n.w. of WUrzburg), Bavaria, Feb. 9,
1751; d. at Vohringen (40 m. s.w. of Stuttgart),
WQrttemberg, Oct. 12, 1812. He was educated
by the Jesuits at Augsburg, and joined the order
on the advice of his friend the famous Johann
Michael Sailer (q.v.). After completing his studies
at Ingolstadt and Regensburg, he became teacher at
the Regensburg Gymnasium in 1775, then engaged
in practical church work in his native village. In
1785 he was appointed professor of rhetoric and
poetry in the Augsburg diocesan gymnasium at
Dillingen. Being on intimate terms with Sailer,
Weber, and Zimmer, who taught at the University
of Dillingen, he labored in Sailer's spirit, aiming
mainly at true and sincere piety without empha-
sizing any confessional tendency. - Sailer's views
awakened the hostility of the Jesuits and their
friends, and in 1793 a trial implicating the most
prominent teachers of the University was held,
at which Feneberg bravely defended his friends.
Although the teachers were not condenmed, Fene-
berg left Dillingen and took charge of the parish
of Seeg. He held convictions regarding justifica-
tion which approached rather closely to Evangelical
teachings. The tendency of his view shows itself
most prominently in the fact that he laid stress on
personal communion with God, and especially with
Jesus Christ as personal redeemer, with entire
elimination of the Church. Feneberg, however,
was so little conscious of his opposition to the dogma
of the Roman Church that he honestly believed
he possessed the old Catholic faith. In 1797 he
was subjected to a trial, but was allowed to go back
to his old parish. In 1805 he removed to Vdhiin-
gen. There he completed a translation of the New
Testament (ed. and published by M. Wittmaim,
afterward bishop of Regensburg, Nuronbeig, 1808X
which for a long time was much used by Gennaii
Roman Catholics. (A. Hauck.)
Bibuographt: J. M. Sailer, Aue Feneberga LAen in 8amm$'
liehe Werke, vol. xxziz., Sulsbach. 1841; C. von Sdunid,
Erinnerunoen aue meinem Leben, 4 vols.. Augaburc* 18SI-
57; V. Thalhofer, BeUrSoe xur (TetcMcAle dee it/hifrf
demue im Bieffium Augaburo, pp. 6S-dO, Rfegwiabuifc
1867; XL, iv. 1324-27.
pfNELON, FRANCOIS DE SALIGNAC DE Ik
MOTHE.
Early Life (i 1).
Reputation for Tolerance Unearned (f 2).
Miaaionary Labors (f 3).
Tutorship of Duke of Burgundy (i 4).
Championship of Mme. Guyon (f 5).
Conduct of His Diocese (16).
T^I^maque (i 7).
Estimate of His Character (i 8).
Francois de Salignac de la Mothe Ftelon,(iie
French prelate and educator, was bom at the caitfe
of F^nelon in P^rigord (the modem department of
the Dordogne), Aug. 6, 1651; d. at CambraiJuu
7, 1715. He was the yoimger son of the Marqau
of F^nelon, and was brought up in an atmosphere
of strict piety. Under the guidance of a private
tutor he laid the foundation of an excellent knowl-
edge of the classics and after a short
z. Eariy stay at the University of Gabon he
Life. went to Paris, where he devoted him-
self to the study of philosophy and
theology at the Jesuit ColUge du Plessis. Made
an abb^ when only fifteen, he achieved distinction
by his oratorical gifts; he later entered the semi-
nary of St. Sulpice, where he spent five years in
strict retirement, devoted primarily to the study
of the Greek Fathers. He became a priest in 1675
and was soon made supervisor of the NouveOes
Converties, an association of women, chiefly of
noble rank, whose object was to instruct women \
newly converted to Roman Catholicism, or those
inclined toward conversion, in the principles of i
the Roman Catholic faith.
In his attitude toward Protestants F^nelon does
not seem to have earned the epithet of " tolerant
which has been bestowed upon him not only by
Roman writers but also by Protestant historians.
He was certainly not free from the prejudices of
his Church and his time. In his Disaeiiatm ifff
la toUrance he asserts that the Roman Church as
opposed to the Protestants can not logically extcsMl
toleration to dissidents, and in tif
3. Reputa- sermon Pour la profession religietiae
tion for Tol- d'iin« nouvelle convertie he chancie^
erance izes schism as the worst of ciimei.
Unearned. Speaking of his old friend Mme.
Guyon he says " If it be true that she
has attempted to disseminate the damnable teach-
ings of Molinos, they ought to bum her and not
admit her to communion, as the Bishop of Bieaui
has done/' F^nelon employed pacific means,
nevertheless, in his missionary work, and throug):
his fine oratorical powers, his inatructive ctte
F&tielon
Ferdinand H
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
subtle and obscure. It created great excitement,
almost every one taking part for or against it.
Bossuet attacked it violently; Ftoelon answered
with self-restraint and dignity. Although F^ne-
lon had the support of the Jesuits, and in secret,
that of Le TelUer, confessor of Louis XIV., most of
the clergy adhered to Bossuet, upon whose side, too,
the monarch ranged himself. F^nelon was ban-
ished to his see city of Cambrai, whereupon he
appealed to the pope for judgment upon his book.
After a long delay and urgent pressure from Louis
XIV., decision was rendered, declaring several
passages of his work erroneous (not heretical).
F^nelon publicly proclaimed the papal decision and
caused as many copies of his book as he could
obtain to be burned. It is open to question, how-
ever, whether his submission was sincere. That
he held fast to his opinions at a later date is manifest
from a letter to Le Tellier in which, speaking of his
conflict with Bossuet, he says " He who was in
error has conquered and he who was free from error
is overcome." As a matter of fact the papal judg-
ment, rendered so unwiUingly and in so mild a
form, did F^nelon no harm, but gained him sym-
pathy and increased love and admiration.
It is in the last period of his life, during eighteen
years of labor in his diocese (1697-1715) that
F^nelon showed himself in the noblest light.
Devoted to his pastoral duties, he made himself
thoroughly acquainted with conditions in every
part of his jurisdiction, giving himself up espe-
cially to the task of training worthy
6. Conduct priests and removing for this purpose
of His the diocesan seminary from Valen-
Diocese, ciennes to Cambrai where it enjoyed
his personal supervision. A master
of pulpit oratory himself, he combated the pre-
vailing taste for declamation, laying down as the
threefold object of the preacher to convince, paint,
and persuade. During the war of the Spanish
Succession (1702-13) his diocese was repeatedly
the scene of hostilities. In 1709, when the country
around Cambrai was laid waste by the enemy,
F^nelon turned his palace into a refuge for the in-
habitants of entire villages, and gave his personal
care to the sick and wounded. He placed his
episcopal income at the disposal of the government
for the rehef of famine. The nobility of his con-
duct did not fail to impress even the foe, and Prince
Eugene and the duke of Marlborough established
guards for the protection of his personal property
during the occupation of the country by the allies.
In the Jansenist controversy F^nelon took an
active part as an opponent of the teachings of the
bishop of Ypres. He requested the pope to obtain
from the king the dismissal of all dignitaries who
should refuse to subscribe to the anti-Jansenist
formula, and their excommunication in case of
obstinate opposition. He gave unconditional sup-
port to the bull Unigenitus directed against the
Jansenists. On the other hand, to the Protestants
of the country he maintained, according to some
authorities, an attitude that went to the extreme
of tolerance. His pastoral duties still left him time
for literary activity. As a member of the French
Academy his advice was called for in the work on
the great dictionary. As a judge in the oooffid
between the Ancients and the Modems, he pnM
the classic writers because they depicted natvc
with power and grace, carried out their chanden
consistently, and attained harmony. At this time
he brought together the different fragmeoti of the
TiUmaqueinU) an orderly whole. The book aduered
a tremendous success, not only in France, wfaeve ii
was speedily prohibited, but throu^iout Europe.
Ftoelon has been accused unjustly of intendiDgtiBi
romance as a satire upon the govenunent of Looji
XIV., a view against which the lotbor
7. Tfl^ vehemently protested. Neverthel«
maque. the book its^ contains ecboei and
images of the time. The wcnk
written in a highly attractive style and reretb i
sound knowledge of antiquity. What detncto
from it is the blending of Greek mythok)g7 vith
Christian doctrine and ethics, of antiquity lith
modem times, a process resulting in a genenl
impression of unre^ty. Although the king had
forbidden all intercourse between F^don and the
duke of Burgundy, the two remained in conataBt
conmumication through common friends. On im-
portant occasions the young duke turned for advice
to his old teacher, and when the death of the Dan- !
phin (1711) made the duke heir to the throne, a
new career seemed about to open for F^ielon.
But if he entertained hopes of playing the part of a
Mazarin or a Richelieu, the death of the duke in
the following year dashed them to the ground. On
hearing the fatal news he remarked " My ties are
now severed — ^nothing more binds me to earth."
The last years of his life were passed in partial
retirement and devotion.
F^nelon's nimierous literary, theological and
pohtical writings offer abundant testimony to the
versatility of his talents and the wide extent of his
knowledge. Similarly many-sided does his charac-
ter appear. By nature mild, he was stem to him-
self and often severe to those who
8. Estimate differed from him in belief. With a
of His strong bent for mysticism, he neverthe-
Character. less possessed remarkable insist into
practical affairs and conditions. In-
sisting as a theologian upon " a pure and unselfidi
love for God " and revealing as archbishop a spiiit
of noble sacrifice and of devoted service toward the
poor and the suffering, he aspired at the same time
to power and dominion. An earnest champion of
authority and established doctrine in the Roman
Catholic Church and an opponent of all religious
innovations, he showed himself, in the fidd of
politics and social science an advocate of ideals
bordering on Utopianism. In an age when abso-
lutism was regarded as almost a divine principle,
F^nelon was the first to speak of popular rights and
the popular welfare. In this manner his ideas
represent an anticipation of the eight^eenth ca-
tury, whose philosophers, notably D'Alembeit,
praise him highly. On the whole, in spit« of certain
defects, we may decidedly place him among the
noblest characters and most talented writers of his
day. (J. EHNif.)
Biblioorapht: An edition of F^nelon's works, with Vi§
by Y. M. M. de Querbcnif. wm publiah«l. 9 Tols^ 1787-
m
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
F&ielon
Fezdlnandn
1192; another, containing his eorrespondenoe, was imued,
ii 19 Tob., ib. 1826-28; the Vtet det anciena philoMophea
nd the Ttihnai/ue have be«n translated often into most
Eiropean languages; M. Masaon edited the unpublished
ktters of F^nelon to Uadame Guyon. Freiburg. Switser-
had, 1907. Lives have been written by L. F. de Baus-
Nl. Fkria. 1809. Eng. transL. London. 1810: (H. L. Far-
nrj ib. 1877 (an excellent work); E. de Broglie, Paris.
1884; P. Janet, ib. 1892. Eng. transl., London. 1893;
L Mahrenhols. Leipsic. 1896; Viscount St. Cjrres, Lon-
Aa. 1901; H. Druon, Paris, 190S. Consult also: E. O.
Jkmn, VInioUranct de Ftndon, Paris. 1872; O. Bisos.
/Mm idveai€ur, Paria, 1886; E. K. Sanders. Finelon,
km Friemda and Eneimiea, London. 1901; M. Cagnac. F&ne-
Im, UneUur ds conacienet, Paris, 1902. See also literature
wdfB GVTON, JXANNB MaRIB BoUVIER DE LA MOTHE.
lERI, WILLIAM WALLACE: Unitarian; b.
itBoston, Bfass., Feb. 12, 1862. He was graduated
itHirvard in 1884 and Harvard Divinity School
■ 18S7. He was minister of Unity Church, Pitts-
idd, liass., 1887-91 and of the First Unitarian
Dodety of Chicago 1891-1901. Since 1901 he has
kn Buasey professor of systematic theology in
BirT&rd Divinity School, of which he has been dean
■we 1906. He was Shaw Lecturer on Biblical
Itentare in Meadville Theological School 1892-
NOl and preacher to Harvard University 1896-
1N6 and again since 1902. He has been American
editor of the Hxbbert Journal since 1902, and has
iritten Lesmms on Luke (in collaboration with H.
CSpaulding; Boston, 1890); Lessons on the Ads
(UM); The Flowering of the Hdjrew Rdigion
(Queago, 1894) ; and Lessons on the Psalms (Boston,
MO).
FBRTONyFERRAR: Church of England layman;
V at Waltham (18 m. s.e. of Hull), Lincolnshire,
Dee. 4, 1832. He was educated privately, and until
theige of twenty-eight lived the life of a student.
RDuidal reverses then compelled him to become
n operator in a factory, where he eventually rose
to be manager and overseer. He undertook van-
001 eommercial enterprises, and amassed a fortune
M the promoter of the De Beers Company for the
devdopment of the South African diamond mines
iftcr the panic of 1882, but in 1893 lost heavily
tkough the dishonesty of a legal adviser. Since
tbn, however, he has recovered much of his wealth,
b theology he holds to the authenticity and divine
<njpn of the Bible, and regards " the so-called
*k^^ criticism ' as either wild delusion or de-
ftoate swindle." He has a knowledge of many
IttSoages and has written various pamphlets,
hpnitic works, and biographies, but his chief
^ is his BUble in Modem English with Critical
^<<et (London, 1903; published first in parts,
ltt3-1903), an independent translation from the
^^Q^oal languagjes.
ntDHAHD n. aud the counterreforma-
TION IN AUSTRIA.
Enly ProtiMB of the Reformation (f 1).
RflMtioo under Rudolph II. (f 2).
Ftotesunt Gmus after 1600 (i 3).
Foceea Working for the Roman Catholics (i 4).
Fodinand II. His Measures in Inner Austria (i 6).
Fsfdinand Emperor 1619-27 (f 6).
The culminating point of the Reformation and
SxDtcrreformation occurs a full generation later
0 the Austrian crown lands of the Hapsburgs than
iwwiMre in Germany; the decisive issue, adversely
to the Reformation, does not appear before the
first third of the Thirty Years' War, under the rule
of Emperor Ferdinand II. When in
I. Early 1564 the Austrian lands passed from
Progress of the hand of Ferdinand I. into tlie
the Refor- hands of his three sons, Maximilian,
mation. Ferdinand, and Charles, the Reforma-
tion had made nearly equal progress
in all these jurisdictions; on all sides it had been
tacitly tolerated, and had accordingly gained such
accretions that the complete transition to Protes-
tantism appeared to depend only on its recognition
by law and the creation of a church organization.
The majority of all classes of society had adopted
the new ideas. In Bohemia and Moravia, in Silesia
and Lusatia, in Upper and Lower Austria, Styria,
Carinthia, Camiola, and Gdritz, nearly the entire
population was filled with the new spirit. In Tyrol
alone did the Roman Church continue securely pre-
dominant.
Maximilian II., in Bohemia (with its dependen-
cies, Moravia, Silesia, Lusatia) and Upper and
Lower Austria, and Archduke Charles in Inner
Austria (Styria, Carinthia, Camiola, GOritz) con-
tinued at first in the tolerant disposition of their
father. There soon followed most important con-
cessions to the Protestant territorial estates. In
Lower Austria, from 1568 to 1571, Maximilian
granted religious freedom for the nobility and their
subjects; the same concession was straightway
claimed for themselves by the Upper Austrians,
and it was not denied them, although it was never
formally extended to them. The Bohemian no-
bility obtained the like religious freedom in 1575.
In Inner Austria, from 1572 to 1578, Charles ac-
corded the so-called religious pacification, which
allowed the lords and knighthood to profess the
Augsburg Confession and tolerated Protestant
schools and churches already existent; only for
the crown cities and towns and for his own estates
did the archduke retain express control of religion.
Charles made these concessions with the utmost
reluctance; nothing but need of money and the
threatening danger from the Turks constrained
him to do so. Indeed a similar external pressure
was operative in the case of Maximilian II.; but
his religious sensibilities suffered less by the con-
cession, as he had considerable sympathy with the
new views.
The first lawful foundations for the development
of a Protestant Church were won through these
concessions; but under the impulse of an energetic
reaction that was developing with new force in
Romanism, the successors of these princes, supported
by the Jesuits and the Roman Catholic
3. Reaction remnant of the mobility, 3trove to
tmder set the concessions aside. In 1578,
Rudolph IL Rudolph II. (son of Maximilian II.,
emperor 1576-1612) began to expel all
the Protestant preachers from Vienna; but when he
encountered strong opposition to his designs in
Upper Austria, he set to work more prudently.
Nevertheless he achieved a good deal during the
following decade; by legal proceedings, one church
after another was taken away from the Protestant
nobles of Lower Austria and restored to the Ronuui
Ferdinand H
Farffoflon
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
worship, while entire towns were led back to the an-
cient faith, thus paving the way as far as possible
for the party of Catholic restoration. The situation
in Lower Austria stopped short of any formally
compacted procedure on the side of the Protestant
estates; but in Upper Austria the opposition against
all these measures maintained itself till 1597, at
last flaming up into the peasants' insurrection of
1595-97, which had its origin in economic distress
and the straits of the Church. With this insurrec-
tion the Protestant opposition was at the same time
decisively suppressed by superior force of arms.
A " reformation committee " thereupon began its
relentless activity; the nobility, indeed, were still
allowed the exercise of Protestant worship in their
castles, but the citizens and peasants were so hard
pressed in the course of a few years that by the
beginning of the seventeenth century the dominion
of the Roman Church in Upper Austria was out-
wardly restored. However, a large portion of the
population remained Protestant at heart.
From about 1600, Rudolph II. was diseased in
mind. The consequences of his condition were so
disastrous, at last, for the govem-
3. Protes- ment of his dominions that in 1604
tant Gains it seemed as though a collapse of his
after 1600. rule, and, with it, of the Hapsburg
power, were imminent. The emperor's
nearest kinsmen sought to obviate the danger by
leaguing themselves against Rudolph and preparing
to supplant him through his younger brother
Matthias. Rudolph not being tractable, Matthias
resorted to open conflict, and to strengthen his
power he had to entreat the aid of the estates of
Hungary and the crown lands and to fortify him-
self by concessions. In 1606 he promised the
Hungarian Protestants free exercise of religion,
and guaranteed the Moravian estates against all
manner of religious persecution. It proved more
difiicult for him to make terms with the Austrian
estates; these demanded, before the act of homage,
complete religious freedom and new statutory
rights for themselves. Nevertheless Matthias re-
luctantly yielded in the essential points, while the
estates employed this time of independence in
reorganizing the church on Protestant lines and
in instituting public worship and schools on all
sides accordingly. The same conditions favored the
estates in Bohemia; as a condition of supporting
the emperor against Matthias they first obtained
provisional religious freedom, and then, on July 9,
1609, the imperial brief in solemn acknowledgment
of religious freedom and the ecclesiastical organi-
zation of the Protestants. Similar results were
achieved for themselves by the Silesian estates.
On succeeding to the crown lands and the empire
in 1612, Matthias confirmed the grants by his
brother.
The conflict between Rudolph and Matthias had
much strengthened the position of the Austrian
Protestants; apart from Tyrol and Inner Austria,
the situation was now as favorable as at the close
of the reign of Maximilian 11. But there were
some weighty differences. Zealous and closely com-
pacted Roman minorities stood side by side ^ith
the Protestant estates of the realm; the Roman
Church had gained internal strength; the .
had founded settlements and schoolB inaHtbel
portant centers, exerting an
4. Forces over the coming generation; tbe 1
Working versity at Graz belonged to thcDi
for the right, and Vienna was tr&iMfeimi j
Roman them in 1617; the Capuchins I
Catholics, exerted a fruitful activity. And I
tenser than formerly had grown tbi^
position between the government and the I
estates; ecclesiastical and political points of e
tion had become inseparably interwovoi, sod I
estantism and " estatism " belonged t<^ethcr]
Catholicism and imperialism. The more thef
of the estates increased, and the more (
the nobility strove for a federation of all the!
mian and Austrian estates, just so much thei
hostile became the attitude of the monarchy t
all rights and strivings of the estates. Mattiiiil
at first allowed things to take their coune; M]
when he contrived, in 1617, to induce the esti
to " accept " Ferdinand of Styria as proBpeethil
successor to the royal dignity, his coura^mili]
the direction of Counterref ormation measurei. lb ]
consequence was the Bohemian uprian^ all
Bohemia's assertion of independence of the Htp* ^
burg dynasty; a Protestant prince, Fredeiid Y. '
of the Palatinate, was elected king. But with tb
suppression of the Bohemian insurrection,
likewise the final, decisive defeat of Austrian hot>
estantism. Ferdinand II ., the successor of Bhtthia^
became the restorer of Roman CathoUdsm for al
Austria, just as Matthias had been for Inner Austm
two decades previously (see Inneb Austbu, m
Reformation in).
Ferdinand (b. at Graz July 9, 1578; d. in VieDni
Feb. 15, 1637) had received a strictly ecdesiutical
education, first at Graz, then at the University of
Ingolstadt; his favorite reading, thanks to the in-
fluence of the Jesuits, was edifying tracts and leg-
ends of the saints. He succeeded his father, ^
Archduke Charles, in 1590 and began to reign act-
ively in 1595, with the finn resdve to
5. Ferdi- help forward the Roman Church once
nand n. His again to victory. At the end of June,
Measures 1598, he began to institute summazy
in Inner measures throughout Inner Austiia.
Austria. Protestant preachers and teachers were
expelled, the Protestant churches were
closed, Protestant subjects were directed to choose
between return to Romanism and emigration; even
the nobility were forbidden the exercise of Prot-
estant worship, their confession of faith being alone
left free. Later, when at the height of his success
in 1628, Ferdinand enjoined the nobihty to return
to the Roman Church within a year at the latest
So-called *' reformation conmiitt«es " were active
throughout the country; the Jesuits now extended
their labors more widely than ever; while the pro-
hibition of foreign schools restricted all aspirants
for education to the schools of the Society of Jesus.
Ferdinand allowed nothing to disturb him in carry-
ing out his policy; neither the remonstrances of his
counselors, of the emperor, nor of the Protestant
estates of the realm, caused him to halt. The
opposition of his nobility, the vigorous resistance
RELIGIOUS ENCfYCLOPEDIA
Ferdinand H
EerffUBon
'^
I lh& people at large, fraquently mamfeeted, proved
Im Ysm; his own eovereigti power, eticrgeticaJly
, ahowed itaelf atrong enough to execute his
with ppomptnesfl. By 1602. the Cotinter-
wfoTQiatian was cotopleted in the central Austiian
jurisdictioiiB, though at the cci«t of a serious and
inHrievable dechne of their proepeiityf ainea many
«f tbe stanchest and wealthiest iohabitants had
M bofiK* for the soke of their faith.
When Ferdinand ^ after the death of Blatthiaii in
]M, bid been elected emperor^ hts firat step, in
iflaiaw with Maximilian of Bavaria and the League,
was to put down the Bohemian In*
fi. Ferdinand »ujTect ion. Then from 1621 forward,
Emperor b<*gaji the aysteinatio execution of the
1619-27* Counterreformation in fiohemla, Mo-
ravia, and Upper and Lower Austria,
111 Bohemia firtrt the Protestant teachers and
prtachers were expelled from the country, at ten -
r at Hotnan Catholic worship was made com-
and the people were given the choice be-
subjection and enugratton; in this case the
l^rDpertj of emigrants was confiscated. In the
^tiee, Catholic municipal counj»elor^ were put in
^ffice. and the Protestants were excluded from all
Hmnidpal and civil positions. Military billeting
tidped to break the spirit of the recalcitrant, white
wwards were bestowed for transition to Romanism.
Trom 1524, measures were also prosecuted against
the nohilityr and in July, 1627, there was issued an
onpetial patent to the effect that nobody jshould
be tolerated In the land unless he were Roman
Giiboljc, and this irrespective of his rank or station,
llie nc^'hty being granted a term of six months for
making the change, and a corresponding term for
the B»le of their properties in the event of disobeying
these orders. In the course of some years Protea-
taotiaro was effectually suppressed in Bohemia,
Similar procedure was followed in Moravia and
lower Austria, where, however, the nobility re*
foalned exempt from compulsory conversion; not
until 1641 were more severe measures inaugurated
ipinst them, because they were alleged to stand
in alliance with the Swedes. In Upper Austria the
Cotmterreformation dated only from 1624, and was
virtually aecomplLsbed by 1626.
The last active manifestations of Protestant
views in central Austria were set aside in 1628 by
the expulsion of the Protestant nobles, to the re-
ported number of 800. In Silesia, too, notwith-
eitanding earlier promi^ to the contrary. Prote^
tantiam was antagonized from 1627 onward;
although in tins case only particular jurisdictions
came to be RomaniBcd anew, which the fortunes of
war brought ccjmpletely under the eniperor*s hand.
To carry theCbunterreformation through in Hungary
was not in Ferdinand's power, but as time progressed,
the peaceable Counterreformation was directed by
Cardinal Pteter Pdzmfiny (q*v.), archbishop of Gran,
and achieved such results that at all events the ma-
jority of the nobility again became Roman Catholic.
As concerns the internal affairs of Austrin, the vic-
tory of the Counterreformation was likewise the
defeat of the estates and their policy; the princes
needed no lonpr to fear the claims of self-willed
istates. Walter Goetz,
BiBLiCKiRAFnT: F. von ffurter, 0^*€^irht» Fsrdinandt ii„
4 vo\b.> HchkJfb&UBaii. 18^Q-M; h\ Stlitve, PQiUik Baiem§,
volt i,, Munich. 1S78° idem, Der oberL'tifTTtiehisehv S^^um^'
atifntatui de^ . . . tBEQ, jh. 11^ 1: T. Wifdemann, Refof^
matian uncf QtQgfirtiionimtiitn I'rn t^ndx unler ^der EnnXt
i.~v., Pmgilfi, 1879-86; J. Hirn, h!rihert&fj Ferdinand
ii, van Tirat, ] noAbruc^k, 1SS5: H. 2iegJer. Die Qtgtn^
ni&rmaium in SchlaaUn, Halle, 18SS; F. HehciEhl, BiJdm'
fxiud^ZeUdftGtgefwefwmaiian, Gotlm. 1S90; A. Gisclely,
Gfgpnfvi(irmaiiartinBtihm^n^lA!ipiiic, IS&i-, J. l-osfrth, Dis
atnriadiM ReUffiiymtpaJtifikntitm, Grs«, IS&^i idenu RefarmQ-
Uan Und Ofioenrettfrmatum- in den inner itVl^rcichitchen
Ldndern, Stuttsart. 189S; L. Schuster, Funthitckof Mat-
tin Brmnm-t Gns, 18ft8; A- R. Pennington, The OufOw*
BeformttHon in Eumpii^ LoaiJon, IS&9; Cambridge Modem
HimUfTU* vol. iii,, tt^an of Helwi&n, pp, 668-560, 572-573,
£75, 687, fi8V, 702, 714 aqq., 723 Bqq., New YqwU, 1905.
FERGUSON (FERGtTSSOlf), DAVID; Scotch
Reformer; b,, perhaps at Dundee, c. 1525; d. at
Dunfermline (16 m.n.w. of Edinburgh), Fifeshire,
Aug. 1 3, 1598. He was a glover by trade, but bter
acquired an education, though there is no evidence
that he ever attended a univereity. He was one
of the earliest teachers of the Reformed doctrines,
being chosen pastor at Dunfermline in the first
a|)pointment of ministers in Scotland in 1560.
In 1567 he was al64o niwie pastor of Rosythj for
which Cumnock and Bcithwcrc substituted in 1574.
He preached before the regent at Lcith on Jan,
l,*^, 1571-72, protesting against the ahcnation of
the estateii of the Church for the personal use of the
nobility or governmental purpo?ic». This fsermon
receiv^ the approval of the General Assembly of
the same year, and was heartily indorsed by John
Knox. Ferguson was moderator of the General
Assembly in 1573 and again in 1578, and for a
number of years he was one of the assessors to the
moderator. Hii* licquaintance with James I. aa
well as hifl ready wit, caused him to be rei>eatedly
chosen one of the deputic« of the General Assembly
when it wished to bring matters to the attention of
the king, and in Aug., 1583, he waa one of the
seven ministers cited by the king to attend a con-
vention held at St, Andrews to answer for certain
proceedings of the Assembly. At the meeting of
the Synod of Fife at Cupar in Feb. 1597-98, Fer-
guson was the oldest minister in Scotland, but was
still able to protest vigoroimly againat any measure
which he considered conducive to the reintroduction
of episcopacy into Scotland. The works of Ferpison
were: An Artfiwer to an EpkiU umtitn by Renat
Benedict, the French Doctor, to John Knox (Edin-
burgh, 1563): the sermon already noted (1572)j
the posthumous ScottUh Promrb^ {1641); and
Epiihnlamium mysticum Solomonis regi», stiw
Analy^u critico-poetko Cantki Canticortim (1S77).
His TraHs were edited at Edinburgh for the Ban-
natyne Club in 1860.
BiBi.iOQaAPHT: John How, Hiniorig of thr Kirk af Scotland
(WcjrJpow litnaety publication). Edmburgh. 18-12; tniro-
ductory notice to the BBtin&tyne Clab's neprint of Fer-
jCUMin's Tr<neU, ib. lS6fi; Hew 8coU. FmH tceittiir Scq^
fioniF,lt, ii, 565-6ee. 3 vo1«., ib* 1866-71; DNB, 3?viii,
341 34^.
FERGtJSOn, FERGUS: Evangelical Union of
Bfotlaud; b. at Glasgow Sept, 6, 1824; d. tliere
Niw. 3, 1897. At the ago of fourteen he enteretl
fllaagow University and was graduated (B.A.) at
the end of six sessions (M.A., some years later).
Farmsen
Ferrari
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOa
801
He then studied at the (Congregational) Glasgow
Theological Academy under Ralph Wardlaw until
1844, when, with eight other students, he was ex-
pelled for not believing in the doctrine of uncon-
ditional election and the special and irresistible
influence of the Holy Spirit. His studies were
completed in the Theological Hall of the Evan-
gelical Union (q.v.) under James Morison (q.v.)»
and he was ordained pastor of a newly formed
church of the Evangelical Union in Glasgow in
Mar., 1845. The church grew under Ferguson's
ministration and a new building was twice found
necessary. He became a leader of his denomination
and was professor of New Testament exegesis and
literature in the Theological Hall. His preaching
was pK)pular and he was honored as one of the most
useful citizens of Glasgow. For some years he
edited the Evangelical Repository and he published
many popular voliunes, including Bible Election
(Glasgow, 1854); Letters on the Principal Points
of a Calvinistic Controversy (1854); A Treatise on
Peace with God (1856); Holiness ; or what we should
he and do (1862); Sacred Scenes; Notes of Travel
in Egypt and the Holy Land (London, 1864); The
History of the Evangelical Union (1876; A Popular
Life of Christ (1878); From Glasgow to Missouri
and Back (Glasgow, 1878); The Character of God
(London, 1881); The Patriarchs (1882).
WiLUAM AdAMBON.
Biblioorapht: Life by William AdAinson, London* 1900.
FERGUSON, SABIIJEL DAVID: Protestant Epis-
copal missionary bishop of Cape Palmas and parts
adjacent; b., of African descent, at Charlestown,
S. C, Jan. 1, 1842. At the age of six he was taken
by his parents to Liberia, where he was educated
in the church mission schools and received his theo-
logical training from the mission clergy. He was
ordered deacon in 1865 and pries ted two years later,
after which he was rector of St. Mark's, Harper,
Liberia, until 1885, being also a teacher in the
boys* boarding-school at Cavalla 1862-63 and mas-
ter of Mount Vaughan high school 1863-73. In
1885 he was consecrated missionary bishop of Cape
Palmas and parts adjacent, and was the first negro
to be elevated to the Protestant Episcopal episco-
pate.
FERMENTARH (FERMENTACEI). See Azy-
MITES.
FERRAR, NICHOLAS: English clergyman; b.
in London Feb. 22, 1592; d. at Little Gidding
(10 m. n.w. of Huntingdon), Huntingdonshire,
Dec. 4, 1637. He studied at Clare Hall, Cambridge
(B.A., 1610; M.A., 1613). From 1613 to 1618 he
traveled and studied in Germany, Italy, France, and
Spain, and on his return to England devoted himself
till 1623 to the affairs of the Virginia Company, in
which his family was interested. In 1624 he was
elected to Parliament, and took part in the im-
peachment of the Earl of Middlesex. But he soon
tired of public life, and, shrinking from the impend-
ing political disorders, with his widowed mother, and
the families of his brother and his brother-in-law,
John Collet, he settled at Little Gidding, and es-
tablished there what the Puritans called his Prot- i
estant nunnery. In 1626 he was ordained deacon |
by Laud, but would never consent to take prieit^
orders, and the most flattering offers of vthutik
benefices were not sufficient to tempt him from hii
life of religious devotion. Matins and eveoBoog
were said daily by Ferrar in the church of little
Gidding, the other canonical hours beingsaidintb
manor house. One room was set apart as an ontoiy
for general devotions, and there were two B^Mzata
oratories for the men and women at night. Vi|jli
were kept throughout the night; uid Femr hia-
self , who slept on the floor, arose at one o'clock a
the morning for religious meditation. Everything
was done by rule, and there was some definiti
occupation for every hour. It was Ferrar's theoij
that everybody should learn a trade; and book* \
binding was taught in his institution. Numerooi ■
elaborate volimies boimd here are still extant, in-
cluding a copy of Ferrar's Harmony of the Gkiqxb
(1635) made for Charles I., who held Ferrar in grot
veneration and visited him in 1642, and again in
1646. Ferrar also provided a free school for the
children of the neighborhood, and served himself y
teacher. The institution soon attracted the enmitj
of Puritanism. In 1641 it was unjustly attacked
in a pamphlet entitled The Arminian Nunnery ;
and early in 1647 the manor and the church il
Little Gidding were sacked by the Parliamentary
army. The church was carefully restored in 1853.
Bibuooraphy: Two lives, by his brother John Femr aid
Dr. Jebb, are reproduced in Cambridge in the 17tk Cw*
tury, ed. J. £. B. Mayor, Cambridse, 1855: F. Tan«;
Brief Memoire of Nickolae Ferrar^ London, 18S7; P.
Peokard, Memoin of Nicholae Ferrar, Cambridfe, ITNk
abridged London* 1852; T. T. Carter. Niduitae Fmw;
hie HouaeKofd and hie Friende, ib. 1892; DNB, xtiiLST?-
380.
FERRAR, ROBERT: Bishop of St. David's; b.
near Halifax (14 m. w.s.w. of Leeds), YoiUiin^
before 1509; burned at Carmarthen, Wales, Mar.
30, 1555. He probably studied at Cambridge,
afterward at Oxford (B.D., 1533), where hebccamea
canon regular of the order of St. Augustine and a
member of the priory of St. Maiy's. He read
Luther's works, became a Reformer, and in 1528
was compelled to recant. Later he aided Heniy
VIII. in suppressing the monasteries, and in 1540, a
pension of eighty pounds a year was bestowed upoo
him, a large amount for those times. During the reiga
of Edward VI. he enjoyed the patronage of the
Duke of Somerset, who employed him in carrying
on the Reformation. He was elevated to the see
of St. David's in 1548; but on his arrival in bia
diocese in 1549 he found serious difficulties awaiting
him. Technical flaws were found in his conmusaon,
false charges were trumped up against him. Som-
erset, now in the Tower, could do nothing for him,
and in 1551 Ferrar was thrown into prison and
kept there till the accession of Queen Mary. He was
deprived of his bishopric in Mar., 1554, condemned
as a heretic a year later, and was burned at Ca^
marthen on Mar. 30, 1555. To a bystander wfac
conuniserated him he remarked, " If you see mi
once to stir while I suffer the pains of burning
then give no credit to those doctrines for whid
I die.'' He made good his assertion, for he dii
not move till a blow on the head felled him in th
midst of the flames.
|03
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Farffuson
Ferrari
<«te9tfiooRAPHT: John Fox, Ada and MonumerUa, ed. J.
rrowMend, ▼. 428, vi. 146, 222. 663, 664, 706, vii. 1-28,
S vols., London, 1837-41; A. k Wood, AthencB Oxonienaea,
md. P. Bliss, ii. 769-761, 4 vols., ib. 1813-20; Q. Burnet,
Mut of tKa Reformation, ed. N. Pocock, ii. 127, iii. 360,
aflS. T. 197-205, Oxford. 1866; DNB, xviii. 380-382 (con-
I good list of sources).
nRRARA-FLORENCE, COUNCIL OF: An as-
sembly which met at Ferrara early in 1438 to con-
mda proposals for union between the Greek and
Ijfttin Churches. The great danger threatening
tbe Greek empire at the hands of the Turks led the
emperor, John Palsologus, to disregard the aversion
0BoeraUy felt in the East for Rome and to make
proposals for a union of the two branches of Chris-
tendom to both the pope, Eugenius IV., and the
Council of Basel, which was in session at the time.
[" The pope was unwilling that the council — with
: which his relations were anything but amicable —
(see Basel, Council op; Eugenius IV.) should
share in the glory of a possible successful outcome
'^ of negotiations, and thought his purposes would
be better served if its sessions were transferred to
in Italian city. Toward the end of 1437 he directed
L . it to meet at Ferrara on Jan. 8, 1438. A complete
rupture between pope and council resulted, the
' majority of the latter remaining at Basel, where
thqr deposed the pope. A minority, however,
^fho were favorable to the pope met at Ferrara.
Eariyin Mar., 1438, the Greeks, about 700 persons,
Arrived at Ferrara as guests of the pope; the em-
peror arrived on the fourth of the month, the
patriarch of Constantinople on the seventh. Prom-
hient among the Greeks were Bessarion, archbishop
of Nica^a, afterward cardinal of the Church of Rome
(see Bessarion, Johannes), a friend of union, and
Harkos Eugenikos (q.v.), metropolitan of Ephesus,
whose one thought was to defend the peculiarities
of the Greek peoples against the imperious papacy ;
it was mainly due to his influence that the dogmatic
discussions on the doctrinal differences, especially
on the procession of the Holy Bpirit, held in 1438
were without result. Financial difficulties obliged
the pope to transfer the coimcil to Florence. Here
the first session was held Feb. 26, 1439, and the met-
ropolitan Isidore of Kief was especially conspicuous
as friend of the Union. After much discussion it was
agreed that the terms used by the Church Fathers
— the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father and
the SoQ, and from the Father throu^ the Son — are
in the main identical (see Filioque Controversy).
By this the Greeks had actually acknowledged the au-
thority of the filioque; but in no case would they
adopt it in their symbol ; they declared, however, their
willingness to unite with the Latins retaining their
own rites. In the beginning of June, 1439 the
discussions of the filioque could be considered as
closed; those on purgatory, the use of leavened or
imleavened bread in the Eucharist, the sacrifice
of the mass, etc., were relatively imimportant.
But the whole union-scheme threatened to become
again doubtful when the question concerning the
" papacy " came up for discussion. A formula
was invented, however, which each party could
interpret according to its own view (see below).
In the midst of these negotiations the patriarch
of Constantinople died, June 10, 1439, and a ter-
mination of the discussions seemed more than ever
desirable. On July 5 an agreement was arrived at,
but Markos Eugenikos refused to sign it; another
opponent to the union, the bishop of Stauropolis
had already fled from Florence. It is noteworthy
that the decree was signed by 115 Latins and by
only thirty-three Greeks. The union-document
was prepared in Latin and Greek by Ambrose
Traversari, and corrections were afterward made
here and there in the Greek by Bessarion. Both
the Greek and Latin text may be considered au-
thentic. On July 6, 1439, the solemn consumma-
tion of the union was celebrated in the cathedral
at Florence. Cardinal Cesarini read the decree
in Latin, Bessarion in Greek; after its general
adoption Pope Eugenius celebrated public mass.
As concerns the contents of the decree, the main
doctrinal difference was adjusted on paper, as
already stated; the Greeks acknowledged the
correctness of the filioque^ without adopting it in
their symbol. The other points — on the Eucharist,
purgatory, etc. — were non-essential. The Greeks
retained their whole ritual and marriage of the
priests. Regarding the pope, a formula was
adopted which the Greeks could and did interpret
as acknowledging his primacy "in the way which
is determined in the acts of ecumenical councils
and in the sacred canons.'' The patriarchs of
Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jeru-
salem could thus imagine they had preserved their
privileges. The Latins, however, interpreted the
last clause as a confirmation of their claims and
read, the pope has the primacy in the church, '* as
is determined in the acts of ecumenical councils
and in the sacred canons " (the original copy of the
decree with other copies is at Florence in the
Laurentian library). On Aug. 26, 1439 the em-
peror left for Constantinople by way of Venice.
A real union had not been accomplished, the Greeks
would not " Latinize," the fall of Constantinople
was not prevented, and in 1472 a synod in Constan-
tinople solemnly and openly renounced the union
of Florence. Paul Tschackert.
Bibliography: Sources: The original protocols are lost,
but the preliminary negotiations are brought together by
E. Cecooni. Studi atorici aiU concilia di Firenze, Florence,
1869; the Acts of the Ck>uncil. compiled by O. Giustin-
iani, are in Mansi, Concilia^ vol. xxxi and Labbe, Con-
cilia, xiii. 825 sqq. (from the Latin standpoint); the Acta
OrcBca, by Dorotheus of Mitylene, are in Harduin, Con-
cilia, vol. ix., and in Mansi, vol. xxxi (from the Greek
standpoint); the '* Great History " of the Greek Sylves-
ter Syropulus, giving the views of a divergent Greek
party, was published by R. Creyghton, London, 1660;
the union decree appeared, ed. Milanesi, in Archivio
atorico Italiano, new ser., vi (1857), 219. The modern
Latin point of view appears in Hefele, Conciliengeadiichte,
vii. 659 sqq.; the Greek, by Gorski, in HiaL of the Council
of Florence, ed. Neale, London, 1861. Ck>nsult further:
A. Pichler, Oeachichle der kirchlichen Trennung zwiacKen
dem Orient und dem Occident, Munich, 1864; T. Fromman,
Kritiache Beitr&ge zur OeachicKte der Florentiner Kirchen-
einiffungen, Halle. 1872; idem, in JahrbUcher fllr deiUacKe
Theologie, xxii. 4 (1877), 659 sqq.; J. Drftseke, in ZWT,
xxxvii (1894), 31 sqq.; Pastor, Popea, i. 315 sqq.; Creigh-
ton. Papacy, ii. 333-341, 382-384.
FERRARI, ANDREAS: Cardinal; b. at Prato-
piano, diocese of Parma, Italy, Aug. 13, 1850. He
was appointed in 1885 professor of dogmatic the-
ology and rector of the Great Seminary of Parma.
Forrata
FotiBhinn
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
L^ter becoming vi(!ar-g^neral of Parma, he waB
eonRecrEt«d bishop of Guastalla in iS90, whence
he was tranelatod to Como in the following year.
In 1894 he was enthroned anihbishop of Milan,
and in the same year was created cardinal priest
of Sant^Ana^tasia. He is a member of the con-
gregations of Bishops and Regular^} Indulgeuceiy
and the Index,
FERRATA^ DOMEIfiCO: Cardinal; b. at Gra-
doh, diocese of Montefiascone (50m, n,w. of Rome),
Italy, Mar. 4, 1847. He studied at the Jeeuit
colleges at Ometo and Montefiascone, and at the
University of Rome. He wiia then professor of
canon law at the Roman Seminary and also pro-
fessor of church history, exegesis* dogmatic the-
ology ♦ and the i institutes of ecclesiastical law at the
Propaganda. In 1S77 he became a member of the
Congregation for Extraofdinary Ecclesiastical Af-
fairs, and in 187& was appointed auditor of the
papal nuncio at Paria. After hii return to Italy*
he was made undersecretjiry of his Congregation
and domestic prelate to the pope, and in 1$S4 he
was president of the Pontificia Accademia dei
Nobili Ecclesiastici, In 1885 he was preoonixed
titular archbishop of Thessalonica and sent to
Belgium as papal nuncio. On his return, he became
secretary of his congregation, and in 1S91 was
nuncio at Paris. He was created cardinal priest
of Santa Prlsca in 1896. He is a member of the
C-ongregations of Extraordinary EcclesiaBtical Af-
fairs* the Council* Riles* the Inquisition* Studies,
Indulgences, and Loreto, besides being a commis-
sioner for tfie reunion of dissenting churches and
for the apostolic visitation of the dioceses of Italy.
FERRER, VINCENTE, See Vincknt Ferrbr,
Saint.
FERRIER, far"ryL^', JEREMIE: French Protes-
tant; b\ at Nfmcs c. 1560; ± in Paris Sept. 26,
1626* He was pastor of the Prot-estant congrega-
tion at Ala is* afterward at Nimcs, and in 1601 was
appointed professor of theology at the academy at
Nimcs. On the occasion of his inauguration he
defended publicly the thesis that Pope Clement
VI! I, was the Antichrist, and later he won a great
reputation by his sermons against the Jesuits,
Nevertheless, some doubt of his sincerity arose in
1611; and in 1612, suspected of having sold out
to the Romanists, he was suspended for six years
by the Synod of Privaa, So strong was the feeling
agiiinst him that in the rioting which followed,
Ferrir-r barf^ly escaped with his life. In 1611 he
w^ent to Paris, abjured Protestantism, and subse-
quently became a counselor of state under Louis
XMI. He published De PAniechriM el de te*
mcrnywe*f, contre le» cahmntm ctesennemu de r^list^
caiholUjm (Paris* 1615), in which he retracted his
former anti-Romanist utterances; and Le Coiho-
Uqite dUiat (162j), a defense of Richelieu's policy,
BIIlLtouIlA^H¥: L. M^nnrtl. Hi»L , dt Nitmeit, voL v.,
7 vnls., Pjirir*. 17,10- fig s A. FioiTi-l, iipi. dfi I'^liMe rtfttr-
m^ de .MtMrntM, Simva, 1850; K. and E lloajg;. La Franeif
fmit£*tiintr, i?*L H, J^. Bordicr. rari-. 1877 -86; liipliteu-
l>«:^rKi*r. ESR. iv. 712-716.
FERRIS, ISAAC: American (Dutch) Reformed;
b. in New York Oct. 9, 1799; d. at Roselle, N. J.,
1
June 16. 18T3. He was graduated from Colamiii
College (1^1<^) Aiid the Rutgiera Seminaiy (lg30]i
He held pastorates in the Dutch Reformed Cbuni
at New Brunswiekp N. J. (1821-24), .Albany, N.f.
(1824-36), and the M^ket Street Church, Ntv
York (1S36-53), and was president of the HewTdk
Sunday School Union (IS37-73), also of the Btad
of Foreign Missions of the Dutch Reformed ChordL
In IS42 he was sent to Holland on behalf of km^
ican missionaries in the Dutch East Indies, Hi
was chancellor of New York Univeniity {lSS2-71Qtj
emeritus lS7G-73)» and throughout his conaeelim
with the University he was professor of toool
science and Christian evidences » also acting pnK
fesaor of constitutional and international Isw 18SI-
1S69. Through his efforts the heavy debt iindv
which the institution had labored since its foiiiif^
tion was removed, several new departments wm
added to the course of in struct ion ^ and the ftud^-
ard of scholarship materially raised. He wti ikt
principal of the Rutgers Female Institute al
president of its board of trustees. He pubMlj
numerous occasional sermons and addressea, »
eluding Jubiim Mejnorial of the Ameriam BAH.
Sodeii/; being a Remew of Us First Fift^ ^^'^4
Worki^ew York, 1867), an address dehvendil
the Jubile*e of the American Bible Society at !fef
York in 1S66.
FERRIS, JOHir MASON: Dutch Refonmjd; k
at Ai^jiny, N. Y., Jan. 17, 1825. He was gmduaiid
from the University of the City of New Yoric
{AM., 1843) and the New Brunswick Theokipil
Seminary (IS49), He was pastor of the Riforadl
Church at Tairytown, N. Y. (1S49-S4). theSeooii;
Reformed Church at Chicago (1854-^2), asd tb
First Reformed Church at Grand Rapid$, JEA
(18ti2-65). In 1S65 be was appoint^ ceiif<poy>:
ing secretary of the Board of Foreign MiMDi 4\
the Reformed Church in America, since 1883 )m
been editor of The Chriatinn int^Iligenm' (Tfc»
York)i and treasurer of the Board of Foreign iBi' ;
aions since 1886,
FERRY, PAUL: French Protestant; b. at Ito |
Feb. 24, 1591; d. there July 28, 1669* He «•!
educated at the seminary of Montauban and biciM j
pastor of the Reformed Congregation at Mett Id '
1612. Here he labored, as preacher and autloi :
for fifty-seven years. He was a very prolific wnttfj
but moat of his works still remain in mantiaci^
His principal work is the Cai^ehi^me ginird ^h
R/formaiion de la Eeligion (SMan, 1654), in whicbk
showed that the Reformation was a neccesary readt .
of the corruption of the Church. This book oM 1
forth a refutation from Boasuetf then canon vA *
archdeacon of Mets. The disputation thus begoB j
led to mutual esteem between the conteetiffllli 1
and in Hj(i6 Ferry carried on a lengthy eom^pool- !
ence with Bossuet in the interest of & fuaoaot:
Protestantism and C*atholicism« "which wi» ibsi
being considered by the French government. 8i
had already lutiored in vain to secure a union of tte
vLirious branches of Proteetantlsm, and had eftt
induced John Durie (q.v.) to come to Meta in Iflttl
to discuss the subject with him. Hb Letirt a«
minisires dt Gtr^ee (in BibliotfUque &^ftaiti, V«L
106
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Ferrate
Fetlshiflin
L), in defense of a poor lunatic who was burned at
jcnei'a for blasphemies against the Trinity in
1132, has been called his best piece of writing.
fmj was an eloquent preacher, a man of learning,
■d had great influence among both Protestants
■d Roman Catholics.
aphy: H. M. Baird, HugiunoU and the Revocation
4 A< Edict of Nantee, i. 35»-385. New York; Lichten-
bmer. ESR, iv. 717.
FESCH, JOSEPH : French cardinal, half-brother
tf Uetitia, mother of Napoleon I.; b. at Ajaccio,
Oniea, Jan. 3, 1763; d. at Rome May 13, 1839.
Be studied at the seminary in Aix and became a
priat before 1789. At the outbreak of the French
brolution he took 8er\'ice in the army, and in
1796 was Napoleon's commissary of war in Italy.
Vhen Napoleon was made consul he returned to
ks Church, and became archbishop of Lyons in
902. The following year he was made a cardinal
id sent to Rome as French ambassador. In 1804
> successfully negotiated for the coronation of
le emperor by the pope at Paris, and in 1805 he
w made Grand Almoner of France, Grand Cross
the Legion of Honor, and a member of the
ntte. Although until now he had been ready to
rther the interests of his illustrious nephew, he
d no intention of completely surrendering his
^ta as cardinal. The result was a break with
ipdeon; and in May, 1806, Fesch was recalled
xn Rome. In 1809 he declined the archbishop-
: of Paris, a peace-offering from Napoleon, and
10 dechned to declare Napoleon's divorce of the
me year valid. As president of the National
ede^tical Council at Paris in 1811 he led the
iipontion. Accordingly, the council was dis-
lived, and Fesch fell into complete disgrace. He
Stised to Lyons, and in 1814 to a nunnery he had
iteUished at Gravina, Italy. After Napoleon's
etom from Elba he was made a member of the
kuse of Peers. On the restoration of the Bour-
MM be withdrew to Rome, leaving his bishopric
B the hands of a vicar for twenty-four years. In
L856 Ajaccio, his native city, erected a monument
to luB memory. (C. Pfender.)
kuoQSAPBT: Lyonnet. Le Cardinal Fetch, 2 vols., Lyons,
IMl; A. da Gaase, HUt, dee nfiooeiatuma diplomatiquee
... la eorreepondanee in^Ue de Vempereur NapoUon avec
kmixtul Fetch, 3 vols., Paris. 1855: KL. iv. 1383-86.
RSTU5. See Felix and Festus.
FETISHISM.
Tbe Word and Its Emplojonent (f 1).
Mmary and Secondary Fetishism (f 2).
GUracter of the Fetish (i 3).
Operation Aided by Suggestion (14).
Objects Employed and Area of Cult (f 6).
Cbaesof Reversion (f 6).
Fetishism (Portuguese feiti^Of "charm, talis-
laii ") is a form of worship regarded as in itself
fperfaumanly powerful in directing or assisting to
0 attainment of some desired end. The use of the
Md as denoting a religious cult goes back to
de Brosses, Du cuUe des dieux fUickea (Paris,
00), who rightly supposed that certain customs
the Africans constituted a form of primitive
igion. The Portuguese term is the name given
the beads, medals, and crucifixes carried by
rv.-2o
sailors, and supposed by them to afford protection
when in danger and was applied to the fetishes
of the Africans by these same sailors,
I. The from whom De Brosses obtained it.
Word and In more modem treatises on religion
Its Employ- the term has been used very loosely.
ment Comte (Philoaophie positive^ Paris,
1830-42) made fetishism equivalent
to animism. Lippert (Die Religicmen der euro-
pdischen CvUurvolker, Berlin, 1881) meant by it
the embodiment of departed spirits in some tangi-
ble or visible object. Miss Kingsley and Mr. Nas-
sau cover by it practically tlie whole of African
religious life, though Miss Kingsley recognizes the
looseness of her own usage. .A. delimitation of the
term is necessary to abolish the confusion which
has developed in its use. The New English Dic-
tionary defines a fetish as ** differing from an idol
in that it is worshiped in its own character, not as the
symbol, image, or occasional residence of a deity."
Mr. Lang describes fetishism as " the worship of
odds and ends," a description which admirably
hits off the fortuitous selection of a fetish and the
apparent lack of intrinsic worthfulness in the
object chosen. Schultze regards it as *' a religious
worship of material objects," a definition which
would suit many phases of animism. And Waitz
defines a fetish as ** an object of religious veneration,
wherein the material and the spirit within it are
regarded as one, the two being inseparable."
The difficulties of the subject and the resulting
confasion are due to two circumstances, its affin-
ities and connections with animism on the one
side and with magic on the other. In fetishism
there is the same anthropomorphic conception of
material objects as in animism; the most passive
objects may be regarded as having volition and
power to accomplish some end. A fetish is often
used as the materials of magic are used and for
similar purposes. But another cause of confusion
is the fact that no distinction is made between a
primitive and a developed variety.
2. Primary Primitive fetishism is suggested by
and Second- Mr. Lang's description. The original
ary Fet- fetish is an adventitious find of which
ishism. care is taken, to which success in an
undertaking is ascribed, and subse-
quent worship is accorded. The classic example
is that of a Bushman who on leaving his hut to
transact some important business trod on a stone
which caused him some pain. He at once picked
up the stone, regarding it as a fetish which had
obtruded itself upon his notice for the purpose of
forwarding his undertaking. His object was
accomplished, and he thereafter paid the stone
due homage. The adventitious meeting of this
object at the moment of the inception of an enter-
prise was to the African an indication of it« fet-
ishistic character, and his success in the work
proved for him its potency in that particular
direction. Almost as classic is the case of the
anchor cast up on the West African coast. A
native broke off a fluke in order to utilize the iron,
and soon after died. The natives thereafter on
passing the spot always paid reverence to the anchot
and frequently employed it as a destructive agent.
FetlBhlBm
VooillantB
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
806
The sequence of perception, events, and thought
was the novelty of form of the object, the injury
done it by breaking off the fluke, the subsequent
death of the offender, and the inference that the
anchor was a malignant fetish to be propitiated.
On this principle any object of peculiar form — a
deformed horn of a deer, the trigger of a gun, or
any object dropped by a European, a queerly
shaped stone, a particolored feather, a tooth, etc. —
may become a fetish, the use of which may be in-
determinate at the time but which is believed to
possess power in some particular direction by reason
of its very strangeness. But resemblance to an
object or to the achievement desired plays no nec-
essary part as it does in mimetic magic (see Compara-
tive Reugion, VI. 1, a, §5). Secondary fetishism
shows a likeness to magic in that it is the result of
the exercise of primitive invention like that which
attempts to produce rain by simulating its fall.
It is an attempt to force or create that which does
not readily come to hand. Thus natives on the
Guinea Coast take a joint of bamboo, a shell, or
some similar object and fill it wth oddly assorted
materials ; this they suppose furnishes a residence
for a spirit which may be induced to enter the mass,
make it its home, become one with it, and thus be
available for assistance to the possessor. Or the
home of the spirit may be a piece of wood carved
into a rude resemblance to some object. In this
case there is recognition of a distinction between
the spirit and its home, a distinction which does
not exist in primary fetishism, in which the stone,
anchor, feather, etc., is itself a fetish. On another
side the fetish is to be distinguished from charms,
amulets and the like, by the fact that it is supposed
to operate by its own inherent power, while charms
work by virtue imparted from some higher power.
The fundamental character of a fetish is that the
material object is itself the power and the object
of worship and possesses p>ersonality and will. A
second characteristic is that its power is not gen-
eral, but is used for a definite end, usually material,
and for a single kind of purpose. Hence for the
various purposes of life the worshijjer
3. Charac- may accumulate a vast number of
ter of the fetishes. A case is known where an
Fetish. individual had over 20,000, the use
of each of which he professed to be
able to describe. The assumed value and power
of a fetish therefore deix^nds upon accidental coin-
cidence, upon the savage fallacy of post hoc propter
hoc. Success in an imdertaking makes almost
ccrt,ain the power of the fetish chosen for that par-
ticular pur|X)8c. But the fetishist may recognize
after repeated failures that the object is worth-
less for the end in view and may then discard it.
He will not, even then, admit its impotence but
will assert that its power does not lie in that direc-
tion. The institution rests therefore upon a rude
empiricism. The first essay with a fetish is a test
which subsequent essays will either establish or
disprove. A series of successes may occur which
raise the value of the object so enormously that its
service is desired by a tribe, and in that case the
finder, who is supposed to know its peculiarities
becomes a sort of priest. And the repute of the
fetish may grow to such dimensions that its on
becomes intertribal, the result being enlarged power
and possessions and influence to both possessor and
the home tribe.
While the individual use of the fetish is as yariav
as the needs of man in the savage state, tribal sad
intertribal use of it is largely connected with a
crude justice, with intertribal disputes, and vith
war. In cases of justice the operation is by meaoi
of suggestion or autosuggestion. Thus, in cssei
of suspected domestic infidelity or of theft tbe
procedure is that of the Ordeal (q.v.). Forexampk,
where the lizard is fetish, in case o(
4. Opera- crime or offense the animal is cang^
tion Aided and whipped, when the culprit, in
by Sugges- terror of the vengeance of the feiiA,
tion. confesses and makes nsstocatioiL
Much the same process goes on in tic
case of intertribal disputes, while the tribe whidi
has bought the aid of such a fetish for purposes of
war is endowed with a confidence so Ixdd as to be
irresistible. Each success enhances the estimatkn
in which the object is held. That out of this sort
of fetish may have developed some of the great
divinities found among savages is a possibility
students of religion now recognize, and fetishism
is regarded as one of the springs of polytbeion.
How it may contribute a priesthood b shown above.
The qualities of humanity plus a superhuman power
being attributed to the fetish, especially a jeakxii
regard of its own prerogatives, it is an object of the
highest care. It must be constantly conciliated.
To please it, vows are undertaken which must be
scrupulously performed. Thus vows are made for
children during their infancy which enslave them
for life to the service of the fetish whose protection
is thus invoked. But failure to keep such a vow
sets autosuggestion in operation, discouragement
supervenes, and the death of the victim not seldom
results from the terror excite4. The same result
often issues from the knowledge that an enemy
has set a powerful fetish in operation against a man,
especially where it is deemed impossible to utiUie
a still greater power. For fetishes are em|Joyed
for all purposes for which magic is supposed to
operate.
The objects employed as fetish are most voriooa.
Nothing is too minute or too great, too repuLave
or too attractive to be so used. Stones,
5. Objects mountains, water, wind, fire, plants
Employed and trees, animals, human beings
and ^ea possessing exceptional characteristics
of Cult (such as albinos), refuse, parts of
animab or of corpses (particularly
the eyes) — in short, objects the most insignificant
or magnificent are chosen. And there are clear
traces that the most diverse regions and agei
have witnessed the operation of the institution.
It can be traced in ancient Greece, India, CThma.
Egypt, and Babylonia. It is practised in North
America, in Oceanica, New Zealand, and Australia.
But its garden is in Africa, so much so that in
general the religion of Africans is often described
as fetishism (see above).
Notice should be taken of a superstitious per-
sistence of fetishistic practises and conoeptions or
807
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Fetishism
Fenlllaats
of a reversion to them among civilized nations,
opecisdly those which lag in the course of prog-
ress. Thus there can be no doubt
6l Cases of that in Roman Catholic countries the
SefenioiL peasantry hold their medals, agni dei,
and other religious emblems in fetishis-
tk regard. A Russian mujik has been known, when
ibout to commit a crime, to cover the icon in the
mm 80 that it might not witness the deed. And
within a generation the Bible has been fetishistically
mployed in Scotland by laying it on the doorstep
to keep out wit^ihes. Geo. W. Gilmore.
Ibuooupht: The ftindamental work is that of De Broaseo.
«t np.. and next to that is F. Schultse. Der Fetichi»mua,
Ic^c. 1871. En«. trans!.. New York. 1885. Conitult
•bo: T. Waits. Anihropoloffie der Naturvdlker, Leipaic,
1800; C. F. Keary. OuiUnet of Rdioion, chaps, i., iii.,
LoodoQ. 1882; R. H. Codrington. The Melaneaiaru, Ox-
fcci 1801: G. Allen, EvoluHim of Idea of God, London,
187; D. O. Brinton, Religion of Primitive PeopUa, chap,
ir., Xew York, 1897; Miss M. H. Kingsley, TrareU in
Wtd Africa, London. 1808; idem. Weat African Studiee,
ibi 1899; A. Lang. Cwitom and Myth, pp. 212-242. ib.
1884; idem. Making of Reiigion, chap, viii., ib. 1898; M.
GmoD, in Folk-Lore, xi., 1900; F. B. Jevonti, Introduction
It ffiitol/ of Religion, chap, xiii., London. 1902; E. B.
T>kr, Primitire Ctdture. vol. ii., ib. 1903; R. H. Nassau.
AfidUm in West Africa, New York. 1904; A. C. Haddon.
Magieand Fetiehim. London. 1906; Q. Belucci. 72 Fetidtmo
pimlito in Italia, Perugia, 1907.
lEUERBACH, fei'er-ban, LUDWIG ANDREAS:
Geman philosopher; b. at Landshut (39 m. n.e.
of Munich), Bavaria, July 28, 1804; d. at Rechen-
bHf.near Nuremberg, Sept. 13, 1872. He attended
the Gymnasium at Ansbach, and in 1822 entered
the University of Heidelberg as a student of the-
oiogj-. Through the lectures of Karl Daub he
bccune interested in Hcgelianism, and in 1824 went
to Berlin to hear Hegel. He soon gave up theology
for i^osophy, and in 1828 became docent in
pUoeophy at Erlangen. Promotion to a pro-
foMnhip having been made next to impossible
hf his Gedanken iiber Tod und Unsterblichkeit
CKuRinberg, 1830), in which he disposed of im-
■ntility on psychological grounds, he withdrew
fan the university to devote himself to lit<?rary
mrk. He lived in Ansbach till 1836, then at tiie
QHtle at Bnickberg till 1860, when he moved to
Beehenberg. His radical views made his name a
^«tdiword in the late forties, and in 1848-49, by
^Mial petition of the students, he lectured in
Beidelberg. Accepting the view of Hegel that the
ibidute attains consciousness in the human mind,
kmsit one step further and denied the existence
if ID absolute mind, explaining God as a subjective
pnidact of our conscious life. He regardcii rc-
%ioD as psychological illusion, a purely subjective
fneen; and God, heaven, and eternal life as
tees of the heart reahzed by the imagination.
hAortf according to his naturalistic view, God did
Ml make us after his own image at all; rather, we
Mde God after ours; and thus theology becomes
\ matter of anthropology. Although Feuerbach
I the author of that extremely mat<^riali8tic for-
mh, Der Mensch ist, was er tss/, " man is what
scats," yet he can scarcely be called a materialist,
nee be approaches the problem from the psycho-
gieal side. His principal works are: Da8 Wesen
9 Ckriiierauma (Leipsic, 1841; Eng. transl., The
Essence of Christianity, by George Eliot, London,
1854): Das Wesen der Religiaii (1845); DasTheogenie,
Oder von dem Ursprung der Gutter (1857); Gott, Frei-
heit, und Unsterhlichkeit vom Standpunkt derAnthro-
pdogie (1866). His collected works in ten volumes
appeared at Leipsic 1846-66.
RiBLiooRAPnT: C. Beyer. Leben und Oeiat; Ludwig Feuer-
bach, Leipaio, 1873; W Maccall. The Seweat Materialiam,
London, 1873; K. GrQn, Ludwig Feuerbach in aeinem
Briefioechael und Nachiaaa, l>eip!«ic, 1874; W. Bolin, Lud-
wig Feuerbach, aein Wirken und aeine Zeitgenoaaen, Stutt-
gart. 1891. Consult al.MO the works on the History of
Philosophy by Windclband, Ueber^eg, and Erdmann.
FEUILLANTS, fu"lyfl'n: Roman Catholic con-
gregation taking its name from its place of ori-
gin, the CJistercian monastery of Fulium (Feuil-
lans, near Ricux, 25 m. s.w. of Toulouse). It
was established as a Reformed body within the
Cistercians about 1580 by Jean de la Barridre, a
scion of noble family bom at St. C6t6 (60 m. n.e.
of Montauban) in 1544; d. 1600. Being appointed
abbot in commendam of the monastery by a kins-
man who had become a convert to Protestantism,
Do la Barri^re led a life of sensuality until, about
1575, twelve years after his appointment, he
resolved to enter the Cistercian order. He was
deserted by the majority of the monks, however,
on account of the rigidity of his regulations, but
those who adhered to liim adopted a rule still
more severe than the Cistercian system. He secured
the sanction of Sixtus V., who permitted him (1589)
to establish additional monasteries and nunneries.
Henry III. of France requested him to send sixty
monks to Paris, and founded for them in 1587 a
monastery in the Rue St. Honors, which in the
French Revolution gave the name of Feuillant* to
the royalist party who met within its walls. The
successor of De Barridre enjoyed the title of Vicar-
General of the Congregation, and secured complete
independence of the Cistercians. In 1595 new rules
were approved by the pope, modifying the ex-
treme stringency of De Barridre, which had proved
injurious to health. The congregation increased
rapidly. In the hfetime of their founder the Feuil-
lants possessed, in addition to the mother house,
the monastery at Paris, and two at Rome, one at
Bordeaux and several in Piedmont, and in the reign
of Henry IV., when they rt»ceived the right of
electing their own general, they had between twenty
and thirty monasteries both in France and Italy.
For purposes of discipline, Urban VIII. divided the
congregation (1630) into the French Congregation
de Notre Dame de Feuillann and the Italian Ri-
formati di San Bernardo, each with its own gen-
eral and general chapter. The congregation
flourished until the Revolution, and among its
men of note were Charles dc St. Paul and Cardinal
Bona.
There were also Feuillant nuns. In 1588 De
la Barridre established a nunnery at Montesquiou
with fifteen sisters, but their cloister proving too
small, they occupied a new convent at Toulouse in
1599. A third nunnery was erected at Poitiers in
1617 and a fourth at Paris in 1622. The rule of
the nuns was the same as that of the monks, and
they likewise were entirely indepeodeat of Cister-
cian contzoL !>• •"Mr numerous,
Flaore
Fiddefl
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOQ
806
however, and none of them survived the French
Revolution. (O. ZOcKLERf.)
Bibuoorapht: The CorutUutionea were issued Rome, 1605
and Paris, 1634; the PrivUegia and the Comptfndium
priviUgiorum el ffrcUiarum, Paris, 1628. Consult: M. R.
A. Henrion, Allgemeine Oeachichle der M 6nchaorden, ed.
J. Fehr, TObingen, 1845; Helyot, Ordret monaMtique§t v.
401-420; Heimbucher, Orden und Kongreoationen, i. 474
sqq ; KL, iv. 1470-73; Currier, Religunu Orden, pp.
131-132.
FUCRE, fi-a'cr (FIACHRACH), SAINT: Irish
hermit; b. in Ireland c. 610; d. at Breuil, near
Meaux (27 m. e.n.e. of Paris), c. 670. Seeking
seclusion he went to France with a few companions
and erected a small monastery in the woods near
Meaux, and also a small dwelling-house, in which he
received his guests. No woman was allowed to
enter his monastery. As early as the ninth century
he had acquired great fame as a worker of miracles.
He was thought to have effected wonderful cures
merely by the laying on of his hands; and pil-
grims flocked to his shrine, believing that his
remains still possessed healing power. The shrine
containing his remains, which was removed to the
cathedral of Meaux in 1568, has been opened fre-
quently, lastly in 1637, when some of the vertebrae
were given to Cardinal Richelieu. Fiacre is the
patron saint of gardeners and is commemorated
on Aug. 30. In France his name has been perpet-
uated by the fact that in 1640 a merchant in Paris
who had carriages to rent placed the image of St.
Fiacre over his door and called the establishment
the Hdtel de St. Fiacre ; in course of time his car-
riages came to be known as " Fiacrea" and the
word passed into the French language as the com-
mon term for a public carriage.
Bibliography: ASB, Aug., vi. 598-620; ASM, sec. II..
698-602; A. J. Ansart, Hitt. de S. Fiacre, Paris. 1782;
Ricard, La Vie et lea miradea de S. Fiacre, ib. 1865
(founded on the ASB); Grandtrait, Vie de S. Fiacre,
Meaux, 1881; DCB, ii. 609-510.
FICHTE, fiH'te, IMMANUEL HERMANN : German
philosopher, son of Johann Gottlieb Fichte (q.v.);
b. at Jena July 18, 1797; d. at Stuttgart Aug. 8,
1879. He was for many years a gynmasial pro-
fessor at Saarbrucken and Dilsseldorf, and then
professor of philosophy at Bonn 1836-42 (ordinary
professor after 1840), and at Tubingen 1842-63.
In 1863 he retired from the university and soon
afterward settled in Stuttgart. He edited his
father's works, founded and edited the Zeitschrift
fiir PhUosophie und spekuLative Theologie, and was
a prolific writer on philosophy. In metaphysics his
position was that of a mediator between the two
conflicting views represented by Hegel and Her-
bart, and, too, in the interest of theology. His
great aim was to secure a philosophical basis for the
personality ot God. Taking the monadology of
Leibnitz as the model of a system embracing unity
in plurality and plurality in unity, he sought to
fuse extreme spiritualistic monism and extreme
plurahstic realism into what he called concrete
theism. The more important of his independent
works are, Beitrdge zur Charakteristik der neuem
Phdo8ophie (Sulzbach, 1829; 2d ed., completely
rewritten, 1841); Religion und PhUosophie (Heidel-
berg, 1834); Die speculative Theologie (3 parts,
1846); System der Ethik (2 vols., Leipsic, 1850-53);
Ardhropdogie (1856); VermiachU Scknltm{2^,
1869); Die theistische Weltansieht wnd ihn Be-
rechtigung (1873); and Der neuere Spiriiucimm
(1878).
Biblioqrapht: R. Eucken, in Zeitaekrift f^ FIdlmfik
und philoaophiaehe KriHk, ex (1897). 1-7; E. tod Hut-
mann, GeachicKte der Metaphyeik, ii. 307-379. Lapae, IWOl
FICHTE, JOHANN GOTTLIEB: Giennan pbi-
losopher; b. at Rammenau, near Biscbofswerdi
(20 m. e.n.e. of Dresden), May 19, 1762; din
Berlin Jan. 27, 1814. The son of a poor weaw,
he attended the public school at Meissen and the
charity school at Schulpforta. Later he studied it
the universities of Jena and Leipsic. For a numbs
of years he w^as private tutor in Leipsic, Zurich, and
Warsaw. In 1792 he went to Konigsbo^ to hor
Kant, whose transcendentalism he had now adoptei
Here he wrote in four weeks his Femicft em
Kritik aUer Offenbarung (Kdnigsberg, 1792), wbiA
appeared anonymously and was taken for a work
of Kant's. When the authorship of the book b^
came known, Fichte 's reputation as a philosopher
was made. After a short residence in Zurich, he
entered upon a professorship in philosophy at
Jena in 1794. Here he published Grundlage Sir
gesamnUen Wissenschaftslehre (Jena, 1794). his
new S3rst«m of philosophy; Die Besiimmung da
Gelehrten (1794); Grundlage des NatwreckU {I
parts, 1796; Eng. transl., The Science of Ri^,
Philadelphia, 1869, new ed., London, 1889); aod
System der SiUenlehre (1798; Eng. transl., Tk
Science of Ethics, London, 1897). Both his wri-
tings and lectures made a deep impression; but
they also created a suspicion of atheism. In 1798
he published a little essay entitled Udicr den Grwid
unsers Glaubens an eine gottliche Weltregierung, in
which he declared that the moral order of the world
is God, and that there is no other God. Despite
Fichte's strenuous denial of the charge of athasm
he was dismissed from the imiversity a few months
later. In June, 1799 he went to Berlin where, ex-
cept for a sununer at Erlangen in 1805 and a visit
to Konigsberg in 1806-07, he spent the remainder
of his hfe. In this period faUs Die Bedimnmg
des Menschen (Berlin, 1800); GrundzOge des gegm-
wdrtigen ZeitaUers (1806), lectures delivered at
Berlin in 1804-05; Ueber das Wesen des GMrttn
(1806), lectures delivered at the University of
Erlangen in 1805; and Reden an die deutsche Naivm
(1808), a famous course of lectures delivered at
Berlin in the winter of 1807-08. He took a
prominent part in the establishment of the Uni-
versity of Berlin and w^as professor of philosophy
in the new institution from its opening (1810) till
his death. The fruits of his academic work there
will be found in Die Wissenschaftslehre in ihrtm
aUgemeinen Umrisse (1810; Eng. transl., Thi
Science of Knowledge, Philadelphia, 1868, new ed.,
London, 1889); and in Die Thaisachen des Bewusst-
seins (Tubingen, 1817). Fichte's popular writing
^ill be found in English translation in The Poptdar
Works of J. G. Fichte (2 vols., London, 1848-49;
4th ed., 2 vols., 1889), including, The Vocation ojikt
Scholar, The Nature of the Scholar, The Vocation o\
Man, Characteristics of the Present Age, The Wai
soo
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Flaoro
Flddas
Ipmris the Blessed Life, and Outlines of the Doctrine
^Knowledge. Fichte's Sdmmtliche Werke (8 vols.,
Berlin. 1845-46) were edited by his son I. H. Fichte.
Fichfe derives all philosophical knowledge from
the oDe principle of the consciousness of the
indiTiable Ego, which posits its oi^n being in
(fetinrtion from a divisible non-Ego. His ethics
is based on the absolute freedom of this Ego
H an intelligent being. Religion is by him re-
duced to faith in the moral order of the uni-
lene, and this leads to the positive assertion of im-
mortality on the ground that no ego which by the
Kt of consciousness has become real can ever perish.
While Fichte's subjectivism was soon superseded by
•(her metaphysical views, his influence as a moral
nfoimer is felt in Germany even to-day. See
Iobausm; Religion. Philosophy of.
BBuooftAPHT: The authoritative life is by hin non, I. H.
nchte, J. G. Fiehte'a Leben und litterariaeher liriefirech-
Hi. Ldpac. 1862. Other accounts are by C. KoHtlin,
TfibiDgen. 1862; L. Noack, Leipsic, 1862 (important);
CPfleidcrer. Stuttgart. 1877: A. Spir, Leipaic, 1879; W.
Smth. in the Popular IVorka, ut sup.; ADB, vi. 761-771
ODTirioiu phases of his philosophy consult: W. Husitie,
TidUr und $eine Beziehung zur Uegenwari de* deutschen
Vdkn, Halle, 1848-49: A. Schopenhauer. Aus A.
SAapeHkauer'a . . . SaehUua, al. J. Frauenstadt. pp.
iei-189, Leipiiic. 1864; F. Bo wen. Modem Philoaophy,
pp. 310-326. New York. 1877; F. Zininior. J G. Fiehte'a
UHgwnMpkiloaopkie, Berlin. 1878; A. Seth, The Develop-
maU from Kant to Hegel, London. 1882; C. C. Everett,
Fidtk't Science of Knowledge, Clucago. 1884; Anna B.
Thompson, The Unity of Fiehte'a Doctrine of Knowledge,
Boiloo, 1895: I. F. Brown, Doctrine of Freedom of the
WiU in Fiehte*a Philoaophy. Richmond, Ind.. 1900; C.
Inooff. Die Ethik J. G. Fichte, l^ipAic, 1900; H. Lin-
(in./. G. Fichte und der neuere Socialiemua, Berlin, 1900;
Q» B. Talbot, The Fundamental Prineiplea of Fiehte'a
ftifa^pfcy. New York. 1906; M. Raich. FichU, arine
fAA, und seine Sidle rum Problem dea Individualiamu*,
TGbingen. 1907.
ncnrus, marsilius (marsilio ficino):
Itaiiao scholar and Platonic philosopher; b. at
floime Oct. 19, 1433; d. at Careggi (3 m. n. of
Rorence) Oct. 1, 1499. He was the son of a phy-
■cun of Cosmo de' Medici and had the patronage
rf tlie Medici's during three generations. He
f»died under Gemistos Plethon (q.v.), enjoyed the
ntenourae of the leaders of the Renaissance,
becwne a teacher of philosophy and the head of the
PUtonic Academy established in Florence by Cosmo
<fe' Medici, and nimibered among Iiis pupils such
Bnu Pico delta Mirandola, Reuchlin, and Sixtus
IV. Convinced of the essential identity of Platonic
pUkiophy and religion, since the truth and vsisdom
■wght by the philosopher arc only the truth and
•ttdom of God, he took orders in 1473, preaciied in
"oimce, and was promoted to a canonry in the
Jrthedral. Through his Latin translations from
''•to and the Neoplatonists, Plotinus, Jamblichus,
Jjd Proclus. he gave a tremendous impetus to
flitonic studies in Italy, and thus influenced greatly
tte development of European philosophy. His
itat important original work is, Theologia Platonica
^mimarum immortalitate (Florence, 1482). The
Sat complete edition of his works was published
U Basel in two volumes.
(duoobapht: J. G. Schellhom, De vita, morihua et aerip-
Mt MarmUi Ficini, in vol. i. of Ametnitatea, Leipsic, 1730;
K. SievekinK. GeachidUe der platoniachen Akademie au
fioreng, Gdttinsen, 1812; Archirio atorieo Italiano, 1859
(by L. GftleotU) and 1865 (by A. Conti).
FICKER, PAUL GERHARD: German Protes-
tant; b. a£ Thonberg, a suburb of I-.<'ipsic, Fob. S.
l.Sd5. He studied at the Tniversity of I^-ipsic
(1884-89; Ph.D.. 1889). the thrological seminary of
St. Pauli in the same city (1S87-89). and the(;ennan
Archeological Institute, Rome (1889-90). After
being assistant pastor and p:istor at 8oiiLind-an-
der-Spree, in 1892. he became pri vat -docent at Ilalle
in 1893. From 1903 to 1906 he was associate pro-
fessor of church history at that university, and since
1906 has been full professor at Kiel. In 19(K)-01
he made an archeological tour of Italy, Tunis,
Spain, and France. He belongs to tlie historical
school and has written Der Mitralls des Sicardus
nach seiner Bedcutung fur die Ikonographie des
Mittelalters (Leipsic, 1889); Studien zur Uippolyt-
frage (1893); Studien zu Vigilius i-on Thapsus
(1897); Das austfchcnde MittcUiUcr und scin Ver-
ht'iltnis zur Rcformatum (1903); Die Petrusaktcn,
Beitrdge zu ihrcm Verstiindnis (1903); Bonifatius,
der ' • A postel der Dcutnchen " ( 1 905) ; and A mph Ho-
hiana, part i. (1906), besides contributing a trans-
lation of the Acts of Peter to Hennecke's Xcutes-
tamentliche Apokryphen (Ttlbingen, 1904).
PICKER, PAUL JOHANNES: German Protes-
tant; b. at Leii>sic-Noureudnitz Nov. 12, 1861. He
studied at Un])sic (1880-84; Ph.D., 1886) and the
theological seminary of St. Paul's there (1884-86),
and aft«r travels in Italy and Spain l)ecame privat-
docent for church liLstory at Halle in 18<M). In 1892
he was appointe<l associate professor of the Kiiiin»
subject at Strasburg and full professor in 1900.
He has edited the ArchOologische Studien zum
ckristlichen Altertum und Mittelaltcr (1897-99) and
Studien iihcr chrislliche Denhmiler (since 1902),
and has written Die Darstellung der A postel in drr
altchristlichen Kunst (I-.<Mpsic, 1887); Die nU-
christlichcn Bildiverke im chriMlirhen Miisvum
des Ijaterans (1889); Die KonfiUation des Aitga-
burgisrhen Bekcnntniases (1891); Ilandschriften-
proben des sechzehnten Jahrhunderts nnch StraxH-
burger Originalen (2 vols., Strasburg, 1902-05; in
collabonition with O. Winckelmann); and Evan-
gelischer Kirchenbau (Ii(>ipsic, 1905).
FIDANZA, GIOVANNI DL Sec Bonavkntuh.v.
FIDDES, iidMez, RICHARD : English clergyman
and author; b. at Hunmanby (34 m. e.n.e. of York),
Yorkshire, 1671; d. at Putney (7 m. w.s.w. of St.
Paul's, London) 1725. He studied at Oxford,
first at Corpus Christi College (1687-90), then at
University CoUege (B.A., 1691; H.I)., 1713; D.I).,
1718), took holy orders in 1694, and in 1696 received
the rectory of Halsham, in Iloldeniess. On
account of a bad throat he got leave of non-resi-
dence, and in 1712 settl($<I in I/ondon as a man of
letters. His principal works are , A Body of Dimnity
(2 vols., London, 1718-20); Fifty-two practical
Discourses (1820); A General Treatise of Morality
(1724), in which he attacks MandoviUe; and A
Life of Cardinal Wolsey (1724), for which, on ac-
count of his disparagement of the Refoimation, ho
was accused of popery, particularly kqr the aflsail-
ants of Atterbury.
BiBuooBAPHT. The OM Mrly life Is bar TteaMa Blf«h <«
ZldalU
Fiji
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
aio
1761-67 (in&ceurate), Oorrectioos of ttufl tnUflt be made
by referenofr to the prefeiQefl and dedicftMona of hla worke
(cf. DNB. xviiL 307-39i8),
PIDELIS, SAINT (MARKUS ROY): German Ca-
puchin; b* at Sigmaringen <30m. n,e. of Confftanca)
1577; d. at Seewia (32 m, H,e. of Schwya) Apr. 24 ^
1622^ He received a thorough education and iiud^
led law at Freiburg until 1603, after which he trav-
eled extensively, and in 1611 settled at Enaiaheim
as a lawyer. In the same year, he entered the
Capuchin Order under the name of Pater Fidelia;
after hia ordination he studied theology at the
monasteries of Conatance and Frauenfeld. He then
became parish priest successively at RheinfeldeD
and Fieiburg, and finally guardian in the monas-
tery of Feldkirch* When the Aimtriana and Span-
iards seised a portion of the 3^*183 territoriciB in
1620 and sought to reconvert them to the Roman
CathoUc Church, the Congregation of the Propa-
ganda placed Fidelia at the head of the Ehetian
misaion. On the day of his death he preached in
the church of Seewi^ under the protection of a
detachment of soldiers* whereupon the desperate
peasants captured the church and routed the
troops, murdering the fleeing preacher in the
street. Hia corpse waa fir^t bimed at See wis and
later at Chur, while hia head was interred at Feld-
kirch. He was canonized by Benedict XIV. on
June 29, 1746. (K BLascHfO
EiBt^ioofiAPQY: Bouroea for a life are in H. Murert HeheHa
tanda, pp, 431 sqq^. Luc^me, I&IS; F, Spre^ber van
Bemeck, HitL mtiluum el btUorum^ G«d«v&. 102d. Q«rm.
tritnAK, 1. S34^ Cbiir, 1856. Th« best mod^rti Ufe ii {q
A. Butler. Lives of the Faiha-a, L 404-196, London. I8fi7;
oocuiiilt Abo KL, iv. 1482-85*
FEEF, ECCLESIASTICAL: A term used some-
times a^ equivalent to Benefice (q.v.)^ but more
properly designating an estate belonging to the
Cliurch and conferred by feudal tenure. Military
aervice was included in the obligations of a true
fief, even when held by a cleric — but in this case,
as the canons forbade him to bear arms^ he was
allowed to provide a substitute. The practise of
granting church lands attained such proportions
during the Middle Ages that Pius V., in 1567,
prohibited any further grants, providing for the
immediate incorporation with the papal camera of
any fiefti that fell in. On this principle Clement
Vni. incorporated the duchy of Ferrara with the
States of the Church in 1598, and Urban VllL did
the same mth Urbino, Castro, and Roncighone.
Famous instances of countries held by their rulers
as vaasals of the pope were Aragon (1208), England
(1213), the ialand of Sardinia (1295), Naples and
Sicily down to the second half of the eighteenth
century. (O. MEJERf.)
BiBUOon.'kPHT: G. A, Jenicben. Thetavru9 fvrU feudaiit^
i. 9G0. Frankfort, 1750E G. L. Bohtner, Obscri'atione* juris
ffvdali*. nn. 7. Giittingeii, 1784; Rti^Ulaikon, vi, 386
!iqq.p Leipsic, 1845; KL, vii. fiS7-600.
FIELD, FREDERICK! Church of England; b.
in London July 20, 1801 j d. at Norwich Apr. 19,
1885, He etudicii at Trinity College, Cambridge
(B.A., 1823), and from 1824 to 1843 was fellow of
his college. He was ordained priest in 1828, and
wiis rector of Reepham, Norfolk. 1^42-63, resigning
that hie might be able to devote himaelf entirely lo
his edition of the fragments of Origen 9 Hetufk,
a work the erudition of which is univet^y neqf.
nbed. He was elected an honoraiy fellow ofTciii^
College in 1$75 and was a member of the Brii4
Old Testament Revision Company. In theok^b
avoided both the Evangelical and rituflliiti& m^
tremea. He edited the Greek tesit of ChjyoMtfliii'k
homilies on Matthew <3 vols., Cambridge, \m}
and on all the Pauline Epistles (7 vols., Oxfoi^
184&-62); Isaac Barrow's Tre^lise on iht Pope'ife-
premacy {London, 1851); J. E, Grabe'i textoltk
Septuagint (Oxford, 1859); and Origmv Hm-
phrum quiE snpersunt (2 vols., 1867-74); and UBit
Otium Norviceme (3 parts/ 1864-88; th* tbiid
part, A'ote* (m seleei Passages of ihe Qrmk f«Ci-
menlf reprinted with additioni by the autbotr lai
edited by A. M. Kmght, 1897). He abo cdkb-
orated on Payne Smith's Thesaurus Synacus.
B I suoa R A FBT : H t b ftulabi offraphy i ft in the pref fta lo Hi
editjda of Orifi«n'ii H&4ipia. Consult W. AJdii Wii^
in Cambndlge lUview, M«y 6, ISSS; DNB, Twm^mM.
FIELD, HENRY MARTYH: Presbytcriia; i
at Stockbridge, Mass,, Apr. 3, 1822; d. there te
29, 1907, He studied at WiUiams CoUess (Bi,
183S), East Windsor Hill (now Hartiord) Tto-
logical Semmary (1838-41), and Yale Dirait
School {1S41-42X J^d was pastor at St Loui^Hii
(1842-47), and West Springfield, Mara (1SS04*).
From 1854 to 19€0 he was editor and propmlaf of
The Evangeliett a Presbyterian weekly, pubKriiad
in New York Oty. His travel-sketches eojtgBd
great repute. His pubUshed works include: Tk
Irish CmfederaUs, and the RebeSisn of 17^ (Kef
York, 1851): Summer Pidures from €&pmhsgm
to Venice (1859); Hiei&ry af ths AOaniic Ttiigmfk
(18ft6); Frmn the Lakes of KiMamey to thi (klSa
Horn (1876); From Egifjd ia Japan (1S77}; Oi
ihe Desert ; wilh Review of Evenis in Egypt (18^h
Amffng the Holy HHU (1SS4); The Greek Idmk
and Turkey after the War (1885); Biaod Thl^
than Water : A Few Days among our SoidAw»
Br^rcn (1886); OU and Nms Spain (188S); Oi^
braltar (1889); Brighi Skies and Dcrk Shadm
(1890); The Story of the Atianlic Tekgraph (1883);
and The Life o/ David Dudley Field (1898),
FIELB, RICHARB: English clergyman uA
theological writer; b. at Hemel Hempalcftd (23 nt
n.w. of London), Hertfordshire, Oct. 15, 1561; i
at Windsor (23 m. w, of London) Nov, 21. Ifil*-
He attended the Berkhampstciid m^hod aud »
1577 entered Oxford, studying succesai\"^ ■*
Magdalen College, Blagdalen Hall, and Qub^<
College (B.A., 1581; M. A., 1584; B,D., l5fla;DJ)j
1596). M a lecturer (1584-91) at Magdalen M
he made himself famous for his knowled|t «*
divinity and his ability as a disputant, la iSW
he became divinity l«;turer at Lincoln V hm, ^
soon afterward rector at Burghclere, Hampdi>3«.
In 1598 he l>ecame a chaplain in ordinary to Q»i^
Elizabeth, in 1604 canon at Windsor, and in l**
dean of Gloucester. He was also chaplain to Jw*
I., who sent Mm to the Hampton Court Ccmlefaw
in 1604 and called him to Oxfonl in 1605 to lii
part in the Divinity Act, James held Fieid i
high esteem, dehghted to discuss poiiitA of thedkn
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
VldaUB
FUi
ind intended to raise him to the see of
n hearing Field preach for the first
ing had exclaimed, " This is a field for
U in." Thomas Fuller called him " that
ine whose memory smelleth like a fi^ld
Lord hath blessed." Field's fame now
his work entitled, Of the CfLurch, Five
ols., London, 1606-10; 2d. ed., Oxford,
em ed., 4 vols., Cambridge, 1847-52),
taken its place with Hooker's Polity as
randest monuments of polemical divinity
ish language.
t: N. Field, Some Short MemariaU concerning
. of R. Field, published by J. Le Neve, Lon-
17; A. k Wood. Athena Oxonieneee, ed. P.
31-186, 4 vols.. London, 1813-20; DNB, xviii.
BRVICE (Germ. Felddiakonie): Service
0 combatants on the field of war,
by the spirit of love and in its origin
ire of Christian ministration, but in-
Iso by the spirit of secular humani-
See War.
iONARCHY MEN: Millenarian onthu-
be Conmionwealth period in England
ed and taught that Christ was setting
1 monarchy in the world," laid claim to
: prophecy, and wished to destroy all
ian " fonns " (e.g., an EstabUshed
Early leaders were Vavasor Powell (d.
nonconformist minister, who with all
ridties seems to have been a man of
i worth, and Christopher Feake (not
Fter 1660), an irregular preacher. They
iy opposed to Cromwell, whom Feake
le most dissembling and perjured vil-
le world." Both were imprisoned by
but were leniently treated and they were
y in word. In Apr., 1657, one Thomas
»x>per, headed a plot for a rising of Fifth
men in London. It was discovered and
US kept in prison till 1659. On Jan. 6,
et out with a considerable following to
the government. They marched the
h the cry " Long live King Jesus," until
dispersed by the guards. Three days
emnant of them was captured. Venner
d and quartered on Jan. 19.
it: D. Neal, Livee of &Ke Pwitane, ii. 176-220
's ed.. New York, n.d.; E. Rogers, Some Ac-
I** Lt/« and Opinione " of a Fifth Monarchy Man,
a« WriUnae of John Rogere, London, 1867;
Um, ReUgion in England, ii. 57-69, ib. 1881;
ii. 271-272 (Ufe of Feake), zlvi. 249-252 (Life
, Wiii. 212 (Ufe of Venner).
Vm ISLANDS: A group of two hun-
fifty islands in the Southern Pacific,
\ an area of nearly 8,000 square miles,
argest islands are Vanua Levu (** Great
rhich is one himdred miles long and has
df 2,600 square miles, and Viti Levu
^ti or Fiji "), which is ninety by fifty
4,250 square miles in extent. Some
the islands are inhabited. They are
uid volcanic formation, and have a
dimate. The islands were discovered
d in 1643, and were visited by Bligh in
1789, and by Wilson in 1797. The Fijians combine
characteristics of the Melanesian and Polynesian
types. Physically they are an ath-
Descrip- letic, well-formed race, and mentally
Hon and they are far above the Papuans. The
History, population was divided up into tribes,
and ruled by kings, until 1874, when
the islands were annexed to Great Britain. The
more powerful chiefs voluntarily proposed the
cession, and signed articles to that effect in
Oct., 1874. When Sir Arthur Gordon, the first
English governor, arrived in 1875 a pestilence had
carried off one-third of the population, and the
islands were in a state of great poverty. Under
EngUsh rule the yearly revenues have increased
from £16,000 in 1875 to £138,167 in 1903, a code
of laws has been adopted, and courts have been
established for the administration of justice. The
census of 1901 gave the population as 120,124, of
whom 2,459 were Europeans, 94,397 Fijians, 17,-
105 Indians, etc. The steady extinction of the
native element is shown by the number of births
and deaths in 1903, 3,244 and 5,725 respectively.
The chief productions are yams, sugar-cane, tea,
maize, copra, and bananas.
The native reUgion included a belief in a future
state and two classes of gods. Witchcraft was
widely practised and taboo was in full force.
Polygamy prevailed and female in-
Native fanticide was practised. The wife
Religion* or wives were strangled at the death
of the husband. Life was cheap, the
kings sacrificing men at the laimching of a new
canoe, the inception of a campaign, or the erec-
tion of a house. The islands were the headquar-
ters of cannibalism although there were some natives
whom the missionaries found averse to eating
human flesh. The victims of war and shipwrecked
sailors were commonly eaten, and human flesh
was pronounced more palatable than pork. A
chief registered the number of bodies he ate by
stones and one of the missionaries counted 872 of
these stones.
The first missionaries were Messrs. Ooss and
Cargill, who went to Fiji in 1835 from the Friendly
Islands. In 1839 they were reinforced by Messrs.
Lythe and Hunt, and by Mr. Williams and others
in 1840. The work was carried on amidst dis-
couragements and perils during the first years, but
was rewarded with extensive revivals, and the
gradual conversion of nearly the whole population.
Thokombau, the leading chief, after
Missions, resisting the missionaries for a number
of years, was baptized in Jan., 1857,
giving up all his wives but one. The language was
reduced to writing; and the Bible, Bunyan's
PUgrim^a Progress, a Fijian-English dictionary (by
Rev. David Hazlewood), and other books, have
been printed in the native language. Cannibal-
ism has been given up except among a few remote
tribes and polygamy no longer prevails. Churches
are well attended. Many natives have proved
faithful preachers and catechists. The Sabbath
is observed and family-worship is held in many
families. The dark side of the picture is furnished
by the constant deonaie in the nfttive population*
FUi
Finland
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
811
their proneness to idleness, and the contaminating
contact with the baser whit<?s.
The English Wosleyans liave been the only
Protestants lal>oring in Fiji until recently the
Seventh-day Advcntists have ont<;red the field.
The Wesleyan churclics in 1905 were divided into
12 circuits with 799 organized congregations, 17
European (or Australian) missionaries, 80 native
ministers, 75 native catechists, 1,004 native terchers,
3,411 native local preachers, and 5,999 native
class leaders, 35,456 native church members, and
5,499 on probation. There were 1,163 Sunday
Schools and 28,403 native teachers and scholars,
1,151 day schools with 18,130 scholars. The
" attendants at public worship " numbered 86,005.
The chief institution of higher learning is Navuloa
where ministers as well as teachers are trained.
There are also high schools for boys and girb. In
1905, 22 new church buildings were put up in the
single circuit of Ra.
The Roman Catholics are actively engaged on
the islands and in 1003 had 30 European priests
and 20 nuns, 71 churches and chapels, 163 schools,
and 1,880 scholars. All the schools on the islands
are supported by the Wesleyans and Catholics,
except two , which receive subsidies from the gov-
ernment. A large missionary problem is offered
by the laborers transported from British India and
numbering in 1905 26,000 with only two mission-
aries laboring among them. The Fijians also send
out foreign missionaries trained at Navuloa.
D, S. SCHAFF.
Biblioorapht: T. Williams, Fiji and the Fijiana, and J.
Calvert, Miuionary Labcura among the Cannibal*, issued
in one vol., London. 1870 (interesting and exhaustive);
L. Forbes. Txdo Yeara in Fiji, ib. 1875; Miss C. F. G.
Gumming, At Home in Fiji, 2 vols., ib. 1881; A. H.
Johnston, Camping among the Cann^tola, ib. 1884; W.
Reed, Recent Wanderinga in Fiji, ib. 1888; J. W. Alex-
ander. Ttie lalanda of the Pacific: a Sketch of Miaaiona
in the Pacific, pp. 390-408. New York. 1895; Stateaman'a
Year Book, 1905; Report of the MethoJiat Miaaionary
Society of Aiiatralia for 1906, Sytlney, 1906.
FILIOQUE CONTROVERSY: A dispute which
concerns one of the principal differences between
the Eastern and the Western Churches, arising
from the fact that the latter adds the word filioque
to its creed. The Apostles' Creed has simply,
'* And in the Holy Ghost," to which the Constan-
tinopohtan Creed (q.v.) added, *' Who procecdeth
from the father." There t he Greek Church stopped,
wliile the Latin Church, without the sanction of an
ecumenical council, or even consultation with the
Greek Church, added, *' and the Son " {filioque).
The Greek Cluirch protested as soon as it discovered
the addition; and attempts which have since been
made to reestablish union between the two churches
have been wrecked chiefly on this word.
The addition is met witii for the first time in
the actJj of the Third Council of Toledo (589), in
opposition to .Arianism. From Spain it spread
into France, where it seems to have been gener-
ally adopted at the time of Charlemagne. The
Councils of Constantinople (681) and the Second
Nicaea (787) did not notice it. In 809 two monks
from the court of Charlemagne made a pilgrim-
age to the Holy Land, and were accused of heresy
by the hermits of Mount Olivet for their use of
filioqtie, Charlemagne felt provoked; and tlie
council which he convoked at .\ix-k-(1ttpeik
(Aachen, 809) sanctioned the use of tlie additioo.
Pope Leo IIL, whose confirmation of the de-
cision of the council was asked for by OaAt-
magne, refused formally to incorporate the /tiiogw
in the creed, though he admitted the justoai
and soundness of its doctrinal bearing; andtlM
attitude of cautious reserve the pope endavoRd
to maintain so far as he could under the proBOR
of the steadily growing impatience of the Eit
and the all but universal practise of the Wei
Toward the close of the century, however, tbii
attitude became impossible. Photius, in his ney-
clical letter, emphasizes the filioque as one of the
gravest errors of the pope; and the Council of
Constantinople anathematized it. Political 6i-
cumstances compelled the pope to take up the
challenge. Nevertheless, the first time & pope
actually used the addition to the creed mi^ ia
1014, by Benedict VIII., at the crowning of Heniy
II. From that moment the pope himself appem
as the defender of the practise of the Western
Church, and at the Council of Ferrara-Ftorence he
seemed to have entirely forgotten that, at keA
historically, there was a flaw in his argument.
The doctrine in whose statement the word jlli»-
que was destined to play so prominent a part ii
called the " Procession of the Holy Ghost." The
term comes from John xv. 26, in which Chiiit
speaks of the spirit of truth who " proceedrth
from the Father." Inasmuch as nothing is aid
in this passage or in any other of the " double
procession," i.e., from both the Father and the Son,
the Greek Church holds to the single procession,
and defends its position not only by an appeal to
the text of Scripture and to the original form of the
Nicene Creed, but also to the " monarchy " (Gk.
monarchia) of the Father as the sole fountain, root,
and cause of the deity. It distinguishes sharphr
betw^een the eternal metaphysical procf^sion of the
Spirit from the Father alone, and the temporal
mission of the Spirit by the Father and the Son
(John xiv. 26, xvi. 7). The former belongs to the
trinity of essence, the latter to the trinity of revc*
lation, and begins with the Day of Pentecost. The
Latin Church defends the double procession on the
grounds of the double mission of the Spirit and the
essential unity of the Son with the Father: so that.
if the Spirit proceed from the essence of the Father,
he must also proceed from the essence of the Son,
because they have the same essence. The Greek
patriarchs declined to attend the Vatican Council of
1870, on the ground of the heresy of the Latin
Church upon this point.
A compromise was suggested from the writings
of John of Damascus, to say that the Spirit pro-
ceeds from the Father, through the Son. This w^
accepted by the conference held in Bonn (Aug..
1875) between the Old Catholics, Orientals, and
Anglo-Catholics, in which the filioque was sur-
rendered as an unauthorized addition to the Oeed.
See CONSTANTINOPOUTAN CrEED.
BiBMooRAPHY. Besides the literature on the Constanti-
nopolitan Creed, consult. J. G. Walch. Hiataria ««-
troveraica . . d« proceanon* Spiritua Sanda, Jen*, l'^^*
Finland
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
814
in Abo and Viborg, three of the Franciscans
in Abo, Raumo and Kdker, and one of the
Brigittines in Nadindal. The brotherhoods of
the Middle Ages also found admission into Fin-
land; fifteen guilds are known to have existed.
There was no liigher institution of learning.
The land suffered much, as it was always a
bone of contention between Sweden and Russia.
For centuries there were continual battles between
the different tribes in the interior. The spiritual
culture of the people was neglected in these tur-
bulent times, especially since the Roman Church
was never interested in the real education of the
people. At the Synod of Sdderkdping in Sweden
(1441) it was decided that the Lord's Prayer, the
Ave Maria, and the Creed should be translated into
the mother tongue. Bishop Tavast participated,
and it may be assumed that these decisions applied
also to Finland. Before 1500 there were 120
churches in Finland. In 1504 the Swedish gov-
ernment ordered the building of new churches since
the congregations were so large that some people
lived ninety miles from a church. No books for the
use of the people have been preserved from the
Middle Ages, but a Missale Aboenae, pubhshed in
1483 at the instance of Bishop Bitze, for the use
of the cathedral of Abo, is known, and also a Manu-
ale Aboense (1522) for the use of the Finnish Church.
In consequence of the connection of Finland with
Sweden, the Reformation took the same course in
both countries. The first herald of the Reforma-
tion in Finland was Peter S&rkilahti, who had
studied under Luther and Melanchthon. In 1524
he returned to his native country and began to
preach the new doctrine. Owing to
2. The Ref- the isolated position of Finland, the
ormation. people were not prepared for it and
the Roman Church had a larger field
of usefulness than in Germany. The first Evan-
gelical bishop of Finland was Martin Skytte, a quiet
and humble man. His activity was not revolu-
tionary. The real Reformer of Finland was Michael
Agricola, son of a poor fisher of Pema, who received
his rudimentary education in the school of Abo and
studied in Wittenberg. There he adopted the
cause of the Reformation. Like the other Reform-
ers, he immediately undertook a translation of
the Bible in order to gain a firm basis for his work.
In 1543 he published a primer and soon afterward
a catechism, in 1544 a book of prayer. The trans-
lation of the New Testament, which he had begun
in Wittenberg, appeared in 1548. In the following
year he published a manual on baptism and in
1551 the continuation of his translation of the Bible,
the Psalms and part of the Prophets. Haggai,
Zechariah, and Malachi followed in 1552. Agricola
died in 1554. He is gratefully remembered and
highly esteemed by the Finnish people as the Re-
former of Finland and the father of Finnish litera-
ture. The Reformation was completed by Jacob
Finno. Agricola gave the Finns the New Testa-
ment, Finno taught them to sing the Psalms. His
psalm-book was published in 1583 at Stockholm.
The only copy in existence is defective and is
in the library of Upsala. On the whole the Reform-
atory movement took a quiet course, without
great frictions. But a sect originated, tndngib
origin to a certain Zechariah, a Jew of Novgond,
which advocated the celebration of the sereotk
day as Sabbath and obedience to the law of Mom.
It was condemned at a oouncil in 1504.
Under King Gustavus Vasa, Finland wu divided
into two bishoprics. The eastern part of the
country was constituted a aepai
3. Bishops diocese with Viborg as cathedral tovn.
Juusten The first bishop there was Paul Jwntea
and EricL who also had studied at Witteobo^,
The church forma in Finland i
modeled in general after the mother country Bid-
den. A church order was issued in 1571. Untl
that time there were no general church regulationi.
Some of the ecclesiastical positions were fiDed
immediately by the king, others by the bahop
and chapter. The men who influenced moit
deeply the cultiune of Finland after the introductiQa
of the Reformation were Bishop Paul JuusteB
and Bishop Ericus Erici. Juusten became bufaop
in Viborg in 1554, and in Abo in 1563. He wrote
the Capita rerum synodicarum which formed the
basis of discussions at a convention of priesU in
Abo in 1573 and which gives an insight into the
ecclesiastical conditions of the time. He empha-
siaed especially that the priests in their oonduet
should be models for the members of the congre-
gation. For the guidance of priests he compiled
a collection of sermons which, however, was never
printed. The manuscript was burned in the great
conflagration in Abo in 1827 when many other
treasures perished. In 1574 he published a Finnish
catechism in Stockholm and in the following year
a manual. He also collected everything that ww
known of church conditions in Finland in the Middle
Ages, under the title Chronicon episooporum Fvk-
landensium (ed. H. G. Porthan, Abo. 17S4-1800;
ako, ed. C. Annerstedt, in Faut, Scriptares Tenm
SvecicaTunty iii., section 2, Upsala, 1871, pp. 132-
135), and has been justly cidled the father of the
church history of Finland. Not less important
and influential was his yoimger contemporary,
Ericus Erici. He was bom in the middle of the
sixteenth century, studied abroad, and after his
return became rector of Gefle in Sweden (1578).
In 1583 he was appointed bishop of both Fimusfa
dioceses. He wrote an extensive catechism for the
clergy and the first book of homilies in the Finnish
language which was still read and loved in the begin-
ning of the nineteenth centiuy.
An important event in the intellectual and
spiritual life of Finland was the foundation of the
academy in Abo (1640). A gymna-
4. The sium, founded ten years before, had
Seventeenth shown itself insufficient for the in-
Century. creased demands of education; the
population at that time had increased
to about 400,000 persons. The number of pro-
fessors in the academy was eleven, of whom three
were in the theological faculty. While this con-
cerned chiefly the higher circles of society, another
event occurred a few years later, the effect of which
was felt in the most distant parts of the land— in
1642 the people received the whole Bible in a Fin-
nish translation (see Biblb Vsbsionb, B,V.). School
115
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Pinland
mdhin were regulated by an order, issued by Queen
C3iriBtma in 1649, according to which there were
"to be three kinds of educational institutions —
academies, gymnasia, and schools.
After the vigorous period of the Reformation
theology degenerated into dead orthodoxy. One
of the most zealous defenders of the Lutheran
doctrine was Professor Enevald Svenonius in Abo
who in his zeal for pure doctrine caused the depo-
dtioa of Bishop Terserus, a deserving man, for
aDeged syncretistic views. The extreme desire for
pore doctrine manifested itself also in the notorious
trials for witchcraft at that time. Numerous per-
aona were burned at the stake or beheaded after
disgraceful trials, in Sweden as well as in Finland.
ElVen the most intelligent men of the time labored
under that delusion. The Pietistic movement has
an honorable place in the annals of Finnish church
Inotory. The most noteworthy representatives
of Pietism were Johannes Wegelius the Elder and
Johannes Wegelius the Younger. The older Wege-
Kua corresponded with Spener; the younger Wege-
fiuB published a book of homilies Se evangelium-
HHnen Volgeus ('* The Evangelical Light ") which
mnt through three editions. The latter decades
of the seventeenth century may justly be called the
period of the two bishops, father and son, each
named Johannes Gezelius. They were conservative
in theology and made it their principal task to
educate the common people (see Gezeuus, Johan-
n).
The end of the seventeenth century was a time
of great distress and suffering for Finland. A
hundred thousand persons died of hunger. King
Charles XII. of Sweden led his people from war to
war, and extreme poverty was the natural conse-
quence. The new century also began with tumult
of war and shedding of blood. The great Northern
War sacrificed thousands of Finns. For a quarter
of a centiuy suffering increased from year to year
in an incredible degree. The period
5. The from 1713 to 1721 is called the time
Eighteenth of great discord in the history of
and Finland. It seemed as if all life
mneteenth ceased to pulsate. The peace of
Ccntnriea. Nystod in 1721 put an end to the
bloody days of war, but a long
time paased before order was restored. Rus-
■a took possession of a considerable portion of
eastern Finland, and the rest of the country under-
went a new development. The cathedral chap-
ter of the East was transferred from Viborg to
Borgo where it is still. As the war had exhausted
afanost all material resources, the interests of the
Church naturally suffered. The new spirit of the
nineteenth century which governed all Europe
even entered Finland. The free thought of France
pervaded the oourt of King Gustavus III. in Stock-
holm, and thence spread among the lower classes
of society. The Church of Finland presented the
same picture of stupor and indifference as the rest
of Protestant Christianity. A barren moralism
took the place of a vivid faith; but in this time of
need God sent a powerful awakening, — a new Piet-
ism originated in Finland. Its author was Paavo
Ruotaalainen, a peasant. A great numder of
younger clergymen joined the movement, while
the older clergy showed more conservative senti-
ments. F. G. Hedberg separated from the move-
ment, taking a more Evangelical course, and found
many adherents (see BoRNHOLBfERs). There are to-
day two main tendencies in the Finnish Church — one
keeping more strictly to the Law, whose adherents
gathered later aroimd the doctrinal system of J. T.
Beck, the well-known theologian of Tobingen (see
Beck, Johann Tobias), and a more Evangelical
one whose acknowledged leader was Hedberg.
Many Christian sects have also made propaganda —
Baptists, Methodists, Adventists, and others. Free-
churchism has its workers here and there. For
some decades the sect of the Lsestadians, called after
Provost Lars Levi Lsestadius, has been active in
northern and southern Finland.
In 1850, Finland was divided into three dioceses —
Abo, Borgo, and Kuopio; in 1897 Nyslott was
added as a fourth. Since 1817 the bishop of Abo
has been archbishop and thus primate of the Fin-
nish Church. From 1839 to 1843 a
6. Present theological periodical was published at
Conditions. Abo, the Ecklesiaatikt lAtteraturblad,
Bishop Schauman edited for some
years (1869-72) Sanningavittnet ("Witness of
truth "). Professor Raboergh, who later became
bishop, edited a valuable periodical for theology
and Church. At present there are two periodicals:
Theoloffisk tidshrift and Wartija ("Watchman").
The new churoh law, enacted on July 1, 1870, was
of great importance. According to it, representa-
tives of the laity have the right of decision in eccle-
siastical questions. A general convention of the
Evangelical Lutheran Church in Finland meets
every tenth year, or oftener, if necessary. It
discusses vital questions of the Church, such as
changes in church law, introduction of new church
books, catechisms, Bible translations, etc. An-
other event of the most vital importance was the
separation of Church and school, in 1870. At
present, there are 1 ,273 elementary schools. As
Finland does not yet possess any civil lists, the
churoh registers of the congregations are the only
official documents upon which the census is based.
Consequently is it the duty of pastors to keep
registers- of crimes, vaccination, and lists of men
subject to military duty. Since the church con-
vention of 1886 Finland has had a new hymn-book,
catechism, and collection of pericopes. A Bible
committee is preparing a new translation of the
Bible which is necessitated by the national awaken-
ing of the last decades and the development of the
language. After the great conflagration at Abo in
1827, the university was removed from that city
to Helfiingfors. The teaching force of the university
has been doubled since 1640, but the theological
faculty consists of only four ordinary professors.
A candidate of theology must have been two years
in service before the respective cathedral chapter
admits him to the official examination which gives
him the privilege of applying for a pastorate.
There are consistorial and imperial pastorates.
In the former case the preacher is elected by the
congregation and confirmed by the cathedral
chapter, in the latter case the confirmation oomea
FInle:
inley
Irmillan
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
311^
from the government. Since 1842 the Finnish
Church has had a widows' or pension fund from
which widows and orphans of preachers and teachers
receive annual pensions. On the whole, the Fin-
nish people arc attached to the Church. The in-
crease of merely external education among the
common people has to a certain degree loosened
their attachment, and some school teachers are
hostile to the Church. Moreover, the antieccle-
siastical press has tried to sow discord and estrange
people from the Church, but so far without success.
See Sweden. (J. A. Cederbero.)
Bibuoorapht: The literature, mostly in Finnish and
Swedish, is given in Hauck-Hersog, RE, vi. 66. Soiirces
are: M. P. Juusten, Chronicon epiacoporum Finlanden-
aium, ed. H. G. Porthan, Abo, 1784-1800; H. G. Port-
han. Opera telecta, 5 vols., Helsingfors, 1859-73; Regia-
trum eccUaim Aboensis, ib. 1890. Consult, M. J. Alopeus,
Borga ffymruuii historia, Borga, 1804; Finnland und
die evangelisch-luiheriBche Kirche, Berlin, 1868; Fin-
land in the Nineteenth Century, Helsingfors, 1894; J. R.
Fisher. Finland and the Taara, 1809-99, London. 1899;
D wight, Tupper and Bliss, Encyclopedia of Mitiona, pp.
236-237, New York, 1904.
FINLEY, SAMUEL : American Presbyterian, fifth
president of the College of New Jersey (Princeton);
b. in County Armagh, Ireland, 1715; d. in Phila-
delphia, Pa., July 17, 1766. Having received a good
education from his parents, who were of Scottish
descent, he came to Philadelphia in 1734, and stud-
ied for the ministry. He was ordained by the New
Brunswick presbytery in 1742 and sent to Milford,
Conn., in 1843, but for preaching to the Second
Society at New Haven, in violation of the statute
forbidding itinerant ministers to preach in any
parish without the consent of the pastor, he was
expelled from the colony as a vagrant a few months
later. In 1744 he accepted a call to Nottingham,
Md., where he established an academy which
acquired considerable fame. He remained at
Nottingham till 1761, when he succeeded Samuel
Davies as president of the College of New Jersey.
Though he never published anything but occasional
sermons he enjoyed a great reputation as a scholar,
and in 1763 received the degree of D.D. from the
University of Glasgow. Among his sermons may
be mentioned, Christ Triumphing and Satan Raging
(1741), The Curse of Meroz (1757), and On the
Death of President Davies (1761).
FINNEY, CHARLES GRANDISON: Congregation-
alist, revivalist, theologian and president of Oberlin
College; b. at Warren, Litchfield County, Conn.,
Aug. 29, 1792; d. at Oberlin, O., Aug. 16, 1875.
When he was two years old his parents removed
to Oneida County, N. Y., thus placing him beyond
the reach of more than a common school educa-
tion. When about twenty he went to New Jersey,
where he attended a high school and taught. In
later years he acquired some knowledge of Latin,
Greek, and Hebrew. In 1818 he entered a law
office in Adams, N. Y. At that time, he says, he
was " abnost as ignorant of religion as a heathen "
{Autobiography, p. 7). His curiosity was excited
by quotations from the Bible in his law books, and
he purchased the first copy he had ever owned,
and began to attend prayer-meeting and church.
His conversion in 1821 was remarkable for its
suddenness, thoroughness, and the definitely maikd
stages of his experience. After great ma
agony, in which he prayed long and fenreodf,
suddenly, he says, " the Holy Spirit descended npoi
me in a manner that seemed to go throu^ me. hoif
and soul. I could feel the impression like a mv
of electricity going through and through n
(AiUobiographyt p. 20). Feeling an immediate eil
to preach, he forsook the law, m
Conversion received under care of nresbytoj
and Ac- (1822), and licensed to preach (1^).
tive Life. He at once turned his attentioQ to
revival labors, which were contimnd,
with few interruptions until 1860, when he wv
forced to give up the work of an itinerant evaagebt
on account of age. These labors, beginmng m
western and central New York, were extCDded to
Boston, New York, Philadelphia, and other <
of the East, and reached to England in 1S49 and ]
1858. In 1832 he accepted a call to the pastocato
of the Second Free Chureh of New York City, and
in 1834 another to the recently organised Googre-
gational Chureh in the same city, known as the
Broadway Tabernacle. In 1835 he went to Obedi
as professor of theology, and he continued to labor
till the time of his death as instructor, pastor, aad
college president (1852). During his readenee at
Oberlin he continued, as before, to hdd revival
meetings.
As preacher Finney had rare gifts. Wherever
he went extensive revivals prevailed. His maimer
was dramatic, direct, and personal. He used simple
language and illustrations. His presentation was
clear and strictly logical. He directed his appeab
to the conscience, rather than to the emotiaDS,
and made it tremble and quake by his searching
analysis of the motives of action.
As Revival- He chose for themes passages which
istf Preach- delineate the sinner's condition as
er, and one of conscious alienati(Hi from God,
Teacher, and sinning against him. He dwelt
upon the enmity of the carnal mind,
the want of holiness, and the certain destruction
of the impenitent. He called upon his heaien
to come to an immediate decision and submit
to God. *' Instead of telling sinners," he says,
" to use the means of grace, and pray for a
new heart, I called on them to make themsdves
a new heart and spirit, and pressed the duty of
immediate surrender to God " {Autobiographf, p.
189). These meetings were often accompanied by
violent bodily manifestations; and Finney was
in the habit of calling upon the audiences to go
forward to the anxious-bench, or to rise in attes-
tation of new resolutions. These methods, his
directness and calls to repentance, his departure
from the doctrine of imputation and other features
of the Calvinist theology early evoked criticism and
strong opposition from religious associations and
such church leaders as Asahel Nettleton and Ly-
man Beecher (qq.v.). In 1827 a convention washeJd
at New Lebanon attended by Dr. Hawes of Hart-
ford, Justin Ekiwards of Andover, Lyman Beecher
of Boston, Dr. Beman of Troy, and others, to
consider the matter. In course of time the op-
position decreased (AtUobiograj^y, pp. 210-226).
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Finli
Finley
Flrmlliaa
preaching reached all classes, but espe-
dryers and educated men, notably in Roch-
1 other towns of western New York. Dur-
irst twelve years of his ministry he wrote
of his sermons and often went into the
ithout knowing the text from which he
•reach; he ascribed his 8p>eech to the sug-
>f the Holy Spirit (Autohiography, p. 95).
teacher at Oberlin, Finney's influence was
it. He was an original thinker and very
in his convictions. His Lectures on Sya-
Fhealogy (2 vols., Oberlin, 1846; new ed.,
[. Fairchild, 1878) define his theological
He held to the plenary ability of the
0 repent, the voluntary and total moral
y of the unregencrate man, the necessity
ical change of heart through the truth by
icy of the Holy Spirit, and the sufficiency
ncarious atonement for the needs of all
L He regarded happiness as the chief
[ explained regeneration (which he did not
listinguish from conversion) to consist of
f the will, rather than an act of the Holy
He exerted a shaping influence over the
his students; and his theology, in a modi-
i, had a mde acceptance in his own denomi-
His works, beside the Lectures on Theology
mentioned, were Lectures on Revivals
1835; many later editions): Lectures to
\g Christians (Oberlin, 1836); and Ser-
Important Subjects (New York, 1839).
D. S. SCHAFP.
lpht: Memoirt of CharleM G. Finney, being an
jraphy. New York, 1876. His life was written
G. F. Wright. Boston, 1891; and A. M. Hills,
»ti, 1902. Consult also F. G. Beardsley, Hitt. of
in RevivalB, pp. 118-152. New York. 1904.
AN, SAINT, OF CLONARD: The chief of
ond order of Irish saints "; b. in Leinster;
>nard (in the southwest comer of County
ibout 30 miles from Dublin) Dec. 12,
He is said to have visited Tours, to have
^eral years in study at Menevia (St. David's)
s, and to have become acquainted there
nd, Gildas, and Cadoc. He founded many
ties and churches in his native land, of
lonard (foimded about 520) became the
DOUB of all the great Irish schools of the
situry. Scholars came there from all
Ireland and their number is said to have
three thousand. Finnian acquired the
' tutor of Erin's saints '' and certain of his
, choeen by him and including Brendan,
f Saigir, Ciaran of donmacnoise, and others
laelf were known as the " twelve apostles
d."
itnr: A8B, March, ii. 445-447; C. de Smedt and
)«cker. Acta Sandarum Hibemia, pp. 189-210,
1^ 1888: Lanigan. Ecel. Hut, i. 464-469; ii. 21-
itky Stokes, IAvm of SainU from the Book of
, pp. 75-83. 222-230. 342-346, Oxford. 1890;
^ innda 9anctarum, pp. 188-208, Dublin, 1890;
iz. 99-41.
Ur, SAINT, OF MOVILLE: Irish saint of
cmd order "; d. at Moville (at the head of
rd Lough, 10 m. e. of Belfast), Sept. 10, c.
is said to have been of a noble family, living
near Strangford Lough. After studying in his
own land, he went to Candida Casa in Galloway
(see NiNiAN, Saint), then to Rome. Returning to
Ireland he founded the monastery at Moville about
540. It was long a famous and prosperous school,
representing North British traditions with those
of Rome added, as the foundation of the other
Finnian represented Welsh teachings. It is said
that he brought from Rome a copy of the Vulgate
and from this his disciple Columba transcribed the
Psalter. Finnian then claimed the transcription
because made from his book, while Columba insisted
that it was his because it was his work. The dis-
pute led to a battle and was one of the causes which
sent CJolximba to Scotland (see Columba).
Bibliographt: Lanigan, Ecd. Hist., ii. 25-28; J. Healy,
Innda §anctorum, pp. 245-257.
FINTAN, SAINT, known also as Munnu: Irish
saint; d. at Taghmon, County Wexford (10 m. w.
of Wexford), 635. He was a disciple of Comgall of
Bangor. Having finished his studies, he applied
for admission at lona, but was rejected by the abbot,
Baithene, who said he was acting as directed by
Columba. Fintan then lived at many places in
Ireland, but finally settled at Taghmon, where he
became the leader of the opposition in South Ire-
land to the Roman Easter and other Roman cus-
toms. At the second of the two synods held to
consider the matter he proposed to submit the
question to the ordeal by fire and water or to a
contest in miraculous power, and, when this was
refused, suggested, it is said, that every one should
follow his own conscience. Many stories are told
illustrating his rugged character. He was impul-
sive, wilful, and combative, but also generous and
faithful, and wp^ highly venerated in Ireland and
Scotland. His day is Oct. 21.
Bibuographt: ASB, Oct.. ix. 325-342; C. de Smedt and
J. de Backer, Acta aanctorum Hibemict, pp. 393-414,
489-504. Edinburgh. 1888: Lanigan. Ecd. Hist., ii. 404-409;
DNB, xix. 42-43; DCB, ii. 520.
FIRE-WORSHIPERS. See Zoroabter, Zoroab-
TRIANISM.
FIRMICUS. See Maternus, Julius Firmicus.
FIRMILIAN: Bishop of Csesarea in Cappa-
docia; d. at Tarsus in Cilicia 264, while on the way
to the synod in Antioch against Paul of Samosata.
He became bishop of Cffisarea in 232 (Eusebius,
Hvit. eccl.f vi. 26), and with Dionysius of Alexan-
dria (q.v.) ranked as one of the most eminent
churchmen of his time in the East. He was a friend
of Origen (Eusebius, vi. 27), and an opponent of the
Novatians (Eusebius, Hist, eccl., VI., xlvi. 3; cf.
VII., V. 1). He is especially known for his antago-
nism to Pope Stephen I. in the strife over baptism
by heretics (see Heretic Baptism). In a long
letter to Cyprian of Carthage, preserved in Latin
translation among Cyprian's letters (Ixxv. [Ixxiv];
Eng. transl. in A^F, v. 390-397), he emphatically
maintains that heresy lacks the Spirit, and that a
heretic baptism is invalid. He also speaks of the
" audacity, insolence," and " pride " of the Roman
bishop, and, under cover of reference to the paschal
controversieB, deduces the conclusion that Rome
by no means inTariably appaMed aa the custodian
Vishar
THE NEW SCHAFF-HER2S0G
818
of true tradition. This letter is his only extant
work. . Of its genuineness, once contested in Roman
Catholic quarters, there should be no doubt; and
Ritschl's assumption of interpolations is to be
rejected. Firmilian is celebrated in the Oriental
Church on Oct. 28. G. KRtJoER.
Bibuoorapbt: O. Ritschl, Cvprian von Karthaoo, pp. 126-
134. Gdttinsen. 1885; Hamack. Litteratur, i. 407 sqq.;
J. Ernst, in ZKT, xviii (1894). 209-250 (on the genuine-
ness of the letter): E. W. Benson, Cyprian, hit Lifg,
Time9 and Work, pp. 387-396. London. 1897; DCB, ii.
521-522.
FIRST-BORN. See Family and Marriage Re-
lations, Hebrew, § 16.
FIRST-FRUITS— 1. In the Old Testament: In
common with other nations of antiquity the He-
brews consecrated the first proceeds of field or
flock (Gk. aparchaif Lat. primitia) to the deity;
this is the essence of the sacrificial cult (cf . Dillmann
on Lev. xxiii. 14, and Smith, Rel. of Sem., pp. 443
sqq., 104, 210, 220 sqq.). The general term for
first-fruits in Hebrew is re'shilh ("the first of";
applied to land, Deut. xxxiii. 21; to the harvest.
Lev. xxiii. 10; to fruit, Deut. xxvi. 2, 10; Ezek.
xliv. 30); whereas hikkurim is a special term (used
of new grain and fruit, Lev. xxiii. 20; Ex. xxiii. 16,
xxxiv. 22; Num. xviii. 13; Neh. x. 35, xiii. 31; of
figs [Neh. iii. 12]; of grapes. Num. xiii. 20; etc.);
the term applied to animab (firstlings) and man
(first-bom) is pefer rehem (Ex. xiii. 2, 15, xxiv. 19;
Num. iii. 12, xviii. 15; Ezek. xx. 26) or simply
pefer (Ex. xiii. 20-21, xxxiv. 20; but cf. in poetic
diction, Gen. xlix. 3; Deut. xxi. 17; Ps. Ixxviii.
51). As the firstling belonged to the holy
taxes (see Taxation, Hebrew), so the expression
terumah (" lift " or " heave-foflfering] ") includes,
if used in its general sense (Lev. xxii. 12; Num. v.
9), besides the first-bom, the tithe, the " ban,"
and plunder, also the firstlings (Num. xv. 19, xviii.
11, xxxi. 41).
As an expression of gratitude to him who had
given both land and harvest there were at the feasts
in the name of the whole people (1) the waving of
the first sheaf, of barley, on the Sunday of the Maz-
zoth-week (16th of Nisan; cf. Dillmann on Lev.
xxiii. 11), when other sacrifices were also offered
(Lev. xxiii. 10-14); (2) seven weeks later, the two
" wave "-loaves, baked out of leavened dough (of
two-tenths of an ephah of new flour), offered as a
peace offering with two yearling lambs (Lev. xxiii.
15-21; cf. DiUmann on vs. 18).
Besides these national offerings every individual
brought his first-fruits, though the quantity was
optional. These were in their natural state, as
grain, fmit, honey, wool (first-fniits of the field);
or partly refined as \\\nQ (first-fruits of the vine-
yard), as oil (first-fruits of the olive-groves), as
bread or cake (first-fruits of flour). All these were
perquisites of the priest, who alone might eat them
(Num. xviii. 11-13 [P]; Deut. xviii. 4 [D]; Ezek.
xHv. 30) though a part was used in the sacrificial
meal (Deut. xxvi. 1-2; cf. xii. 16). From Prov.
iii. 9-10, Mai. iii. 8, Job i. 6, Ecclus. xxv. 10, I
Mace. iii. 49 it may be inferred that the " first-
fruits " enjoyed popular approval, which " tithe "
and " first-bom " lacked (cf. II Kings iv. 42).
In a class by themselves, somewhat anaktgoQi to
the cattle, were young fruit-trees of which not the
first-fruits as such, but those of the fourth yearwcn
brou^t, the first three years' produce being m-
garded as unclean and neither gathered nor eata {
(Lev. xix. 23-25). First-fruito of the fidd, and of '
the vineyards and olive-groves were to be broi^ |
yearly; the former, it was decreed, should be
brought voluntarily and early (Ex. xxii. 29; xxi.
19 [Book of the Covenant]; xxxiv. 26 [J] and le-
cording to Deut. xxvi. 1-2 [D]) in a badcet; the
rest of the firstlings was used for a meal (cf . DiD- ■
mann on Deut. xxvi. 11 and Nowack, ArtAdoIo^ ^
Freiburg, 1894, ii. 256). As the first-fniite fin>-
nished the income of the priests they were httcr
gathered in the store-rooms of the temple, to be
used as required (II Chron. xxxi. 5, 11; Neh. x.
37,39, xii. 44, xiii. 5; Mai. iii. 8, 10). Theiuge
was later extended to sheep's and goat's wool
(Deut. xviii. 4) and honey (II Chron. xxxi. 5).
As the Old Testament law gives no instnietiaD m
to quantity or quahty, or the place and manner of
delivery, this was added in the Mishnah-trMto
Bikkurim and Terumoth and may have beei
really observed later; wine and oil were to be
no less than onensixtieth of the harvest (coe-
thirtieth or one-fortieth was considered higb|f
liberal, Terum. iv. 3); the bikkurim proper were |
limited to the seven products of Deut. vE 8
(with dates in place of honey). These r^g;ula-
tions apply only to Palestine; Jews ronotefon
Jerusalem may bring their offerings dried. Tta
ceremony of delivery is described (for a vifid
picture of a Bikkurim-procession cf. Delitaefa,
JUdischea Handwerkerleben zur Zeit Jesu, Erlangen,
1875, 66; Eng. transl., London, 1877, 94), and the
time was set not before Pentecost nor after the Feiit
of Dedication {Bikkurim, i. 3). The ierumolk proper
were to be delivered " to the priests " in tWr
cities {Bikkurim, ii. 4) and included products from
Jewish farms abroad (cf. Josephus, Atd, XVL,
vi. 7; Philo, ii. 568); direction is given bow and
by whom they are to be eaten, and how the b^
man, who consciously or unconsciously eats of tha
terumoth is to be punished. (Victor RYBSKLf.)
2. EcclesiasticaL See Taxation, Eccljebus-
TICAL.
Biblioorapht: The commentaries on the pmwgfiii cited in
the text; SchOrer. GeacAuAfo, ii. 244-254. Ei«. tnnrf-
II. i. 237-242; DB, ii. 10-11; EB, ii. 152&-26: J«, ^
308-400.
FISCH, GEORGES: Swiss Protestant; b. A
Nyoti (14 m. n. of Geneva), Switzerland, J«ly^
1814; d. at Vallorbe (30 m. n.w. of Laosgnne)
July 3, 1881. After finishing his tbeologifiil
studies at Lausanne he was pastor of a floifl
German church at V^vay for five years. In 1M6
he went to Lyons, France, as assistant to Adolpho
Monod (q.v.) of the Free Church, whom be W6-
ceeded. In 1855 he was called to Paris to succeed
Louis Bridel. He was warmly attached to tha
cause of the Free Churches, took part in the ooDr
stitutional synod of 1849, and was president of tha
Synodal Commission from 1863 till his death. Ha
was the chief support of the Evangelical ADianee
in France and attended the conferences at London,
Paris, Berlin, Geneva, Amsterdam and New Yoik.
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Vint*Bon&
Visher
w&a an aetive member of various homo and
ign missionaiy Bockties. Hia pnncipa.! publi-
gni are* Union dea igliaes HfangHiques de
na (PajiR, 1862); and L^ Staia-Unia m iS^t
ISCHERf AinOII HUBERT; Cardinal; b. at
di (15 m. n,e, of Aachen), Germany, May 30,
5. He itudied in Bonn and Miinster, and was
lined to the pH^hood at Cologne in 1863.
er being instmctor in reUgicn at the gymnasium
^mm 1864--88, he was consecrated titular biahop
luMopolis and aiiffragan bijshop of Cologne. Iii
9 be bfcame ait^hbisbop of Cologne, and in the
MSrear wad created eardlnal pnest of Santi Nereo
AclaEeo, Rome. Ha has also been canon of
Ofne Cathedral since ISSS and dean of the cbap-
mm 18^, while in 1904 ha was nominated to
I Fmssian House of Lords. Among bis writing
Bljon may be made of his Dt auluU infideUumj
Nffi, 1886).
nSE— 1 . In the Old Testament : In the Old Testa-
si fiflb are n ot named by species. The large aq uati c
mals^ including the crocodile, are designated as
Kill (me Deacon ) . The food-law (Lev . xi . 9- 1 2 ) ^
ling ostensibly at a classificatioD of hsh, divide
tlung^ that move in the water into those that
*t Kales and fins and those that have not, the
QfT being clean, the latter unclean. Almost all
bdong to the first class. In Palestine fish
tiiid in the Jordan ^ the Sea of Galilee, and in
mml brooks. The Sea of Galilee has a few
icdei not found elsewhere, except in tropical
crs like the Nile.
Iiere is seldom mention of fish as food in early
Ileal times. After the Exile, and with the ad-
m of the art of cookings fish became a more
Mnta&t article of diet. The I^rians marketed
IT fish, dried and salted, in Jerusalem (Neh.
- 16), where a city-gate near the fish^market
I called the *' fish-gate " {Neh. iii. 3, and else-
Hi). Salt Ml (Gk. tarichi) was imported from
fpi The name of the town Tariche^ on the
L d Galilee and the frequent mention of brine
the Misbnah show (hat the custom of pickling
a obtained in Palestine. In the time of Jesus
ti WIS a common article of food (Matt, vu. 10,
r. 17, %v. 34; Luke xmv. 42).
Ko account of the catching of fish has come down
■utile older Biblical period; biit figures of speech
ipbfed by the prophets show that fishing was
fmily known (Amos iv. 2; Jer, xvi. 16; Ezek.
2L 4; and elsewhere). In the New Testament
oUonal fisbers lived near the Sea of Gdilee
^ T. 1-2, and elsewhere). As regards fishing
ekt various nets are mentioned in the New
Miffioit; the large drag-net (t^ani, Matt, xiii,
ll«i well as the casting*net (diMyan=^ the small ^
fk3iliitr(m^ the large easting-net. Matt. iv.
sflO) were certainly in use in the older period
ax, B; Hab. i. 15). Fishing-hooks (Job xli.
4nios iv. 2; Afatt. xvii. 27) and spears or bar-
)8 aze abo mentioned (Job xli, 7 ), Fishing was
Eed on chiefly by night. L Ben£INgi:r.
As a Sfmbol and in Christian Art See Stm-
Brauo^aAPar^ The heat tretttmnot! i« in H. B. TriatraiD,
Svrtey of Wnttern PaleaHne, tkv Fauw and Fiona, Lon-
dJoo, 18^. A mmpreheDiive diBeuasion may be found
ja BB, IJ 1526-31, cf. i. 519^523 (on " Beh«nioth imd
LeviattiaD "). Cooiult bIk>: DB, ii. 11-12; J. G, Wood.
Bwbie Animalt. New York, 1B83; BeiuiDger, AreMolofri**
pp. sg, 91, 04, mB.
FISH, HENRY CLAY: American Baptist; b.
at Halifax, Vt., Jan. 27, 1S20; d. at Newark, N. J.,
Oct. 2, 1877. He received an academic education
and, after teaching two years in Massachusetta,
entered Union Theological Seminary, New York,
where he was graduated in 1845. He was pastor
of the Baptist church at Somerviller N, J.« from
1845 till 1S5U and of the Firet Baptist Church of
Newark from 1851 till his death. During the Civil
War he supported the Union, and on being drafted
in June, 1S64, he insisted on going to the front, but
finally agreed to send a substitute. He was an
ardent and efficient worker in extending the Bap-
tist Church; and also did much to popularize Ufe
insurance, publishing several works on the subject.
His numerous religious writings and compilations
include, PHmiiii^ Piety Revived (Boston, 1855);
History and Repomiory o/ Pulpit Eloquerux (2 vols.,
New York. 1856); PulpU Eloquence of the Nine-
teenth Century {1857); Handbook of BevivaU (Bos-
ton, 1S74); and Bible Lands lUusimied (Hartford,
1876), the result of eight months spent abroad in
1874.
FISHER, GEORGE PARK: Congregationalist;
b. at Wrenthara, Mass.^ Aug. 10, 1827. He studied
at Brown University (B.A.. 1847), Yale Divinity
School, Andover TbeologicaJ Seminary (from which
be was graduated in 1851), and in Germany, He
waa professor of divinity and college preacher in
Yale CkjUege 1854-61 and profeasor of ecclesiastical
liistory in the Yale Divinity School 1861-190L
He ha3 written: ThB Swpematnral Origin of Chrie-
iianUy (New York, 1865); Lift of Benjamin SUli-
wian (1866): History of the Reformaiion ilS7Z; new
ed., 1906); The Beginninga of ChTisiianiiy (1877);
Faith and Rationalism (1879); Discussions in
Histmy and Theology (1880); The Chrijftim Relig-
ion (1882); The Grounds of Thei^tic and Christian
Belief (1883); Outlines of Universal History (1885);
History of the Christian Church (1888); Manual of
Christian. Emdmem (1890); Nature and Method of
EeveUiti^ (1890); ColmitU History of the United
States (1892); Manual of Natural Theology (1893);
History of Christian DodHne (1896); Brief History
of the Naiiom (1896); and Edwards on the Trinity
(1903).
FISHER, JOHW: Bishop of Rochester; b. at
Beverley (9 m. n.n.iv. of Hull), Yorkshire^ 1459;
d. in London June 22, 1535. He was educated in
his native tow*n and at Michaelhouse, Cambridge
(B.A., 1487; M.A., 1491), of which he became
master in 1497. In this same year he was ap-
pointed confessor of Margaret, Countess of Rich*
mond and mother of the king. Four years later
he was elected vice-chancellor of his university,
and in 1503 he was appointed by Margaret to her
newly established professorship of divinity, and in
1504 was chosen chancellor of Cambridge, bdng
reelected annualljr until Ul^ '-*-* ^ wm «p-
fisher
THE NEW 8CHAFF-HERZ0G
pointed for life. In 1604 he was ooneecrat^ to the
Bce of Rochester, but hia in tercet in his university
was undiminiBhed, and he was active in the foun-
dation both of Christ's College and of 8t. Johu^a
College, in addition to holding the presidency of
Queen's C'ollege (torn 1505 to 1508. Though he
induced Erasmus to vieit Cambridge, Ftsher waa a
faithful adherent of Roman CatlioUcism, and
asBaiied the teachings of Luther in his Confytaii&
OBteriwnis Lutheran w (Antwerp, 1523) and other
treatiaea, criticizing aa well {Ecolampadius and
VdenuB — the latter maintained that the Apostle
Peter never waii in Rome.
Fisher lost the royal favor by his opposition to
Henry's claim to spiritual supremacy and t'O the
divorce of Queen Catherine, whose confessor he was.
His unpopularity 'svaa increased by his unfortunate
belief in the impostures of Eli?,ahcth Barton (q.v,)*
the Maid of Kent, who named him one of her
confederates. Early in 1534 he was sentenced to
be attainted of misprision, to be imprisoned at the
king 'a pleasure, and to forfeit all his goods, although
he was released on tlie payment of £300. On Apr.
13, howevf!r, he was cit-ed to appear at Lambeth
to take the oath of compliance with the Act of
Succession, liut though he and Sir Thomas More
were willing to admit the succpasjon of the children
of Henry and Anna Boleyn, both refused to declare
the cliildren of Catherine and the king illegitimate*
Three days later Fi^lier was committed to the Tower,
and with the passage of the Act of Supremacy in
Nov., 1534, both Fisher and More were again
attainted of misprimon of treaison and the see of
Rochester was declared vacant from Jan. 2. 1535.
Fisher^s doom was sealed by the inadvertent act
of Paul III., who on May 20 created him cardinal
priest of St. Vitnlis, not knowing the extreme dan-
ger in whicli the hi (i hop ?lood. Henry, in fury, for-
bade the hat to be brought to England, and Fiaher
was trapped hito statementa wliich were tmsted
into treason. C>n June 17 he was condemned to be
executed at Tybum as a traitor^ but the sentence
was changed to decapitation at Tower Hill, where
it waa carrii^d out a fortnight before the execution
of More* The chief works of Fisher were his De
unica Magdai^na (Para, IdVJ) and his De eucha-
fistkt contra Johannem (Eedampadium (Cologne,
1527); the greater part of his Latin writings w^ere
collected and publisheil at Wilrzburg in 1597* A
volume of a projected edition of his English worka
was edited for the Early English Text Society by
J. E. B. Mayor (London, 1876), and a few other
writings by him are extant in manuscript,
BtBUocitiAFHT: The Li/« was ftr*t written oeitcnitbly by
ThomftBi Bml^yp really by Richard Halln London, IQfifi.
republjeheil. 1S35. Conauk lilMt: John Lewiti. Life of
Dr. John Fiskijr, 2 v^ls., ib. 1S64; J. Cillow, BibliograpK-
ical Dictwrtary o/ Enffli^fi Catholic*, U. 262-270, ib.. 1885;
DNB, KijE. 5S-63,
FISK^ PLIHTt American Congregationaliat, mis-
sionary in Syria; b. at Shelbume, Mass., June 24,
1792; d. at Beirut, Syria, Oct. 23, 1825. He was
graduated from Middlebury College in 1814 and
Andover Theological Seminary in 1818, and with
Levi Parsons (q.v.) was appointed by the Amer-
ican Board to the Palestine mission in Sept., 1818.
After traveling in the South for a year, raising funds
for the cause of mi^iom;^ be sailed from Boetoaler;
Smyrna on Nov. 3, 1819, accompanied by
During the next hve years he traveled eitenai
in Greece, Egy^Jt, Palestine, and Syria,
languagea, particularly Greek and Arabic, aod
tributing tracts and Biblea. In May, 1S2S, hii
joined the mission at Beirut. He preaehul %,
Italian, French, Greek, and Arabic, publubed i
number of papers to the Mi£sionGrif MtrtM, tni
on the day before his death completed an £ii|^'^
Arabic dictionary*
BmucKiitAi'EiT: A. Bond, Mvm^ir of P. Fi^, B«tttiB,ini|
R. AodertiOQ, HiMifjru <of ^i MiMtionM ef Sm
J^oanl, Oriental Mittian*. vol. iL* ib. 1ST2.
FISK, WILBUR: First president of Wei%«
Univeraity (Conn.); b* in Bratlleboro, Vt., Aug.31f
1792; d. at Middletown. Conn., Feb. 2, im
After his graduation from Brown Univemty (ISlI)
he studied Liw, but became an itinerant minister a
the Methodist Episcopal Church in 1818. He Ul
pastorates at Craftf^bury, Vt., and CfaaiMoii^
Mass., and was presiding elder of the Venaoot d^;
trict 1823-27, when he waa placed upon the nqw-
annuated list. For a time he was agent of the Na^
market (N. H.) Academy, where he was ebosea li
make the address of welcome to Lafayette in IIIL
lie was chaplain of the Vermont legiiktun li
1826, principal of the Wealeyan Academy it Wl-
braham, Mass., 1826-31, and president of "We^gjm
Univergity ISSI-^SQ. He had aided mateiiiDrii
the organisation of the university, and under li
direction it became the moat influential edticstiomi ]
institution of the Methodist denomujatioo in Adw-
ica. While travehng in Europe in 1836 he «i
elected bishop , but declined the office. la 18S
he had declined the bishopric of the Canada tni-
ference. Besides occasional sermons and lectuii%
he published The Seimee of Edujcation (Middlelo«ii,
1831; Hew York, 1832), the inaugural addiHHM
the opening of Wedeyan University; Thi. Cdtw-
istic ConiTovers^ (New York, 1837); and Tmtdik
Europe (1S3S),
BtaLiooRAPHT: J. Holdich, Life &f W. Kwt, Kt* Y«fc
1842s D. IX Whedoii. A Ttib^de to Qtm Mm^ ot Frm^
tUni Fi»k, ib. 1K3^.
FISTTILA; A tube, usually of gold or alTtr,
through which the consecrated wtne of the Eudflflit
waa administered to the communicant, lu u*
came up in the sixth eentiuy, when the parlicuMf
holy character of this wine was generally recofni**-
The priests had never used it themselvea, awl *
when the cup was withdrawTi from the Uitjf ^
fistula was entirely laid aside, except in the pit*
masaea, where kxlay the pope receives the Eiidi*'
ri^tic wine through a golden fiatula.
FITZGERALD, JAMES IfEWBURY: Mctbdi*
Episcopal bishop; b. at Newark, N, J,, Mj'^r
1837; d, at Hongkong, China, Apr. 3, 1907. Hi
was admitted to the New Jersey bar in 1858, bat ift
1862 gave up his practise and entered the Bfetbo^A
ministry. After holding various pastorates in the
Newark Conference he was recording secretary d
the Missionary Society of the Methodist Episoopil
Church, from 1880 till in 1888 he was dected biabop.
Besides being presiding elder of the Newton, New-
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
TUher
Vlaoius
rsey City districts and secretary of the
nference for eleven years, he was a
the General Conference in 1876, 1880,
JR ACT: An Act of Parliament passed
d completing the system of measures
• repress the non-confonnists known as
on Code. By its provisions no clergy-
id been expelled from his living by the
onnity of 1662 was to come within five
ity or corporate town, or of any parish
d formally preached, unless he declared
Id not " at any time attempt any alter-
vemment either in Church or State,"
lalty of forty pounds; and no one who
cen the oath of passive obedience and
vas to teach in any school or take pupils
3. As the Puritan congregations were
le towns, this act cut them off from the
IS of their chosen leaders and in most
even private education, and hastened
>f Puritanism throughout England.
r: The text is printed in Gee and Hardy,
pp. 620-623. Consult: D. Neal, History of
I, ii. 255 sqq. of Harper's ed.. New Yorlc,
Drerton, Chvrch in England, ii. 143, London,
[UTS OF CALVINISM: The five charac-
;ts of Calvinism as opposed to Armin-
nded by the Synod of Dort (1618-19)
) the Five Articles of the Arminians or
its, put forth in 1610. They are par-
estination, limited atonement, natural
resistible grace, and the perseverance of
Abminiub, Jacobus, and Arminianism;
Remonstrants.
FLACIUS, MATTHIAS.
e (f 1).
nberg. Opposition to Melanchthon (f 2).
Arars. The Adiapboristic Controversy (f 3).
mslic, Osiandrian, and Schwenckfeklian Con-
ies (f 4).
Attempts at Reconciliation (f 5).
'rofessor in Jena (f 6).
fcistic Dilute (f 7).
Wanderer (f 8).
s at Frankfort (f 0).
iterary and Scholarly Work (f 10).
jSitunzed from Vladch, or Francovich)
Albona (42 m. s.s.e. of Trieste), Istria,
0, and died at Frankfort-on-the-Main
175. From his birthplace he was sur-
•ietts. His father, a prominent citizen
d Albona, died when Flacius was a
mere boy. He received his early
education fixHn the celebrated human-
ist Baptists Egnatius in Venice,
i GathoHc he decided to become a monk,
Dgy, and preach, but his uncle, Baldo
rovinciai < f the Minorites, coounended
im as a restorer of the true Gospel and
Germany in 1539. He now continued
kt Baad, but went to TQbingen in 1540,
enberg in 1541, where he was favorably
d assisted by Bfdancfathon. After an
rt that lasted three years, Bngmhaflen
-21
directed him to Luther and it was tlm>ugh him that
Flacius attained peace of soul by accepting the
free grace of God. He had personal experience of
the consolation of the Evangelical doctrine of
justification by faith alone, and henceforth the
defense of this doctrine in its purity and invio-
lability became the guiding star of his life.
In 1544 he accepted the chair of Hebrew at the
university, in 1545 he married, and in 1546 received
the master's degree. His extraordinary gifts excited
great expectations with Luther and Melanchthon.
He lectured on the Old Testament,
2. In Wit- epistles of Paul and on Aristotle; but
tenberg. his activity was suddenly interrupted
Opposition by the outbreak of the Schmalkald
to Melanch- War. In 1547 he fled to Brunswick,
thon. where he lived by teaching. After
a few months, however, he was able
to return to Wittenberg, but the time of rest was
now over for him. After the Augsburg Interim in
1548 the Elector Maurice of Saxony entered into
negotiations with the theologians and estates of his
realm which resulted in the Leipsic Interim (see
Interim). It was then that Flacius as a strict
Lutheran protested against the concessions of
Melanchthon and the men who shared his views.
From now on his relations with the head of the
conciliatory party became more and more strained
and his position at Wittenberg untenable. After a
short sojourn at Hamburg he settled in 1549 at
Magdeburg, where printing and publication were
still free.
In Magdeburg he developed a comprehensive
literary activity against the Melanchthonians, and
now those unfortunate and often petty quarrels
arose which injured the Evangelical cause more
than the opposition of the Roman Catholics. The
fault was not altogether on one side. In Witten-
berg Flacius' departure was ascribed to the most
unworthy motives. Flacius contributed not a little
by his arrogant and obstinate char-
3. In Hag- acter and by assuming the r61e
deburg. of dictator. He published treatise's
The Adi- against the Interim, and the Adi-
aphoristic aphora (q.v.) and their defenders.
Controversy. His criticism was sweeping, and it was
due to him more than to any one else
that public protest made the execution of the In-
terim impossible, and thus Luther's great work
was saved. From that point of view he rendereii
inestimable services to the Evangelical Church;
especially in his fight against the Adiaphora he
proved himself to be on the right side and Melancli-
thon had to acknowledge his victory. When Magd«9-
burg fell into the hands of the elector Maurice (1551)
attempts were made to reconcile the two opposing
parties, the Magdeburg and the Wittenberg circles.
In the absence of Flacius, Gallusand his assodates
2Ltyf^ to negjOtiAle under the condition tliat no
compromise with the fjopc should l>e marJe. Orr-
tain articles were drawn up. but i-lacius, full of
suspicion, declared them unsatisfactory and so i\us
pacificatory work was disrupted.
The adiapboristic dispute wa« followed by that
concerning Oeorg Major (c|.v.), who in a mtmon
preached at Eudebeo had maintainod Um fitMMitjr
FlaoiuB
Flagellation
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
W
of works for salvation. This controversy was
carried on with the same relentless, cruel, and bitter
personal insinuations. In 1552 the
4. The Osiandrian dispute arose (see Osi-
Majoristic, ander, Andreas). Osiander tau^t
Osiandrian, that justification is attained by the
and indwelling of the essential justice of
Schwenck- Christ through faith. In this case
feldian Con- Flacius put himself on the side of the
troversies. Melanchthonians, showing thereby that
the fight against his former teachers
was not personal. Again as a strict Lutheran, he
developed clearly the doctrine of forensic satis-
faction. In 1553 he attacked the mystic subjec-
tivism of Caspar Schwcnckfeld, who made a dis-
tinction between an inner word of God and the
letter in Holy Scripture, and here also Flacius pre-
pared the way for Lutheran orthodoxy as laid down
in the Formula of Concord by maintaining the
identity of the external word and the word of God.
In the mean time further attempts were made to
assuage the dissensions of the Magdeburg and
Wittenberg circles for the sake of concord in the
Evangelical party. As early as 1553 Flacius and
Gallus desired to have a committee of arbitration
appointed, but Melanchthon was silent
5. Fruitless in the matter; then Duke Christopher
Attempts of Wittenberg proposed a convention
at Recon- of theologians, but the Thuringian
ciliation. theologians Amsdorf and his asso-
ciates were not in favor of it and re-
quested the Wittenberg circle to condemn their
heresies publicly. Jena in those days was the strong-
hold of Lutheran orthodoxy against the unionistic
tendencies of Wittenberg. Several other attempts
to unite the dissenting parties also failed. Now
Flacius published his treatise Von der Einigkeit in
which he addressed himself to the whole Church,
attempting to justify his character against sus-
picions and indicating the necessary steps to be
taken for the insurance of peace. Shortly after-
ward he wrote a letter to Melanchthon in spite of
the fact that the latter had written some verses
accompanying a picture which represented Flacius
as an ass crowned by other asses. With relentless
severity Flacius exposed in this letter his oppo-
nent's shortcomings concerning Adiaphorism and
admonished him to relieve his conscience by con-
fession of defeat. This Melanchthon professed to
be willing to do, yet he rejected the articles of peace
proposed by Flacius. The latter was not satisfied
i^ith this informal confession; again and again he
requested written statements, official declarations,
common signatures of articles and public revoca-
tions. In this way the breach became irreparable.
The friends of Flacius spoiled matters by treating
Melanchthon as an impenitent sinner and the
younger Philippists not less by their insolent trea-
tises against Flacius. In 1557 Flacius was called
to Jena as professor of the New Tes-
6. Flacius tament and superintendent. Shortly
Professor after his arrival a colloquy took place
in Jena, in Worms (see Worms) at which it
was proposed to array Melanchthon
and his associates together with the Thuringi-
ans and other theologians of the stricter school
against the Romanists, but nothing wu adnend
at this conference because the Evao^eficdb
themselves did not agree. This was owin^ rf
course, chiefly to Flacius. His conduct wis gn-
erally criticized, and he incurred tiie displeMn
of many who had hitherto aided him. Then-
called Frankfort Recess (q.v.),convdcedinl558lif
the leading Evangelical princes, was no more ■».
cessful than the other attempts at uni^. Tla
Flacius proposed a synod and fifty promiiienttlieo-
logians signed the Supplicatio pro Ubera^ tkvtim
et legilima synodo, but all was in vain. A iDilir
outcome resulted from the Naumburg CGOTottiB
(q.v.) of 1561.
In the mean time the Syneigistic diq^utelnd
arisen in Jesus (see Synerqibm). Victarmni
Strigel (q.v.) and Superintendent HOgd of Jcoa
criticized Flacius' doctrine conceniing free lil,
and Duke John Frederic immediately impiismed
them. In 1560 a di^utsdcm W
7. The tween Flacius and Strigd took pbee
Synergistic at Weimar, t he result of which was thtk
Dispute, the duke confirmed the orthodoif
of Fladus' doctrine. John Fieden,
however, becoming tired of these peipetuil eoh
troversies, instituted a consistory which poasesBed
the right of exconununication and of cenaofship
in regard to theological treatises. Fladus pn>-
tested against this procedure as an act of vioknee,
and thereupon he was deposed together with othen
in 1561.
He left Jena in 1562 with the bold idea oi foond-
ing a Lutheran academy of learned men at Regent-
burg. Gallus received him kindly. From here
he continued with untiring zeal his fight sguort
Strigel and the Calvinistic tendencies, against the
arrogance of secular authorities in encroaching upon
the rights of the Church, and many other antago-
nists. With these polemical treatises hatred agiinst
him grew and his travels began to become danger-
ous. The Elector Augustus of Saxonj
8. Flacius especially persecuted him, and tbe
a Wanderer. Council of Regensburg found it im-
possible to protect him longer. In
Antwerp William of Orange had allowed at this
time to the Lutherans as well as the Calvinists the
pubUc exercise of their religion. The Lutheran
congregation, needing the counsel of experieneed
German theologians, called Flacius. He arrived in
1566, but the following year he had to leave tbe
country before the progress of the Spanish anny.
He attempted now to settle at Frankfort-on4he-
Main and then at Strasburg, but the cruel hatred
of the Elector Augustus reached him even here;
in 1569 the elector sent an envoy to Strasburg
with the commission to capture Flacius. He fled to
Basel, but was not allowed to remain, so he returned
to Strasburg and in spite of the pressure exerted
by the elector was tolerated. But now he spoikd
his good relations with the Strasburg clergy by his
opposition against the efforts at imion made by
Jacob AndreH (q-v.) and by his doctrine concerning
original sin; for he was accused of the Manichean
heresy. In 1573 the Council of Strasburg decreed
his expulsion.
In a treatise De peccati originalis aut vderit
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Vlaoius
Vl«tf0llation
I appeUoHontbus et essentia Flaciiis main-
that original sin is the substance of man him-
id not an accident as Strigel taught. This
M was chiefly aimed at the Synergists.
B was altogether orthodox on this point,
hole controversy amounted to nothing since
jiched to the word substantia two different
DgB, it was a mere quibble of words, and yet
were men like Hesshusen (q.v.) who absurdly
ed that flacius considered the devil as the
r of substance.
sr his expulsion from Strasburg he settled at
fort, where he was ably protected by
Catharina von Meerfeld, prioress of
Ltft the nunnery Zu den tveissen Frauen,
m Mt although the Council of the city had
kfort not given him pennission to remain.
Thanks to entreaties and interces-
hiB order of banishment was deferred from
10 time until his death.
spite of all quarreb and turbulences of his
ladus possessed such a tenacity and deter-
ioQ that he found time for scientific works
. required the most extensive preparation and
gradual ripening. He was not only
lactns' the most learned Lutheran theolo-
Bfaij gian, but also the promoter and foun-
ad der of theological disciplines. He was
oluly chiefly prominent in the sphere of
Ofk. church history. In Magdeburg he
conceived the great plan of two his-
I works in which he could deal heavy blows
maoism. He undertook a catalogue of all
iHio before Luther had combated the heresies
e papacy, and in this way originated his
yuf testium veriiatis, qui ante nostram cetatem
muni Papa (Basel, 1556) and its complement
dodorum piorumque vtrorum de corrupto
'm statu poemata [(1557) in which for the
time was printed Bernard of Gimy's De
tpta mundi]. Still more important was his
plan to write a church history from the
il KHiroee which should show how the Church
rist had deviated from her right course since
me of the iqxistles, and include a history of
uistianity from its beginning to the develop-
of its hi^iest power and to the restitution of
rdigion in its purity by Luther. The out-
of this plan was the so-called "Magdeburg
lies" (Basel, 1562-74; see Magdeburg Cen-
b). Fladus found many patrons who aided
eat undertaking financisJly and he also made
live travels in Germany, searching for sources
(ioeuments. Many assistants helped him.
manuMoipts and books were bought or do-
by patrons. The Magdeburg Centuries
Bs a great progress in the science of Church
f, not only on accoimt of its extensive
g of the sources, but also on account of its
d. The anti-Roman interest had sharpened
■on and made it capable of critical achieve-
that mariced a new epoch. [In reply Baro-
produoed his superior "Annab."] Finally
0 produced two works of importance in
(here of Biblical science: his Clavis scrip-
Mcra seu de semume sacrarum lUerarum
(1567) and Glossacampendiaria in Novum Testa-
mentum (1570).
Fladus compels admiration by his learning and
extraordinary scholarly achievements, his inde-
fatigable capacity for work, his indomitable zeal
in defense of pure doctrine, but it is impossible to
overlook certain grave defects in his nature, such
as arrogance, obstinacy, and even malice — in
fact an entire inability to appreciate the rights of
others and their motives. [It is more charitable
to suppose that he was mentally slightly unbal-
anced.] (G. Kawerau.)
Biblioorapht: Some of hia letters are in CA, viii. and iz.
and the Suppiementum. Hia merits were long insuffi-
ciently appreciated and his rehabilitation is largely due
to A. Twesten. Matthiiu Flaeeiut lUyrieuB^ tine Vor-
letung, Berlin. 1844, and W. Preger. Matthiat Flaeeiut
lUvrieua und teine Zeit, 2 vols., ErUngen, 1860-61 (a list
of his many publications is given ii. 630-672). Con-
sult also J. J. I. DOllinger, Die lUformoHon, ii. 224 sqq.,
Regensburg. 1848; A. Ritsohl. TKwUooie und Meiaphytik,
pp. 62 sqq., Bonn. 1881; ADB, vii. 88 sqq.
FLA6ELLATI01I, FLAGELLANTS.
I. Flagellation.
Corporal Punishment as a Penalty of the Church (f 1).
Self-ecouiging or Flagellation (f 2).
II. Flagellants.
The Flagellants of 1260. Venturinus of Bergamo,
1334 (f 1).
The Flagellants of 1348-40 (f 2).
The Albati or Bianchi of 1390 (f 3).
Flagellants in Thuringia about 1360. Konrad Schmid
(§4).
Later Italian Brotherhoods (f 6).
Later Manifestations and Developments (f 6).
L Flagellation: Corporal chastisement as an ec-
clesiastical corrective penalty for clerics appears
in the Western Church as early as the fifth century
transferred from the Roman penal law,
X. Corporal but resorted to only in rare instances.
Punish- From the Merovingian times onward,
ment ai a it became more widely diffused, and so
Penalty of late as the seventeenth century was
the Church, appointed as a punishment in cases of
blasphemy, simony, concubinage, and
other offenses committed by the clergy. In
corrective establishments of the Church, corporal
chastisement has continued in practise' against
clerical delinquents confined in the same, down to
the present time. Flagellation as a monastic pun-
ishment for misdeeds of monks dates back to the
earliest period of monasticism, and the rule of Bene-
dict of Nursia makes extensive use of corporal
chastisement. The congregations which had their
origin in the Benedictine Order, as well as the other
monastic orders, sisterhoods, and knightly orders
founded in the twelfth century and later, adopted
flagellation; but various orders which arose after
the Council of Trent did not include this penalty
in their rules. For certain offenses of laymen, too
(desecration of Sunday, fortune-telling, etc.), the
Church from the sixth century prescribed cor-
poral chastisement as the penalty, and flogging in
particular was threatened against such offenses
until the eighteenth century. Lastly, the Inqui-
sition applied flogging and flagellation as one of the
lightest penalties in case of the voluntary recanta-
tion of heresy. In penitential discipline, oorponl
chastisement and particulacly flagBJlktinn otm* ^
Flagellation
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
894
have a rapidly increasing importance after the
beginning of the tenth century. Corporal chas-
tisements in this connection are first mentioned
(evidently as something newly in vogue) in the
collection of canons of Regino of PrUm (c. %0);
they appear as a substitute for public penance, and
at first were doubtless always executed by some
outside hand, mostly by the priest. The sermons
of the well-known crusade-preacher Fulco of Neuilly
(q.v.) so intensified ascetic zeal in Paris about 1195
that great throngs of the penitent submitted their
bared bodies to Fulco's cliastising.
The beginnings of ascetic self-scourging, or flag-
ellation proper, are still obscure. It is supposed to
have originated about 1000 among certain Italian
liermits, whose glowing penitential fervor became
heightened into visionary and ecstatic enthusiasm,
and started a religious movement which spread
throughout all Italy. The hermit
2. Self- Marinus, who lived on an island of the
Scourging Po, and his pupil Ilomuald (d. 1027),
or Flagel- as well as the latter 's disciples on
lation. Mont« Sitrio, mutuaUy chastised one
another with rods and lashes. Flag-
ellation at their own hands was a customary prac-
tise, in the first half of the eleventh century, among
the monks of Fontavellana (near Faenza) in Um-
bria, a foundation of the miracle-working hermit
and penitential preacher Dominic of Foligno (d.
1031); likewise among the hermits of Luceoli in
Umbria, who styled themselves disciples of St.
Romuald. In both places the monk Dominicus
Ix)ricatus (d. 1060) distinguished himself by his
severe self-castigations, and they found an enthu-
siastic admirer and imitator in Peter Damian (q.v.),
who entered the cloister of Fontavellana about
1035. To the far-reaching influence of Peter
Damian, who also became prominent as the literary
apologist of flagellation, its rapid extension then and
afterward is preeminently due.
The monastic reform movement which emanated
from Cluny with the more acute sense of sin awa-
kened by Bernard of Clairvaux, and especially the
ascetic enthusiasm propagated among the people
by the mendicant orders and their preaching of
Christ's Passion speedily made flagellation a most
widely extended and impressive means of p>enance
and expiation. Many of the monastic orders and
sisterhoods adopted the provision of systematic
self-castigation, or flagellation, in their rules. No
doubt, mainly through the influence of the two
great mendicant orders, this ascetic practise was
then further popularized in the ranks of the laity.
With most of the stricter orders (among others the
Trappists, Carthusians, Priests of the Oratory,
Fatliers of Christian Doctrine, Discalced Carmelites,
Capuchins, Redemptorists, Brothers of Charity),
flagellation has continued in practise down to this
day. It is exercised for the most part as a devo-
tional act, usually once or several times in the week,
according to a definitely proscribed ritual. The
opposition to the practise incited by the monastic
reformer Jan Busch (q.v.) is an incident without
parallel.
XL Flagellants: The great flagellant pilgrimage
of the year 1260 was the first of its kind. A sig-
nificant prelude thereto was the powerful r^^ov
movement called forth in Italy in 1223 by tk
preaching of repentance and pardon by a nuD-
ber of mendicant monks, pertieolailj
X. The the Dominican Giovanni da Vicena.
Flagellants Deeper causes of both movement«iim
of X26o. the religious excitement and peu-
Venturinus tential disposition of the popidM
of Bergamo, consequent upon the phmomml
1334. activity of St. Francis; the extrane
tension of feeling because of the pts-
sionate conflicts between papacy and empire; ud
the general disorder and ruin induced by then
factional contests. The situation, again, was aggti-
vated in 1259 by the outbreak of a violent epi-
demic; and above all by the expectation that vii
widely propagated by the adherents to the teach-
ing of Joachim of Fiore (q.v.), that in the year 1260
there would occur a general revolution of tliinp,
especially a purification and renovation of the
Church. The direct occasion for the flagdDaBt
crusades of that year was furnished by the advent
of the venerable hermit Raniero Fasani, who u
early as 1258 is alleged to have founded the fint
flagellant fraternity in Perugia, proclaiming that
an impending visitation of judgment had bea
revealed to him. In the autumn of 1260 the move-
ment overflowed all of Central and Upper Italy,
still in the same year crossed the Alps and spread
itself over Upper Germany and the nei^boring
Slavic domains. In Germany, however, both spiii-
tual and temporal powers, as they perceived in
the movement elements hostile to eodesiastical
and civil order, very decidedly opposed it as eailj
as 1261; and with the exception of Southern France,
pubUc flagellations and flagellant crusades ncffth
of the Alps in the period between 1261 and 1349
manifested themselves only in quite isolated in-
stances. In Upper Italy, however, the peniten-
tial sermons of the Dominican Venturinus of Ber-
gamo gave occasion, in 1334, to an extensive new
flagellant movement which came to a standstill in
the very next year.
The great flagellant movement of the years 1348-
1349 is very closely connected with the apparition of
the terrible pestilence known as the black death.
Originating in the EsLSt, by 1347 the
2. The plague had found entrance into Dal-
Flagellants matia. Upper Italy, and Southen
of 1348-49. France, and from these three centers of
contagion it spread toward Central
Europe in 1348. Probably attempts to avert ihd
threatening disaster by organizing flagellant pro-
cessions were first made in Italy. From Upper
Italy the movement then took its course, as pre-
cursor of the plague, by way of Hungary into Ge^
many, then into Holland, Bohemia, Poland, Den-
mark, and even England, and reached its dimax
in the summer of 1349. The populace was already
highly stirred up by apocalyptic expectations, and
the plague was regarded as the premonitory sign d
the great revolution of all things. Flagellation
seemed the fitting preparation for the coming
kingdom of God, and a substitute for the clergy,
grown faithless to their charge. An apocryphal
letter of Christ, originating in a much eariier age,
35
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Flaffallation
id puiporting to have fallen to the earth at Jem-
ikm, which with menace of frightful vindictive
idgEoent called men to repentance, was every-
hen read aloud by the wandering flagellants,
od appears to have been one of the most effective
Htnunents in their hands for extending their doc-
[ine of penance by flagellation. In more than
De instance the flagellants took a hostile stand
gUDst the clergy. They also were active in the
oncutions of the Jews in 1348-49, though these,
ndeed, were already incited before the flagellants'
ippetrance. Probably here also apocalyptic an-
kipations of a general social convulsion were a
mtributing factor.
Aa in 1260, so again in 1348-49 the flagellants
oimed themselves into fraternities, which usually
XMnd their members to a penitential season of
llnriy-three days and a half. At such times they
genoally wandered far away from their homes in
Bstended processions. Admission to the brother-
hood had to be preceded by an act of general con-
bmm, reconciliation with enemies, and formal
pnmiae of ^aconditional obedience to the fra-
tonity superior. All intercourse, even all con-
fnation, with women was forbidden in most of
the fraternities. The flagellants generally wore
ihite undergarments, with mantles and hats
naiked with red crosses; whence they were com-
Bonly known in Germany as KreuzbrUder (" Breth-
VI of the Cross "; CnunfratreSf Cruciferi). Self-
iaatigation was performed twdce a day, preferably
a public squares, amid the intonation of hymns
ud according to a definitely prescribed ceremonial.
Phor hymns especially attracted the attention of
bdreontemporaries. Quite a number of those of
heGoman flagellants are recorded in the chronicles
f Hugo von Reutlingen and Fritsche Closener, as
fdl aa in the lAmburger Chronik (cf . P. Runge and
L Pfannenschmied, Die Ldeder und Melodien der
Satttfer dea Jahres 1349, Leipsic, 1900). There
loca not appear to have been a very close con-
Mtbn between the hynms of the Italian flagel-
anta and those of their German brethren; but
tl» Gemian flagellant hynms became the basis of
khe hymns of the Bohemian, Polish, and Walloon
Ba^Aants. Beside the pilgrim flagellants, there
*ko arose penitential associations which bound their
Venbera to the act of self-castigation at the
bntherfaood's abode. In the Netherlands there
voe penitential associations, organized according
tepuiriies, which practised flagellation on Sun-
di^and festivals, and attended to the biuial of
^dead (see Alexianb).
% effect of the movement of 1348-49 was
Pj*erful. In many towns for several weeks run-
^ and almost daily, there would appear new
'ii&panies of pilgrims to the number of sev-
tal hundred persons. At last processions of flag-
*kt women and children appeared. For the
ttoreh, whose influence over the multitudes for
ttetime being was completely paralyzed by the
h^Bfladon movement, it became a simple act of
dMefenae to oppose the movement with the
hupeat weapons. On Oct. 20, 1 349, Pope Gement
L knied a bull, condemning the Flagellants and
eir cause in the severest terms and demanding
their suppression; Felf-castigation was to be tol-
erated oiily within bounds of ecclesiastical regu-
lation. The popular ferment subsided as suddenly
as it had risen. By the early fifties of the same
century, flagellation in Germany was nearly every-
where suppressed, and such as remained loyal to
the cause were driven back into privacy as pro-
scribed sectaries.
In 1399, a new flagellation movement of wide
extent broke out in the Romance countries in
the appearance of the so-called
3. The "Whites" (Albati, Bianchi); from
Albati or Provence the movement spread over
Bianchi France, Spain, and Italy. The im-
of 1399. pulse in this case was given by fic-
titious revelations of future divine
judgments, and the alleged command of the Virgin
Mother. The movement was much enhanced by
the advent of the well-known Spanish Dominican
and popular saint, Vincent Ferrar (q.v.), who
prophesied the immediate approach of the end
of all things. Endless throngs of flagellants fol-
lowed him in the wanderings through France,
Spain, and Upper Italy in the years between
1400 and 1417. These flagellant crusades filled
the Council of Constance with no small anxiety ;
Jean Gerson, in 1417, presented to the Council a
memorial in which he pronounced decidedly not
only against the flagellant processions, but also
against self-castigation for the laity in general.
The procedure of the Church against the German
flagellant brotherhoods in the period after 1349 had
its equal in the fact that out of these associations
there grew up a heretical flagellant sect, the com-
bating of which occupied the Church till the end
of the Middle Ages. This sect possessed an espe-
cially strong organization in Thuringia
4. Flagel- about 1360 through the apocalyptical
lants in Konrad Schmid. He calculated the
Thuringia date of the final judgment as the
about 1360. year 1369, and his numerous adherents
Konrad undertook to prepare themselves for
Schmid. the event by penitential flagellation.
It is probable that Schmid and his
followers were also strongly influenced by the doc-
trines of the Waldenses, which were widely dis-
seminated in Thuringia. The Thuringian flagel-
lants are alleged to have rejected all sacraments
and the entire ceremonial and hierarchical system
of the Church; there was to arise instead a chili-
astic kingdom, to whose government Schmid be-
lieved himself called. In 1369 many flagellants,
among them Schmid himself, were burned at the
stake. But his followers thenceforth identified
him with Enoch and Elijah, and expected him
shortly to hold the final judgment in place of Christ.
From the close of the fourteenth century the Church
repeatedly interposed with sanguinary severity
against the Thuringian flagellants; but they fur-
tively held their ground until the end of the fifteenth
century.
The Italian flagellant associations, after their
first appearance in 1260, complied in all points with
the rules of the Church, and experienced no small
measure of Church favor. FlageUant associations
were organized in nearly all the dties of Italy; in
Flft^ellation
VlavlAii of Oonstantinopla
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOQ
896
many cities, as for instance, in Gubbio, Perugia,
and Fabriano, no fewer than three, in Padua six,
existed side by side at the same
5. Later time. The direction of a number of
Italian these brotherhoods, though not of all.
Brother- was vested in the mendicant orders.
hoodg. A good many of them devoted them-
selves also to the care of the poor and
the sick, and maintained hospitals. The Italian
flagellants occupy an important position in the his-
tory of Italian literature as creators of the popular
religious lyric and the spiritual drama. Even the
early flagellants of 1260 had sung religious hymns
in the popular speech (laude). Subsequently the
vemacidar spiritual song was zealously cultiva-
ted in the flagellant brotherhoods, more and more
crowding out the Latin hymna, and soon becoming
the most richly developed literary form in the
Italian language. At an early period certain dra-
matic elements found their way into the spiritual
popular song, the singers, for instance, turning with
appeab and questions to Christ or Mary, and
receiving answers from them. From this point it
was but a slight step to complete dramatization of
the laitder and the creation of the popular religious
play. The stage presentation of these dramatic
laude, whose theme, of course, purported to be first
and foremost the history of the life and Passion
of Christ, is to be rated henceforth among the prin-
cipal services of the Italian flagellant brotherhoods.
See REuaious Dramas.
From the sixteenth century onward, the Society
of Jesus wrought with impassioned zeal toward
the diffusion of self-castigation, especially in the
Marianite sodalities under Jesuit direction. In
close touch with the Jesuits were also the French
penitential and flagellant brotherhoods of the six-
teenth century, which had much in-
6. Later fluence in the political life of France
Manifesta- under King Henry III (1574-89).
tions and In Germany, too, owing mainly to the
Develop- influence of the Jesuits and Capuchins,
ments. the self-castigation of laymen was
again widely espoused in the sixteenth
century. The most notable German scholar of the
Jesuit Order, Jacob Gretscher (q.v.), compiled
(1606-13) a comprehensive history and vindication
of self-castigation, with a view to promoting its
diffusion as widely as possible. Thanks again to
the Jesuits' propaganda, flagellation celebrated
brilliant triumphs, after the sixteenth century, in
parts beyond Europe; especially in India, Persia,
Japan, the Philippines, and particularly in the
American provinces of Spain. Indeed even to the
present day flagellation has stoutly asserted itself
in South America, Mexico, and in the southwestern
portion of the United States; the brotherhoods
(Hermanoa peniterUes) of New Mexico and Colorado
recently numbered their members by thousands,
and pushed their fanaticism to the point of cruci-
fying their members, insomuch that Leo XIII. felt
prompted to interpose against their processions.
In South America flagellation of laymen is still in
many places a customary and regular practise, in
specified churches, and according to ritual forms.
In like manner the practise of self-castigation in
public maintained itsdf to the nineteenth oe&tuy
and in some cases to quite recent date, in Eyt
India, the Azores and the Canaiy Islands, Uaff,
and the southern Tyrol. Flagellation of iKpom
in private at present is confined to somewhat nanot
circles; thoroughgoing directions with regud to
the most suitable kind of flagellation and the iD-
struments to be applied are given by C. fi^r^'^B'ffli'
in his Paataralmedicin (12th ed., Aacheo, 1896^ pi
175). In the Greek Chureh flagellation hat ip>
peared only here and there in certain mouitie
circles. Some Russian sects, however, are wdto
practise it in their so-called services after a faiUoa
reminding of the dervishes. Herman Haur.
Biblioobapht: I. E. G. FOratemann, Dm cAruiidbi
0€U9Urg99elUehafien, Halle. 1S28 (antiqnatai moiit of tb
earlier literature); J. Morinua, Commeniariut fciiiwitMA
duHpUna in adtniniHralion^ . . . pttniinUtt ... 4*
•ervtUa, book vii.. chap. 14. pp. 471 sqq., ABtwwp, Itt^
L. Holsten and M. Brookie. Codex wyiifflniw wtamA-
carum el eanomoarum, ii. 329, ▼. 08. 407. vi. 97. Itl, M,
276, 340. 623, Augsbors. 1759; Kober. in IV. hni Om,
3 aqq., 355 aqq.; P. Hinsohiua. Stftlem dm HtuHtikm
KirehenreehtM, iv. 737. 803. 814. ▼. 78. 647. 021. BtOm,
1887; H. C. Lea. Hut of inquiaiiion, L 272;46ii.«
Bqq.. New York. 1906; idem. HiaL of Ayrieular Ctt^mm
ii. 162-163. London. 1896; O. Z6ekler. AMkammiMiaA'
thum, Frankfort. 1897; W. M. Cooper. FlaotOaHi^ mi
the FlageUttnie, London, 1898; A. Cabarte. La FMb-
Uon done VhieMre et la UiUraiwre, Paris. 1899; ^Mt mr
la FlaoeUaUon, ib. 1899 (includes relisioaB and prinliit
uses); J. Holmes. Memoire of Private FlaqeRekm, h.
1899; A. Eulenbers. Sadiemue and Mamtkimtm, Mcv
York. 1902; HieL of FlaoeUaHon awumg Diffetemt NeHam,
ib. 1904; Heimbucher. Orden w»d KongreoaHomem, ii 221.
iii. 253; KL, iii.. 1819 sqq.. 1532 sqq.
II. Hebrot. Onbm monaaUqfuee, toL viii; Q. Ijai.
Leeioni di anHchild, toeeane, pp. 613-671. Fkiranflt. 1761;
G. B. Vermialioli. Storia e eoneiiiuaioni deUa mnfiakrmk
dei Nobili delta OiutHtia, Ptorucift. 1846; A. StumpC. Bit-
toria ftageUantium, Halle. 1836; J. J. L von DBliiWff.
in Hietorieckm Taeckenimdi, 1871. pp. 823 sqa.; E.
Monad, in Rivieta di fUoloffia Romanea, i (1872), 235a|q4
R. Rdhricht. BiblioffraphieeAe Beitritoe mr QeediiAk 4m
OeieOer, in ZKO, i (1877). 313 aqq.; H. Haupt, Rditim
Sekten in Franken, Wariburg. 1S32; idem, in EKQ. ix
(1886). 114 sqq.; R. Hdniger. Der Sekwane Ted w
Deutachland, Berlin. 1882; C. Lechner. in Hiehriadm
Jakrbuch der GOrreeoeeeUeekaft, ▼ (1884). 438 sqq.; kkai.
Die aroem Geiamlfakrt dm . . , 1S49, ib. ▼. 437-462; A.
(jaspary. Oeedtidde der italienietken LUkraiur^ i. 141 iqa^
Berlin. 1885; F. Hassauiek. Vier Jakre unUr den SpemA-
Amerikanem, pp. 141 sqq.. Dresden. 1887; P. Frederieq,
Corpue documentorvan i7%qui»iiionie . . . Neerianiikm, L
190 sqq.. ii. 96 sqq.. Ghent. 188^-96; idem. QmAidmu
der Inquieitie in de Nederlanden, ii. 6 sqq.. 1897; A. D'Ab-
oona, Orioini del te(Uro italiano, vol. i. ymwnm. Turin, 1891;
Q. de Gregorio, Capiioli deila prima eompagma H dimi-
plina di San Nicolb di Palermo, Palermo. 1891; W. CM-
lenach. Geechichte dm neueren Dramtu, i. 304 sqq.. HaDi.
1893; G. Masiatinti. Coelituxioni dei diedpKnaii 4. 8.
Andrea di Perugia, Forli. 1893; P. Face. HieL de S. Via-
cent Ferrier, 2 vols., Paris. 1894; £. Michael, in ZKT,
xjdu. (1899) 180-181: P. Runge. Die Liader ^md Meladin
der Oeimler. Leipsic, 1900; G. Galli. Diadjdinamiidea^Vah
bria del 1260 e U loro Laudi, supplement to Oiarmk
etorico daUa letteratura llaliana, Turin. 1906; P. Flade, in
BeitrOoe mut elickeiethan Kirdtengmekiekia, id. 81 sqq.;
G. B. Menapace. NoHaie atoriea iniomo ai haUaii id
TrenHno, in Archivio TrenHno. vols. ix.-x.; Neandw,
Christian Church, v. 412; 8cha£F. ChriaHan Ckwnk, iT.
788 sqq.. v. 1, pp. 875 sqq.
FLATT, JOHAim FRIEDRICH. See TObingxn
School, the Oldbr.
FLATTICH, JOHAim FRIEDRICH: Swabisn
preacher and pedagogue; b. at Beihingen near
Ludwigsburg (8 m. n. of Stuttgart) Oct. 3, 1713;
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Flaffellation
Flavian of Ck>nstantinopla
at HOnchingen (7 m. n.w. of Stuttgart) June 1,
¥!. He went through the usual course of study
the Wiirttemberg theologians, became preacher
Hohenasperg in 1742, in Metterzimmem in 1747,
d in Milnchingen in 1760. Though he always
Dsined a simple country parson, he possessed a
irbd personality, an original wit and a clear
neption which in its judgment of men and things
0 nmaricably acciu^te. He was sincere, up-
lilt, and courageous enough to tell the truth to
e mgning duke and his coiurtiers. His theolog-
il position was that of Bengel, whose disciple he
ii,and he was as mild as his teacher and avoided
1 thecdogical and churchly extremes, both of
iotam and of rationalism.
He is chiefly known as a teacher. Even while a
odent he b^an to instruct young people from
m bve, and continued this activity until his
dage. He usually had fifteen to twenty pupils
[ \u home, childre^ and youths from every class
ad destined for the most different vocations,
ik methods of teaching were entirely original,
tf the influence of his vital Christian personality,
7 the power of his forbearing, active, supplicating
m, he made efficient men even from the most
nksoos material. (H. Mosapp.)
tauooiAPHT: K. F. Ledderhoee, Leben und Schriften von
I F. Flattkh, Heidelbeis. 1873; idem, ZUge a%a dem
Idmita , . . J. F. FlatHcK Stuttgart. 1873; C. SchAfer.
fkfHUk*9 p6daooffUche9 Sv^tem, Frankfort, 1871; P.
Mm. /. F. FlatHch, ein Sokratea unurer Zeit, Stuttgart.
187B; G. Weitbieht. J. F. Flattich'9 ptfcholoffiache Bei-
Hfi Mr Oymfuuialpiidaifoffik, ib. 1873.
lUVEL, JOHN: English Presbyterian; b. at
tonigrove (12 m. 8.s.w. of Birmingham), Worces-
tihiie, c. 1630; d. at Exeter, Devonshire, June 26,
91. He studied at Oxford and in 1650 became
nte of Diptford, in Devonshire. In 1656 he
iDomi to Dartmouth. On being deprived of his
ing in 1662 by the Act of Uniformity, he con-
ned to preach privately until the Five Mile Act
085) drove him from Dartmouth. He then re-
Mi to Slapton, five miles away, where he con-
mod to preach. On the granting of the indul-
oeeof 1671 he resumed his services at Dartmouth.
Iter the privilege of preaching was withdrawn
mhimand he was forced to seek safety in London,
ftenmd he returned to Dartmouth and met his
Mffe nightly at his own house, imtil in 1687, on
teidaxation of the penal laws, they built a meet-
%hf»m for him. Flavel was a voluminous writer
^popular works strongly Evangelical in sentiment,
Kbdmg, HuAandry Spiritualized (London, 1669);
'ftigathn Spiritualized (1671); A Saint Indeed
•71); The Fountain of Life Opened (1672); The
«»«i'« Companion (1676); and An Exposition
Ae Assembly's Catechism (1693). There have
<BD leveral collected editions of his works (new
•)6Tob., London, 1820), and some of his writings
)itill reprinted as tracts.
uoouraT: The Life is preEbced to the collected edition
fUf Works. Consult; A. k Wood. A thence Oxoniente;
I P. Bliss, iv. 323-326, London. 1820; S. Palmer, Non-
wfondaia' Memorial, ii. 18-22, London. 1778.
LAVIAH: The name of two bishops of Antioch.
. Fatriardi 381-404; b. in the early part of
fourth century; d. in Antioch June, 404.
Of the sixty years of his life before he was
consecrated bishop of Antioch in 381 little is
known; Chrysostom states that he was the child
of wealthy parents who died while he was still
young. Despite his wealth he remained faithful to
the ascetic ideal, and as an adherent of the Nicene
party, to which he may have been converted by
Eustathius (see Eustathius op Antioch), whose
last sermon he heard, was one of the successful
opponents of the Arianism of Bishop Leontius
(344-357). At that period he evidently sided with
the partisans of Eustathius, but after the formation
of the neo-Nicene party Flavian joined it and during
the banishment of Meletius (see Meletius of
Antioch) he and his friend Diodorus (q.v.) directed
the fortunes of the neo-Nicenes of Antioch with wise
resistance to Arian teachings. In 378 Diodorus
was consecrated bishop of Tarsus, and three years
later Flavian accompanied Meletius to Constanti-
nople, only to be chosen, after the sudden death of
this bishop, his successor by the neo-Nicene ma-
jority in the First Council of Constantinople. This
choice, however, resulted in many dissensions, the
primary consequence being a revival of the Mele-
tian schism (see Meletius of Antioch). Apart
from this there is but scanty knowledge of his
episcopate. He ordained both Chrysostom and
Theodore of Mopsuestia to the priesthood, the
former in 386, while in the following year he has-
tened to Constantinople in a successful endeavor
to appease the emperor's anger at the affront
shown him by the riotous citizens of Antioch who
had mutilated the imperial statues. He emphasized
the honor due to the saints, and was eager that
they should be interred far from heretical graves.
Flavian convened a synod of three other bishops
and thirty priests and deacons to oppose the Mes-
salians (q.v.), and Adelphius, one of their leaders,
was condemned, with his followers, and excommu-
nicated. He was still able to travel to Constan-
tinople in 394. The precise day of his death is
unknown, but it certainly was not Sept. 27, his
festival in the Greek Church.
Except for an allusion of Photius to two letters
of Flavian against the Messalians, one to the in-
habitants of Osrhoene and the other to an Armenian
bishop, only nine brief citations from nine homilies
are known, seven of these being found in the
Eranistes of Theodoret and two in Leontius of
Byzantium. These fragments are sufHcient, how-
ever, to show that he was Antiochian in dogmatics.
The oration ascribed to him by Chrysostom as
delivered before Theodosius is in great part, if
not entirely, the invention of his pupil.
2. Bishop 498-512. See Monophysites.
(F. Loops.)
Bibliography: Sources of knowledge are the Hiat. ecd. of
Theodoret and the writinsa of Chryaoetom. Consult:
Tillemont, Mimoirea, vol. x.; idem. Histoire des empereur%,
vol. z. L.; E. Dupin, Nouvelle bibliothique de» auteurt
eccUnoMHque; iii. 6-7, Paris, 1693; Ceillier. Auteure 9acri;
vi.3 10-316 et passim: DCB, ii. 627-531; KL, iv. 1544-46.
FLAVIAN OF CONSTANTINOPLE: Bishop of
Constantinople; b. in the second half of the
fourth century; d. at Hypepe in Lydia, 449.
Little is known concerning him except his part
in the Eutychian controvert (see Euttchian-
Fishier
Vlash
THE NEW 8CHAFF-HERZ0Q
8tt
ism), although Theophanes and Nicephoms, ap-
parently basing their statements on reliable tra-
dition, say that before his consecration he was
a presbyter and akeuophylax in Constantinople.
Where he received his education is unknown, nor
is his theological position absolutely determined
either by the attacks made on him by Dioscurus of
Alexandria, which were not necessarily theological
in origin, or by his own opposition to Eutyches,
which seems to have been inspired by Eusebius of
DorylflBum. He was apparently Antiochian in his
dogmatics, thus explaining the hostility of Chrysa-
phius, the Alexandrine favorite of the emperor.
Flavian was finally condemned and deposed for his
share in the Eutychian controversy by the " Rob-
ber Synod '' of Ephesus in 449 and died shortly
afterward. There is no evidence, however, that
his death was other than natural, although the
Greek Church reckons him a martyr, and celebrates
his festival on Feb. 18. (F. Loofs.)
Biblioobapht: Two of Flavian's letters against Eutyches
are printed in the Acts of the Synod of Ephesus. Con-
sult: ASB, Feb., iii. 71-70; DCB, ii. 632; KL, iv. 1542-
1544; Ceillier, Auteurt tacria^ vol. x., passim.
FLECHIERy ESPRIT: Bishop of Ntmes; b. at
Femes (10 m. n.e. of Avignon), in the county of
Avignon, June 10, 1632; d. at Montpellier Feb. 16,
1710. His uncle, the learned monk Hercule Audif-
fret, educated him from 1648 to 1658 in the college
of the Congregation des Doctrinaires, of which he
was director. After the death of his uncle Fl^chier
went to Paris and devoted himself to the art of
poetry. He attracted some attention by a Latin
poem on a grand tournament held by Louis XIV.,
but the lack of an influential patron forced him to
take the position of a teacher in the coimtry. Later
he returned to Paris where he was active as pulpit
orator and author. He attracted the attention of
Louis XIV. and won his permanent favor. He
became a rival of Bossuet, but his orations were at
times too artificial and lacked great and high
thoughts. He won lasting fame only by his
funeral orations, that on Marshal Turenne (1676)
being his masterpiece. In 1673 he became a mem-
ber of the Academy, together with Racine. In
1685 he was made bishop of Lavaur, and in 1687
of Nimes. As bishop he was greatly beloved, even
by the Protestants who hid in his diocese, on account
of his mildness and great benevolence. Besides
his funeral oration on Turenne may be mentioned
those on Lamoignon, president of the chamber
(1679), on Queen Maria Theresia (1682), on Chan-
, cellor Le Tellier (1686), on Marie Anna, Dauphine
of France (1690), and on his friend the Duke of
Montausier (1690). He also wrote biographies of
the Emperor Theodosius (Paris, 1679) and of Car-
dinal Ximenes (1693). Inferior in value are
twenty-five orations on Advent and eight mission-
ary and synodical speeches. His (Euvrea complHes
were pubHshed in ten volumes at Nimes, 1782, and
at Paris, 1828. (C. Pfender.)
Biblioorapht: A. Delacroix, Hist, de FUchier, Paris, 1866;
Lichtenberger, ESR, iv. 767-773 (elaborate); valuable
material is found in the prefaces to his (Euvrea compUtea.
FLEET MARRIAGES: The name applied to a
class of clandestine and more or less irregular
marriages performed by chaplains of the Fleifc
Prison in London during the seventeenth and &ik
half of the eighteenth centuries. In order to ngh
late the disorders in regard to marriage which thi
Reformation had introduced, a law was paaail
under the Commonwealth (1653) permitting M
marriage before a justice of the peace. At the
Restoration the earlier law was reestablished tod
strictly enforced; but clandestine marriages, avoid-
ing the regular alternatives of banns or licoM^
were still possible, since there were a number 4if
churches in which on the plea of exemption faoi
episcopal jurisdiction, the law could be disreganfai
The fleet Prison, or the territory legally bdd to
belong to it, was a favorite place for these maimpi.
Disreputable clergymen here made a trade cf
marrying all comers, without respect to the fd-
filment of any necessary conditions, and Bhamdai
competition among them led to the greataifc
laxity. From 1666 various attempts were madi
to suppress the evil, but it rather increased, until
it was possible for one abandoned man, named Jota
Gayhan, who was technically a prisoner then
from 1701 to 1740, to boast that during that time
he had performed 36,000 marriages. Finaflj in
1753 a bill was introduced into the House of Lordi
by Hardwicke, the Lord Chancellor," for the better '
preventing of clandestine marriages," and beeaiBB
a law on Jime 6. Its working was not altogethv
satisfactory in detail, and later enactments, e^ie-
cially in 1823, were required to amend it, until a
final settlement of all difficulties was made inukr
William IV. in 1834 and 1836.
Bibuoorapht: J. S. Bum, The Fleet Regiatera, Cem/niim
the Hiatory oj Fleet Marriagea, London. 1834; H. B. Op*
penheim, in ZKR. i (1861). 8-9; R Friedberf. De»BtM
der EheacfUieaaung, 309-310. 335-336. Leipae. M
J. Ashton. Fleet River, Priaon, and Maniagaa, Loodoa,
1888.
FLEETWOOD, JOHN: The name, probably
assumed, imder which was issued The Life oj ..>
Jesus Christ . . . together wiih the Lives and Si4-
feringa of his Holy Apostles , Evangelists, andOfkt
Primitive Martyrs (London, 1767 and often), i
work which enjoyed great popularity untfl it wis
superseded by modem and more scholariy lives of
Jesus. Two other volumes. The Christian*t Proftr
Book, or Complete Manual of Devotions (Londoo,
1772) and The Christian's Dictionary (1775) a»
attributed to the same author.
FLEETWOOD, WILLIAM: English preUtc; b.
in London Jan. 1, 1656; d. at Tottenham (6 d*
n.n.e. of St. Paul's, London) Aug. 4, 1723. He
studied at Eton, and at King's College, Ounbndgs
(B.A., 1679; M.A., 1683; D.D.,1705). Soonafttf
taking orders he won renown by a sermcm delivered
before King's College, Mar. 25, 1689, in commem-
oration of Edward VI., the foimder of the coDege.
He was given a fellowship at Eton, the chapUf
rectory of St. Augustine and St. Faith's, London
(Nov. 26, 1689), and soon afterward the lectme-
ship of St. Dunstan's-in-the-West. He held Ubtfil
political views and favored the revolution. ShortJl
after the accession of William and Mary be wtl
appointed chaplain to the king, and in 1702 cancA
of Windsor. In 1705 he exchanged his LoodoA
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Fl^ohler
Fleah
Qt8 for the living of Wexham in Buck-
lire. Despite his opposition to her favor-
^ party, Queen Anne made him bishop
iph in 1708; and in 1714 Geo. I. translated
^he see of Ely. For his attacks on the
tendencies of the Tory government in
vas threatened with impeachment and the
f Commons voted that the preface of a
I sermons he had just published be burned
public hangman. Besides a number of
and charges to the clergy, Fleetwood's
iclude, Inscrtptumum arUiqiiarium aylloge
, 1691), a collection of Christian and pagan
»ns; An Essay on Miracles (1701); and
1 pretiosum (1707), an investigation of the
noney and commodities for the previous six
. His sermons may be found in his Works
1737; new ed., 3 vols., Oxford, 1854).
nrr: A Memoir, by Fleetwood's nephew. W.
b prefixed to his Works. Consult: J. H. Monk,
»r. RiduMrd BentUy, i. 367-370. ii. 88, 247. London.
iognphia BrilanrUca, vol. ii., ib. 1760; DNB,
-271.
[N6, DAVID HAY: Scotch Presbyterian;
. Andrews, Scotland, May 9, 1849. He
it Bfadras College, St. Andrews, 1854-66,
engaged in business until he retired in 1883
! himself to the study of Scotch history. In
he was lecturer on church history in New
Edinburgh. In theology he is an old-
Presbyterian and a stanch Calvinist.
iis writings those of theological interest
Martyrs and Confessors of St. Andrews
ife, 1887); Mary Queen of Scots from her
er Flight into England (London, 1897); The
Reformation (Edinburgh, 1903); and The
the ScoUish Covenants in Outline (1904).
Iso edited Register of the Ministers, Elders^
yms of the Christian Congregation of St.
Comprising the Proceedings of the Kirk
md of the Court of the Superintendent of
krik, and Stratheam, 1559-1600 (2 vols.,
jb, 1889-90); A. F. MitcheU's ScoUish Ref-
(Baird Lectures for 1899, 1900); and
talker's Six Saints of the Covenant (2 vols.,
1901).
HG (less correctly Flemming), PAUL:
poet; b. at Hartenstein (9 m. s.e. of
in the Saxon Vogtland, Oct. 5. 1609 (old
. at Hamburg Apr. 2, 1640. When about
sars of age, he entered the Thomasschule
C and in 1628 began his studies at the
jr. Along with his professional course
ine, he occupied himself with dialectics,
and poetics; and in 1633 became doctor
jphy. In 1633-39 he made a journey to
B attach^ of an embassy despatched by
ederick III. of Holstein. The travelers'
•le experiences were described by Olearius
jschreibung der neuen orientalischen Reise
, 1647). After his return, Fleming was
1 in Leyden as doctor of medicine. On
hence to Reval, where he was intending to
>hysician, he fell ill and died at Hamburg,
in conBequence of hardships endured on
the journey. He is buried in St. Catherine's
Church at Hamburg.
Fleming lb one of the most noteworthy German
poets. His style is influenced by Opitz (whom he
knew personally at Leipsic), but he is perfectly
independent in the contents of his poems. These
refer, for the most part, to his personal experiences,
and are the natural expression of his deep and gen-
uine sensibilities. They enable us to accompany
him through his brief and stirring life, and reveal
him as a believing Christian and highly cultivated
noble man. He wrote in the Latin language quite
as aptly and freely as in his mother tongue. The
best known of his poems lb the hymn, In alien
meinen Thaten lass ich den Hdchsten rathen (Eng.
transl. by Miss Winkworth, *' Where'er I go, what-
e'er my task), which he composed prior to depart-
ing for Persia. The edition of Fleming's poems
prepared, at his own request, by Olearius after hiB
death (Hamburg, 1641) contains only a small selec-
tion of the German poems. So, too, an edition
that appeared at LObeck in 1642 is very defective.
The first accurate edition is by J. M. Lappenberg,
Paul Flemings lateinische Gedichte (Stuttgart, 1863).
and Deutsche Gedichte (2 vols., 1865).
Carl Bertheau.
Bibuoorapht: J. MoUer. Cimbria titerolo. ii. 103 aqq..
Gopenha^n. 1744; C. H. JOrdena. Lexxkon deuUcher Didi-
ter, i. M4 aqq.. v. 07 aqq.. 6 vola.. Leipaio. 1806-11; K.
A. Varnhflcen von Enae. Bioffraphi$dis Denkmale, iv. 1-
168, Berlin, 1846 (givea account of Fleming'a travela);
J. M. Lappenberg. Paul Flemingt lateinUdu Oedirhte,
Stuttgart, 1863; idem. DeuUche Oedichte, ii. 861-804. ib.
1865 (the baaaa of Tittmann); J. Tittmann. Gedichte von
Paul Fleming, Leipaic. 1870; E. £. Koch. Oeadiickte dee
Kirchenliede und Kirchenoeeang, iii. 73-82. 8 vola.. Stutt-
gart. 1866-77; ADB, xii. 1 15 aqq.; Julian, Hymnotogy* pp.
378-370.
FLESH.
Biblical Uaage. The Problem of Interpretation (f 1).
The Hebrew Bator (S 2).
•• Fleah " Equivalent to ** Man " (| 3).
Jewiah Uaage (i 4).
New Teatament Uaage (i 5).
Paul (I 6).
The Bible has different representations of man's
material nature. The term " flesh " is always
used with reference to man's body; so that Chrys-
ostom's comment on Gal. v. 16 is anything but
precise — ** The flesh (Gk. sarx) is not the body, nor
the essence of the body, but the evil disposition,
the earthly, lustful, and lawless rea-
I. Biblical son." The same is true of Julius
Usage. The Mailer's definition,—" The flesh is the
Problem of tendency or inclination of human life
Interpre- turned away from God, the life and
tation. movement of man in the midst of the
things of this visible world." The
flesh is regarded as endowed with mind (Gk.
phronema, Rom. viii. 6), desire or lust {epHhymia^
Gal. V. 16; I John ii. 16), will (^^fe?mz,Eph. ii. 3), etc.,
and can not, therefore, stand for a disposition of the
will. Sarx designates, not a tendency or disposi-
tion of the flesh, but the flesh itself with that dis-
position. But a problem arises. — how can sarx
be considered the subjective cause of such disposi-
tion while usually kardia (** heart ") is looked upon
as the seat of the will (Matt. xv. 10; Rom. i. 24)7
Flesh
Vletoher
THE NEW SCHAFF-HEKZOG
880
This difficulty can not be solved by the percep-
tion that man himself as the subjective cause of
such disposition may be designated as flesh because
he is represented in it; for aarx does not in the
Bible always mean man himself, but that which
shapes him, his guiding principle (cf. Rom. vii.
14, with verses 18 and 25); this observation, how-
ever, leads to a correct understanding of the
difficulty.
It is necessary to go back to the Old Testament
b€i8ar, and especially to haaar in the sense of sonr,
in which it is used only of the flesh of man, while
it is used in the sense of kreas only with regard to
animals (i.e., the flesh of sacrifice). In
2. The this special application to man baaar
Hebrew means in the first place the substance
Baaar. of the body. The bones or blood are
sometimes mentioned with flesh, as
constituting the body (Luke xxiv. 39; I Cor. xv.
50). By synecdoche flesh is used for the body
(Ps. xvi. 9; Cor. x. 3). This use of the term is
a Hebrew idiom, foreign to the Greek; so that the
Septuagint often translates the Hebrew haaar by
adma (" body "). The expression '* all flesh " is
sometimes used for the race in its totality (Gen.
vi. 17), but usually for the race as human (Gen.
vi. 12; Luke iii. 6, etc.).
This leads to the peculiarity of the Biblical use of
the word. It designates man because man appears
through it, and manifests his nature by it; in the
flesh man has his life — he is flesh.
3. " Flesh " This attribute he shares with the
Equivalent whole living imiverse. Flesh is the
to ''Man." condition and outward expression of
its existence; by the flesh it manifests
its solidarity. Thus, as flesh, it is weak and frail
(Ps. Ixxviii. 39). Flesh is not spirit, nor vital power
(Isa. xxxi. 3), but stands in living and moral con-
trast to spirit, the spirit of God (Deut. v. 26).
Thus in the Old Testament the term " flesh "
connects itself with the conception of impotence,
need of salvation, and sinfulness of man whose
distinction from God is the distinction between
flesh and spirit. The development of the term in
the New Testament and especially in Paul may be
traced directly to this Old Testament conception,
while the development of the term in the synagogue
was quite different.
The most significant traits of the Old Testament
representation practically disappear in the Apoc-
rypha. Sarx is spoken of as the substance of the
human body (Sirach xix. 12, xliv. 20;
4. Jewish Judith xiv. 10 etc.). Paaa aarx oc-
Usage. curs with the same meaning as in the
Old Testament (Sirach i. 8, xiii. 15;
Judith ii. 3; etc.). But the idea of lowliness and
frailty disappeared almost altogether, likewise the
idea of distinction from God. The same may be
said of the Pseudcpigrapha and the remaining
post-Biblical literature of the synagogue. Alex-
andrianism accepted the Old Testament meaning as
little as did the theologians of the synagogue. The
Septuagint perverted in important passages (Num.
xvi. 22; Isa. xxxi. 3) the relation of spirit or God
and flesh into the distinction between spirit and
matter. Philo uses aarx in the sense of evil dis-
position. This is not a translation of Biblicil
views into Alexandrinian philosophy, but it ■
most clearly a translation of the gynagogsl view of
the yezer ha-ra', the evil disposition, the diqwatioi
toward the sensual from which tho real evil hM
proceeded.
On this account it is the more peculiar that tin
writers of the New Testament — Paul not ezoepted—
have not built on this later foundation, but hut
gone back to the Old Testament. In the sjnoptio
Gospels and in Acts aarx Hi^dgn^ift
5. New the substance of the body (Lab
Testament xxiv. 39; Acto ii. 26, 31), man and
Usage, humanity (Matt. xix. 5, 6; lifaikx.8;
etc.). It denotes the distinction frn
God and that not in the physical sense, henee tin
incongruous relation of aarx to the divine piineqii
of life in the heart of man (Matt. xxvi. 41; Maik
xiv. 31 ). The writings of John and Peter, the Epiftia
of Jude, and the E^pistle to the Hebrews do not add
any essential features except that " flesh " alao ia-
dicates the peculiarity of man's external natm
Thus it is opposed to pneuma, or spirit (CoL ii. 1, 5).
In the writings of Peter the contrast between lors
and pneuma appears as a contrast of aarx and the
spirit of God (I Pet. iii. 18), and as a contrait d
aarx and the human pneuma (I Pet. iv. 6). Th
same contrast between God or the spirit of Ckdaod
the flesh dominates the use of the word in the wn-
tings of John. Here the expression "TheWoid
was made flesh " (John i. 14) has its force fromtka
contrast with (verse 1) " The Word was God."
The same contrast appears in Ps. Ivi. 5, 2; Ghioi.
xxxii. 8; II Cor. xiii. 4. Sarx in distinction fna
God and his spirit denotes frailty, helpkanenk
need of salvation.
The sinfulness of the flesh is emphasised hj hd
(Rom. viii. 3). In this sense he caUs the bodj^a
body of the flesh " aOma Ua aarkoa (Col. ii. IIX
and life a " walking in the flesh " (II Cor. x. 3).
Corresponding to the peculiarity of the New Teata*
ment revelation of salvation, the Old TestanieDt
contrast between God and man, flesh and sfurit, hai
developed into the contrast between aarx and the
pneuma hagion. In connection with the latter
contrast Paul defines the relation between Mrs
and sin in so far as with the fonnff
6. PauL and through it there adheres to maa
an evil disposition, a being sold unto
sin (Rom. vii. 14). Man is dominated by an; H
lives in and through him. It was therefore etfj
for Chrysostom to identify aarx with an evil dia-
position or for Neander to define it as "humaa
nature in its alienation from God." In a sJsSiV
way Holsten maintained that for Paul aarx was ti»
material, sensual substance in contrast with pmn^
as the immaterial, spiritual and Divine subataaM'
In the aarx and pneuma of Paul there is, aocoidiol
to Holsten, the opposition of the finite and theift'
finite, evil and good, so that in Pauline theology vi^
was a necessity. The whole Pauline view of ti*
world, according to him, forms a dualism wUdi
has its root in the Jewish and Hellenistic view d
the world. But it has been shown above that tha
thoughts of Paul as well as the other writinga of tha
New Testament are in no way dependent upon tba
»ai
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Flash
Fletcher
«l0f elopment in the later synagogue or Alexandrian
phflwiophy, but have developed directly from the
Old Testament. This phenomenon shows itself also
other important points of the New Testament
fttion and compels the assumption of a double
"tendency in religious thought, — the one represented
•ad influenced by the synagogue as a theological
Mhool and its mode of expression, laid down in the
Old Testament Apocrypha, Pseudepigrapha, and
Hie Tatanudio writings as well as in Philo, the other
■terting directly from the Old Testament and known
thvough the New Testament.
If this be conceded, much has been gained for the
cfeeuum of the question. Passages like Rom. vii.
14-15 show the strongest contrast to the later
■Smagogal conception of sarx. Whenever Paul
liiMfcii of »arx, he means present reality, and does
Hot denote by it the source and cause of sin in
ttie world. The mxrx is the seat of sin and not the
\ of its existence; it is chained to life and prop-
I itself through it and with it in a way which
liui originated not through God, but through the
taSL Therefore with life impotence and death
propagate themselves and with them the inability
te lead a life pleasing to God and the tendency to-
-ward the contrary, '* enmity against God " (Rom.
Tiii. 7, 8). We are what we are and as we are
throo^ the flesh, we are in the flesh, in its power
lnel4!Hid of in that of the Spirit, — we are flesh.
But this evidently does not mean that flesh is the
flouroe of sin, it does not even mean that the flesh
in distinction from the other parts of the human
being is the seat of sin; for ever3rthing, even the
heart, the seat of the origin of sin, pertains to man
through the flesh, or, as we might say, to the flesh
itself. Since sin is in the world, there are only sin-
neiB bom by the flesh, and thus the apostle may
distinguish between noua and sarx as he does in
Rom. vii. 25.
Thus there is no reason why $arx should mean
human nature. It rather means the flesh in its
peculiar nature as it has been implanted into
man by the fall. Even Christ appeared ** in the
KkwHwe of sinful flesh " (Rom. viii. 3), an expres-
mn idiidi denotes not the difference but the agree-
ment with our case. He entered into the flesh with
an the consequences of sin or the fall (Ck>l. i. 22;
Heb. ii. 14); but his own spiritual nature overcame,
so to epeak, at the very beginning, its disposition to
■n. See Soul and Spirit. (H. CRSMEBf.)
Bduoobafht: F. DeUtueh, SytUm der hibUidien Psydio-
|0«M, Laipae, 1856, Ens. tranal.. Edinburgh. 1867; J. J.
Tsa Oosteraee, ChrtMtian DogwuUica. ii. 365. 308. 650,
New York. 1874; H. H. Wendt. Die Begriffe FUitek und
OmUim biUUtken BpraekoebroMdi, Gotha, 1878: B. WeiaB,
BibUaa TUoiom/ of ^ New TeelamerU, H 27. 67. 68, 86.
lOa 116. 124. 128. 130. 145, Edinburgh, 1882-83; W. P.
DiekMO. Si. PavVe Ute ef tKe Terme Fleek and Spirit,
London. 1883; O. Zdokler. Handbuth der theoU)oiechen
WimenadiafUK, i. 842 aqq., 347 aqq.. iii. 307. 531-532.
N6tdlii«Mi. 1880. Munich. IROO; O. Pfleiderer. Der Paul-
tmMftiM. pp. 60-78. Leipnc. 1800: H. Schulti. Old Teeta-
meni TKeolon, i. 300. ii. 112. 242 aqq.. 300-301, 314-
315. Edinburgh, 1802; J. Laidlaw. BibU Doctrine of Man,
pp. 100-120. 270-274, ib. 1805; W. Beysohlag. New Tee-
lament Theology, i. 88. 01, 228. ii. 28. 38, 42 aqq.. ib.
1806; G. B. Stareni, TJUoIoffy of the New Teetament, pp.
180-100. 388-330. New York. 1800; A. B. Davidaon.
Theology of the Old Teetameni, pp. 188-102, ib. 1004; and
the lexicons.
FLETCHER, GILES (called the Younger, to dis-
tinguish him from his father — b. about 1549; d.
1611 — also known as a poet): English divine and
rehgious poet; b. in London c. 1588; d. at Alder-
ton (11 m. e.s.e. of Ipswich), Suffolk, 1623. He was
educated at Westminster School and Trinity (Col-
lege, Cambridge (B.A., 1606), where he became a
minor fellow in 1608, reader in Greek grammar in
1615, and reader in the Greek language in 1618.
Soon afterward ho left the imiversity and became
rector at Alderton, Suffolk. Fletcher is known
principally by the poem, ChrisVs Victory and Tri-
umph in Heaven and Earth over and after Death
(2 parts, Cambridge, 1610; modem editions,
London, 1869, 1876, by A. B. Grosart, 1888, 1899,
etc.) which has been called one of the most remark-
able religious poems in the language. It imdoubt-
edly furnished Milton with valuable suggestions,
which he utiUzed in Paradise Regained, Fletcher
published also The Reward of the Faithful (London,
1623), a theological treatise in prose.
Biblioobapht: Gonmilt the Preface by A. B. Groaart to
his edition of the Poeme, London, 1876; DNB, xix. 302.
FLETCHER, JOHN WILLIAM (FLETCHER OF
MADELEY): Associate of John Wesley and one
of the most pious and useful ministers of his genera-
tion; b. at Nyon (on the Lake of Geneva, 21 m. s.w.
of Lausanne), Canton of Vaud, Switzerland, Sept.
12, 1729; d. at Madeley (13 m. e. s.e. of Shrewsbury),
Shropshire, Aug. 14, 1785. His name was originally
De la F16oh^re. He was a fine scholar in his youth,
and took all the prizes at the school in Geneva
which he attended. He was designed
Eariy by his parents for the ministry, but
Life. preferred the army. Against their
wishes he went to Lisbon and enlisted,
but was prevented from going to Brazil by an acci-
dent which confined him for some time to his bed.
The vessel was lost at sea. Fletcher returned to
Switzerland, but, not disheartened, went to Flan-
ders at the invitation of his uncle, who promised
to secure a commission in the army for him. The
sudden death of his relative, and the termination
of the war, again interfered with his plans. He
then went to England, and became tutor in the
family of Thomas Hill, of Shropshire, in 1752.
A new period soon began in Fletcher's history.
He heard the Methodists. Their language about
faith was a new revelation to him, and in 1755 he
united with one of their societies. In 1757 he was
ordained priest by the bishop of Bangor. During
the next few years he preached occasionally for
John Wesley and others, and became known as
a public supporter of the great religious revival.
In 1760 he accepted the living of Madeley, against
the advice of Wesley, with whom, however, he pre-
served a lifelong friendship.
For twenty-five years, with the exception of the
interval between 1776 and 1781, when ill health
forced him to take a respite from
Vicar of work, Fletcher labored at Madeley
Madeley. with singular devotion and zeal. He
preached with great fervor the plain
truths of the Gospel, and labored incessantly
during the week to awaken sinners. It was his
Flatoher
VUednar
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
881
custom to rise at five o'clock Sabbath morning, and
go through the neighborhood ringing a bell, that
no one might be able to give as an excuse for non-
attendance at church that he was not aroused in
time. He visited worldly entertainments, and with
the fearlessness of John Knox preached to the
astounded revelers upon the folly of forbidden
pleasures. Great and blessed results followed
such fidelity. In 176S he was called to preside over
Lady Huntingdon's College at Trevecca, Wales, and
accepted, the call requiring only occasional visita-
tion, not continuous residence. The discussion
over Calvinism and Arminianism among the Meth-
odists led him to resign in 1771.
As a preacher, Fletcher directed his appeals to
the conscience. He was well trained, and had a
fine voice. As a man, he was characterized by
saintly piety, rare devotion, and blamelessness
of life. In the judgment of Southey, " no age
ever produced a man of more fervent piety,
or more perfect charity, and no church ever
possessed a more apostolic minister," and Wesley
characterized him as the holiest man he had ever
met, or ever expected to meet " this side of eter-
nity."
In theology, Fletcher was an Arminian of
Arminians. Most of his writings are directed
against Calvinism, were written to defend Wesley,
and grew out of controversies with
His Toplady and Rowland Hill. Some
Theology of these works are still extensively
and circulated, and are authoritative in
Writings, the Methodist churches. However,
controversial as his writings are,
Fletcher was not a polemist, but always treated his
opponents with fairness and courtesy, and in this
presented a marked contrast to Toplady and to John
Wesley. He was also a millenarian (cf. his letter
to John Wesley, Nov. 29, 1755). He sympathized
with Wesley's views concerning the revolt of the
American colonies and ^Tote two tracts to show
that " the right of taxing subjects, with or without
their consent, is an inseparable appendage of supreme
government," viz., A Vindication of Mr. Wesley^s
" Calm Address to Our American Colonies " (Lon-
don, 1776) and American Patriotism Farther Con-
fronted with Reason, Scripture , and the Constitution
(Shrewsbury, 1776). These writings were read at
court and opened the way to high preferment,
which he refused to consider. His principal works
were Checks to Antinomianism, called forth by the
dispute in 1771, and The Portrait of St. Paul, or
the True Model for Christians and Pastors, trans-
lated from a French manuscript after Fletcher's
death, with a notice of the author (2 vols., Shrews-
bury, 1790). The first complete edition of his
works appeared in London, 8 vols., 1803; there is
a four-volume edition issued by the Methodist Book
Concern in New York. D. S. Schafp.
Biblioqrapht: The principal biography is by J. Benson.
4th ed.. London. 1817. Other liven are by L. Tyerman,
ib. 1882; F. W. Macdonald, ib. 1885: J. Marratt. ib. 1902;
DNB, xix. 312-314. Consult also; A. Stevens, History
of . . . Methodism, 3 vols.. New York. 1858-61; J. C.
Ryle. Christian Leaders of the Lxist Century, pp. 383-423.
London. 1869; F J. Snell, Wesley and Methodism, Edin-
burgh. 1900.
FLETCHER, JOSEPH: En^ish indepeodofc;
b. at Chester Dec. 3, 1784; d. at Stepney, Looda,
June 8, 1843. He attended the grammar-whoolA
Chester, then studied at Hoxton, and at the 1}»
versity of Glasgow (M.A.. 1807; D.D., 1830). Bi
was pastor of the Congregational Chureh at Bbd-
bum 1807-23, and at the same time (after ISIQ
tutor in theology at Blackburn College. In IgB
he became pastor at Stepney. He was chaiimaatf
the Congregational Union in 1837. Fletcberi
a voluminous writer and a regular contributor ts
the newly established Eclectic Review. His vi
include: Spiritual Blessings (Blackburn, 1814;
6th ed., London, 1891); Principles and /fuKMiw
of the Roman Catholic Religion (London, 1817),
which received generous praise; Personal Ekdim
and Divine Sovereignty (1825), also favorably re-
ceived; and Poems (1846), in collaboration with fail
sister, Mary Fletcher. His Select Works and U»
airs (3 vols., 1846) were edited by his sod, Joaepk
Fletcher of Hanley.
FLEURY, ABBEY OF: Formerly a cdebnted
Benedictine abbey at Fleury-sur-Loire in the
diocese of Orleans and 20 m. e.s.e. of the dty.
It was founded by Abbot Leodebod of St. Azuan,
later bishop of (Mdans, in the early part of the reip
of Qovis II (638-657). The body of St. Beoedirt
was brought here about 653, and t^ obtained many
privileges for the abbey and made it a center of
pilgrimage from all parts of Europe. The commu-
nity was reformed by Odo of CJluny, and it became
a famous seat of discipline and learning, which con-
tributed not a httle to the support of Dmutan's
reforms in England. The school remained in
great esteem imtil the sixteenth century, sometimei
having as many as 5,000 pupils, and the libraiyvaa
exceedingly valuable until it was in part scattered
by the zeal of the Huguenots (1561). Many of the
manuscripts are now preserved in the municipal
library of Orl^ns. Ultimately the monks as-
sociated themselves with the congregation of Saint
Maur (q.v.).
Biblioorapht: Ckronicon Floriaeetue, in A. DmcheaoQi
Historice Francorum scripL. iii. 355 »qq.. P^«, 1640: ib-
breviated in MGH., Saript., ii (1829). 254 iqqj Goffii
Christiana, viii. 1538; Cuiasard-Gaucheron, L'Seek dc
Fleury-sur-Loire, in Mimoirea ds la sodHi ankklogifm
de VOrUanais, ziv (1875). 551 aqq.; KL, iv. 1554-57.
FLEURY, CLAUDE: French historian and
ecclesiastic; b. at Paris Dec. 6, 1640; d. then
July 14, 1723. He was educated at the college of
Clermont, studied law, and for nine years practised
as an advocate at Paris, where in 1674 he published
his Histoire du droit frangais. Following the bent
of his contemplative nature, however, and influ-
enced by such men as Bossuet, he took orders, and
was appointed tutor to the princes of Conti (1672),
the count of Vermandois (1680), and the dukes of
Burgoyne, Anjou, and Berry (1689). In 1683 he
received the CHstercian abbey of Locdien in Rhodes,
and was elected to the Academy in 1696 as the
successor of La Bruy^re. He declined the proffoed
see of Montpellier, but in 1706 accepted from Lods
XIV. the priory of N6tre Dame d'Argenteuil, where
he remained until 1716, when he was recalled to
coiurt as the confessor of Louis XV. This positko
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Fletcher
FUedner
resigned in 1722, the year before his death.
^8 reputation rests chiefly upon his His-
ecd^iastique (20 vols., Paris, 1691-1720), a
^ of the Church to 1414, written with much
^V^tnil and moderation of tone from a standpoint
pronoimced Gallicanism, but marred by a lack
critical acumen. It was continued to 1778 by
I Claude Faber and Alexandre la Croix, though
'Mth less happy results. In the middle of the nine-
teenth century the manuscript of Fleury's own
•ontinuation to 1517 was discovered at Paris and
puUiahed in the latest edition of the entire work
iffuiaire eccl^iastique par VAhh€ FUury, augmenUe
«i» ^tMtfre livres, 6 vols., Paris, 1640), but is far
inferior in value to the preceding part of the
For his pupils, Fleury wrote Les Mcnirs des /«-
TmAUe^ (Paris, 1681; Eng. transl.. The Manners of
ih$Chruiian8, . . . with Biographical Notes, Oxiord,
1872); Lee Mcnire des Chrdiens (1682); and Grand
caUehisme historique (1679). K\b Institution au droit
^ceUsiatique (Paris, 1692), like his Discours sur les
Mibertie de Viglise gallicane (1690), is permeated by
m spirit of firm Gallicanism. His pedagogical system
'wms developed in his Traits du choix etdela mUhode
4ifs itudes (1675). The minor works of Fleury were
collected in his Opuscules (5 vols., Nimes, 1780-81).
(EuoiiNE Choisy.)
Nio^ron. Mimoire$, vol. viii.; L. E. Dupin,
NauoeOe bibUothique dea autewt eceUntutiqiAe; vol. xviii..
85 voln. Paris. 1689-1711; F. R. Guett^. Hutoire de
r^gtim d9 France, vols. z.. xi., 12 vols.. Paris, 1847-56;
L. Oenay, Un Pidaoogue oublii du xviie eilde, Paris. 1870.
FUCKINGERy DAIVIEL KUMLER: United
Brethren in Christ; b. at Sevenmile, O., May 25,
1824. He was educated at Germantown Academy
and was elected corresponding secretary of the
United Brethren Church Missionary Society in
1857, being reelected quadrennially imtil 1885,
when he was chosen foreign missionary bishop.
He has been to Africa twelve times and to Germany
five times on missionary tours, and has done much
work upon the frontiers of the United States, and
also among the Chinese. He is the author of
Off-hand Sketches in Africa (Dayton, O., 1857);
Sermons (in collaboration with Rev. W. J. Shuey;
1850); Ethiopia: or, Twenty-six Years of Mission-
ary Life in Western Africa (1877); The Churches
Marching Orders (1879); and Our Missionary Work
from 1865 to 1889 (1889).
Bibuogbapht: D. K. Flickinger, Fifty five Yeare of Active
Minieterud Life: Preface by Bishop G. M. Mathewe, Day-
ton. 1007.
FUEDNER, flid'ner, FRITZ: The "apostle of
the gospel in Spain," son of Theodor Fliedner (q.v.);
b. at Kaiserswerth on the Rhine, June 10, 1845;
d. at Madrid Apr. 25, 1901. He studied at Halle
and TQbingen, and became teacher in a school at
Hilden 1868 and chaplain to the legation of the
German Empire at Madrid and evangehst in Spain
1870. Besides editing Blditer aus Spanien, Re-
vista Christiana, and Amigo de la infancia, he pub-
lished (in Spanish) lives of Livingstone, Luther,
his father, John Howard, Elizabeth Fry, a hymn-
book for Sunday Schools, and various other books
of Spanish Christian literature. He also published
Blatter und BliUhen, poems (Heidelberg, 1885-97),
Romische Missionspraxis auf den Karolinen (1889);
Erzdhlungen aus Spanien (1895), Aus meinem Leben,
Erinnerungen und Erfahrungen (Berlin, 1900).
Bibliography: Consult, besides the last work mentioned
above, F. G. J. Grape. Spanien und doe Evangelium,
Halle. 1896.
FLIEDNER, THEODOR: German philanthro-
pist, founder of the Kaiserswerth Deaconesses'
Institute and the modem Protestant order of deacon-
esses (see Deaconess, III., 2, a); b. at Epstein
(7 m. n.e. of Wiesbaden), in Nassau, Jan. 21, 1800;
d. at Kaiserswerth (on the Rliine, 6 m. n.n.w. of
Dttsseldorf) Oct. 4, 1864. He was the son of a
clergyman and was himself a plain, impretending
German pastor, of great working power, indefati-
gable zeal, fervent piety, and rare talent of organiza-
tion. He studied at Giessen, GOttingen, and Her-
bom and for a year was tutor in a family at Cologne
and had begun to doubt his fitness for the ministry,
when he received and accepted, in Nov., 1821, what
he considered a providential call, from a small
Protestant colony at Kaiserswerth, then a Roman
Catholic town of 1,800 inhabitants. The failure
of a silk manufactory, upon which the town de-
pended largely for support, led him to undertake,
in the spring of 1822, a collecting tour to keep his
struggling congregation aUve. By the end of a week
he returned with 1,2(X) thalers. This was the be-
ginning of much greater things. By experience
and perseverance he became one of the greatest
beggars in the service of Christ. In 1823 he made
a tour of Holland and England, which not only
resulted in a permanent endowment of his congre-
gation, but suggested to him the idea of his be-
nevolent institutions. '^ In both these Protestant
countries," he relates, " I became acquainted with
a multitude of charitable institutions for the ben-
efit both of body and soul. I saw schools and
other educational organizations, almhouses, or-
phanages, hospitals, prisons, and societies for the
reformation of prisoners, Bible and missionary so-
cieties, etc.; and at the same time I observed that
it was a living faith in Christ which had called
almost every one of these institutions and societies
into life, and still preserved them in activity. This
evidence of the practical power and fertility of
such a principle had a most powerful influence in
strengthening my own faith."
Fliedner made two more journeys to Holland,
England, and Scotland (1832 and 1853), in the in-
terest no more of his congregation, but of his
institutions. He also visited the United States
in 1849 and assisted in founding the Deaconesses'
Institute in Pittsburg with Dr. Passavant at its
head (see Deaconess, III. 2, d, § 1; Passavant,
William Alfred). Twice he traveled to the
East, — in 1851 to aid Bishop Gobat in founding a
house of deaconesses in Jerusalem, and again in
1857, when he was, however, too feeble to proceed
farther than Jaffa. King Frederick William IV.
of Prussia and Queen Elizabeth took the most
cordial interest in his labors for the sick and poor,
furnished him liberally with means, and founded
in 1847 the Bethany hospital with deaconesses at
Berlin after the model of Kaiserswerth. In the
Fliestaden
Florian
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOQ
m
parsonage garden at Kaiserswerth there still stands
the little summer-house, with one room of ten feet
square, and an attic over it, which was the first
refuge for released female prisoners and magdalen
asylum, the humble cradle of all Fliedner's institu-
tions. In 1849 Fliedner resigned his pastorate to
devote all liis time to his institutions. One of his
last acts was to consecrate nineteen sisters, the
largest number up to that time to go out from
Kaiserswerth in a single year. At his death the
number of deaconesses connected with Kaisers-
werth and its daughter institutions exceeded 400
(see Deaconess, III., 2). Fhedner's most impor-
tant publications were several books descriptive of
his travels and Daa Buck der Mdrtyrer der evan-
gelischen Kirche (4 vols., Kaiserswerth, 1852-60).
He founded the Christlicher Volkskalender, which
was widely popular.
(PhIUP SCJHAPTf.) D. 8. SCHAFP.
Biblioorapht: The chief " Life " is by his son, Q. Flied-
ner, T. Fliedner, kurter Abriae $eine9 Lttben» und Wirkena,
3d ed., Kaiserswerth, 1892. Consult: P. SchafT, Ger-
many, ite V nivereiHea, TKeolooy, and R^ioion, chap,
xxxviii.. Philadelphia, 1857; Dr. T. Fliedner, ein Charak-
ter- und Lebenatnld, Barmen. 1866: Life of Pastor Fliedner
of Kaieeretcerth, transl. from the Germ, by Catharine Wink-
worth, London. 1867: T. Soh&fer. WeiblicKe Diakonie, 3
vols.. 2d ed., Stuttgart. 1887-94.
FLIESTEDEN, PETER. See Klarenbach,
Adolf.
FLINT, ROBERT: Scotch Presbyterian; b. at
Dumfries, Scotland, Mar. 14, 1838. He was edu-
cated at Glasgow University (1852-59) and was
parish minister at East Church, Aberdeen (1859-
1862), and at Kilconquhar (1862-64). He was pro-
fessor of moral philosophy and political economy
at St. Andrews University (1864-76) and pro-
fessor of divinity at Edinburgh University (1876-
1903). He was also Baird Lecturer (1876-77),
Stone Lecturer at Princeton (1880) and Croall Lec-
turer at Edinburgh (1887-88). He has written:
Christ's Kingdom on Earth (Edinburgh, 1865); Phi-
losophy of History in Europe (1874); Theism (1877);
Anti-Theistic Theories (1879); Vico (1884); His-
torical Philosophy in France, Belgium, and Switzer-
land (1894); Socialism (London, 1894); Sermons
and Addresses (Edinburgh, 1899); Agnosticism
(1903); Philosophy as Scientia Scientiarum and
History of Classification of Science (1904); and
On Theological, Biblical, and other Subjects (1905).
FLODOARD, fl6"d6"ar', OF REIMS: French
writer of the tenth century; b. at fipemay (17 m.
s.s.e. of Reims) 893 or 894; d. 966. He studied
in Reims, which in the tenth century formed the
center of French politics and of the higher studies
of rx)rraine, and under Archbishop Herivseus
(900-922) became canon in the cathedral. 0\\ing
to political disturbances, he lost hia position and
joined Bishop Artold (932-961). The latter sent
him in 936 to Rome where he was favorably re-
ceived by Pope Leo VII. and consecrated priest.
When Artold lost his bishopric, Flodoard fled with
him to .AjTchbishop Rotbert of Treves (931-956).
Flodoard took part in the Synod of Ingelheim in
948, at which .\rtold was reinstated by Pope Aga-
petus II. As a recompense for his faithfulness Art-
old gave him the position of keeper of theneoriiii
the church of Reims. In 751 he was entrurtedwitii
a mission to King Otho I.; in 952 he wasappobtel
bishop of Toumay, but owing to nn^TonUi
conditions could not enter his new pontkn. h
963 he retired into the monasteiy of St Biii
Diiring his stay at Rome Flodoard was iadi
to write a hexameter poem in three parti qa tb
'* Triumphs of Christ and the Saints," vfaidiiilk
much show of learning and piety tells of theipnid
of Christianity and the history of the popci Bi
compiled a chronicle (Annales; in MGH, &r^
iii., 1839, pp. 363-407; also, ed. P. Lauer, Ftai^
1906) of his own time, from 919 to 966, vUA
is a source of valuable infonnation for the hkUxyd
Lorraine and the relations between the Fnodi
and Germans of that time, and is indispeoabbfor
dates of numerous events. He also wrote a lefiifali
and extensive Histaria Remensis 0n MGH, Seri^
xiii., 1882, pp. 405-599) up to 948.
WiLHKLM Aununr.
Bibuooeapht: ASM, v. 325-332; HiaMn KlKrwt k k
France, vi. 313. Paris. 1742: J. C. F. Bihr. (7MdUda4r
rdmieehen LiUeratur im ftarolin^uoIeK Zeiktkr, pi ffi
Carlaruhe. 1840; Wattenbaeh, DQQ, \ (1886). mm,
ii. 400. i (1893). 40»^11; P. Scheffer-Bcidionk. ia JTi-
theUunoen dee InatUuie fitr 6eterreidlieeke Omhidii^m
•€huno, Tiii. 423-430. Innabruek. 1887. Gooiolt tko L
Ceillier. Autenre eaeria, xii. 841-844.
FLORENCE, COUNCIL OF. See FnuiA-
Florence, Council of.
FLORENSIANS (Ordo F2oren«i9; Order of FIor):
A Roman Catholic order estabU^ied at Flore (tht
modem San Giovanni in Fiore, 00 m. s.w. of Tft-
ranto) by the Cistercian abbot and prophet Joadim
(see Joachim of Fiore) about 1192, some tfam
years after he had exchanged the administnticii cf
his monastery of Coraszo for the life of a hennitis
Mount Sila. For the inmates of his mootstery
of St. John, Joachim formed rules which were aim-
ilar to those of the Cistercians, although independ-
ent and constituting a stricter B^oedictiiie re-
form. This rule received the sanction of Odestizii
III. on Aug. 25, 1196, and there were also aecaiar
patrons, such as Henry VI. and his wifeCoostantii.
The order gradually received several mcmasteriei
in Naples and both Calabrias, although it was ex-
posed to persecution, since its founder ma rae-
pected of heresy. The miracles believed to be
wrought at the tomb of Joachim gave a speed/
impetus to the Florensians, so that they soon had
thirty-four houses, including four nunneries, the
most important at St. Helena near Amalfi. Ib
1227 Gregory IX. forbade the Cistercians to admit
Florensians into their order on account of the com'
parative laxity of the Cistercian rule, thus nmng
the envy and enmity of the monks of Qteaux. The
Florensians maintained their high position, however,
until the appointment of abbots in commendem,
the first in 1470. The order then declined, and the
majority of its monasteries, like the mother bouse
in 1505, became incorporated with the Cistercians,
although a few joined the Dominicans and Car-
thusians. The habit of the Florensians was of
coarse gray cloth and closely resembled that of the
Cistercians. The monks went barefoot, and in choir
wore a cowl over their habit. (O. Z6cKLERt.)
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
FUestaden
Vlorian
irwTi HelyoU Ordra mtmoMtiqua^ v. ^2 iqq.;
eher, Orden und KonQTfffoiiontn, i. 267-2^.
EimUS RADEWnffS, ra'dd-wins: One of
ders of the Brethren of the Common Life
>, at Leerdam. (13 m. a. of Utrecht), Hot-
1350; d. at Deventer March 24, 1400.
of educated, wealthy parents, he studied
Jiiiversity of Prague from 1375 to 1378,
I received the degree of yccntiate> On
D to lieerdam he heard Geert Groote (q.v. )
and the two became friends about 1380.
exehanged his cauoiuy at Utrecht for a
at Deventer that he might be able to ae-
r Groote in bis travels, and was ordained
A band of earnest thinkers gathered around
, and FlorentJus^s vicarage became their
After Groote *a death in 1384, FlorentJua
the bead of thia community. In 1391 the
moved into their own house and their
increased, although the plague of 139S
I them of many members. They accord-
rved to AmerBfoort, only to return after a
lie coEnmunity controlled by Florentius
riiomas k Kempia says in his Viia^ a mirror
MB atid an ornament of morals, a refuge
wr, a convent of the clergy, a school of life
i>rld|yT and a lietper of poor scholam. The
IS of Florentius became authoritative for all
indatlons. After his conversion he was a
[lua picture of modem piety, which, rooted
lity^ did not withdraw from the world,
■df-^lenial sought to win all men for the
ife. At 3 AM, be began to prepare
c of the brethren and during the day the
lii^t his help. No work of charity was
t or too imall for him. He bathed the sick
and whoever met him once never forgot
) ImproBsion of his personality. He en-
l severe aelf-examinat ion, and gave prudent
'* First think, and then act^ but do not
rer work mechanically; never seek thyself.'*
«y activity of Florentiua was scanty, and
Jted himself to matters concerning humility
fear of God, His principal works are aa
a letter written at the request of Henrictis
sien, included by Jan Buach (q.v.) in his
m Windeahemenset and appended in cora-
m to the life of Florentius by Thomas k
TrcctGiiiiu$ dtmiua de ex»tirpaiian€ pi-
t passionum e£ aajtmUimie twrarum mrtu-
uime carUalis Dei et proximitl verm unumis
' H pro^^imo^ seu traeiaitjdus de spiriluaiibits
(ed, H. Nolte, Freiburg, 1862); Puncta
90Ctmdum qum edm buos volebai moderari,
i Ugeng poterit aUqualiter cognoacere inJ^-
tua, appended to the life by Thoma.^ k
and commonly called bmia jmnda. This
dc reflects the ideal of a man of benevolence
tains the conchisa et proposita prepared by
but collected and enlarged by Florentius,
h for the most part, with the TractatiduJi.
Etaot in many manuscnpta and reeensiona
pils, but the most original form is given by
Ion, in his ReehETchei historiques ei crUiquea
^hiabk ouieuT du Liwre de Vlmilaiion de
Tttt C3d ed„ Paris, ISmi Meditation
upon the principles of Florentius inspired the
writinga of his pupils, Thomas k Kempis, Theodore
of Herzen, and Zerbold of Zutphen, A work of
this character, rejecting the spirit of Florentiua,
was discovered by J. M. W listen hoff in a Berlin
manuscript and reprinted by him under the title
Farvum et simpler exerciiium ex. mnsuetttdine
hufnUis pairis domini Florentii et aluyrum devGtorum
(Archie/ vaornederlandBehe Kerkgeschiedent-B. The
Hague, 1894, 80 sqq.). L. Scuulze.
BmLiooRAPaT; Chief ■ourcea for a lift ara the Vita by
Thorn AS k Kempie in the tatter^s Opera, ed. SorainiUitls,
Antwerp, IflOO, Eng. traosL in The Foundtrw tif th* ATbw
DfP&ti&n, pp» 81-16*, London, 1905; R. Dier, Seriptum,
. . . G. Groi^ ^ ^ . et tntUha tiiiix irattibuM, in G, Dumbar,
Analecta, 3 vota., DeT«iiter. 1719-22. and thunbar's ^ct
k^^kdi/ke en tevrenilj/kei DitPenter, 2 vulfl., ib, 173^3<9. Con-
BTilt: K. Orube, GerA«ri Gr&Qt und teitie Stiftunsen, pp.
66 ftqn*. Cologne, 1SS3; KL, ii, 728-729; ADB, viJ, ISO;
and Ut«Faturc under Common Lute, Bhsthbgn of thc.
FLOREEy HEiraiQlJE: Spanish prieet; b. at
Valladolid Feb. 14, 1701 (7); d. at Madrid May 5,
1773. He was an Augustinian friar, and became
teacher of theology at the University of Alcala,
rector of the royal college at the same place, theolog-
ical adviser for the supreme council of Castile and
finally geoeral assistant of bia order for the Spanish
proviDces. He wrote a number of works, of which
the moit important is the E&pa^ SagradOt thetUTo
geografico-hut^mco de la igksia de Espa^a; the first
volume appeared at Madrid in 1747, and the work
was carried on by Florez to the end of voL xxix
(1775)i a continuation, vols, xxx-xJviu (1775-
1862], was made by his fellow August inians, Manuel
Riaco, Antonio Merino, Jose de la Canal, and the
town librarian, P. S. de Baranda. The work
contains a historical and statistical presentation of
the Spaniah biahoprics, mth their respective chap-
ters and monasteries, and a catalogue of their
biflbops, martyrs, famous men, etc. , ^ „
(A. Hauck.)
BiSLioaaAFar: H* Hurter, NamefKlaiar Uterorm*, v^L iii.,
Inmhruek, ISfiS, A liftt of liii works ia giTen In KL, iw.
1678-7t.
FLORIAIf, SAIITT: The patron saintof Upper Aus-
tria, said to have suffered martyrdom by droTvnmg in
the Enns at Laureacum (Lorch or St. Loren*, near
Enna, 10 m.a.e.of Linz) during the Diocletian perse-
cution. His Pas^w, however (ed. B* Kruach, MGH,
Script, rer. Merm., iii,| 1S96, 65-71), is a recast of the
Passio IreniFi Sirmii and of no value. The aaint
ia first mentioned in the eighth century, when his
relics are said to have been worshiped ad pw>che
{ — BucMf ** the beech- tree, " the site of the preaent
abbey of St. Florian, 5 m. w.s.w. of Enns). There
was probably a mooaatic settlement there as eariy
as the eighth century under Otkar, an itinerant
bishop. Charlemagne gave the cloister to Paaaau,
In the beginning of the tenth century it is men-
tioned aa a eongregtUio chrtcorum. Then it was des'
troyed by the Hungarians, but in the last quarter
of the tenth century it waa rebuilt, without, liow-
ever, regaining its former flourishing condition until
Bishop Altmann of Passau made it a foundation
of regular canons in 1071, under ao able leader,
Hartmann. Since then ita exietence has never been
ahaken^ but the relics of Florian are lost.
(A. Haocx.)
Floms
Fonseoa
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
886
Bxbuoorapht: KrOsoh's introduction in MOH, ut sup.;
KL, iv. 1676-77.
FLORUS: Deacon of Lyons; b. in the vicinity
of Lyons (according to others, in Spain) in the
latter part of the eighth century; d. at Lyons
about 860. He was probably educated in Lyons,
but despite his reputation for learning, never
rose above the rank of deacon, or, according to some
accounts, of subdeacon, the capacity in which he
officiated under the archbishops Agobard (816-840)
Amolo (841-852), and Remigius. He was a firm
advocate of the independence of the clergy and the
autonomy of the Church of Gaul, so that he appears
as a modest opponent of Amalarius, especially in
his De divina psaljnodia, although his defense of the
ancient liturgy was not completed until Agobard,
after his return from exile, wrote his De correctione
Antiphonarii, In his De electionibus episcoporumf
he advocated the canonical choice of bishops, and
when Moduin, the bishop of Autun, inspected the
diocese of Lyons at the command of the emperor
Louis the Pious in 834, Florus assailed him both
in prose and verse, moved not only by his affec-
tion for Agobard, but also by his devotion to the
independence of his diocese and Moduin 's attach-
ment to Louis. In the dogmatic controversies of
his time he was an opponent of Paschasius Radber-
tus (q.v.), teaching that the only participation in the
body and blood of Christ is that of faith, and accord-
ingly calling the bread the mystical body of the
Lord. He set forth his views in his Expositio missce,
a work written previous to 834 and consisting for
the most part of excerpts from Cyprian, Ambrose,
Jerome, and others. He also took part in the
controversy on predestination in his Sermo de
prtBdeatinaivme, while the Adversus cujiiadam ....
errores de prcBdestinationef written in the name of
the Church of Lyons against Johannes Scotus
Erigena, also seems to have been composed by him.
Among his other works special mention may be
made of his commentary on the Pauline Epistles,
his revision of the Mariyrologium of Bede, and of
his hymns, in all of which he shows wide reading
and much skill in composition.
Bibliography: The Carmina, ed. E. Dtlmmler. are in MOH,
Poelas Lot, awi Caroli, ii (1884), 607-666; part of his pro-
duotiODH are in J. Mabillon, Vetera analecta, i. 388 sqq..
Paris, 1723; Bouquet, Recueil, vi. 262-263, vii. 301-304;
MPL, cxix. Two poems are printed for the first time by
F. Patetta in AUi of the Academy of Turin, xxvii (1801-
1892), 123-129. (Consult: ASB, June, vi., pp. xiii -xvi.;
J. C. F. B&hr, Getchichte der r&mischen Literatur im karo-
linffiachcn ZeitaUer, pp 108-109. 447-453, Carlsruhe.
1840; E. Dammler. in NA, iv (1879). 296-301. 616. 681,
630; A. Ebert. AUgemeine Getchichte der Literatur de»
MiUelaltert, ii. 268-272. Leipsic. 1880; Wattenbach,
DQG, i (1886). 68, 199. 263, i (1893), 60, 211, 280.
FLORUS, GESSIUS: Last Roman procurator of
Judea (64-66 a.d.), successor of Albinus He was
a native of ClazomenaD (on the south side of the
Bay of Smyrna) and obtained his office through
the friendship of his wife, Cleopatra, with the em-
press, Poppsea. His cnieity, tyranny, and shame-
less corruption 8uq)assed that of all his predeces-
sors and led to the final revolt of the Jews, wliich
cost them their national independence. Suetonius
(Vespasian f i v.) says he penshed in the revolt, but
Josephus (Life, vi.) says merely " he was beaten,
and many of those with him fell."
Bibuoorapht: Josephus, AnL XVIII., i. ft, XX., iL 1;
War, II.. xiv. 2. 4, xv. 1, 2, xvi. 1; Tadtus, Hid^r.V^
H. Qraeti. Geadtiehte der Juden, in. 445^446, 460 •«.,
Leipsic, 1888; SchOrer, Oe$ckiehie, i. 685, 601 sqq., ^
transl., I., ii. 190-101. 208 sqq.
FLUE (FLUEUE), NIKOLAUS VOH (DER),oqiii-
monly known as "Brother Klaus": Swiss hermit;
b. at FlQeli (FlOhli, 12 m. s. of Lucerne), in thi
canton of Unterwalden, Mar. 21, 1417; d. in fail
hermit's cell at the Ranft, in the ravine of the Mel-
chaa, below Fltieli, Mar. 21, 1487. He descemkd
from a distinguished family, and at first devoted
himself to the management of his inherited propertj.
He also served his country well, both in the araj
and in civil life. In 1462 he appeared in Stass u
representative of Obwalden (the western part of
Unterwalden) in settling a dispute between tfaa
monastery of Engelberg and the church of Stam
He married in 1450, and was the father of five aooi
and five daughters when he resolved in 1467 to
renounce his worldly life. He left his home and
passed over the Jura Mountains imtil he came to :
the region of Liestal; but a vision and the coudhI
of a peasant induced him to return to Obwalden.
At first he settled in the mountains near Melchthal,
but later approached more closely to his home and
settled in the Ranft, a desolate place in the
mountains, about a quarter of an hoiir from tb
home of his family. The congregation of Sacheeh
built him a small cell and beside it a chapel, h
1482 Brother Klaus founded here partly from fail
own property a chaplaincy and sacristy. But be
did not always remain in his isolation; he wandered
about in the neighborhood, and undertook pil-
grimages to Einsiedeln and Engelberg. He neat j
about barefooted and bareheaded, his only fff- |
ment a long gown of coarse gray wod. He re- j
nounced all comforts of Hfe, sleeping on the floor ,|
of his cell and eating hardly any food. Owing to
his severe fasts, people thought that he lived with-
out other food than the sacramental elements and
his wide-spread fame originated undoubtedly in (fail
belief. Prominent visitors from afar came to fail
remote cell, among them Johann Geiler of Eaiseif- ■
berg, the famous Strasburg preacher, in 1473;
the Saxon nobleman Hans von Waldheim, coon- '
cilor of Halle in 1474; and Albrecht von Bonstetteit
dean of Einsiedeln in 1478, who, in 1479, recorded
his impressions in a book. People came in suck
crowds that the famous hermit had to ask tin
authorities of Obwalden for relief. They we»
attracted by the miraculous halo of the reputed
saint, but also by his earnest admonitions and fail
striking utterances, which exhibit knowledge of lifi
and intelligent observation.
The hermit obtained his greatest fame by fail
successful arbitration in the dissensions of the ooo-
federate states of Switzerland, which threatened to
bring on a civil war. In 1477 five cities, Zuriefai,
Bern, Lucerne, Solothum, and Freiburg formed t
league to protect themselves against the tumtd-
tuous gatherings of rural communities. But Uiii
Schwyz, Unterwalden, and Zug, the seats of then
insurrectionary gatherings, protested against the ad-
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Floras
Fonaeoa
Lucerne into the new league because there
i since 1332 an agreement between them
canton that it should not enter a new
hout their consent. They also protested
i admission of Solothum and Freiburg to
inst a preponderance of the cities over
lement. In the time from 1478 to 1481
sions approached their climax. A last
ras held in Dec, 1481, in Stans, and
nost dissolved when Heini am Grund,
I Stans, rushed in with a message from
klaus which restored peace among the
parties. The noble deed of the hermit
y esteemed and honored all over the
Six years afterward he was buried in
In 1600 a chapel was built over his grave
church of Sachseln.
eration of the hermit increased after his
1 legends began to cluster around the
his life. Bullinger expresses true ad-
>r him in his history of the Reformation,
r published in 1528 in imion with Spera-
sn of Bruder Clausen in SchwyU, In
Eioman Catholics of Switzerland asked
to canonize the hermit; but the pro-
istituted to this end in 1591 were not
they were reinstituted a second and a
, also without success. In 1669 nothing
a beatification could be obtained from
X. In 1887 the four hundredth an-
Df the death of Nikolaus was solemnly
(G. Meter von Knonau.)
it: a list of the voluminous literature on
q> to 1875 is found in E. L. Rochhols, Schtoei-
von Bruder Klaus, pp. 256-300, Aarau. 1875.
'. Ming, Der adige Bruder Nikolaus von FlUe,
aeerne, 1861-71; J. I. von Ah, Dea . . . Ein-
JtolauB von Fide LAen und Wirken, Einsiedeln,
L Wetiel. Der edige Nikolaut von FlUe, ib. 1887.
S- JACKSON, FREDERICK JOHN:
England; b. at Ipswich, Suffolk, Aug.
He studied at Eton and at Trinity
unbridge (B.A., 1879), and was ordered
1879 and ordained priest in 1880. In
as appointed divinity lecturer in Jesus
imbridge, and was elected fellow in 1886.
> he has been dean in the same college,
\ assistant tutor since 1896. He was
^ttershaw, Surrey, 1879-81, of St. Giles,
(, 1882-84, and St. Botolph, Cambridge,
He has been examining chaplain to the
Peterborough since 1897 and honorary
Peterborough since 1901. He was also
icher at Cambridge in 1885, 1887, and
lulsean Lecturer in 1902 and has written:
the Christian Church to A,D, 337 (Lon-
; Christian Difficulties in the Second and
Centuries (Hulsean Lectures for 1902;
iibUcal History of the Hebrews (Cambridge,
1 Christ in the Church (London, 1905).
et OF TRIEFENSTEIN: Provost of the
Sts. Peter and Paul at Triefenstein (on
telow WClrzburg) from the middle of the
Qtury; d., according to Kattner, 1181.
to the dialectic school in theology, he had
inionson the dogma of the Lord's Supper.
—22
They proceeded from the prevalent view that after
the ascension of the Lord his body is locally cir-
cumscribed in heaven. From this Folmar log-
ically concluded that Christ had never since been on
earth and furthermore, as regards the Lord's
Supper, that he is not corporaliter in the sacrament.
But far from being another Berengar (see Berenoar
OP Tours), for Folmar the doctrine of transubstan-
tiation lb rather the presupposition of his theory.
The peculiarity of his view consisted only in his
belief that the Christian drinks the blood simply
and purely without the flesh, and eats the flesh
of Christ simply and purely without the bones and
limbs of the body. It is evident that there is
taught here on the one side the transformation into
the substance of the body and blood and repudiated
on the other side the transformation into the
historical body of Christ. Folmar was vehemently
opposed by his Bavarian brethren, especially by
Gerhoh of Reichersberg (q.v.). Bishop Eberhard of
Bamberg convoked a conference at Bamberg where
ho convinced him of his heterodoxy.
Gerhoh attacked also Folmar's Christology, and
the latter defended himself by a treatise, De came
et anima verbi Dei, which unfortunately is lost.
Folmar made a sharp distinction between the two
natures of Christ, teaching that Christ in so far as
he is man is not the proper and natural son of God.
Only in so far is Christ equal to the Father as he is
one with him in essence. Folmar's treatise excited
the wrath of the Salzburg theologians. It was
just before the great papal schism. Gerhoh as a
follower of Alexander III. attempted to secure
Folmar 's condemnation at the papal court, but
Alexander wished to hear both parties. That,
however, was impossible because Eberhard of
Bamberg and, in all probability, Folmar also,
recognized Victor IV. as pope. But Alexander had
no desire to make matters worse by a dogmatic
dispute. So he urged Gerhoh to be silent.
(A. Hauck.)
BiBLioaRAPHT: Letters by and to Folmar are in AfPL.
cxciv. 1481-00. Consult: Gerhoh's letters, v., vii., xiii.,
XV., XX., in MPL, oxciii. 494-576, and De gloria et honore,
xiii. 1 aqq., in MPL, cxciii. 1117-1126; the Apologeticue
of Arno of lleichersberg; J. Bach, Dogmengeechidite dee
MiUekUtcre, i. 398, ii. 431. Vienna. 1873-75.
FONSECA: The name of three noted Roman
Catholics.
1 . Pedro da Fonseca, Portuguese Jesuit ; b. at Cor-
tizada, Portugal, 1528; d. atCoimbra (110m. n.n.o.
of Lisbon) Nov. 4, 1599. On Mar. 17, 1548 he entered
the Society of Jesus as a novice, and three years later
attended the University of Evora, where he soon be-
came professor and] won the title of the ** Portuguese
Aristotle." After obtaining his doctor's degree in
1580, he gained rapid promotion, being appointed
successively assistant to the general of the order,
provincial visitor, and head of the house of the
professed. Philip II. of Portugal appointed him on
a committee for the reform of Portugal, and Gregory
XIII. entrusted him with affairs of the utmost im-
portance, while Lisbon owes to him, among other
things, the establishment of the Irish College and
the convent of St. Martha. The chief works
of Da Fonseca are his Instituiiones dialectiae (Lis-
Voot-Washiiiff
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOO
bon, 1564) and his CommerUarii in libroa metaphyav-
coram AristoUlis StagiritcB (4 vob., Rome, 1577^9).
He originated the theory of the " mediate knowl-
edge of God," or the knowledge of the potential or
what might have occurred either by itself or imder
certain conditions, but did not — a theory later
developed by his fellow Jesuit, Luis Molina (q.v.).
2. Antonio da Fonseca Scares: Portuguese Fran-
ciscan, poet and devotional author; b. at Vidigueira,
(13 m. n.e. of Beja) June 25, 1631; d. Oct. 29, 1682,
as rector of the theological seminary of Torres Vedras
(25 m. n.w. of Lisbon).
8. Jo86 Maria da Fonseca: Portuguese Francis-
can Idstorian; b. at Evora (75 m. s.e. of Lisbon)
Dec. 3, 1690, founded the library of the monastery
of Ara Coeli, continued L. Wadding's Annalea Mino-
rum from 1731 to 1740, and died as bishop of Porto
in 1752. (O. ZOcKLBRf.)
FONT. See Baptistert.
FONTAIOJS, JOHAIVNES: Reformed preacher;
b. at ZoUer, in the duchy of Jillich, 1545; d. 1615.
He studied theology at Heidelberg, especially under
Zacharias Ursinus, who Latinized his name Puts,
into Fontanus. In his twenty-third year he fin-
ished his studies and became teacher and preacher
in the seminary of Neuhausen near Worms, but
after the death of Elector Frederick III. was ex-
pelled by Ludwig VI., who was a Lutheran. Count
John the Older of Nassau-Catzenelnbogen re-
ceived him into his coimtry, with other preachers
exiled from the Palatinate, and made him preacher
in Keppel in the principality of Siegen. But
Fontanus remained here only a short time. When
in the beginning of 1578 the estates of the province
of Greldem and of the county of Zdtphen elected
Coimt John as their viceregent, he took Fontanus
along; and under the count's protection the latter
organized a Reformed congregation in Amhem and
became its pastor. It grew rapidly under his able
direction; and the influence of Fontanus extended
over the CJhurch of the whole province, and even
beyond its borders. At the first general synod of
the whole Reformed Church in the three principali-
ties of Jiilich, Cleves, and Berg, held at Duisberg
in 1610, with Dr. Abraham Scultetus, court preacher
of Elector Frederick V. of the Palatinate, he ad-
vised on the organization of the congregations.
When, in consequence of the Arminian movement,
the secular authorities tried to interfere with the
inner affairs of the Calvinistic Church, Fontanus
stood with great energy for the autonomy of the
Church. He was also influential in bringing about
a meeting of the strictly Reformed pastors in 1615
at Amsterdam to pass resolutions against the ad-
herents of Arminius, whom the government pro-
tected. He established a high school at Haderwyk
and was its curator for fourteen years.
(F. W. ChJNot.)
Biblioorapht: J. W. Staats Evere, J. Fontanua, Amhem'a
eerate Predikant, Amhem, 1882; A. J. van dor Aa, Bio-
gravhiach Woordenboek, vi. 159 eqq., Haarlem, 1859; G. G.
van Prinsterer, Archivea ou Correapondance incite de la
Maiaon d Orange Naaaau, 1st ser., vols. vii.. viii., 14 vol?.,
Utrecht, 1835-62.
FONTEVRAULT, ORDER OF (ORDO FONTIS
EBRALDI) : A Roman Catholic order, founded in
the closing years of the deventh century b
d'Arbrissel, who was bom at Arbriasel (tb
Arbresec, in the diocese of Rennes) about
died in 1117. He was educated at Parif
the age of thirty-eight was appointed by £
bishop of Rennes, vicar-genend for the adi
tion of the diocese. ELedgning from th
he taught theology at Angers for a time, az
retired to a hermit's life in the forest <
(Department of Mayenne). He gathered
of followers, whom he formed, about 10^
community of canons regular. Robert bu3
ber of cloisters, of which the most important
at Font^vrault (8 m. s.e. of Saimiur), ccmai
'' great minster," dedicated to the Viigin :
taining acconmiodations for 300 widows am
an infirmary dedicated to St. Lasarus and i
120 sick or lepers; and a home for magdi
monastery with 200 monks was built b(
" great minster," but was subordinate to
the great church, dedicated by CaUxtus £
son in 1109, was for the entire conmiuni^.
the order was confirmed by Paschal II., am
was withdrawn from the jurisdiction of 1
naries, whereupon Robert appointed Petit
Craon-Chemill^ first abbess and prepared
The members of the Order, who were called
Christif were subject to restrictions of
asceticism, but the distinctive characteri
the union of nunneries and monasteries u.
control of an abbess, together with the in
separation of monks and nuns. The Oi
under special protection of the Virgin. At 1
of Robert, Font^vrault is said to have c
3,000 nuns, while in the cloister were the 1
several of the Plantagenet kings of £ng^
The Order of Font^vrault never spren
outside of France, although it included fii
priories in four provinces at the beginniii
eighteenth century. The congregations of
St. Sulpice, Tiron, and Cadouin had been f<
early as the twelfth century, and drifted ai
the Order, which was not altogether h
disputes between the abbesses and the hea
subordinate monasteries. The French
tion annihilated the Order, and the last
Julie Sofie Charlotte de Pardaillan, died
tution in Paris in 1799, while the cloister wa
into a prison. (O. Z6cc
Biblioorapht: Helyot, Ordrea monatHqum, ri.
Heimbuoher. Orden und Konffrtoationen, L 41
Zdckler, Aakeae und Mimehium, pp. 419-422» 1
1897; Hauck-Hersog. RE, vi. 125 gives a list d
literature oo the order. The Life of Robert d
by Roberta von Bcda Plaino, is in the Mimavm*
Bociation bnstonne, 1876, and a Vita is in MitAeC
den BenedikHna- und Ciatercien9-Ordent vi (1886),
FONZIO, BARTOLOMEO. See Italt, i
ORMATION IN, § 3.
FOOLS, FEAST OF (Feslum ^tuUomm, /
foUorum; FHe des foux): A Christian so;
the old Roman Saturnalia. In the eari]
participation in all heathen festivals was
interdicted, but there is evidence that a
year 200 there were Christians who still 1<
the amusements of this season (Terto!
idololatriay xliv.). By the fourth oentui
9
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Font
Foot-Washing
"WiicUy observed by Christians. It was opposed
l>!y Chiysostom and Asterius of Amasia in the E^t,
^wid by Augustine, Maximus of Turin, and Petrus
GSiiyBologus of Ravenna in the West. Here an
«0ort was made to remove the heathen character
^iHf the feast by making Jan. 1, and occasionally the
Xftflst fdlowing days church festivals (see New
*Yx4b'8 Festival). Such measures, however, were
1x1 yain. The heathen observance persisted, and
Isi the sixth and seventh centuries it was taken up
laj Christians among the West Goths, the Franks,
snd tiie Anglo-Saxons. Despite the opposition of
tte Church the Saturnalia continued to be gener-
mOj celebrated by Romans, Franks, and the var-
ious (aermanic peoples till into the eleventh century.
^The festival seems then to have been gradually
loKgotten by the populace.
Thou^ the Church had fought the custom all
alongy it was the clergy by whom it was revived.
It was now made a regular religious festival. Each
cf the ckrical groups had long had its special day:
the deacons, St. Stephen's day (Dec. 26); the
priests, St. John's day (Dec. 27); the boys. Holy
Imiooents' day (Dec. 28); the subdeacons. New
Tear's day or Epiphany, Jan. 6. Later the festi-
Tale of the subdeacons and the children became
espectally popular, and the latter developed the
uneeemly performances of the '^ Boy-bishop "
(q.y.). Similar extravagances and excesses are
iound in the festivals of the priests, deacons, and
■ubdeacons as early as the twelfth century. The
Imtter, like the boys, elected a bishop, whom they
aooompanied to the church in festive procession.
Here a parody on the mass was held, which was en-
livened by jokes and ribald songs, sometimes by
bloody brawls.
The first attempt to suppress these extrava-
ganoes was made in Paris in 1198 by the papal
legate, Peter of Capua. In 1210 Innocent IIL
forfoade the festivals of priests, deacons, andsubdea-
eoQS, and in 1246 Innocent IV. made such observ-
ances punishable with excommunication. Never-
theless they continued, and in the fourteenth
eentuiy there were even rituals for the ceremonies.
Often the fool-bishop was required to give the usual
banquet " in the name of the Father, Son, and
Holy Ghost." At the end of the fourteenth cen-
tury the dergy appeared in the churches masquer-
ading as animals, women, and mountebanks. In-
stead of incense, sausage, or pieces of old shoes
were burned; instead of the responses, songs of
doubtful character were simg; and instead of the
holy wafer, sausage was eaten. There were also
dancing and games, such as throwing of dice. The
pfocessions, in which nude boys amused the rabble
with suggestive gestiu^s and speeches, were even
Throu^ an encyclical addressed to all bishops in
France by the University of Paris, May 12, 1444,
and made effective by an order of Charles VII.,
Apr. 17, 1445, these sacrilegious practises were
final^ stopped, at least in France, where they had
been most common. The children's festival,
thouj^ often opposed and forbidden by the Coun-
cfl of Basel (1431), was less objectionable and sur-
vived into the sixteenth century. In Cologne the
custom continued till the seventeenth, and in
Reims and Mainz till the eighteenth century.
(H. BOHBfER.)
Bibuoorapht: C. Du Cange, OloMoHum media el tn/lmoi
laHnitaHe, s.v. " oervaU." ii. 277-278, BerUn, 1883;
J. B. Luootte du Tilliot, Mimairee pour eervir h Vhietoire
de la fHe dee fouz, Lausanne. 1741; A. Schmidt. Theeaurtu
jtarie ecdeeiaeUci, iii. 58-83, Bamberg, 1744; E. Blar-
tfene, De aniiquie eedeeicB ritibue, chap, ziii., nos. 3-11,
4 vols., 1788; Zeitechrift fOr Philoaoj^ie und katholieche
Theolooie, xi. 2 (1850), 161-180; A. Springer, PaHe im
15. Jahrhundert, pp. 66 sqq., Leipeic, 1856: M. £. C. Wal-
oott. Sacred Archotology, London, 1868; A. Tille. Die
Oeechichte der deiUechen Weihnaeht, ib. 1803, Eng. trand.,
London. 1890; KL, iv. 1308-1403.
FOOT-WASHING: A religious ceremony prac-
tised at various times in different branches of the
Church. The use of sandals among the Eastern
natives required frequent washing of the feet, and
to perform this office for others was considered a
mark of hospitality. At the Last Supper Jesus
washed the feet of his disciples (John xiii. 5-10) to
indicate that he who was not purified by him had
no part with him. The postapostolic age under-
stood the example thus given to be mandatory.
Augustine (Epiat. ad Januarium) testifies that it
was followed on Maundy Thursday by the Church
of his day. St. Bemand in his sermon De coma
Domini recommends foot-washing as " a daily
sacrament for the remission of sins.'' In the Greek
Church also it was regarded as a " mystery." Yet
it nowhere became a general, public, solemn, eccle-
siastical act. It is still, however, solemnly per-
formed in certain places as by the pope, the em-
perors of Austria and Russia, the kings of Spain,
Portugal, and Bavaria, and a number of bishops
and monastic superiors, the subjects being twelve
poor old men invited for the purpose, or twelve
priests. Many minor Baptist bodies also observe
the custom (see Adventistb, 2; Baptistb, II., 4, d,
g, h ; DuNKERS, II, § 3).
The Reformers, especially Luther (cf. his Maim-
dy Thursday sermon concerning foot-washing in
the Haiupo8tille)j opposed " that hypocritical foot-
washing, in which one stoops to wash the feet of
his inferior, but expects still more humility in re-
turn." The Evangelical Church has endeavored,
therefore, to impress the meaning of (prist's act on
the hearts of men by diligently proclaiming his
Gospel. At Schwftbisch Hall (in Wttrttemberg), on
Wednesday before EJaster every )rear, a special
Fusstoaschungapredigt is still delivered in St. Cath-
erine's Church. The Church of England at first
carried out the letter of the command; but the
practise afterward fell into disuse. The Anabap-
tists declared most decidedly in favor of foot-wash-
ing, appealing to John xiii. 14, and also to I Tim.
V. 10, considering it as a sacrament instituted by
CJhrist himself, " whereby our being washed by the
blood of Christ and his example of deep humiliation
is to be impressed upon us " (Confession of the
United Baptists or Mennonites, 1660). The Mora-
vians with the love-feasts revived also the foot-
washing, yet without strictly enforcing it or confi-
ning it to Maundy Thursday. It was performed not
only by the leaders toward their followers, but also
by the latter among themselves, during the singing
of a hymn explanatory of the symbol. This prac-
Forbes
FormoBus
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
Use was finally abolished by the Moravian Synod
in 1818. In the Lutheran Church, during the
period of orthodoxy, foot-washing was considered
as '* an abominable papal corruption." In the
year 1718 the Upper Consistory at Dresden con-
demned twelve Lutheran citizens of Weida to pub-
lic penance for having permitted Duke Maurice
William (at that time still a Roman Catholic) to
wash their feet. Paul Tschackert.
Hiblioorapht: E. Mart^ne, De arUiquU ecelena ritibuM,
IV., xxii. 8, 4 vols.. Baflsano. 1788; J. Goar. Eucholooium,
pp. 691-596, Paris. 1647: G. Catalani, CaremoniaU ept«-
coporwn . . . commentariia Uluatratum, ii. 265-272. Rome,
1744: W. F. Cess. DU Fu9W>a9chuno Jesu, Basel, 1884;
F. Kattenbusch. Lehrhueh der vergleithenden ConfeBaioruf-
kunde, Freiburg. 1890: KL, iv. 2146-48.
FORBES, ALEXAlfDER PENROSE: Bishop of
Brechin; b. at Edinburgh June 6, 1817; d. at
Dundee (37 m. n.n.e. of Edinburgh) Oct. 8, 1875.
He studied at the University of Edinburgh, Hailey-
bury College, and Brasenose College, Oxford (B.A.,
1844; M.A., 1846; D.C.L., 1848), where he came
strongly under the influence of the Oxford move-
ment. Before entering Oxford he was in the civil
service in India. He was curate at Aston Rowant,
near Oxford, 1844, and at St. Thomas', Oxford,
1845. In 1846 he became the incumbent of Stone-
haven, Kincardineshire, in May, 1847, vicar of St.
Saviour's, Leeds, a church bi:dlt expressly to fur-
ther the tractarian doctrine. Later in the same
year he was appointed bishop of Brechin. He re-
moved the headquarters of the bishopric to Dimdee
and added to his duties as bishop those of vicar of
St. Paul's, Dundee. For inculcating the doctrine
of the real presence in his primary charge to the
clergy, Aug. 5, 1857, he was formally tried for
heresy. He was finally acquitted ^ith an admo-
nition and censure in Mar., 1860. Bishop Forbes
published numerous sermons, commentaries, trans-
lations, etc.; his principal works are, A Short Ex-
planation of the Nicene Creed (Oxford, 1852; 2d
ed., enlarged, 1866), a handbook of dogmatic the-
ology; An Explanation of the Thirty-Nine Articles
(2 vols., 1867-68); and Kalendars of Scottish Saints
(Edinburgh. 1872).
Biblioorapht: D. J. Mackey, Bishop Forbes, a Memoir,
London. 18S8; S. M. F. S[kene]; Memoir of Alexander
Bishop of Brechin, ib. 1876.
FORBES, JOHN: Scotch theologian; b. May 2,
1593; d. at 0>rse (19 m. w. of Dumfries), Kirk-
cudbrightshire, Apr. 29, 1648. He studied at
King's College (Aberdeen), and at Heidelberg,
S4dan, and other 0>ntinental universities, and in
1619 was ordained at Middelburg, returning in the
same year to Aberdeen, where his father was bishop.
In 1620 he was appointed professor of divinity in
King's College, Aberdeen, where he was conspicu-
ous for his defense of episcopacy. He succeeded
to his father's estate of Corse in 1635, and two years
later was an advocate of the project to unite the
Reformed and Lutheran churches. In 1638, how-
ever, he refused to sign the National Covenant,
and despite the protests of the synod was ejected
from his professorship by the General Assembly
He accepted the Presbyterian form of government,
but the Solemn I^eague and Covenant, sanctioned
in 1643, forced him to leave Scotland, and from
1644 until 1646 he redded in HoDuid. He thi I
returned to his native country, and Bpezitthi»l
mainder of his life at Corse. Foibes, «fao«i|
irenic in temperament, was the author of hwd
amatoribus veriiatis et pads in Ecduia SnfiPH ]
(Aberdeen, 1629) and InstittUianes ^frf mrr fibohjli j
de doctrina Christiana (Amsterdam, 1645), uvda \
of a number of minor writings. His conqpkte Ulii
works, including several posthumous treatiniad I
a Latin translation of his diary, were edited If
G. Garden (2 vols., Amsterdam, 1702-03).
Biblioorapht: A Lif0 by Dr. Garden wm prefiad it 4i l
Works, ut tup.; DNB, zix. 402-404.
FORBES, PATiaCK: Bishop of Abeidea; k
probably at Corse (30 m. n.w. of Aberdeen), ISM;
d. at Aberdeen Biar. 28, 1635. He studied attb
universities of Glasgow and St. Andrews undvhB
kinsman Andrew Melville (q.v.). In ddereaoi U
his father's wishes, he decUned a profeennli^ ii
theology, and did not take orders till 1612, tWq^
for years he had been preaching privately at GoBi
Prior to his ordination he had begun to hdd ten*
ices in the parish church, but these public na»
trations were stopped by royai order. He held the
pastoral charge of Keith 1612-18. In 1616 be took
a prominent part in the General Assembly, andm
placed upon a commission to revise the confeaioi
of faith, liturgy, and rules of discipline. In lUS
he was appointed bishop of Abeideen. He m
conspicuously successful in the administntioD d
his diocese, did much to put down existing kak,
and raised the University of Aberdeen to a eondi-'
tion of prosperity. His principal work isAnBi-
quisite Commentary upon the Revelation of SL Jab
(London, 1613; Middelburg, 1614; Lat. tnuL,
Amsterdam, 1646), which is directed agaimt
Romanism.
Biuuoorapht: Funeral of Patrick Forbes^ . .
ing of Sermons, Orations, Epitapha, and other Pism m
the Death of the good Bishop, Aberdeen. 1635. repriBlcdbr
C. F. Shand for the Spottiswoode Society. Ediniwsh.
1845; DNB, xix. 407-409.
FORBES, WILLIAM: Bishop of Edinbuigh; \k
at Aberdeen 1585; d. there Apr. 12. 1634. Be
studied at Marischal College (M.A., 1601), wfam
he held the chair of logic for several yean. Be
traveled on the Continent 1606-11, visiting sevenl
Dutch and German universities and making the
acquaintance of Scaliger, Grotius, and Vosoui.
Soon after his return to Britain he entered the nuD-
istry, having declined a professorship in Hebrew
at Oxford. In 1616 he was appointed one of the
ministers of Aberdeen, and at the assembly it
Perth in 1618 he was chosen to defend the artide
enjoining kneeling at the communion. In 1821
he was chosen one of the ministers of Edinbmigh.
but, owing to the unwelcome reception whkh his
Romanism encountered here, he was glad to return
to his former charge at Aberdeen in 1626. In 1633
he preached at Holyrood before Charles I., who
was so delighted with the sermon that he made the
preacher bishop of Edinburgh. Forbes was con-
secrated in Feb.. 1634. His only published work
is the posthumous Consideratianes modesia et ps-
cificce controversiarum de j'ttstificatione, purgatorio,
invocatione sanctorum Ckristo tnediaton et €%Kk^
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Forbes
PormoBus
(London, 1658; Helmstidt, 1704; Frank-
1707; new eii., with Eng. tninsl., 2 voh., Ox-
1S50-56, foraiing part of the Anglo^athoUe
iocit.\rat: A VUa ijM£*&rw ]« prefixiKl to the Con-
midtsr^ititntMS. Ootimilt DNB. kIx, 411-412.
SDREmo, FRANCISCO (FRAlfCISCUS FORE-
5): Portuguese Dominican and theologian; b.
•i% LiJbQn about the beginning of the sixteenth
oenttuy; d. at Almada (2 m. s, of Lisbon) Jan. 10,
^JiSl. He was educated in his native city and at
^■ria, and shortly after hja return about 1540 was
^kppotnted censor and courtn^haplain. He was a
VQPfsl delegate to the Council of Trent in 1561, and
"^MBa appointed, together with Marino, archbishop
«ii lABci&no, and Foacarari, bishop of Modena^ to
ytc^MB a catechism and to revise the Mi^al and
BteiriaTy; he was also secretary of a comntiittee to
ttoetinue the Index librorum prohtbitonim. He re-
ftsmed to Portugal in 1566 and was made prior of
lua monastery f and shortly aften^'ard provincial,
Imt in 1571 be retired to the monaateiy at Almada,
'where be lived in strict aeclusion for the remainder
«f Mb life. Hib chief works arc haicB prophetm
W&htM €i fv»?a ex H^aico vtrBw, cum cammentaria
w quo omnes loci qu-Qms aana dodrma adversus
heeteiitos €Uque Jud(Fos tonfirmuri pf^e^t sumjno
tittdia ac dUigtniia expUcantuT (Venice^ 1563); and
the unpublished Commentaria in omnes libros
pr&^i€tarum ac Job, Daoidis ei SahmoniA and Lu-
^mbratione^ in etfangelia qum per t&tum anni curricu-
hmt. kgnnlur, (O, Z5cKtEiRtO
BxBUOCiRA.PfTT: E. SimoD, Hktoirm cHtiqve du Vieui Tt^a-
mmtt, i. 3. chmp. 3t¥,, Paris, 1678, Eriir. transL, CriUcal
HUtmy ^ thA O. T., Loniion, 1682f J. Qu^tjf and J. Eohard.
Beripi. ofdinit ptwdicaiomm. iL 261 sqq., Pajis, 1721; H-
HtKter^ NpmencktbjrlUeFaiiuMXlS^-l^lt Imubruck, 1862;
ML, Yw. 1600-1001,
FORMATS LTtBR^ See CouimNDATOBY Ler-
FORMOSTFS; Pope 891-S96, He was bom at
Rome c. 816, was elevated to the office of cardinal
Itfiof] of Porto in 864, and was employed by va-
rioafl popefl on important nuBsions. Nicholas I.
Bent hW to the Bulgarians in 866. when Prince
Bognrifl aaked for Roman miasionaries (see Bul-
OABiANB, COKTERSiON OP the). Adrian n. ^Qt
liini to Gaul in S69, to negotiate with the Frankish
dttsy concerning the divorce of King Lot hair, and
to Trent in 872 to take part in the conferences be-
tween the Empress Engelberga and Louis the Ger-
man respecting the transfer of Italy to the latter's
eldeat son. John VIII, also honored Formosuf; at
the outset, in 875 sending him aa envoy to Charles
the Bald. Soon afterward, howev*er, there set in
a complete reaction in this pope's opinion of For-
moous. As opponent of John's West Prankish
poliey, h^ ^^ summoned by the pope before a
Roman synod; and on failing to present himself
within the appointed term, he was sentenced, at a
■econd synod, June ^, 876, to deposition and ex-
communication. This severe eent^eDce was based
on aOeg&tions that Formosus had aspired to the
vcbiepiscopate in Bulgaria; that he had created a
jmcty for himself in Rome with designs upon the
apostolic aee; and that he had once forsaken his
diocese ten weeks, when it was menaced by the
Saracens, The fact is that Formosus fell a victim
to political opposition. The excommunicatioa
was repeated at the Sjniod of Troyes in 878. For-
moBus then ^submitted himself to the pope and
giuned reinstatement in the Church, but only mi-
der sworn promise never again to return to Rome,
or to strive to recover his diocese. Till the death
of John Vni. Formosus lived in the West Frankish
kingdom lit Sens* But John's successor, Mari-
nus, absolved Lim from the compulsory oath^ per-
mitted him to return to Rome, and restored to
him the dic)cese of Porto. In this episcopal capac-
ity he bestowed consecration upon Stephen V., in
SB5. In 891 he himself ascended the papal throne.
As pope FormosUH had opportunity to display
energy in several directions. He showed great
strietnesa toward the Eastern clergy ^ and rejected
the apix^al for the reconciUation of the priests or-
dained by the Patriareh Photius, being ready to
receive them into the fellowship of the Church
merely as laymen. In the strife between Arch-
bishop Hermann of Cologne and Archbishop Adnl-
gar of Hamburg-Bremen about the relations of the
dioceses of Bremen and Cologne (see Adalgar;
Hamburg, AacHBiSHOPHic of), Formosus, con-
formably to the synod held at Frankfort in 892,
under the presidency of Arehbishop Hat to of
Mainz, decided that Bremen should remain united
%ith Hamburg; only the arehbishop of Hambuii,
either in person or by deputy, must be present at
the provincial synods in Cologne. In the strife
between Coimt Eudo of Paris and Charles the
Simple for the throne of the West Franks, Formo-
sus upheld the latter, and summoned to Ins sup-
port the German king ArULilf. The dissolution of
the Frankish kingdom was a matter of great mo-
ment for the apostolic see. At the outset, For*
moBus was compelled to ally himself with Duke
Vido of Spoleto, but the latter's aggressive atti-
tude proved so formidable tliat e%*en by S93 he
called Arnulf to help. He invested the latter i^ith
the imperial crown in 896. Formosus died Apr*
4,896*
The name of Formoius, hoi^'ever, owes its re-
nown not so much to his deeds as pope* as to the
crimes committed against his dead body, and to
the dogmatic confusions therewith connected.
Under Stephen VI. (890-897 )» the Spoletan party
again came into ascendancy at Rome, and used its
power to make a repulsive exhibition of its hatred
for the deceased pope on account of his German
sympathies, Stephen VI, convened a synod, the
corpse of Formosus was exhumed, and, arrayed in
pontifical state, it was enthroned on St. Peter's
cathedra; thereupon complaint was lodged against
t!ie departed pontiff, charging him with uncanon-
icai usurpation of the papal see; the synod pro-
nounced him deposed, and all the consecrations he
had performed null and void; they tore from his
body the apostolic vestments, cut off the three
oath-fingera from his right hand, and buried his
body in a remote place; it was afterward sunk in
the Tiber. In 897 Pope Theodore II, repealed the
decisions of the ^nod; and in the following year
John IX, expressly proclaimed, through two syn-
Formula of Oonoord
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
841
ods, the validity of the consecrations dispensed by
Fonnosus. Nevertheless the infatuation of the
anti-German party was such that Sergius III.
(904-911) surpassed the decisions of that scanda-
lous synod, compelling the clergy ordained by
Fonnosus to undergo a second consecration.
Carl Mirbt.
Bibliographt: The Epistola of Formosus are in Bouquet,
Recueilt ix. 202-204, and, with the PriviUgia and notes,
in MPL, cxxix. 837-854. Sources are: Liudprand, An-
tapodoM, i. 28 in MOH, Script., iii (1830), 282-283(^
Chronica S. Benedieti, ib. p. 204; Annalet FiUdenaet, iU^j
i. (1826) 400 sqq.; Mariani ScoUi chronicon, ib. (1844) 553;
Flodoard, Hiat. Remennt ecdnicB, ib. xiii (1881), 550-
560; the writings of Auxilius and Vulgarius in defense
of Formosus, in E. DCkmmler, Auxiliua und VidoariuB,
Leipsic, 1866. Ck>n8ult: Jaff^, Regeata, i. 435-430; £.
DOmmler, Oetchichte det oatfr&nkiadien Reicha, vols, ii.-
iii., Leipsic, 1887-88; J. Langen, Oetdiichte der rdtnitchen
Kirche . . . bt« Oregor VII., pp. 205 sqq., Bonn, 1802;
F. Gregorovius, Rome in the Middle Aget, iii. 126-232,
London, 1805; liilman. LaHn Chrisiianiiv, iii. 03-114;
Bower, Popea, ii. 207-200.
FORMULA OF CONCORD.
Preliminary History (Si)*
Mediation of Jakob Andrdk (S 2).
The Formulas of Maulbronn and Torgau (S 3).
The Formula of Concord (S 4).
The Formula of Concord is the last of the six con-
fessional books of the Lutheran Church, forming
the close of the Book of Concord. The Lutheran
Churchy from the beginning, has stood for pure doc-
trine; i.e., the doctrine of the three symbols of the
ancient Church, of the Augsburg Con-
I. Prelimi- fession (or more precisely of Luther,)
nary His- and of the church and school of
tory. Wittenberg. Melanchthon dogmatized
and thus externalized the authority of
Luther; but he departed from Luther's doctrine.
Thus, after Luther's death dissensions arose, and two
opposite tendencies were developed. Both parties —
the Melanchthonians or CryptCHCalvinists (see Phi-
LIPPI8T8) and the Gnesio-Lutherans such as Flacius
(q. V.) — fell into extremes and exaggerations. Among
the questions in dispute may be mentioned the In-
terim and the matter of adiaphora (after 1547);
Osiander's doctrine of justification (after 1550); the
Majoristic controversy (see Major, Georo) over the
assertion of Major and Menius that good works arc
necessary for salvation and the opinion of Amsdorf
that they are an obstacle to salvation (after 1 552), and
in connection with it the antinomistic controversy;
the controversy on the Lord's Supper (after 1552);
the synergistic controversy (after 1555); and the
Christological controversies, which began in the
early sixties. The idea of effecting an agreement
between the two contending parties arose at an
early time. In 1556 Flacius issued " lenient prop-
ositions " in that direction, but made them de-
pendent upon a public confession of those who had
erred. Melanchthon acknowledged his fault in regard
to the Interim, but excused his attitude. The serious-
ness of the situation was generally felt at the Relig-
ious Colloquy of Worms in 1557 (see Worms), when
the Saxon theologians (i.e., the party of Flacius)
questioned the right of their Philippist opponents
to appeal to the Augsburg Confession. The Prot-
estant princes tried to establish peace by the Frank-
fort Recess (q.v.) in 1558, at which the introduc-
tion of an official censorship of writingB of a id^
ious nature was decreed; but the adherenta «f
Flacius successfully resisted all such atteo|iti;^
At the Diet of Naumburg (1561), where anopA'
Calvinist like Frederick III. of the Palataoate w
the leader, the divergence in doctrine regpudi
the Lord's Supper became more evident than efK
It was felt that the Augsburg Confession was aofc.
a sufficient confessional basis. A convoitian at
LOneburg, for instance, demanded a carjmi 4m-
trina which should comprise, besides the Augriiiiif 1
Confession, the Augsburg Apology, the Schnntl
kald Articles, and Luther's catechism, as wcfl at J
his other writings. Such corpora doctrina aroae not j
in different parts of the country. The Mdaiiek- ;
thonians also produced a Corpus dodrina cMh '
tianas (Leipsic, 1560), in which they embocM .
chiefly works of Melanchthon. In this way fial i
norms of doctrine were established. The not -;
task was to establish a common corpus dedrwm |
for the whole Lutheran Chiuxh of (Germany. B;
was solved by the '' Book of Concord '' [the titled i
the Formula concordia in the editio princepi, 15§0^ J
this name was afterward reserved for the eoha*^
tion of all the Lutheran symbols], in which thedS*
ferent corpora doctrina foimd their consummatiaL *
The different collections of confessions, honeiv^
did not wipe out the old controversies on the Pbi-
ippist errors. The need of a new confession aa tfai
only satisfactory solution of the difficulty was tt
more and more. In June, 1567, Land^veWl- ]
iam IV. of Hesse-Cassd and Dob i
2. Media- Christopher of Wiirttembeiig coi-
tion missioned Jakob Andreft to draw np
of Jakob a formula which could be accepted b^
Andrett. all theologians of the Augsburg Goolei-
sion. It bore the title, BdbenfUaii tad
kurze Erkldrung etlicher twiespoliiger Artikd, mA ,
welcher eine chrisUiche EinigkeU in den Kirehm^if
Augsb. Konfesaion zugethanf getroffen und die drgtf'
liche, langunerige SpaUung hingeUgt werden midiL
It related chiefly to the five articles of justificatiaft
by faith, good works, free will, adiaphora and tb
Lord's Supper. But the time was not yet ripe for
the success of the plan. Diike Christopher, tb
originator of the idea, died, and Landgrave WiQitfi
of Hesse-Cassel conceived the impracticable aeheoa
of applying the intended agreement not only toil
elements of Cerman Protestantism, but also to tb
Reformed Churches outside of Germany. Ii
Electoral Saxony Philippism still flouriBhed, aad
the theologians of Ducal Saxony still clung to that
ultra-Lutheran views. Andre&'s journeys to Sis-
ony in 1569 and 1570 did not alter the ataa-
tion. After the death of Ehike John Williaffl rf
Saxony the ultra-Lutheran party was ^ispeatA
imder the protectorate of EHector August, and tb
eyes of the elector, who had always regarded hb*
self a good Lutheran, were opened to the Orypto*
Calvinism existent in his own country. In 1573, b^
fore the overthrow of Crypto-Calvinism in Eleetonl
Saxony, Andre& had published Sech» cftnii&b
Predigten (Ttibingen, 1573), in which he tried to
settle the controversies not by theological in^Ftt^
gations, but by the catechism. 'The sennon
openly showed his Lutheran convictions. He bd
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Formula of Oo&oord
his fXMition; there was no attempt any
conceal anything that might be disagree-
he Philippists. The original thought of
g Lutherans and Philippists by a formula
xnise had been abandoned as impossible,
now was to draw up a formula that
msolidate all Lutherans against Philip-
Calvinists. Through the mediation of
ogical faculty in TObingen, the sermons
i were not unfavorably received in North
by leaders like Martin Chemnitz of Bnins-
ehim Westphal of Hamburg, David Chy-
d the theological faculty of Rostock.
BS asked to put his sermons in the form
(. Thus originated the so-called Swabian
., which showed great similarity to the
aula of Concord. It was signed by the theo-
iTtLbingen and the members of the con-
Stuttgart, and in Mar., 1574, was sent
ulius of Brunswick and to Chemnitz, that
it enter into negotiations with the churches
Saxony.
he overthrow of Philippism in Electoral
he elector himself felt the need of ending
rous controversies by a generally accepted
In Nov., 1575, at the instance of Count
mest of Henneberg, Duke Louis of WUrt-
imd Margrave Charies of Baden, Lucas
Osiander, court preacher of Wiirttem-
berg, Balthasar Bidembach, provost
of at Stuttgart, and Abel Scherdinger,
in court preacher of Henneberg, with
several theologians of Baden, com-
. posed the Formula of Maulbronn,
which was signed in the monastery of
n Jan. 19, 1576. This formula agreed
Swabian Concordia in content, but de-
om it in that it preserved the order of
n the Augsburg Confession. Both for-
re sent to Elector August, who asked An-
n opinion on them. Andre& gave the pref-
thiB Formula of Maulbronn and at the
e induced the elector to convoke an as-
l theologians for the purpose of estabUsh-
mmon corpus dodrina. The time was
, as many of the old polemical agitators
In Feb., 1576, there was a convention
aiberg, and from May 28 to June 7 at
The leading theologians were Nicolaus
, Andre&, Chenmitz, Chytrseus, and
MuBCulus. On the basis of the Swabian
Ibronn formulas there was established a
i acceptable to all parties, the Book of
of which Elector August sent copies to
the Evangelical estates of Germany. As
'e William and others criticized the pro-
the Book of Torgau, Andreft made an epi-
tner summarischer Aitszug der Artikd, 8o
den Theologen augdmrgischer Konfession
re etreiiigf zu Torgau durch die dasdbst
Uen und untenchruhenen Theologen im Mo-
1S76 ckrieUich verglichen worden).
>., 1577, most of the requested criticisms
x>k of Torgau had been sent to Dresden.
ugust then commissioned Andre&, Chem-
S^neeker to come to an agreement on the
final form of the confession. After having been
joined later by Andreas Musculus and Christof
K&mer of Electoral Brandenburg, and
4. The by David Chytrseus of Rostock, they
Formula of began their meetings at Bergen, near
Concord. Magdeburg; and on May 28, 1577,
there was laid before the elector the
Book of Bergen (Bergen Formula), which is iden-
tical with the Solida declaraiio of the Formula of
Concord. At the same time Andre&'s epitome of
the Book of Torgau was carefully read, article by
article, and approved. The electore of Saxony
and Brandenburg now sent copies of the Book of
Bergen for approbation and subscription to all
estates whose consent to the new plan was un-
doubted. It is not strange that the confession
was not received everywhere with the same willing-
ness. Chiurches which had gone through a differ-
ent process of confessional development and had
adopted the later doctrines of Melanchthon, in
order to retain their connection with the Calvinistic
Chureh, rejected the confession of Bergen and were
driven to the Reformed confession. At the insti-
gation of Queen Elizabeth of England, Coimt Palar
tine John Casimir, an adherent of the Reformed
faith, attempted to obstruct the acceptance of the
Formula of Concord by forming a counterunion of
all the Reformed Churehes at the Convention of
Frankfort (1577), but without success.
The " Book of Cbncord " was published, in Ger-
man, on the fiftieth anniversary of the Augsburg
Confession (June 25, 1580). The first authorized
Latin text appeared in 1584, in Leipsic. The con-
fession was signed by three electors, twenty dukes
and princes, twenty-four counts, four barons, thir-
ty-eight free cities, and nearly eight thousand
preachere and teachers. It was rejected by Hesse,
Anhalt, Pfalz-ZweibrQcken, Brunswick, Schleswig-
HoLstein, Denmark, Frankfort-on-the-Main, Danzig,
Bremen, Speyer, Worms, Nuremberg, Strasburg,
Magdeburg, and Nordhausen. Silesia did not take
part in the negotiations. Some of the dissenting
State Churehes accepted the Formula of Concord
at a later time. Although it does not and can not
speak the last word of the religious knowledge of
Luthcranism, it was a historical necessity. The
doctrinal differences produced by Melanchthonian
ideas necessitated a separation of churehes. The
more Philippism approached (Calvinism and Gnesio-
Lutheranism stepped out of the limits of a party,
the less possible was a union. Andre& perceived
tliis at the right moment. A concord among the
friends of Lutheranism and the establishment of a
uniform corpus dodrina was possible only if the
extreme Philippists together with the Calvinists
w^ere excluded. The great importance of the
Formula of Cbncord and of the Book of Concord
lies in the fact that by them the Lutheran Chiurch
maintained its independence over against Calvin-
ism. It must not be imagined that a theological
party had here merely obtruded its views upon the
Lutheran Chureh; in the Formula of Concord there
have come to their full development the germs of
a really existing consensus of belief. Not only the
extremes of Philippism, but also those of the
Gnesio-Lutherans, such as Flacius, Amsdorf, and
Forney
Fortunatiui
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
S44
OKiander, were cut off. Thus tb© Formula of Con-
cord brought [leace to the Lutheran Churchy and
for a long ttnie gave direction to the efforts of the
Church in the apberc of dogmatics, *
(H> SjGEBEIiO-)
BtmuoQiKAvnr: J, T* MlUler* Die tvmbolisch^ Biid%tr d«r
^jfana^ist^-liiihentehen Kimh^, GatcnJoh, 1877 {%txt and
introdycUon); Bchjiff, Crwrf*, i. 258-340 ttustoTy *iid
dijQU^iofi* Uflt of Ht«ratufQ), iii. 9S-laO (text); H. E,
Jftoobfl. The Bo&k of C&n.c«rd, L 4S7 sqq,« ii, 345 Kiq.i
PhiULdelphlap 18^. CdqsuII: J, G, Ptiuick, Gtediichte
dtr EnUtiekunQ . . . pqnoAei&inluiMen Lekrbeoriif^^ vob,
iv,-vi.. 8 vqK, Ldpaic 1791-1800; H, L, J. Htppe, Ge-
udiichte da dtutMch^n Pr&tettan£itmut, ISSS-tSS!, 4 vola^,
Miirbune, 1852-58; K, F. G^icbBU 0w C^rtctfrdimformel
nd£A ikref Gtst^ickUi, I^ipsic, 1B5S; F. H. 11. Frmnk. Die
TheGhaie der Coru^rdienformd^ 4 vols., ErluuctMi^ 1S5S-
1803: G. Frank, Getchidiie dtr protrMtantttehtn Theohifie,
pjj, 330^374. Leipsic. 1802: C. P. Kmutb, The Contrrm^
tire Rtjfrrmstmn and He Th&tkmu, PP^ ZSS-3^, PhiLs'
clt^lphlot 1^72: G, Wolf, Zur GcMfkitihte de» <l«uCirAm
ProteM^ntiemuer iSSS-S9. Berlin, ISSS; &iid in ffener&l
tb« warkfl on ibe chufcb history of the period.
FORlfEY, CHRISHAJf HElfEY: Church of
God; b, at West Hanover, Pa., Oct. 17, 1S39. He
atuilied at Obcrlln College, but left before taking a
degree, and >^'aa ordained to the ministiy in 1860.
After being prt>feasor in Mount Joy Academy, Pa,,
and also pastor of the clmrch of hia denomination
in the same village 1860-63, he held pastorates
at CFiambersburg, Pa. (1863-66), Fourth Street
Church, Hani-sburg, Pa. (1866-6S), and Lancaster
City, Pa. (1868-70). He was aswistant editor of
The ChuTch Advocate, the organ of hiis denomina-
tion, 1SC6-09, and has been editor-in-chief sinee
1869* lie waa first clia plain of the Pennsylvania
Hourte of Represent at) vea in 1868-69, and sinee
1866 has been president of the General Eldership
of the Church of God, besides being a member of
many boards and committees of ttie same denom-
ination. He describes himself aji " orthodox,
evangelical, postmillenariaa, antidenominationaJ,
three monumental ordinances — baptism, washing
the saints' feet, and communion^ Amiinian in the-
ology." Besides revising and editing J. Winne-
breimcr'a Brief View of the Church of God (Harris-
burg, Pa., 1885) and Sermon on Baptism (1885),
and M, P. Jewett'g The Mode arid Stj}je€is of Bap-
tkm (1905), he hiv^ written 7' he Christian Ordi-
nances (1S83) and Phihmophic Bmis of Ordifiances
and BM& Doctrine of Sartciifteation (1905).
FORREST, DAVID WILLIAM; United Free
Church of Scotland; b. at Cilasgow May 16, 1856.
He studied at the Univei^ity of GKsgow {hLA.,
1S7S), the United Presbyterian College, Edinburgh
(1877-80), and the University of I^ipsic (1880),
He hiii? been minister of Saffron hall Church, Ham-
iltoa (1882-87), United Presibj'ierian Chureh, Mof-
fat (ISS7--94), Wellington Church, Glasgow (1S94-
*Tb« Formulii of Coneord conaiHtB of two pArtfi, tbe Epi-
iome and the Suiida rep^titw at deelamtm. eaeb divide into
twelve artidlofl. b3 folbwa: i..of oriffin&t Hin^ ii,tof freewiSl:
iu,. of jiutificatiun by fjaith: iv,. of i^ood works; v., of tho
Law and the C^spel; vi., of tbe tbird u-wof the Law^ vii.,
of tho Lord's Hupper; viii., of tbo per!»an of Cbrisl; ix., of
ChriBt's de»oent into hell; x.. of church U!<ai!:p4 and cere*
moniei called adiapbDrii; li,, of GorfV foreknow ledge and
de«?tlon: 3(ii.. of several he^reak*!* and sects. The wcond
part repf'Ata at greater Itnj^th what iii condmHy fitatod in
tbfi Epitome with confirmatory quota tioim.
1899), United Free Church, Skelmodie, Wemy^Eiy
(1899-1903), and North Momingaide United Free
Church, Edinburgh (since 1903)* He wm Kef
Lecturer at Edinburgh in 1897 and a fectaiw it
Yale in 190K He has uTitten The ChriM i^j Ei^
tmy and of Experknee (Kerr Lectures; Ediaburfh,
1S97) and The Auth^ra^ of ChriM (1906).
FOEtSAHDER, KILS; Lutheran; b. at Gkdax,
Sweden, Sept. 11, 1$46> He emigrated to tbe
United States in 1870 and eoiupleted bb edutatin
at Auguetana College and Theolo^dtal Semkiirf,
Rock Island, UL (B.A., 1872). He w^ onbiiMd
to the ministiy in 1873 and was pastor u S^e-
town, 111,, 1S73-75, Kingeton, la„ 1875-«0, xai
Bettresda, la., 1880-89. Since 1389 he htt been
professor of theology at Augxi^tana CoUcp tad
Theologieal Seminary. He was Eecietaiy d the
Evangelical Lutheran Augustana Synod ISSC^SO,
and in theology ia a strict evangelical Enemberof
hia denomination. He haa been editor of the
Augttstana Theological QuGTierltf doce 1900, and
has "written Atigitbiirgiska bekdnneUen mtd Jdr-
khringar (Roek Island, IU., 1899) and V^hiktJn
kyrkm $l&Uning tiU andre kyrkaaamfund (190§).
FORSTER, CHARLES: English cl^ffaun ind
author; b. 1790; d at Stiated (35 m. n.e. «f Lm-
don), Eiisex, Aug. 20, 18TL He studied at Triu-
ity College^ Dublin, and waa perpetual cur&te d
Ash» Kent, 183+-38, riector of Stisted, near Biiin-
tree, Esseic, 1S38-71, and also one of tbe »ix preieh-
era in Canterbury Cathedral 1835-7L He oppoaed
Biblical criticism and aimed in a number of works,
now sought as eurioeitiea, to justify the slrictest
literal interpretation of Scripture. Among other
thingjs he published, Critiail Essays on Gfmsii
dm p. xj:. and on SL Matthem chap, ii, 17, 18,
(Dublin, 1826); Mahonuianism Unvtikd {2 vols.,
London, 1829); The Life of John Jehb (2 vdU.,
1R36); The HiMorical Geography of Arabia (1844);
Th€ One Prinwval Language (3 parta, 185 1 -S4),
and Sinai Photographed^ or Contempari^ R&crdi
of Israci in the Wilderness (1862).
FORSTER (FOERSTER, VORSTER, FORSTHE-
MIUS)p JOHAWll: 1, Lutheran tbt^logiaJi and
Hebrew scholar; b, at Augsburg Ju^y lf*r H96
(or 149d)j d. at Wittenberg Dec. 8, 1^. In
1515 he eotered the University of Ingoktadt
where he became the moat etudious and capable
Hebrew scholar of Eeuchlin; on account of a pes-
tilence he removed in 1521 to Leipsie, and became
a pupil of P. Mo^ieHanus, through whoae influwice,
probably, he received in 1522 a position a^ teacher
of Hebrew at the Greek- Latin school in Zwickau.
In 1529 he resigned, and in 1530 became a student
at the University of Wittenberg, where be re-
mained as preacher about six years. He assisted
Luther in the translation of tbe Bible, and became
one of hia most devoted pupils and friends. In
1535 he received a call to Augsburg, where he be-
came involved in controversies with his Zwingiian
colleagues. In 1539 he became professor of He-
brew at Tubingen, on the reconmiendaiiou of
Luther and Camerariua. Tbe question wliether
the Reformation should proceed at^^rding to
845
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Forney
FortunatuB
Sixon or Swiss principles and doctrines was then
ft burning one, and Forater lost lus position in this
itroggle because he did not side with the Zwinglians.
b jl542 he became provost of St. Lawrence at
Noremberg, and thence extended his reformatory
irtivity, first to Regensburg in 1542 and in the fol-
biriDg year to the county of Henneberg. In un-
rlfiiih devotion to the cause of the Reformation he
neiificed liis position at Nuremberg, but as his
piftDs of church discipline were not carried out, he
went into voluntary retirement after three years.
After some vain efforts of Melanchthon and his
friends to find a position for him, Prince George
of Anhalt called him as superintendent to the
bUiopric of Merseburg, and subsequently Duke
Augustus provided him with a capitular prebend.
After Cruciger's death in 1549, he was called to
Wittenberg as professor of Hebrew and preacher at
tbe Castle Church. In 1514 he took part in the
eoQvention of Naumburg on the side of Melanch-
tboa. The last decade of his life may be dcsig-
utedasthe Melanchthonian period, since be became
more lenient in church discipline and expressed
bimself in a more conciliatory manner on the
doctrine of the Lord's Supper. The principal work
of his life is a great Hebrew-Latin dictionary,
Didmariiun hdrraicum novum, rum ex rabbinorum
mmaiUs nee ex nostratium doctarum stvlta imita-
^m dttcriptum sed ex ipsis ihesaiiris S. Bihliorum
ttwwudem accuraia coUatione depromptum (Basel,
1557; 2d ed., 1564).
2. Not to be confounded with the above is the
younger Johaxm Forster; b. at Auerbach (15 m.
a.w. of Zwickau), Saxony, Dec. 25, 1576; d. at
Minsfeld (38 m. a. of Magdeburg) Nov. 17, 1613.
He was preacher at Leipsic, 1593, rector in Schneo-
bei)p, 1601; chief preacher of Zeitz, professor of
theoloQr in Wittenberg 1609 and finally general
nperintendent at Mansfeld He was the author
of Tarioua theological and devotional writings.
(W. GERMANNf.)
BDUOGftAPBT: W. Germann, Johann Fonler, tier Henne-
Wrvtr Rtformaior, Mdniogen, 1884; FOrater, in ZHT,
188B,pp. 210Kiq.; L.QeigfT, Daa Stadium (Urhebr&iMchen
Spntke in DeutadUand, pp. 97 aqq., 136, Breslau, 1870;
^iT.102&-2e.
FOSSYTHy NATHAIIIEL: Missionary to India.
8kIiima,II., §2.
FOSSTTH, PETER TAYLOR: English Con-
pi9iti(maliBt; b. at Aberdeen, Scotland, May 12,
1^ He studied at the University of Aberdeen
tJU., 1869), the University of Gattingen, and
^College, London, and after being assistant to
tile professor of Latin at the University of Aber-
<len was pastor at Shipley, Yorkshire (1876-70),
ft. Thomas' Square, Hackney (1880-85), Cheet-
hm Hill, Manchester (1885-89), Clarendon Park,
leieester (1889-94), and Emmanuel Congrega-
tional Church, Cambridge (1894-1901). Since
1901 he haa been principal of Hackney Theological
GoDege, Hampatead, London, as well as a member
of the theological faculty of London University.
Id 1905 he was elected chairman of the Congrega-
tional Union of Eln^and and Wales. In theology
be is Evmngelical, positive, modem, and social. He
has written Pulpit Parables (sermons for children,
in collaboration with J. A. Hamilton; Manchester,
1886); Religion in Recent Art (1889); The Charter
of the Church (London, 1806); The IMy Father and
the Living Christ (1897); Christian Perfection
(1899); Rome, Reform, and Reaction (1899); and
The Taste of Death and the Life of Grace (1901).
FORTUWATUS, VENAWXroS HONORroS CLE-
MENTIANUS: Bishop of Poitiers and Christian
poet; b. near Treviso, in Upper Italy, c. 535; d. in
Poitiers in the beginning of the seventh century.
He studied grammar, rhetoric, and jurisprudence in
Ravenna, left Italy about 564, went through Ger-
many to Gaul, lived for some time at the court of
Sigbert of Austrasia, then went to Tours, and later
to Poitiers. Here he became acquainted with
Radegunde, a Thuringian princess, the divorced
wife of I^thair I., who with her adopted daughter,
Agnes, lived in the convent of the Holy Cross. The
intercourse with these two women induced the
poet to desist from his migratory life and to be-
come presbyter in Poitiers. Thenceforth he lived
in close connection with all prominent personali-
ties of the country, wrote poetical eulogies, and
grew in authority and fame as a poet, especially
after he had collected and published his poems, at
the instigation of Gregory of Tours. Shortly be-
fore his death he became bishop in Poitiers.
The poetical productions of Fortunatus are very
numerous, most of them written for special occa-
sions. He may indeed be called a court poet.
Hospitality wliich he had enjoyed, the celebration
of a wedding, a funeral — everything was put into
easy verse. His poetic gifts were by no means
slight; his language is picturesque and full of
thought; his hexameters and pentameters surprise
by the purity of their rhythm. But there is also
not lacking a certain bombast and artificiality of
expression, characteristic of the time, and still more
faulty is the base flattery in his eulogies which
reflects unfavorably upon his character. Since For-
tunatus eulogized quite a number of eminent per-
sonages, his poems are valuable abo for the histo-
rian. His descriptions of nature are excellent, as,
for instance, his representation of a journey on the
Moselle from Metz to Andemach, which he had
undertaken in the suite of the king of Austrasia,
likewise a fK>em on the castle of Bishop Nioetius of
Treves. Still more valuable are three elegies com-
posed under the inspiration of Radegunde; one
represents the tragic fate of Galsvintha, daughter
of a West Gothic king; a second is intended to con-
sole Amalafried, cousin of Radegunde, the last
Thuringian heir; the last is to console Artachis,
a relative of Amalafried, on the death of the latter.
The greatest fame of Fortunatus, however, rests
upon his religious hymns, as Vexilla regis prodeunt
(transl. by J. M. Neale, The royal banners forward
go), and Range lingua gloriosi proelium certaminis
(transl. by Neale, Sing, my tongue, the glorious
battle), hymns on the Passion; and Quern terra pon-
tus athera (transl. by Neale, Tfie God whom earth
and sea and sky), a hymn on Mary. Fortunatus
also wTote a comprehensive epic poem on the life
of St. Martin (De vita Martini), and some lives of
I saints in prose, Albinus, Marcellus, Gennanus, and
Fosoarari
Poster
THE NEW 8CHAFF-HERZ0G
846
others. He was the last great poet of the period
before Charlemagne. (K. LEiMBACHf.)
Bibliographt; The Opera, ed. M. A. Luchi, Rome. 1786-
1787, and. ed. F.-Loo and K. Kniach, in MOH, Auct. ani.,
iv. 1. 2. 1881-85. ConBult: F. B&hr, Q—chichU der rdmt-
§di»n LiUenUw im karoiinouchen ZeUaUer, pp. 145-161.
Carlaruhe. 1840; F. Hamelin, De vita et operibus VenarUii
. . . FortunaH, Rennes, 1873; D. Leroux, U PoeU S. V.
Foriunat, Poitiers. 1885; iWattenbach. DGQ, i (1885).
87-89. ii. 489. i (1893). 91. 92. 113; 8. W. Duffield. LaUn
Hymn-Writera, pp. 88-96 et pasaim. New York. 1889;
A. Ebert, 0€9chichte der Liieratw det AliUeUUter; pp. 518-
542. Leipaic. 1889: C Niaard. Le Potte Fortunat, Paris.
1890; W. S. Teuffel, Oeechichte der r6muchen lAleratur,
pp. 1278-83. Leipaic 1890; M. Prou. Iai Oaule mtro-
vinoienne, pp. 225-235. Paria, 1897; Ceillier, Aulevrt
eaeria, xi. 306, 315-316. 384. 402-414; Schaff. CkruHan
Church, iv. 422; Julian. Hymnolotn, PP. 383-384; DCB,
ii. 552-553.
FOSCARARI, EGIDIO : Italian Dominican, bishop
of Modena; b. at Bologna Jan. 27, 1512; d. at
Rome Dec. 23, 1564. After officiating as lector in
various monasteries, he became magister sacri
palatii at Rome in 1546. Four years later Julius
II. appointed him bishop of Modena, and in this
capacity he attended the sessions of the Council of
Trent in 1551. When the council was suspended,
he returned to his diocese, where he performed his
duties in an exemplary manner, but was suspected
of heresy by the Inquisition in 1558 and was im-
prisoned by Paul IV., like his predecessor Gio-
vanni de Morone (q.v.). Although his heterodoxy
could not be proved, he did not receive formal ab-
solution until it was granted him by Pius IV. in
1560, whereupon he was permitted to return to his
see amid the rejoicings of the people. He was
present at the concluding sessions, of the council,
and was a member of the conmiittees which, after
the close of the council, prepared the Index libro-
rum prohibUorum, and the Catechiamus Romanus,
and revised the breviary and missal.
K. Beneath.
Bibliography : J. Qu^tif and J. Echard. Script. ordini§
proedicaUrrum, ii. 184-185. Paris. 1721; KL, iv. 1636-37.
FOSS, CYRUS DAVID: Methodist Episcopal
bishop; b. at Kingston, N. Y., Jan. 17, 1834. He
studied at Wesleyan University (B.A., 1854), and
after being instructor and principal at Amenia
Seminary, Amenia, N. Y., 1854-57, entered the
ministry in the New York conference, being sta-
tioned at Chester, N. Y., in 1857-59. He was then
transferred to the New York East conference, and
was pastor of churches in Brooklyn (1859-65) and
New York (1869-75). From 1875 to 1880 he was
president of Wesleyan University, and in 1880
was elected bishop. He was fraternal delegate to
the General Conference of the Methodist Episcopal
Church, South, in 1878, and to the British Wes-
leyan Conference in 1886, while he made an official
tour of the Methodist Episcopal missions in Europe
in 1886, of Mexico in 1893, and of India and Ma-
laysia in 1897-98.
FOSSARIAN (Lat. fossarius, fosaor; Gk. kopidn,
kopiatis): The designation of the grave-diggers of
the early Church. In primitive times the burial
of the poor was one of the ser\Mces of love which
the wealthier Christians voluntarily undertook for
their needy brethren. Later the congregations had ,
special cemeteries, and burial was entrusted to pro-
fessional grave-diggers, which must have been the
case in the third century and possibly even in the
latter part of the second. The oldest document
showing the existence of fossarians is the G&ta
apvui ZenaphUunif which dates from 303 and ii
printed as an appendix to the editions of Optatus.
In this work, as elsewhere, fossarians were reck-
oned among the clergy, but this was not inviri-
ably the case, as, for instance, in Rome. Fofisari-
ans are frequently represented in the paindnp of
the Roman catacombs, and it is clear from the in-
scriptions that they controlled the sale of graves.
See Crmeterieb, II., 4, § 1. H. Acheld.
Bibuogbapht: G. B. de Rossi. Roma eoUerrama, vL 53S
sqq.. Rome, 1877, Eng. ed. by Northcote and Brownlov,
Roma SoUerranea, i., ohap. vii., pp. 205-216. Loodos,
1879; J. A. Martigny, DicHonnaire dee anHquUa; tkrHi-
«nnet, p. 281, Paris. 1877; DCA, i. 684; KL, 1638"IO(TBhi.
able).
FOSTER, FRAIIK HUGH: Congregationalist;
b. at Springfield, Mass., June 18, 1851. He studied
at Harvard (B.A., 1873), Andover Theological
Seminary (graduated in 1877), and the Univenity
of Leipsic (Ph.D., 1882). He was assistant pro-
fessor of mathematics in the United States NaTal
Academy 1873-74, and pastor of the Congrega-
tional church in North Reading, Mass., 1877-79.
After his return from Germany he was professor of
philosophy in Middlebury College, Mlddlebuiy, Vt.,
1882-^, professor of chureh history in Oberlin
Theological Seminary 1884-92, and professor of
systematic theology in Pacific Theological Sem-
inary, Berkeley, Cal., 1892-1902, as well as pastor of
the Second Congregational Chureh, Oakland, CaL,
1896-97, and acting professor of systematic theol-
ogy in the San Frsmcisco Theological Seniiniry
(Presbyterian) 1901-02; pastor of the college and
village chureh at Olivet, Mich., 1904-07; and since
1907 professor of history in Olivet College- He
was moderator of the General Association of Con-
gregational Churches in Northern California in
1895, and Stone Lecturer at Princeton Thedogical
Seminary in 1900. In theology his article on the
New Testament miracles {AJT, 1908) shows
him to have passed from the Evangelical to the
purely non-supernatural or rationalistic stand-
point He was for several years editor of the
Bibliotheca SacrOf and has written Seminary M^hod
of Stitdy in the Historical Sciences (New York,
1888); Fundamental Ideas of the Roman Catholie
Church (Philadelphia, 1899); Christian Life and
Theology : The Contribution of Christian Experience
to the System of Evangelical Doctrine (New York,
1900); The Teaching of Jesus concerning his own
Mission (1903); and A Genetic History of the New
England Theology (C3iicago, 1907); and has trans-
lated Hugo Grotius' Defence of the Satisfaction oj
Christ (Andover, 1889).
FOSTER, GEORGE BURMAN: Baptist; b. at
Alderson, W. Va., Apr. 2, 1858. He was gradu-
ated at the University of West Virginia in 1883,
Rochester Theological Seminary in 1887, and
studied in Gottingen and BerUn 1891-92. After
being pastor of the First Baptist Chureh, Saratoga
Springs, N. Y., 1887-91, he was appointed profes-
347
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Fosoarari
Foster
of phUoBophy at McMiist^r Univcmty, Toronto,
in 1S95, professor of eyBteinatic theolc^^
in tbe Divmity School of the Umversity of Chicago.
Is 1905 he was tranef erred to the profesaorship of
'tin philosophy of religion. He is the author of
T% 'Fijtcdity of the Cftjistuin Retigum {Chie&gOj
lOSIER, JAMES : EngliBh dissenting niinister;
h. It Exeter Sept. 16, 1(197; d, in London Nov. 5,
1713^ He was educated at the free school, &nd at
«iiieadeiny, in Exeter, where he began preaching
m 1718. After holding Bevcral obseure and pr^
ciriou.*! chiirge« he came to London in 1724 as the
colleague of Joeeph Burrougha at the chapel in the
B&H>i<^n. Id 1728 he became Sunday evoning
'eeturer at the Old Jewry and in 1744 pastor of
Uie Independent church at Pinoere' Hall He
took paxt in a number of theological controversies
and enjoyed a great reputation aa a pulpit orator.
Be la mentioned by Pope in the epilogue to the
BaHres^, and It was a proverbial saying that '^thoee
who hnd not heard Farinelli sing and Foster preach
Wem not qualified to appear in genteel company."
Though Foster defended the historical evldenceA
of Christianity a^ain^t the views of Tindal^ he was
himself efiflentially a deist and rationalist. Besides
ntinierous sermons, included in a collected edition,
S^nnons (4 vols,, London^ 1755), he published, An
Esaay on FundamentaU (London, IT^O), in which
he tn&intained that the doctrine of the Trinity In
not esiential; The Ustfidne^t Truths and Excel*
iency of ^ Christimt EevehOon (1731), a reply to
Tindal; and Discour^rS on AU the FTincipal
Branch€4i o/ Natural Rtligimi and Social Virtue (2
vota,, 1749-52), which had 2,000 subecriberB.
BtaLJOOK4PRT: W. Wilaoii> D%9$enHng Churehtt, ii. 270-
2S£, 4 Toli^, Loudon^ lSOS-14; J. Ivitney. Hi§t of th^
Sni^i^ SaptutM, iij. 2t&. 3Q'fi-404, ib. 1S2B; J, Bpurkii^
CeUKii^ 9f E$my*. v. 171-185. 6 voia,, Boaton, 1823-26;
DNB, XI, 64-65.
FOSTER, JOHH : Eogjish Baptist; b. at Wads-
worth Lanef parish of Halifax (14 m. w.s.w. of
Leeds), Yorkehire, Sept. 17, 1770; d. at Stapleton
(a suburb of Bristol), Gloucestershire. Oct. 15,
1843. He was the eldest son of a farmer and
manufacturer. Up to his eighteenth year he was
occupied chiefly with factory work, but had en-
joyed some educational advantages and had rea<l
kf|:ely in Puritan theology, Serioua and medita-
tive, he eared littie for society or sport and was en-
tmnoed with the beauties of nature. When seven-
teen years of age he experienced conversion and
was baptized into the fellowship of the Calvinistic
Baptist church at Hobden Bridge. Under the in-
fluence of Dr, Fawcett, his pastor, he entered the
tchool of the latter (Brearly Hall) to siudy for the
ministry. Here he not only pursued with enthu-
siasm and success the classical and literary coursea
offered, but read extensively in theology and be-
came master of an elegant literary &tyle. After
three years of pieparatorj'" itudy he proceeded to
the Bapti^ college at Bristol, where in scholarship,
depth of thought, and literary skill he surpassed
an his fellow students, but proved remarkably
bckiDg in preaching power. With a most intense
ifesire to use his gifts and attainments for the edi-
fication of sainta and the con version of sinners,
his abitract and overclaborate way of sermonislDg,
his deficiency in popular touch, and a chronic
throat trouble that made his voice ineffective, re-
sulted at Newcastle, Dublin, Chichester, Battereea,
and Downend, where he successively ministered, in
the dwindling of the congrpgationa and the closing
of the chapels. While ultra^alvinistic in his pre-
deatinarianism, he early became almost Arian in
his Christology, Tht latter made him unacceptable
to the Particular Baptists, and the former to the
General Baptists. For a time he gave instruction
to certain African youths who had been brought to
England to be educated for missionaries.
While still engaged in pastoral effort Foster pub-
lished (1^J5) a volume of E^Qiint^ including his fa^
nious essay On Detimon of Character^ which at-
tracted much attention. From 1808 he wai a
regular contributor to the Ecte^lic Review, His
articles published in this periodical are said to have
numbered 185. His essay on the Evils of Popular
Ignorance (1819), originally an address before a
benevolent society, added greatly to hiis fame. Ha
had an invincible aversion to the Established
Church and to the special privileges of the British
aristocracy; and the evils of the time in Britain
and her colonies he was never weary of attributing
to the unchristian and antisocial elements in Church
and State. In arraigning the religious and social
evils of the time he assumed a somewliat pessimis-
tic tone, but exerted a wide-spread influence in
favor of reform. Among his other writings are
An Introduction to Doddridge's * Rise and Prftgreim*
(Glasgow, 1825), and Lectureg Delivered at Broad-
mead Chapel (1844^7), Among the points on
which he differed from his Baptist brethren was his
denial of eternal punishment, which he was unable
to reconcile with his conceptions of the benevo-
lence and the nghteousness of God.
Ai^BERT H. Newman,
EiBHoaRAFBT; J* E. Eylajid, Life and Con^tpofKU^nce of
John Fomter, 2 vob., London, J&4e; DNB, xx. 67-59.
FOSTER, ROBERT VERRELL: Pr^byterian
{formerly Cumberland Presbyterian); b. near Leb-
anon, Tenn., Aug. 12, 1845. He was graduated
at Cumberland University, Lebanon, Tenn., in
1870 and Union Theological Seminary in 1877. He
was professor of mathematics in Cooper Institute
(near Meridian, Miss.) 1871-75, and in Waynesburg
College, Waynesburg, Pa., 1877, professor of Eng-
lish, ethics, psychology, and logic in Cumberland
University 1877-81 and also of Hebrew and New
Testament Greek 1877-9-3, Since 1893 he has been
professor of systematic theology in the Cumber-
land Presbyterian Theological Seminary in the
same institution. In theology he is a Calvinist,
although he believes that in the vicarious atone-
ment of Christ propitiation is made for the sins of
the whole world, and that for this reason the Gos-
pel is freely and sincerely offered to all men for
their acceptance or rejection. He prepared com-
mentaries on the International Sunday-school Lea-
sons from 1881 to 1895, edited The Theah^cal
Quarter Itf Review 1891^92, and has written tntri>-
duetion to the Study of Theology (Chicsgo, 1889);
OM TesUimmt Siijtdies: Being an OuUine of Old
Fowl«r
Pox
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
848
Testament Theology (1890); Commentary on the
Epistle to the Romans (Nashville, Tenn., 1891);
Brief History of the Cumberland Presbyterian Church
(New York, 1894); Our Doctrines (Nashville, Tenn.,
1897); and Systematic Theology (1898).
FOWLER, CHARLES HENRY : Methodist Epis-
copal bishop; b. at Burford, Ontario, Canada, Aug.
11, 1837; d. in New York Mar. 20, 1908. He was
graduated at Genesee College (now Syracuse Univer-
sity) in 1859, and at Garrett Biblical Institute, Evans-
ton, 111., in 1861 . He studied law, but never practised.
He held various pastorates (in Chicago 1861-72),
and from 1872 to 1876 was president of Northwest-
em University, Evanston, 111. He was editor of
the New York Christian Advocate 1876-80 and cor-
responding secretary of the missionary society of
his denomination 1880^84. In 1884 nc was elected
bishop and for eight years resided on the Pacific
Coast, later living in Minneapolis, Minn., Buffalo,
N. Y., and New York City. He was a delegate to
the General Convention in 1872, 1876, 1880, and
1884, and a fraternal delegate to the General Con-
ference of the Methodist Episcopal (Jhurch, South,
in 1874, as well as the Wesleyan Conference at
London in 1898. He made extensive official
tours, visiting South America in 1885, and Japan,
China, and Korea in 1888, also a tour of the
world, visiting the Methodist Episcopal missions in
Malaysia, and India. He was extremely active
in the cause of education, being the foimder of
the Maclay College of Theology in southern Cali-
fornia, the Wesleyan University of Nebraska at
Lincoln, Neb., Peking University at Peking,
China, and Nanking University in central China.
He also founded missions of his denomination
in South America and established the first
Methodist Episcopal church in St. Petersburg,
Russia. He wrote The Fallacies of Cclenso Re-
viewed (Gncinnati, O., 1861); Wines of the Bible
(New York, 1878); and Missions and World Move-
ments (1903).
FOWLER, EDWARD: An English clergyman
connected with the liberal school in the Church of
England and with the " Cambridge Platomsts "
(q.v.); b. at Westerleigh (8 m. e.n.e. of Bristol),
Gloucestershire, 1632; d. at Chelsea Aug. 26, 1714.
He studied at Corpus Christi College, Oxford (B.A.,
1653), and then migrated to Trinity, Cambridge
(M.A., 1655). He was for a while Presbyterian
chaplain to the Dowager Countess of Kent, and
rector of Norhill, Bedfordshire, from 1656. On
the passing of the Act of Uniformity, he hesitated
for a while, but finally conformed, and, besides
two London livings, received a prebend at Glouces-
ter in 1676, and became bishop of that see in 1691.
He is related ^ith the Cambridge school by his
correspondence with More, especially on ghost-
stories, from 1678 to 1681, and by his defense of
their doctrines, published anonymously as a " Free
Discourse " on the Principles and Practice of cer-
tain Moderate Divines . . . called Latititdinarians
(London, 1670). Its better-known sequel, The
Design of Christianity (1671), vigorously attacked
by Bunyan, and the Libertas Evangelica (1680),
may also be mentioned. Influenced as he was by
the Platonic school, he yet does not strict^ bdcng
to their ranks. His type of latitude was that
characteristic of the Revolution period, when the
movement had largdiy ceased to occupy itself with
higher philosophy and had become practicilf po-
litical, and ambitious.
Bibliogbapht: A. k Wood, Athena Oxomnae^ iL 780, 79Qi
888, London, 1692; E. CaUxny. HittorieaL iiecmml «f m%
Own Lift, pp. 90. 95. 330. 494. ib. 1713; BiognftuaBii'
tannica, iu. 2012. ib. 1784; J. TuUoefa, RaiUmd TMoff
. . . in 171k Century, ix. 35. 437 aqq.. Edinbwih. 1882;
DNB, XX. 84-86 (oontainB list of hit worka and foil refcr.
•nee to eouroes).
FOWLER, JOSEPH THOHAS: Church of £i^
land; b. at Winterton (12 m. s.w. of Hull), lineohh
shire, June 9, 1S33. He was educated at St
Thomas' Hospital Medical School, Loodao
(M.R.C.S., L.S.A., 1856), and Bishop Hatfieki'i
Hall, Durham (B.A., 1861), and was house mupua
at St. Thomas' Hospital 1856-57 and at the Brad-
ford Infirmary 1857-58. After the completion d
his theological studies he was curate of HoughtoD-
le-Spring, Durham, 1861-63, chaplain and pre-
centor at St. John's Ck)llege, Hurstpierpoint, 186i-
1869, and curate of North Kelsey, Lincolnshire, 1S70.
Since 1870 he has been vice-principal of Biahop
Hatfield's Hall, Durham, and university lecturer in
Hebrew since 1871, as well as university librariin
from 1873 to 1901. He was public examiner in
theology 1874-75, senior proctor 1876-77 and
1899-1901, and junior proctor 1882-87. He was
keeper of Bishop Cosin's library in 1889 and has
been honorary canon of Durham since 1897. He
has been for many years local secretary for Durham
of the Royal Society of Antiquaries of London, and
vice-president of the Surtees Society since 1873.
In theology he is an orthodox Churchman, incli-
ning neither to Protestantism nor Roman Cathol-
icism. He has edited for the Surtees Society Actt
of the Chapter of Ripon (Newcastle, 1875); Tht
Newminster Cartulary (1878); Memorials of Ripm
(3 vols., 1882-88); Metrical Life of SL Cvtkbert
(1891); Durham Account Rolls (3 vols., 1898-1901);
and Rites of Durham (1903); for the Yorkshire
Archaeological Society Cistercian Statutes (London,
1890); for the Yorkshire Record Society Coueker
Book of Selby (2 vols., Worksop, 1891-93); and
also Adamnani Vita Sancti Columbcs (Oxford,
1894). He has written Life and Letters of John
Bacchus Dykes (London, 1897); Durham Cathe-
dral (1898), and Durham University (1904).
FOX, GEORGE: Founder of the Society of
Friends; b. at Drayton-in-the-Clay (Feimy Dray-
ton, 15 m. s.w. of Leicester), Leicestershire, July,
1624; d. in London Jan. 13, 1691. His father,
Christopher Fox, was a weaver, called " righteous
Christer " by his neighbors; his mother, Mary
Lago, was, he tells us, ''of the stock of the mar-
tyrs." From childhood. Fox was of a serious, re-
ligious disposition. " When I came to eleven
years of age," he says {Journal, p. 2),
Early ** I knew pureness and righteousness;
Life. for, while I was a child, I was taught
how to walk to be kept pure. The
Lord taught me to be faithful in all things, and to
act faithfully two ways; viz., inwardly to God, and
849
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Fowler
Fox
outwardly to man." As he grew up, his relations
" thought to have made him a priest "; but he
was put as an apprentice to a man who was a shoe-
maker and grazier. In his nineteenth year the
conduct of two companions, who were professors
of religion, grieved him because they joined in
drinking healths, and he heard an inward voice
from the Lord, " Thou seest how young people go
together into vanity, and old people into the earth;
and thou must forsake all, both young and old, and
keep out of all, and be as a stranger unto all."
Then began a life of solitary wandering in mental
temptations and troubles, in which he "went to
many a priest to look for comfort, hut found no
comfort from them." At one time, as he was walk-
ing in a field, *' the Lord opened unto " him " that
being bred at Oxford or Cambridge was not enough
to fit and qualify men to be ministers of Christ,"
but that a spiritual qualification was necessary.
Not seeing this requisite in the priest of his parish,
he " would get into the orchards and fields " by
himself with his Bible. Regarding the priests less,
he looked more after the dissenters, among whom
he found " some tenderness," but no one that
could speak to his need. " And when all my hopes
in them," he says, ** and in all men, were gone, so
that I had nothing outwardly to help me, nor
could teU what to do, then, oh I then, I heard a
voice which said, ' There is one, even Christ Jesus,
that can speak to thy condition.' "
In 1648 he began to exercise his ministry pub-
licly in market-places, in the fields, in appointed
meetings of various kinds, sometimes in the '' stee-
ple-houses," after the priests had got through.
His preaching was powerful; and
His many joined him in professing the
MinistTy. same faith in the spirituality of true
The So- religion. In a few years the Society
dety of of Friends had formed itself sponta-
Friends. neously under the preaching of Fox and
his companions (see Friends, 6oci-
ETT OF, L, S 1). Fox afterward showed great
powers as a religious legislator, in the admirable
organization which he gave to the new society.
He seems, however, to have had no desire to found
a sect, but only to proclaim the pure and genuine
principles of Christianity in their original simplic-
ity. He was often arrested and imprisoned for
violating the laws forbidding unauthorized wor-
ship, for refusal to take an oath, and for wearing
his hat in court. He was imprisoned at Derby in
1650, Carlisle in 1653, London in 1654, Laimceston
in 1656, Lancaster in 1660 and 1663, Scarborough
in 1666, and Worcester in 1674, in noisome dun-
geons, and with much attendant cruelty. In prison
his pen was active, and hardly less potent than his
voice.
In 1669 Fox married Margaret Fell of Swarth-
moor Hall, a lady of high social position, and one
of his early converts. In 1671 he went to Bar-
bados and the English settlements in America,
where he remained two years. In 1677 and 1684
he visited the Friends in Holland, and organized
their meetings for discipline.
Fox is described by Thomas EUwood, the friend
of Milton, as " graceful in countenance, manly in
personage, grave in gesture, courteous in conver-
sation." Penn says he was " civil beyond all
forms of breeding." We are told that he was
" plain and powerful in preaching, fervent in
prayer," " a discemer of other men's spirits, and
very much master of his own," skilful to " speak
a word in due season to the conditions and capac-
ities of most, especially to them that were weary,
and wanted soul's rest; " " valiant in asserting the
truth, bold in defending it, patient in suffering for
it, immovable as a rock." Isaac Sharpless.
Bibliographt: The original MS. of Fox's Journal is in
Devonshire House, Bishopsgate W., London; it was pub-
lished 2 vols.. London, 1604-98, and contains the EpU"
tleB, Letters and TeaHmonialt, bicentenary edition, 1801;
selections from it, edited by R. M. Jones with title Otorge
Fox, an Autobiographp, were published, Philadelphia,
1003. Lives have been written by S. M. Janney, Phila-
delphia, 1852; J. 8. Watson. London. 1860; T. Hodgkin,
ib. 1808. Consult also: Maria Webb, The FelU of StpartK-
moor Hall and their Friendt, London, 1865; W. Tallack,
George Fox, the Friende, and Early BaptietB, 1/ondon,
1868; B. Rhodes, Three Apoetlee of Quakerijem, ib. 1884;
Jane Budge, Qlimpeee of Fox and hie Friende, ib. 1803;
E. £. Taylor, Cameoe from the LifeofOeoroe Fox, ib., 1008;
DNB, PCX. 117-122, and, in general, the literature under
Friends, Society of.
FOX (FOXE), JOHN: Author of the Book of
Martyrs; b. in Boston (100 m. n. of London), Lin-
colnshire, 1616; d. in London Apr. 15, 1687. He
studied at Oxford, and became fellow of Magdalen
CJollege, where he appl'ed himself to church his^
tory. Dean Nowell, Hugh Latimer, and' William
Tyndale were among his intimate friends and cor-
respondents. For his Protestant sentiments he
seems to have been expelled from his college. He
became tutor in Sir Thomas Lucy's famUy, and
then to the children of the Earl of Surrey for five
years. During this period he issued several tracts and
a Sermon of John Oecolampadius to Yong Men and
Maydens (London, 16507). After the accession of
Mary he was obliged to seek refuge from persecution
on the CJontinent. He met Edmund Grindal at Stras-
bui^g and saw through the press in that city a
volume of 212 pages on the persecution of Reform-
ers from Wycliif to 1500, entitled Commentarii re-
rum in ecdesia geetarum maximarumque per totam
Europam pereecutionum a Vuicleui temporibtis ad
hanc usque atatem descriptio (1554). He went to
Frankfort and sought to be a mediator in the dif-
ferences between Dr. Cox and John Knox and re-
moved from there, on Knox's departure, to Basel.
Poverty forced him to apply himself to the prin-
ter's trade. Encouraged by Grindal (Remains,
ed. W. Nicholson for the Parker Society, Cam-
bridge, 1843, pp. 223 sqq.) he labored diligently
on his great work on the martyrs, which appeared
in Latin at Basel, 1659, and was dedicat^ to his -
former pupil, now the duke of Norfolk. Return-
ing to England he spent much time under the roof
of the duke, and attended him to the scaffold,
when at the age of thirty-six he was executed for
conspiring with Mary Queen of Scots. He received
a prebend in Salisbury Cathedral but remained
poor all his life, although an annuity from the
duke of Norfolk of £20 kept him from want.
Called by Archbishop Parker to subscribe to the
canons, he refused, and, holding up a Greek Testa-
Fox
France
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOQ
ment, aaid, ** To this will I aubecribe/* He waa
fearless in the avowa] of his eonvictionjBj and pe-
titioned the queen earnestly but unsuccesafully to
spare the lives of two Dutch Anabaptists,
P03i*a title to fame rests upon the Book of Mar-
ias, in the compilation of which he had the assist-
ance of Cmnmer and others. The fir^t complete
English edition appeared in London* 1563 (2d ed.,
1570; 3d, 1576; 4th, 1583; et^;), with the title
Adfs und monuments of these latter and peritkfus
dayes, touching matters of the Church . , . from the
ye4ire of our Lorde a thousande, to the itpne now
prestnit ^c. Of the numerous later editions men-
tion may be made oJ those of S, R. Cattley, with
dissertation by J* Townisend (8 vols., London*
1837-49) and J, Pratt, with introduction by J,
at ought on (8 vols., London, 1877). The work haji
been often abridged as by M. H, Seymour (Lon^
don» 183S). For list of other wti tings by Fox, cf,
the Lii^ea o/ (he BriiUh Reformers (London, 1S73).
By order of Elisabeth a copy of the Book of Mar*
tfrs was placed in the common halla of archbishops,
bishops, deans, etc,, and in all the c-olleges and
chapels throughout the kingdom. It exercised a
great tnlluence upon the masses of the people long
after its author was dead, Nicholas Fernir (q,v,)
bad a cliapter of it read every Sunday evening in
his community of Little Gidding along with the
Bible » The Roman Catholics early attacked it,
and pointed out its blunders. Fox was not in all
cases accurate or dispassionate, but he was a man
of wonderful industry. His book was a book for
tlie times and produced a salutary impresiion.
D. S. SCHAFf,
BiBUQtiHAFfiT: The earLi€4tt and popular life, the author^
■hip of which in not known, in uni^lJB,bfi« «nrl t)<*t self-
QQaHHtent; it wm* prehxerl to vok ii. of the AcUt and
MoHUfnentM, edition of 1B41; bio0;rmpbiEii,i note* of vbZub
were preiisted by EifhArd Day in hti edition of ChrUtua
Triumphant, 1579; G, Townnend, Life and Dwfenea of
J. Fore, Londori, IS41 (ptt-fixed (o the 1S41 edilion of
the Arts* a*id Monument*, nrel#si! aod incorrect, bettered
in the 3d ed. by J, Pratt, 1S70J. An elaborate memoir,
witb indc6njt4] reference to Aouroefl, if ia DNB, xs. 141-
150
FOX, JOHN: Presbyterian; b. at Doylestown, Pa,,
Feb. 13. 1833. He wai* graduated at Lafayetta
Oillege, Easton, Pa., in IS72 and Priuceton Theo-
logical Seminary in 1S76. He held pastorates at
Hampden Fresbytenau Churth. Baltimore, Md.,
1877-82, North Presbyterian Church, Allegheny,
Pa., 1882-93, and Se(?ond Presbyterian Church,
Brooklyn, 1893-98. Since 1898 he has been cor-
responding secretary of the American Bible So-
ciety. He iw s\^o a member of the board of direc-
tors and board tif tniKtees of Princeton Theological
Seminary and of the board of foreign missions of
the Preabytcrian Church. In theology he is a con-
Bcr\'atJve Calviniist, and emphasises his belief in
the plenary and verbal inspiration of the Scriptures.
FOX, NORHAN: Baptist; b. at Glens Falls,
New York. Feb, 13. \Km\ d. in New York City
June 23. 1907. He was graduated at the Univer-
sity of Rochester in 1855 and Rochester Theolog-
ical 8eminarj' in 1857. He was pastor of the Bap-
tist church at Whitehall, N. Y., 1S59-62, and
chaplain of the Seventy-Seventh New York Volun-
teera, Army of the Potomac, 1862-44. la \W^^
he edited the Central Baptist (St. Louis^ Mel, lad
from 1869 to 1S74 waa profefisor in the scbodd
theolo©' in Williain Jewell C-oUege, liberty, Mol
After 1$74 he waa engaged in literary and T^Hpcw
work* being temporary editor of The Saivmd Bcp.
ti^t in ISSl, assistant editor of The liuk^pendmm
18S4-S5, and editor of the Colloquium (Nev Ytak)
in 1 889-90. He wrote A Laymon*s MtsiiMrf (Ket
York, 1883); PrwcAer and Teacher: i l^ af
Thomas Rambaut, LLJ>^ (1892)^ and Cjbitf «(ki
Daily M€ai (1898).
FOX (FOXE)f RICHARB: English state$min,
bishop of Winch^ter; b. at Rope^^ley. near Grant-
ham (23 m. i.e.w. of Lincoln), Lincolnshire* e. 1448;
d, at Winchester Oct. 5, 1528. He wm edwatcd
at Winchester, at ^lagdalen College, Oxford, ud
at Pembroke Hall, Cambridge, and afterawd
studied theology and canon law in Paris, wlwrtliB
became a favorite of Henry, Earl of Ricbmond,
then in exile. Heniy entruited him with the oqd-
duct of negotiationa with the Fi^nch court ia tb
interest of an invasion of England, and, oa fail
acce^ion to the throne bm Henry VH., ccf^ermi
on him the offices of principal secretary (rf stite
and lord privy seal, and in 1487 appdtited him
bijshop of Exeter. In 1492 Foic was translated to
the see of Bath and Wells, in 14&4 to that of Du^
ham, and in 1501 to Winchester. Throti^out the
reign of Henry VII. hia influence was supreme in
a^airs of State. He negotiated several imporUnt
treaties ^ith Austria, France, and Seotkad, and
arranged for the marriage of Princess Margaret
vtith James IV. of Scotland. He was ahso chiUioel-
lor of the Univereity of Cambridge (1500), mMter
of Pembroke Hall (1607-19), and one of the exec-
utors of Henry VII. Under Henry VI IL be was
gradually succeeded, both in royal favor and po-
litical influence, by his former prot^, Thomas
Wolsey. In 1516 he reagned the custody of the
privy seal and retired to his diocese. Beaides ma-
king liberal donations to numerous churches, ho^-
pitala and colleges, induding Magdalen College,
Oxford^ and Pembroke College, Cambridge, he es-
tablished and endowed schools at TauntoD and
Grantham, and founded (1516) CorpUB Cbristi Col-
lege, Oxford, which was the pioneer college of the
Renaissance in the English univemties. He es-
tablished in the new institution a lecttiieship in
Greeks which until then had not been officially
recognized at either Oxford or Cambridge, brou^t
over the ItaHan humanist, Ludoyicus Vives, as
reader of Latin, and required the reader of theol-
ogy, in his interpretations of Scripture, to give the
preference to the Greek and Latin Fathers rather
than to flcholastic conmientators. Fox contributed
to a little book entitled, A Contemjdoiion o/ Sin-
ners (London, 1499)^ edited the Pnxe^fumal
(Rouen, 1508). and translated the rule of St, Bene-
diet (London, 1517).
BtaLtCMaiiAJ'ttif: The Regitkr &f Rir^tgrd Pcm. erf. fc» B. C.
Batten^ . . with a Life «/ Bi^u>p Fixr, Loadcm, 1888
(only 100 copies print^dK DNB, xk. 150-150 (where
olher eourees u« indicated).
FOX, WILLIAM JOHirSON: Englieh Unitarian;
b. at Uggeshall Farm, Wrentham (20 m. s.e. of
851
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Vox
France
Norwich), Afar. 1, 1786; d. in London June 3,
18S4. He attended the Independent College at
EamerUm (a northeast suburb of London) under
John Pye Smith, 1806-09, but was chiefly self-
idacated; was pastor at Fareham, Hampshire
0809), at Chichester (1812), and in London (1817-
1852), where a chapel was built especially for him
(1834) in Finsbury. His great aim was to benefit
the working classes, from which he had himself
ipning, and he ultimately gave more time and
effort to social and political questions than to the-
ology, and made preaching subordinate to jour-
nalism and agitation. He was one of the chief
orators of the Anticom Law League, and was Mem-
ber of Parliament, 1847-52, 1852-57. 1857-63. He
was one of the editors of The Monthly Repository ^
the leading Unitarian periodical, and from 1831 to
18% as sole editor and proprietor made it the
medium of expression for his social and political
views, combined with literary criticism. His
ITorJb were collected in a Memorial Edition, ed.
W. B. Hodgson and H. J. Slack (12 vols., London,
1865-68).
Bduogbapht: A memoir is prefixed to vol. zii. of his
IForit (at sup.). Consult DNB, xx. 137-139.
FRANCE.
I. The Roman Oatholio Church.
Concordats, Organic Articles (SI)*
Orgimisation (S 2).
The ClenEy (S 3). .
Religious Orders (S 4).
Separation of Church and State (S 5).
Effect of Separation on Clergy (S 6).
IL Protestant Churches.
1. The Reformed Church.
2. The Lutheran Church.
3. Eyangelical Work in France.
Fnnoe is a republic in the west of Europe with
u area of 207,054 square miles and a population
Oepl, 1906) of 39,252,245. There has been no
rdigiouB census since 1872. The Roman Catholics
have been estimated to number from 36,000,000 to
37,500,000; the Protestants 600,000 to 2,000,000;
the Jews about 86,000; and there arc about 150,000
of other religions.
L The Roman Catholic Church: From about
1813, the year of the Fontainebleau Concordat with
Napoleon I., till about 1880, the
I. Concor- Church had a tranquil development,
^ Organ- which was only very transiently dis-
k Articles, turbed (see Concordats and De-
UMiTiNG Bulls, VI., 1). The Con-
cordat of 1813, to be sure, was modeled after that
of 1801; but it alleviated in a great measure the
executive rulings added to the former by Napoleon;
because the pope abandoned the temporal power
of the Church. The Concordat of 1801 (see Con-
CDR0AT8, ut sup.) was published at the same time
u the Articles organiques, which were arbitrarily
formulated by Napoleon. The seventy-seven Or-
ganic Articles practically enforced a progressive
api^cation of the Gallicanism of 1682 (see Galli-
CAiasM ), which the professors were expressly bound,
under art. 24, to teach in their seminaries. The
State's placet, in relation to all documents of the
curia design^ to be operative in France, was dis-
tinctly set forth in art. 1; the State's authorization
with reference to every representative of the pope
in the land was emphasized in art. 2; art. 20 for-
bade a bishop to leave his diocese without the State's
permission; art. 58 ordered that there should be an
organization of ten archbishoprics and fifty bishop-
rics, and arts. 65-66 provided for their modest
allowance of 15,000 and 10,000 francs, which re-
mained the same amount untU 1906. The paro-
chial clergy's allowances as well were regulated in
art. 66. Through the Organic Articles the magis-
terial power of the State as affecting the Church
came to be operative to the widest extent; though
upon the restoration of the monarchy the State
allowed most of the enactments which were bur-
densome to the Chiuxh to lapse into oblivion.
Hence the complete independence of the bishops
from one another, each dealing directly with the
pope. After 1822, however, the suffragan rela-
tionship was gradually restored. Likewise, written
correspondence between the curia and the bishops
was carried on independently of the State. The
nomination of bishops usually took place in accord-
ance with the recommendations of the cathedral
chapters and the archbishops, just as chaplains
were appointed for public institutions and in the
army on the recommendations of the bishops.
The Gallicanism formulated in 1682, however,
succumbed more and more, in the clerical semi-
naries and among the clergy, to the persistent
antagonism of literature and of the bishops.
Since the Concordat of 1801 the bishops have
greatly increased in number. The present organi-
zation of the Church is as follows: archbishopric
of Aix (founded before 409; vacant
2. Organi- 614-794), with the sujffragan bishop-
zation. rics of Ajaccio (c. 313), Digne (c. 364),
Fr^jus (c. 374), Gap (before 430),
Marseilles (before 314), and Nice (before 253);
archbishopric of Albi (before 406; raised to arch-
bishopric 1678), with the suffragan bishoprics of
Cahors (c. 250), Mende (before 314), Perpignan
(see at Elne, 571-1602), and Rodez (before 506);
archbishopric of Auch (before 396; raised to arch-
bishopric 879), with the suffragan bishoprics of
Aire (c. 506), Bayonne (c. 980), and Tarbes (c. 394);
archbishopric of Avignon (before 353; raised to
archbishopric 1475), with the suffragan bishoprics
of Montpcllier (see at Maguelone c. 585-1527),
Niraes (c. 394), Valence (c. 344), and Viviers (be-
fore 432); archbishopric of Besan^on (c. 180), with
the suffragan bishoprics of Belley (c. 412), Nancy
(1777), St. Di6 (1777), Toul (c. 338; united to
Nancy 1801), and Verdun (c. 346); archbishopric
of Bordeaux (c. 314), with the suffragan bishoprics
of Agen (before 358), Angoultoe (before 406), La
Rochelle (see at Maillerais 1317-1648), Lu^on
(1317), P^rigueux (before 356), and Poitiers (be-
fore 350), also in the French colonies the three
bishoprics of Reunion (St. Denis; 1850), Guade-
loupe (Basse-Terre; 1850), and Martinique (St.
Pierre; 1851); archbishopric of Bourges (before
280), ^ith the suffragan bishoprics of Clermont
(c. 250), Le Puy (before 451), Limoges (before 73),
St. Flour (1318), and Tulle (1317); archbishopric
of Cambrai (580; raised to archbishopric 1559;
bishopric 1801-41), with the suffragan bishopric
Franoe
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
of Arras (c. 500; vacant 545-1093); archbishopric
of Chambi§ry (1775; raised to archbishopric 1817),
with the suffragan bishoprics of Annecy (1822),
St. Jean-de-Maurienne (c. 577), and Tarentaise
(see at Moutiers; c. 420); archbishopric of Lyons
(c. 150), with the suffragan bishoprics of Autun
(c. 270), Dijon (1731), Grenoble (381), Langres,
(before 220), and St. Qaude (1742); archbishopric
of Paris (c. 100; raised to archbishopric 1622), with
the suffragan bishoprics of Blois (1697), Chartres
(before 390), Meaux (before 549), Orl^ns (before
344), and Versailles (1802); archbishopric of Reims
(c. 290), with the suffragan bishoprics of Amiens
(c. 303), Beauvais (c. 250), ChAlons (c. 290), and
Soissons (c. 290); archbishopric of Rennes (358;
raised to archbishopric 1859), with the suffragan
bishoprics of Quimper (c. 444), St. Brieuc (800),
and Vannes (c. 448); archbishopric of Rouen (c.
250), with the suffragan bishoprics of Bayeux
(c. 390), Ck)utances (c. 429), Evrexix (c. 412), and
S^z (2d century); archbishopric of Sens (c. 275),
with the suffragan bishoprics of Moulins (1817),
Nevers (c. 505), and Troyes (before 344); arch-
bishopric of Toulouse (c. 257; raised to archbishop-
ric 1317), with the suffragan bishoprics of Carcas-
sonne (before 589), Montauban (1317), andPamiers
(1295); and archbishopric of Tours (c. 250), with
the suffragan bishoprics of Angers (before 372),
Laval (1855), Le Mans (before 451), and Nantes
(before 374). [The above dates have been sup-
plied by the editors from P. B. Gams, Series epis-
coporum ecclesice catholica (Regensburg, 1872), and
in many cases they are too early, especially those
for Limoges and Paris, both of which were probably
founded about 250. Fifty-seven sees, not included
in the list given above were suppressed by Napo-
leon in 1801; and a few others have gone out of
existence at various times.]
The clergy subordinated to the bishops, apart
from the cathedral chapters, were variously graded
with respect to their official powers
3. The and the State allowances. The num-
Clergy. ber of vicars-general in 1904 was 185;
and these were paid by the State 2,500
francs a year (18 were paid 3,500 francs); the
canons received, until 1885, a State stipend of 1,000
francs each. Among the parochial clergy, the
majority of those officiating in dependent churches
were distinguished, by the State's request, from the
parish priests, or cur^s, as desaervants (see Chap-
lain) and vicairea (curates). In 1904 there were
31,000 of these clerical assistants, of whom 18,420
were paid 900 francs, while those over sixty years
of age received 1 ,000 to 1 ,300 francs. Those incum-
bents who by the Concordat's terms were desig-
nated as priests of the first class (1,121) received an
allowance from the State of 1,500 and 1,600 francs;
and priests of the second class (2,530) 1 ,200 francs.
The pritrea habituels (about 4,000), employed more
and more frequently in the cities, received smaller
amounts. These regulations and the State allow-
ances continued in force until 1906.
The repeal of the Concordat on the side of the
State, and the separation law of December 11, 1905,
radically altered the situation of the Church. Be-
sides the public instruction law of 1886 had already
begun to drive the clergy out of the schoola, aai
the so-called association law of July 1, 1901, had
nearly done away with the coDgregh
4. Religious tions and religious orders. ThehwoC
Orders. 1886 decreed that all public iDstmctioi
should be given only by teacben out-
side of the clergy; so that no priest can set foot ii
the schools to give religioiis instruction, which hen-
after can be given only in premises belonging to tb
Church, and only privately to vduntaiy pu|iL
Despite all this, the continued maint^eiiMice of
schools under chiuxh administration, with cfeiigror
sisters as teachers, was still possible, since free in-
struction imder State supervision was not foibiddeB.
Accordingly, on January 1, 1899. the ratio of nek
schools to State schools was as three to four. Tbt
statistical compilation of these facts was promoted
by the law of 1901, which was aimed psjticabd|f '
against the existence and the educational acttrity
of religious orders. Even as far back as 1880 the
Jesuits had been banished from France, thooxhthe
measiu^ was not completely carried out; but in
1901 all orders not approved by the State were fa)*
bidden to teach in the schocds. There were su^
tioned only five male orders: the Congregations for
Foreign Missions, the Lazarists, the Fathers of the
Holy Ghost, the Sulpicians, and the Brothereoftha
Christian Schools. The latter alone were a broCha>>
hood for teaching and, like the rest, had in law the
rights of a person. These rights were not accorded
to the female congregations; but their localesUb-
lishments had received specific authoriaatiai.
Hence there were 905 congregations of woohb
which were approved by the State. In 1890 tta
membership of female congregations amounted to
about 130,000. While there were only some tutaij
actual congregations of women, with numerous e^
tablishments scattered through the counti7,thB
number of unauthorized associations far exeeeded
the 905 approved ones. The external motive for the
Law for the separation of the Chureh
5. Separa- from the State, passed Dec. 11, 19K,
tion of and in force since Jan. 1, 1906, lay in
Church the disputed construction of the Stated
and State, right to nominate bishops, and in the
application of art. 20 of the Oisaok
Articles to episcopal attendance before the pope in
Rome. Only rarely in the days of the monarchieai
governments had any difference of opinion oocaned
in relation to a bishop, and in 1884 thepopeeffect*
ually refused recognition of a bishop nominated
by the government. Not until 1903 was it defi-
nitely demanded by the State that the ncxninstioB
be recognized as an episcopal appointment. Tiit
law of separation first of all repeals all State and
mimicipal appropriations for public worship, fr
tablishments of worship are declared to be abro-
gated and are to be reconstructed as religious a«o-
ciations (Law of July 1 , 1901 ), to which the property
of the abrogated ecclesiastical establishments be-
comes transferred. For the organization of such at-
sociations there is needed a quorum of but seven peh
sons in communities of less than 1,000 inhabitants;
fifteen in communities of 1,000 to 20,000, etc.; and
only twenty-five in commimities with more than 200,-
000 inhabitants. The churches and chapelB,epu-
158
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
France
copal palaces, and parsonages are declared the
property of the State and the communes, and are
loaned to the religious associations for a term of two
to B^ve years. These associations have to furnish, on
orfMion of general annual conventions of their mem-
ben, exact financial reports with respect to their
eeonoTnic activity. Should no religious association
be organized in places where church property ex-
ieled, the latter is transferred to the commimal in-
stitutions for charitable purposes. The use of
churches for divine service is permitted only by
▼iitue of annual notifications to the civil authorities
pending the term of their use. Religious insignia
or symbols on buildings or on any public site are
forbidden. Incumbents who had served upward
of twenty years are allowed a pension; the others,
pn^wrttonal allowances of their former stipend, for
a term of four years.
The entire law ignores the Church as such, and
treats religion as a concern for voluntary associations
on the part of the citizens. On the
6. Effect of other hand, the Church has complete
Separation freedom on the side of its organization,
on Clergy, its hierarchy, discipline, and liturgical
arrangements (except as regards the
announcement of the appointed times of divine
service).
The pope, in a proclamation to the French epis-
copate, declared it to be incompatible with the
eanonieal regulations of the Church to comply with
the law of separation; so that some other plan must
be devised for the execution of the law, if it is to be
carried out without too prolonged distiu-bances of
domestic and ecclesiastical peace. The question of
financial provision will the more pressingly assert
itsdf with reference to the parochial clergy; seeing
that the cathedral chapters and the scholastic es-
tablishments for the clergy had to be supported
from the episcopal revenues for the last twenty years.
In 1885 the theological faculties attached to the
universities were likewise abrogated; and only the
vicars-general continued to draw an actually sig-
nificant State allowance (3,000 to 5,000 francs).
Henceforward, indeed, the bishops alone will nomi-
nate all their provincial dignitaries, whereas hitherto
the so-called titularies of the cathedral chapter were
named by the State; while only the remainder, the
honoraries, obtained the canonical rank pursuantly
to the episcopal election. As a matter of course,
the bishops also received power to make all parochial
appointments; although in this connection the dis-
tinction as to deaservarUs is no longer observed.
The dissolution of the religious congregations occa-
sioned much concern for the bishops, as the admin-
istrative activity of these societies came to an end;
although many individual fraternity clerics contin-
ued their labors. Wilhelm Goetz.
n. Protestant Churches. — 1. The Beformed
Ohvroh: UntH 1906, when Church and State
were separated, the legal status of the Reformed
churobes in France rested on the law of April
8, 1802 (afterward altered and extended by the
law of March 26, 1852). Each congregation
was to have its presbytery, chosen by general
vote, over which was to be the consistory, usu-
ally including several congregations, and five con-
IV.— 23
sistories were to form a provincial synod (these
synods, however never came into existence). Up
to 1872 the Church had no power to summon a gen-
eral synod; at its head was only an advisory com-
mission, the Conseil central^ which was by no means
equal to a synod. From the beginning of the nine-
teenth century there were two parties in the Church,
the orthodox and the liberal, that at first lived to-
gether in peace, but at last the peace was broken
by the liberals. The famous preacher Adolphe
Monod (q.v.) was removed from office because of a
bitter sermon against the despisers of the Lord's
Supper (April 15, 1831). However, at that time
the liberals had not abandoned all positive belief.
They still believed in historic Christianity and in
miracles. This was soon changed under the influ-
ence of the new school of theology, and gradually
even the orthodox party deserted the old doctrines
and laid stress on only the chief dogmas and on the
facts of Bible history. The liberals went still fur-
ther, attacked the authority of the Bible, and denied
not only the divinity, but even the sinlessness of
Christ. The founding of the Union Protestante
Lib^rale and Renan's Vie de Jisua (Paris, 1863)
hastened the crisis. The split was widened at the
conferences of pastors held in Paris every year, and
at the one in the year 1864 Guizot proposed and
carried a declaration of faith in the inmianence of
God in the world, the inspiration and authority of
Scripture, the divinity, the immaculate conception,
and the resurrection of Christ. The liberals took
revenge at the conference of Nimes; and 121 men
were compelled to separate themselves and form the
Conference Nationale ^vang^lique du Midi, which
subscribed to the declaration of Guizot. The
strife was renewed the next two years; another
declaration of belief in the Apostles' Oeed and the
authority of Scripture was made, so that the lib-
erals were forced to secede. From now on the or-
thodox party worked for the calling of a general
synod, in which they were opposed by the liberals.
Finally Thiers decreed the summoning of a general
synod, which met June 6, 1872. In the synod
straightway appeared four parties: Right, Right
Center, Left, and I^eft Center. The synod, which
sat for a month, chiefly split upon a creed, which
was finally accepted. Forty-one liberal consis-
tories protested against the decisions of the synod;
there was also a middle party which worked for the
formation of an orthodox and a liberal church. The
orthodox party won the day i^ith the government,
and a synod was called to publish the creed, which
the liberals did not attend (Nov. 20, 1873). New
elections were held for the consistories in which the
liberals refused to take part. At last in 1877 there
were again new elections in which the liberals did
take part, since the government allowed them to
treat the decrees of the synod according to their
conscience. The liberals and the orthodox then
lived under the regime of the official imion with
common consistories. The orthodox part of the
Chureh grouped the consistories that accepted the
creed of 1872 into twenty-one provincial synods,
over which was placed a formal general synod en-
trusted with the direction of the Church. The
liberal part of the Church was represented by a
Franoe
Franoia, Saint
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOQ
864
committee, the D^^gation Lib^nde. On Dec. 11,
1905, Parliament voted and promulgated a law
which decreed the separation of Church and State.
The two parties, the orthodox and the liberal, are
now utterly separate. A third party, the Center,
which had at hrst tried in vain to imite the two
others, forms now a third church. The three
churches are called: the £glise R^orm^e £van-
g^Iique (orthodox), the Union d'£glises R6form^es
de France (Center), and the figlises R6form^ Unies
(liberal).— In 1848 Fr^d^ric Monod (q.v.) and others
seceded from the State Church and in 1849 formed
the Union des ]£)glises £vang^Uques, generally called
the Free Church. At first it numbered fifty con-
gregations, but subsequently many returned to the
State Reformed Church. See the articles Galucan
Confession; Huguenots; and French Revolu-
tion.
2. The Lutheran Ohnroh: Before 1906 the status
of the Lutheran Church also depended upon the
laws of 1802 and 1852. The consistories, however,
were to form an inspection, and the inspectors were
chosen for life. The Church had a central govern-
ing body, the head consistory, in two divisions, one
legislative and one administrative. This state of
affairs lasted until the Franco-Prussian war, when
the loss of Alsace-Lorraine, which contained six of
the eight inspections, shook the Lutheran Church of
France to its foundations and compelled it to enter
upon a struggle for existence. The two inspections
which were left (Montb^liard and Paris [including
Algeria]) were at first suspicious of each other, and
that of Montb^liard wished to join the Reformed
churches. A general synod, summoned July 23,
1872, brought peace; and a proposition for union
with the Reformed Church was voted down, like-
wise a creed submitted by the Pietistic minority.
They passed, however, a project for reorganization
of the Church, brought forward by the minority.
The head consistory was given up and the Church
was divided into two synodal districts, Montb^iard
and Paris, almost wholly independent of each other.
The inspectors were named for only nine years. There
was a general synod constituted for the government
of the Church, to meet alternately at Paris and at
Montb^hard. The theological faculty at Strasburg
was replaced by one at Paris. Owing to the dis-
turbed condition of France after the war, this
scheme was not sanctioned by the two chambers
and carried into effect until 1880. At the separa-
tion of Church and State in 1905, the synod adapted
the constitution of the Church to the law of separa-
tion, and named the Church the figlise £vaug61ique
Luth^rienne de France. The parishes became
Associations cultuelles. C. Pfender.
3. Evangrellcal Work in France: Samuel Vincent
says, " After the Revolution the French Protes-
tants experienced a profound tranquillity very much
like indifference. Religion possessed httle interest
for them, as it did for most Frenchmen; for them
as for many others the eighteenth century was still
in existence. The law of 1802 insured tranquillity
and so relieved them and their pastors from all anx-
iety for the support of their form of worship, but
at the same time that it removed the chief cause of
imrest it also did away with that of awakening.
The pastors preached their sennons, the peopfe
heard them, the consistories met, the service n-
tained all its forms, but no one was interested or
troubled about it; religion was outside the spheii
of every one's daily life." This conditioQ of tfainfi
lasted until the third decade of the oentuiy wboi
the religious awakening came from Switieilaiidtato
France and gave new life to the Church. It roond
especially a glowing zeal for missions, andEvaa*
gelical work of all kinds was undertaken with gi«t
eagerness. The famous society of Evangelical ini§-
sions among the heathen was founded in 182^
Bible societies were formed (see Bible Soannik
II., 2), also several other societies for EvaogeliQil
work in France. This great display of misBioiiaiy
zeal, however, has another side: French PioMib^
ism up to the middle of the last centuiy prodoeei
nothing noteworthy in theology. But since thn
matters have improved, societies have been foimeil
periodicals have been begun, and many leaned
works have been written. In this work the Lutheitt
Church has had its share; and the church at Fya
especially has become a spiritual force. Sum
1896 the Lutheran Church has maintained anil-
sion in Madagascar. The Methodists in Franoi
have twenty-five parishes, the Baptists twenty-mDe:
C. Pfkndd.
Biblioorapht: On the Gatholie Church in fenenl oooNlt:
GcUia CkriMHana, 16 vols.. Paris. 1715-1805; J. H. Al-
bany, QaUia ChriaHana noviatima, vol. i., Valmce, iMl
W. H. Jervis. TKs OaUican Church 1616-1789. 2 fok.
Edinburgh, 1872; idem. Ths OaUican Chutekjai it
Revolution, London. 1882; £. de Fresseo^ L'B§timii
Prance pendant la rfvolutian, Paris. 1890; E. V. Mmbu^
La Ripublique et la politique de VSgliee, Paris, 1892; G F.
Bellet, Lea Originee dea igliaea de France et let fsite^
copaux, ib. 1898; E. Bir^. Le Clerg^ de Fnmea vaiili^
le rHolution, 1789-1799, Lyons. 1901; L. BoviA
V^gliae de Franoe et I'Hat au 19 eOde, 2 tdIs.. hm, \
1901; W. M. Sloane. The French Revolution and Bd^im
Reform, 1789-1804, London. 1901; Ardivm de WA
religieuae de la France, Paris. 1902 sqq.; F. V. A. Adai
La Revolution francaiae et lea eonffrioationt, ib. 1901;
L. Launay, Hist, de I'igliae gauloiae juaqu'h la arnpHf
franque, 611, 2 vols., ib. 1906.
On the concordats consult: J. Baissae, La CeiutHdit
1801 et lea articles organiquea, Paris. 1902; A. Body. U ^
Concordat; eon histoire 1801-1903, Lyons. 1903; F. a ;
Matthieu. U Concordat de 1801, Paris. 1903; A. Bm>
drillart, Qiuxtre cents ana de concordat, ib. 1906; E. 8^
vestre. L'Hiatoire, le texte H la deatinfe du eoneoidd 4t
1801, ib. 1905.
On the clergy and the orders consult: Reeu^defeda,
tiires et rnhnoirea concemant lee affairea du dtrgi da FVHHik
12 vols.. Paris. 1716; £. M^rio. Le CUr^ el lea teeiftm^
veaux, ib. 1892; A. Dessaine, Le CUrgi franfoit ts A '
aiide, ib. 1897; S. Grenier. Noe iviquea, ib. IWO; &
Lesne, La Hiirarchie ^piacopale en Ga%de et Oinant,
742-^8», Ulle. 1905; Le Clergi franfoia (anirail); K
Keller, Lea Conorioationa reliifieueee en Franet, ftnfc
1880; L. A. R^mondi^re. L«s Congr^ifaOona relitiinsm, k
fiac, le parlement et le cow de caaaation, ib. 1892; G. Si*
nigue, Regime Ugal dee congrioationa r^igieuaea ea FnM»,
ib. 1898; Beaunier, La France monaeHqua, new ed.. ^
1905; Helyot. Ordrea monaatiquea; Heimbodier, (W»
und Konffregationen.
On the separation of Church and State and its eifli^
quenoes conbult: J. A. C. Sykes. The New Reign of TmW
in France, London, 1903; J. L. E. Combes. Uneaamftiii*
lafque, 1902-03, Paris. 1904; G. Berry. Una page Hiii^ \
la a^paration dee igliaea H de VHat h la ckambre it* ^ ]
pxiUa, ib. 1905; A. Briand, La Separation deaigUaat4it :i
Vetat. Rapport au nom de la eommiaaion de la dbadbl -
dee deputia, ib. 1905; P. Grunebaum BalUn. U 54n»
tion dee igliaea et de VHaJt, ib. 1906; J. Roche. LaSipM* ;
tion de I'igliae et de I'Hai, ib. 1883; Beraid. Emm li»
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
France
Pranoia, Saint
la tSparaUon de Viglite et de VHat pendant la
b. 1905; A Debidour. L'£gliae catholique et
96, vol. i., ib. 1906: R. Bertin et J. Charpen-
i dm aaeoeiationa diclariea, ib. 1907; J. E. C.
( Church in France, London. 1906; A. Gallon,
State in France, 1300-1907, London, 1907;
Le Froifrie du libHtUiame catholique en France
49n XIII., 2 voli., Paris, 1907; J. N. Brod-
teUffioue Perteeution in France, 1900-00, Lon-
E. Lecanuet, L'lSoliee de France aoua la iroi-
lique, Paris, 1907. See also under Church
gtantiwn in France consult: T. Besa, Hiet.
e de France, ed. P. Vessor, 2 vols., Toulouse,
lisseau. La Diecipline dee fgliem reformSee de
wva, 1666; G. de Felice. HiH. dee eynodee
le Vigliee r^ormie de France, Paris, 1864;
dee proteatante de France, Toulouse, 1880;
?roteetanie d' autre foia, 4 vols.. Paris, 1897-
Teber, Oeadiichtlidie CiareteUung dee Calvinie-
inkreidi bie tur Aufhebung dee Edikte von
delbens, 1836; A. :L. Herminjard, Correepon-
farmatettre, 9 vols., Geneva. 1866-97; E. Ber-
u eynode ghiiraU de I'igliae riformie de France,
it, 1872; E. and E. Haa«, La France protee-
[. L. Bordier, Paris, 1877 sqq.; L. Ague^ae.
HahliaeemerU du proteetantieme en France, 4
82-86; A. Lods, La Lfgielation dee cuUee pro-
r-1887, ib. 1889; N. A. F. Puaux, Hiet. du
%e en France, ib. 1894; J. B. Maraval, Le
ne au 16. et 19. eiMe, Albi. 1900; £. Belle-
teeive EvenU that finally Led to the Edict of
r York, 1901; C. Diuand. Hiat. du proteetan-
ie pendant la rivolulion et Vempire, Paris, 1902;
C. Coignet, L' Evolution du proteetantieme frangaie au 19,
eiicle, ib. 1907; Bulletin hietoruiue et liUiraire de la eodr
iti de I' hiet. du proteetantieme frangaie (a monthly); Actee
et dScieione du eynode dee iglia^e riformiee de France ;
E. Davaine and A. Lods, Annuaire du proteetantieme
francaie, Paris, 1892 sqq.; S. Beaujour, L'£gliee rh
formie de France uni€ h VHat, eon organieation codifUe,
Caen, 1883; and the literature under such articles as
CouGNi; HuouENOTs; Jansenism, and Nantes, Edict
OF. For the Lutheran Churches consult W. Jackson.
Reeueil dee documente relatife d la rforganieation de Vigliee
de la eonfeaeion d'Augebourg, Paris, 1881; V^gliae lu-
thirienne de Paria pendant la revolution, ib. 1892.
FRANCE, CONGREGATION OF. See Geneyieye,
Saint, Ordebs of, 1.
FRANCICA-NAVA DI BONTIFE, frQn"chi"ca'-
na'Va' di b6n"ti"f6', GIUSEPPE: Cardinal; b. at
Catania (54 m. n.n.w. of Syracuse), Sicily, July 23,
1846. After the completion of his studies and a
successful career as a priest, he was consecrated
titular bishop of Alabenda in 1883, and six years
later was made titular archbishop of Heraclea and
appointed papal nuncio to Brussels. He was then
nuncio at Madrid, and in 1895 was enthroned arch-
bishop of Catania. He was created cardinal priest
of Santi Giovanni e Paolo in 1899, and is a mem-
ber of the Congregations of the Council, Index,
Studies, and Ceremonial.
FRANCIS, SAINT, OF ASSISI, AND THE FRANCISCAN ORDER.
Dt Francis.
nd Early Manhood (f 1).
ning of the Brotherhood
Extension of the Brother-
3).
feers of Franob ($4).
Hules of the Order and
anient of Saint Frands.
anle (S 1).
if 1221 (S 2).
Rule (13).
nent (S 4).
III. Development of the Order after
the Death of Francis.
Dissensions During the IJfe of
Francis (S 1).
Development to 1239. The Laxer
Party (J 2).
To 1274. Bonaventura (§3).
To 1300. Continued Dissensions
(§4).
Temporary Success of the Stricter
Party. Persecution (J 6).
Renewed Controversy on the Ques-
tion of Poverty (J 6).
Separate Congregations (S 7).
Unsuccessful Attempts to Unite the
Order (f 8).
IV. Spread of the Order in Modem
Times.
New Congregations (i 1).
Present Status (f 2).
Distinguished Names (§ 3).
V. The Clarisaes or Poor Clares.
VI. The Third Order.
Origin and Rule (f 1).
New Arrangements of Leo XIII.
(J 2).
designation Fratrea minores the mem-
Franciscan order were called Minorites,
land they were popularly called Grey
the color of their dress.
Saint Francis: Giovanni Bernard one,
known as Francesco, the founder
iciscan order, was bom in the little
dsi, in Central Italy, between Perugia
, in 1182. His father Pietro, a well-to-
., gave the boy a good education. The
name of Francesco (" the French-
man ''), by which his baptismal name
was soon altogether replaced, is said
to have been given him soon after his
father, returning to Assisi from a trip
according to another account it was
iriy acquisition of the French language.
wed little inclination to concern him-
I father's business, but lived a gay Ufe
lung men of his own age. In 1201 he
Utary expedition against Pemgia, was
ler, and spent a year as a captive. It
that his conversion to more serious
18 gradual. It is said that when he
^dd the sports of his former compan-
ions, and they asked him laughingly if he were
thinking of marrying, he answered '* Yes, a fairer
bride than any you have ever seen " — meaning his
" lady poverty," as he afterward used to say. He
spent much time in lonely places, asking God for
enlightenment. By degrees he took to nursing the
most repulsive victims in the lazar-houses near
Assisi; and after a pilgrimage to Rome, where he
begged at the church doors for the poor, he had a
vision in which he heard a voice calling upon him
to restore the Church of God which had fallen into
decay. He referred this to the ruined church of
St. Damian near Assisi, and sold his horse together
with some cloth from his father's store, giving the
proceeds to the priest for this purpose. Pietro,
highly indignant, attempted to bring him to his
senses, first with threats and then with corporal
chastisement. After a final interview in the pres-
ence of the bishop, Francis renounced all expecta-
tions from his father, laying aside even the gar-
ments received from him, and for a while was a
homeless wanderer in the hills around Assisi. Re-
turning to the town, where he spent two years at
this time, he restored several ruined churches,
among them the little chapel of St. Mary of the
Franols, Saint
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
W
Angels, just outside the town, which became later
his favorite abode.
At the end of this period (according to Jordanus,
in 1209), a sermon which he heard on Matt. x. 9
made such an impression on him tliat he decided to
devote himself wholly to a life of apostolic poverty.
Clad in a rough garment, barefoot, and,
2. The Be- ^j^^j. ^j^^ Evangelical precept, without
the Broth- ^^ scnp, he began to preach
erhood. " repentance. He was soon joined by a
prominent fellow townsman, Bernardo
di Quintavalle, who contributed all that he had to
the work, and by other companions, who are said
to have reached the number of eleven within a
year. The brothers lived in the deserted lazar-
house of Rivo Torto near Assisi; but they spent
much of their time traveling through the moun-
tainous districts of Umbria, always cheerful and
full of songs, yet making a deep impression on their
hearers by their earnest exhortations. Their life was
extremely ascetic, though such practises were appar-
ently not prescribed by the first rule which Francis
gave them (probably as early as 1209), which
seenLs to have been nothing more than a collection
of Scriptural passages emphasizing the duty of
poverty. In spite of the obvious similarity be-
tween this principle and the fundamental ideas of
the followers of Peter Waldo, the brotherhood of
Assisi succeeded in gaining the approval of Pope
Innocent III. Many legends have clustered
around the decisive audience of Francis with the
pope. The realistic account in Matthew of Paris,
according to which the pope originally sent the
shabby saint ofif to keep swine, and only recog-
nized his real worth by his ready obedience, has,
in spite of its improbability, a certain historical
interest, since it shows the natural antipathy of
the older Benedictine monasticism to the plebeian
mendicant orders.
It was not, however, a life of idle mendicancy on
which the brothers entered when they set out in
1210 with the papal approbation, but one of dili-
gent labor. Their work embraced devoted serv-
ice in the abodes of sickness and poverty, earnest
preaching by both priests and lay
8. Work and brothers, and missions in an ever
Extension of ^jgj^jjjg ^.j^dp^ ^,|iich finally included
erhood " ^^'^^^^ *"^^ Mohammedans. They
came together every year at Pente-
cost in the little church of the Portiuncula at Assisi,
to report on their experiences and strengthen them-
selves for fresh eflforts. There is considerable un-
certainty as to the chronological and historical de-
tails of the last fifteen years of the founder's life.
But to these years belong the accounts of the or-
igin of the first houses in Perugia, Crotona, Pisa,
Florence, and elsewhere (1211-13); the first at-
tempts at a Mohammedan mission, in the sending
of five brothers, soon to l>e martyrs, to Morocco, as
well as in a journey undertaken by Francis himself
to Spain, from wliich he was force<l by illness to
return without accomplishing his object; the first
settlements in the Spanisii i)eninsula and in France;
and the attempts, unsuccessful at first, to gain a
foothold in Germany. The alleged meeting of
Francis and Dominic in Rome at the time of the
Fourth Lateran Council (1215) bdoo^ to tlK di>
main of legend; even Sabatier's argument to igm
that such a meeting actually took place in 121S
is open to serious objection. Historicil in tk
main are the accounts relating to the joonej of
Francis to Egypt and Palestine, where he tttemftal
to convert the Sultan Kameel and gave feaifaa
proofs of his readiness to suffer for his faith; the
internal discord, which he found existing in the
order on his return to Italy in 1220; the ori^ d
his second and considerably enlarged nile, vhki
was replaced two years later by the final fan,
drawn up by Cardinal Ugolino; and poadbljthi
granting by Pope Honorius III. (in 1223) of
the Indulgence of the Portiuncula — a docaaai
which Sabatier, who formerly rejected it, hv
recently pronounced authentic on notewoitl^
grounds.
Francis had to suffer from the dissensiaos j«t
alluded to and the transformation which they op-
erated in the originally simple constitutkm of the
brotherhood, making it a regular order under strict
supervision from Rome. Especially after Cardinal
4 Th lAMt ^Kolioo ^^^ been assigned as protee-
Tears of ^^ ®^ ^^^ order by Honorius IIL— it
py^jjoj,^ is said at Francis' own request— he
saw himself forced further and further
away from his original plan. Even the independ-
ent direction of his brotherhood was, it seems,
finally withdrawn from him; at least after about
1223 it was practically in the hands of Brother
Elias of Crotona, an ambitious politician who sec-
onded the attempts of the cardinal-protector to
transform the character of the order. However,
in the external successes of the brothers, as thej
were reported at the yearly general chapters, there
was much to encourage Francis. Gsesarius of
Speyer, the first German provincial, a sealous ad-
vocate of the founder's strict principle of poverty,
began in 1221 from Augsburg, with twenty-five
companions, to win for the order the land watered
by the Rhine and the Danube; and a few yean
later the Franciscan propaganda, starting from
Cambridge, embraced the principal towns of Eng-
land. But none of these cheering reports could
wholly drive away from the mind of Francis the
gloom which covered his last years. He spent
much of his time in solitude, praying or singing
praise to God for his wonderful works. The can-
ticle known as Laudes creatuTarum, with its child-
like invocations to Brother Sun, Sister Moon with
the stars. Brother Wind, Sister Water, Brother
Fire, and finally Sister Death, to raise their
voices to the glory of God, dates from this period
of his life. The hermit stage which opened the
career of many monastic founders was reserved
for the end of his who had once been so restless in
his activity. He spent the short remainder of his
life partly on Monte Alvemo on the upper .\mo,
where he fasted forty days and longed for union
with God, to be demonstrated by the impression
on his body of the wounds of Christ (see Snciu-
tization); partly at Rieti under medical treat-
ment; and partly in his beloved Portiuncula at
Assisi waiting for his deliverance from the fiesh.
He died Oct. 3, 1226, at Assisi, and was canoniied
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Francis, Saint
ye&Ts later by Pope Gregory IX., the former
l-protector of the order.
IL The Three Rules of the Order and the Testa-
of Saint Francis: The oldest rule, referred to
no longer preserved in its original form,
to have contained not much more than the
'tliree Scriptural commands in Matt. xix. 21 ; Luke
- _^ ix. 3; and Matt. xvi. 24. The at-
* j^^^ * tempted reconstruction by Miiller as-
cribes to it too extensive a content,
though Sabatier goes too far in the other direction
when he limits it to these three sayings of Christ,
which, according to Celano, formed the kernel of
the rule, surrounded by certain other more detailed
prescriptions. Sabatier's theory that these were
l^mdual accretions, depending especially on de-
cuions of the yearly general chapter, needs further
evidence to confirm it; the oldest biographers say
nothing of any intermediate stage between the
primitive rule and that of 1221. The former, based
iqxm the idea of poverty and self-denying labor in
the cause of Christ, was intended foi' an associa-
tion of a similar kind to the Pauperes Catholici or
" Poor Men of Lyons." It had little or nothing in
common with the older monastic rules, Benedictine
or Augustinian.
The rule of 1221 is more adapted to the needs of
a monastic order intended to further the general
ends of the Chureh and based upon the three usual
vows, but laying special stress on that of poverty.
It was drawn up by Francis himself, but under the
influence of Cardinal Ugolino, as well as of the
& Th s 1 ^®*™®^ ^^^ practical Csesarius of
of 1221. * Speyer and apparently of Brother
Leo, who from 1220 on was the con-
stant companion of the founder. The matter of
the primitive rule was included in it, but scattered
among a large part of detailed directions, besides
many edifying thoughts and pious outpourings of
the heart, probably the work of Francis. But
there is much in the new rule which breathes a
chfTerent spirit. The hiunble founder, though re-
fusing the title of general of the order, and appear-
ing simply as " minister-general," sometimes with
the addition " the ser\'ant of the whole brother-
hood," appears now at the head of a regular mo-
nastic hierarehy, consisting of provincial ministers
over the provinces, custodes over smaller districts,
and guardians over single houses. Definite rules
for the novitiate, the habit, hours of prayer, and the
discipline of the houses were modeled after the
older monastic tradition. In place of the informal
yeariy gatherings of the brotherhood, there are
now regular chapters at fixed times. Of special
interest are the provisions for apostolic poverty
and the ascetic life in general, which show this rule
to be essentially a development of the older disci-
pline, with the obligation of poverty made more
strict while that of other ascetic practises was miti-
gated, partly for the reason that the new Fratres
ndnares were expected to be diligently occupied
in exhausting labors.
The third rule, confirmed by Honorius III. on
Nov. 29, 1223, has still less of Francis' own work
in it. The edifying tone, the citation of the Scrip-
tural textfl, have disappeared from it. Instead of
8. The Third ,
Bnle.
the strong emphasis upon Christ's admonitions to
his disciples with which the rule of 1221 had begun,
the eniuneration of the three tradi-
tional monastic vows is here substi-
tuted. The character of the order as a
mendicant order, pledged to an ideal of the strict-
est poverty, comes out here, it is true; but these
concesdions to the spirit of the earlier rules are in-
termingled with a number of other prescriptions
which clearly show the externally official character
of the new statutes, framed in the interest of the
papacy and in conformity with the other organs
of the hierarchy. A cardinal appointed by the
pope as protector of the whole order was to super-
vise its activity. The conditions for entrance are
more definitely laid down; the Roman Breviary
is expressly named as the obligatory basis of the
daily devotions of priests belonging to it; and the
preaching brothers have a more dependent position
than before. In a word, the life here regulated is
no longer the old free, wandering life of the first
years, marked by apostolic poverty and loving,
simple-hearted devotion to the Lord, but rather a
carefully arranged quasi-monastic system, shorn
of much of its original freedom.
Francis, as may be seen from more than one
passage in the accounts of his last years, was un-
happy about these changes. As a demonstration
against them, he left what is called his ** Testa-
4 Th T Dient," whose occasional reading to-
tamen^*" S^ther with the rule was enjoined on
the brethren. Its tone is rather plain-
tive than angry; it looks back in a spirit of regret
to the primitive days of the first love. It urges
unswerving obedience to the pope and the heads
of the order, but at the same time emphasizes the
necessity of follo>ving its principles, especially the
imitation of the poverty of Christ. The brethren
are commanded to oppose the introduction of any
future secularizing influences, and at the same time
are forbidden to ask for any special privileges from
the pope. In spite of the direct command in the
"Testament" against considering it as a new
rule, the Observantist section of the Franciscans
practically regarded it as even more binding than
the formal rule, while the advocates of a less strict
observance paid little attention to it, especially to
its prohibition of asking for ecclesiastical privileges.
in. Development of the Order after the Death of
Francis: The controversy about poverty which
extends through the first three centuries of Fran-
ciscan history began in the lifetime of the founder.
The ascetic brothers Matthew of Nami and Greg-
ory of Naples, to whom Francis had
V ^??®^" entrusted the direction of the order
iM th LiV ^^"^ ^^ absence, carried through
of Francis *^ * chapter which they held certain
* stricter regulations in regard to fast-
ing and the reception of alms, which really de-
parted from the spirit of the original rule. It did
not take Francis long, on his return, to suppress
this insubordinate tendency; but he was less suc-
cessful in regard to another of an opposite nature
which soon came up. Elias of Crotona originated
a movement for the increase of the worldly con-
sideration of the order and the adaptation of its
Francis, Saint
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
system to the plans of the hierarchy which con-
flicted with the original notions of the founder and
helped to bring about the successive changes in the
rule already described. Francis was not alone in op-
position to this lax and secularizing tendency. On
the contrary, the party which clung to his original
views and after his death took his " Testament "
for their guide, known as Observant ist« or Zelanti,
was at least equal in numbers and activity to the
followers of Elias. The conflict between the two
lasted many years, and the Zelanti won several
notable victories, in spite of the favor shown to
their opponents by the papal administration — ^until
finally the reconciliation of the two points of view
was seen to be impossible, and the order was actu-
ally split into halves.
St. Anthony of Padua (q.v.) has usually been re-
garded as the first leader of the Observantists; but
recent investigations have shown that he was in-
clined to the opposite side. When Elias sent a
delegation to Rome in 1230 to obtain papal sanc-
2. Develop- ^^^^ ^^^ ^^ views, Anthony was one
ment to of the envoys; and there is little doubt
1289. The that the bull Quo elongoH of Gregory
Laxer IX., favoring this side, was due in
Party, large measure to his influence. The
earliest leader of the strict party was rather Brother
Leo, the witness of the ecstasies of Francis on
Monte Alvemo and the author of the Speculum
perftctionis^ a strong polemic against the laxer
party. Next to him came John Parens, the first
successor of Francis in the headship of the order.
In 1232, however, Elias succeeded him, and ad-
ministered the affairs of the order in the interest of
his own party for seven years. Much external
progress was made during these years; many new
houses were founded, especially in Italy, and in
them, without regard to the founder's depreciation
of secular learning, special attention was paid to
education. The somewhat earlier settlements of
Franciscan teachers at the universities (in Oxford,
for example, where Alexander of Hales was teach-
ing) continued to develop. Contributions toward
the promotion of the order's work came in abun-
dantly, and Elias authorized his subordinates to get
around the proWsion of the rule against the receiv-
ing of money, usually by the appointment of agents
outside the order, who had the custody of the
funds. Elias pursued with great severity the prin-
cipal leaders of the opposition, and even Bernardo
di Quintavalle, the founder's first disciple, was ob-
liged to conceal himself for years in the forest of
Monte Sefro.
At last, however, the reaction came. At the
general chapter of 1239, held in Rome under the
personal presidency of Gregory IX., Elias was
deposed in favor of Albert of Pisa, the former
provincial of England, a moderate Ob-
8. T0I274. servant ist. None the less, Elias' at-
Bonaven- ^j^^^u^^j^ remained widely prevalent in the
** order. The next two ministers-general
Haymo of Faversham (1240-44) and Crescentius of
Jesi (1244-47), governed to a great extent in this
sense, and had the new pope Innocent IV. on their
side. In a bull of Nov. 14, 1245, he even sanc-
tioned an extension of the system of financial
agents, and declared the funds in their custoc^f
property of the Church, to be held at the (
of the cardinal-protector and not to be 1
without his permission. The Observantisl ]
took a strong stand in opposition to this i
and carried on so successfully an agitation 1 _
the lax general that in 1247, at a chapter Ud I
Lyons, where Innocent IV. was then
was replaced by the strict Ob8er>*antist Mi(
Parma (1247-57). Elias, who had been i
municated and taken under the protection of Fni*l
erick II., was now forced to give up all hope cfl
recovering hb power in the order. He died k^
1253, after succeeding by recantation in obtain
the removal of his censures. Under John 1
Parma, who enjoyed the favor of Innocent IV.ai >
Alexander IV., the influence of the order wbi no-
tably increased, esp>ecially by the provisions of the
latter pope in regard to the academic actintj of
the brothers. He not only sanctioned the the^
logical institutes in Franciscan houses, but did ai
he could to facilitate the entrance of their teacfaeB
to the universities, esp>ecially Paris, the beadqoa^
ters of theological study. It was due to the aetka
of his representatives, who were obliged to threalei
the university authorities with excommunifatioa,
that the degree of doctor of theology was conceded
to the Dominican Thomas Aquinas and the Fian-
ciscan Bonaventura (1257), who had previoas^
been able to lecture only as licentiates. In tlie
same year Bonaventura succeeded John of Paima.
In spite of his adherence to Observantist princi-
ples, Bonaventura took a decided stand against
the teaching of Joachim of Fiore, which Jdm of
Parma had been inclined to favor. Not a few of
the " Spiritual " party, as they were now coming
to be called, were condemned to lifelong imprison-
ment; and for the purpose of discouraging their
extreme tendency a new life of the founder was
compiled by Bonaventura, at the request of the
general chapter held at Narbonne in 1260, aod
authorized by that of Pisa three years later as the
only approved biography. Apart from the severe
measures taken against Joachim's followers, Bana-
ventura seems to have ruled (1257-74) in a mod€^
ate spirit , which is represented also by various worfa
produced by the order in hb time — especially by
the Expositio regtdop written by David of Augsbui]g
(q.v.) soon after 1260.
The successor of Bonaventura, Jerome of Ascoli
(1274-79), the future Pope Nicholas IV., and his
successor, Bonagratia (1279-85), also foflowed a
middle course. Severe measures were taken
against certain extreme Spirituals who, on the
4 To 1800 ^^'^^^ ^^ ^^^ rumor that Gregory
X. was intending at the Council of
Lyons (1274-75) to force the mendi-
cant orders to tolerate the possession
of property, threatened both pope and council
with the renunciation of allegiance. Attempts
were made, however, to satisfy the reasonable de-
mands of the Spiritual party, as in the bull Eixii
qui seminat of Nicholas III. (1279), which pro-
nounced the principle of complete poverty meri-
torious and holy, but interpreted it in the way of
a somewhat sophistical distinction between pos-
Oontinned
DissenBions.
809
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Francis, Saint
on and usufruct. The bull was received re-
spectfully by Bonagratia and the next two gen-
mis, Arlotto of Prato (1285-87) and Matthew of
AquaSparta (1287-89) ; but the Spiritual party under
the leadership of the fanatical apocalyptic Pierre
Jein Olivi (q.v.) regarded its provisions for the de-
pendence of the friars upon the pope and the division
between brothers occupied in manual labor and those
cnqdoyed on spiritual missions as a corruption of
the fundamental principles of the order. They were
mi won over by the conciliatory attitude of the
next general, Raymond Gaufredi (1289-^), and
of the Franciscan pope Nicholas IV (1288-02).
The attempt made by the next pope, Celestine V.,
an old friend of the order, to end the strife by uni-
ting the Obeervantist party with his own order of
hermits (see Celebtines) was scarcely more suc-
ceeifuL Only a part of the Spirituals joined the
new order, and the secession scarcely lasted beyond
the reign of the hermit-pope. Boniface VIII. an-
niQed Celestine's bull of foundation with his other
letB, depoeed the general Raymond Gaufredi, and
ippointed a man of laxer tendency, John de Murro,
m his place. The Benedictine section of the Celes-
tinee was separated from the Franciscan section,
nd the latter was formally suppressed by Boni-
hee in 1302. The leader of the Observantists,
Oli?i, who spent his last years in the Franciscan
house at Narbonne and died there in 1298, had
pronounced against the extremer " Spiritual ** at-
titude, and given an exposition of the theory of
poverty which was approved by the more moder-
ite Observantists, and for a long time constituted
their principle.
Under Clement V. (1305-14) this party succeeded
in exercising some influence on papal decisions.
In 1309 Clement had a commission sit at Avignon
for the purpose of reconciling the conflicting parties.
Ubertino of Casale (q.v.), the leader,
^^^*^^ after Olivi's death, of the stricter
nryi^oooaa party, who was a member of the com-
g^jjg^^y mission, induced the Council of Vienne
Hrty. Par- ^ arrive at a decision in the main
swation. favoring his views, and the papal con-
stitution Exivi de paradiao (1313) was
on the whole conceived in the same sense. Clem-
ent's successor, John XXII. (1316-34), favored the
hxeror conventual party. By the bull Quorundam
oigii he modified several provisions of the constitu-
tion £zm, and required the formal submission of
the Spirituals. Some of them, encouraged by the
•trongfy Obeervantist general Michael of Cesena,
^ured to dispute the pope's right so to deal
*Hh the provisions of his predecessor. Sixty-four
of them were summoned to Avignon, and the most
obstinate delivered over to the Inquisition, four of
ibem being burned (1318). Shortly before this all
the separate houses of the Observantists had been
nppreased.
A few years later a new controversy, this time
theoretical, broke out on the question of poverty.
rbe Spirituals contended eagerly for the view that
Cbrist and his apostles had possessed absolutely
nothing, either separately or jointly. This proposi-
tion had been declared heretical in a trial before an
inquisitor. A protest was now made against this
decision by the chapter held at Perugia in 1322,
as well as by such influential members of the order
as William Occam (q.v.), the English
6. Benewed provincial, and Bonagratia of Berga-
^^n^e'*^ mo. John XXII. ranged himself de-
Question of cidedly with the Dominicans, who
Poverty, combated the theory, and by the
bull Cum inter nonnullos of 1322
declared it erroneous and heretical. Appealing
from this decision, Bonagratia, Occam, and Michael
of Cesena were imprisoned at Avignon for four
years, until they escaped by the help of the Em-
peror Louis the Bavarian. Supported by him,
they carried on a literary war against the papal
and Dominican denial of the absolute poverty of
Christ and his apostles. The pope deposed Cesena
and Occam from their oflices in the order, and ex-
communicated them with the Franciscan antipope
Peter of CJorvara (Nicholas V.) and all their adher-
ents. Only a small part of the order, however,
joined them, and at a general chapter held in Paris
(1329) the majority of all the houses declared their
submission to the pope. The same step was taken
in the following year by the antipope, later by the
ex-general Cesena, and finally, just before his death,
by Occam.
Out of all these dissensions in the fourteenth
centiuy sprang a number of separate congrega-
tions, almost of sects. To say nothing of the heret-
ical parties of the Beghards and FraticeUi (qq.v.),
some which developed within the order on both
7 S ta ^^™"*' ^^^ cenobitic principles may
Co^r^a- ^^^ ^ mentioned: (1) The Qareni
tions. ^^ Clarenini, an association of hermits
established on the river Clareno in
the march of Ancona by Angelo di Clareno
after the suppression of the Franciscan Celestines
by Boniface VIII. It maintained the principles
of Olivi, and, outside of Umbria, spread also
in the kingdom of Naples, where Angelo died
in 1337. Like several other smaller congrega-
tions, it was obliged in 1568 under Pius V. to
unite with the general body of Observant-
ists. (2) The Minorites of Narbonne. As a sepa-
rate congregation, this originated through the
union of a number of houses which followed Olivi
after 1308. It was limited to southwestern France
and, its members being accused of the heresy
of the Beghards, was suppressed by the Inquisi-
tion during the controversies under John XXII.
(3) The Reform of Johannes de Vallibus, founded
in the hermitage of St. Bartholomew at Brugliano
near Foligno in 1334. The congregation was sup-
pressed by the Franciscan general chapter in 1354;
reestablished in 1368 by Paolo de' Trinci of Fo-
hgno; confirmed by Gregory XI. in 1373, and spread
rapidly from Central Italy to France, Spain, Hun-
Sary and elsewhere. Most of the Observantist
houses joined this congregation by degrees, so that
it became known simply as the " brothers of the
regular Observance." It acquired the favor of
the popes by its energetic opposition to the heret-
ical FraticeUi, and was expressly recognized by the
Council of Constance (1415). It was allowed to
have a special vicar-general of its own and legislate
for its members without reference to the conventual
Francis, Saint
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
aeo
part of the order. Through the work of such men as
Bemardin of Sienna (q.v.) John of Capistrano (see
Capistrano, Giovanni di), and Dietrich Coelde
(b. 14357 at MUnster; was a member of the
Brethren of the Common Life, q.v.; d. Dec.
11, 1515), it gained great prominence during the
fifteenth century. By the end of the Middle Ages,
the Observantists, with 1,400 houses, comprised
nearly half of the entire order. Their influence
brought about attempts at reform even among the
Conventuals, including the Observantists of the
Conmion Life, founded by Boniface de Ceva and
spreading principally in France and Germany; the
reformed congregation founded in 1426 by the
Spaniard Philip de Berbegal and distinguished by
the special importance they attached to the little
hood (capjmdola); the Neutri, a group of re-
formers originating about 1463 in Italy, who tried
to take a middle ground between the Conventuals
and Observantists, but refused to obey the heads
of either, imtil they were compelled by the pope
to affiliate with the regular Observantists, or with
those of the Common life; the Caperolani, a con-
gregation founded about 1470 in North Italy by
Peter Caperolo, but dissolved again on the death of
its founder in 1480; the Amadeists, founded by
the noble Portuguese Amadeo, who entered the
Franciscan order at Assisi in 1452, gathered around
him a number of adlierents to his fairly strict prin-
ciples (numbering finally twenty-six houses) and,
died in the odor of sanctity in 1482.
Projects for a union between the two main
branches of the order were put forth not only by
the Council of Constance but by several popes,
without any positive result. By direction of
Martin V., John of Capistrano drew
™^?i*^V ^P s^^tutes which were to serve as a
basis for reunion, and they were actu-
ceasfol At-
tempts to
Unite the ^^ accepted by a general chapter at
Qx^^r. Assisi in 1430; but the majority of the
Conventual houses refused to agree to
them,and they remained without effect. At Capistra-
no's request Eugenius IV. put forth a bull (Ut sacra
minorum, 1446) looking to the same result, but again
nothing was accomplished. Equally imsuccessful
were the attempts of the Franciscan pope Sixtus
IV., who bestowed a vast number of privileges on
both the original mendicant orders, but by this
very fact lost the favor of the Observantists and
failed in his plans for reimion. Julius II. succeeded
in doing away with some of the smaller branches,
but left the division of the two great parties un-
touched. This division was finally legalized by
Leo X., after a general chapter held in Rome, in
connection with the reform movement of the Fifth
Lateran Council, had once more declared the im-
possibility of reunion. The less strict principles
of the Conventuals, j^ermitting the posesssion of
peal estate and the enjoyment of fixed revenues,
were recognized as tolerable, while the Observant-
ists, in contrast to this ustis moderaius, were held
strictly to their own usus ardtia or pauper. The
latter, as adhering more clasely to the ride of the
founder, were allowed to claim a certain superior-
ity over the former. The Observantist general
(elected now for six years, not for life) was to have
the title of " Minister-General of the Whole Onkr
of St. Francis " and the right to confinn the choiee
of a head for the Conventuals, who was knom ai
** Master^ieneral of the Friars Minor Conventual"
— although this privilege never became practically
operative.
IV. Spread of the Order in Modem Tima: Dm
regulations of Leo X. brought a notable inereaia
of strength to the Observantist branch, and many
conventual houses joined them — ^in France all bi^
forty-eight, in Germany the greater part, in Spain
IN O practically all. But this very growth
ffre^Bitions.' ^^ ^^^ ^ *^^® internal unity and
* strength of the strict party. The
need for new reforms soon became apparent, and
the action of Leo X., far from consolidating the
order, gave rise to a number of new branches. The
most important of these are: the Ci^uchins (q.v.),
founded in 1525 by Matteo Bassi and estabiished
in 1619 by Paul V. as a separate order; the DU-
calced Franciscans, founded as a specially striet
Observantist congregation at Bellacazar in Spam
by Juan de Puebla toward the end of the fifteenth
century, compelled by Leo X. to unite with the
regular Observantists, but soon afterward reestab-
lished as an independent branch by Juan de Guade-
lupe (d. 1580), and subsequently obtaining aome
importance in Spain and Portugal; the Akanti-
rines, a very strict congregation founded in 1540 bf
Peter of Alcantara (q.v.), and distinguished by
remarkable achievements in the mission field; iht
Italian Riformatif founded about 1525 near Rieti
by two Spanish Observantists, and becoming com-
paratively wide-spread from the beginning of tbe
seventeenth century through the favor of Clement
VIII. and Urban VIII.; the French RecolkcU,
originating at Nevers in 1592, formed into a dis-
tinct congregation by (Hement VIII. in 1602, and
important in later missionary history, especially
in Canada.
The Franciscans also rendered important serv-
ices to the cause of the (Dountcrreformation in
the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, rivaling
the Jesuit order in zeal, and frequently sufTering
martyrdom for their faith in England, the Nethe^
lands, and Germany. During the Urt
at 't '^'^ hundred years the possessions of the
order have been much reduced by the
storms of the French Revolution, the German secu-
larizations since lS03, and the political changes of
Spain, Italy, and France. On the other hand,
there has been a considerable extension in many
parts of the order, especially in North America.
The present statistics of the three principal male
branches of the order are approximately as fol-
lows: (1) Observantists: 1,500 houses, comprised
in about 100 provinces and CtMtodue, with about
15,000 members of whom some 7,0(X) belong to the
Regular Observance, 6,000 to the Riformati, and
the rest to the Recollects and the Discalced QxA-
gregation; (2) 0)nventuals: 290 houses, prind-
pally in Italy, but also in Bavaria, Austria, Ru-
mania, Turkey, etc.; and (3) Regular Tertiariea,
following the rule of Leo X.: less than a score oC
houses — two in Rome, five in Sicily, seven in Aus-
tria, and two in America. These figures show a
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Francis, Saint
t eontrast to the strength of the order at the
of the Middle Ages, when it had over 8,000
Ks, of which the 1,300 Observantist communi-
alone numbered 30,000 members, or even in
middle of the seventeenth century when there
i about 70,000 members, divided into 150
rinces. The noteworthy proportional decline
lie non-Observantist section shows that the
T to this day presents more attraction as it re-
us truest to iia original principles.
Ithough surpassed in the niunber of prominent
influential theological authors by the Jesuits
Dominicans, the order still boasts a number of
iDguiahed names. The first century of its ex-
ice produced the three great scholastics Alex-
sr of Hales, Bonaventura, and Dims Scotus,
" Admirable Doctor " Roger Bacon, and the
well-known mystic authors and popu-
~^' lar preachers David of Augsburg and
Berthold of Regensburg. Among
Franciscan celebrities of the later
Be Ages may be mentioned Nicholas of Lyra,
Biblical commentator, Bemardin of Sienna,
I of Capistrano, Mollard and Menot as preach-
and the famous canonists Astesanus, Alvarus
pus, and Occam. Later again came sound
ffical investigators such as Luke Wadding and
. In the field of Christian art, during the
ICddle Ages, the Franciscan movement exer-
l considerable influence, especially in Italy.
!Tal great painters of the thirteenth and four-
th centuries, especially Cimabue and Giotto,
t spiritual sons of Francis in the wider sense,
the plastic masterpieces of the latter, as well
he architectural conceptions of both himself
his school, show the influence of Franciscan
U. The Italian Gothic style, whose earliest
ortant monument is the great convent church
Insi (built 1228-53), was cultivated as a rule
cqttlly by members of the order or men under
ir influence. The early spiritual poetry of Italy
I inspired by Francis himself, who was followed
Thomas of Celano, Bonaventura, and Jacopone
Todi; and in a certain sense even Dante may be
bidsd within the sphere of Franciscan influence
especially Paradiao, xi. 50).
^> The Clarisses or Poor Clares : For the history
^ female branch of the order, founded in the
tune of Francis, see Clara, Saint, and the
«BBEB.
I The Tliird Order: The Tertiary rule which
lee under the name of St. Francis not only can
bave been drawn up by him, but does not even
^ a basis of his original instructions. There
>t have been, however, in his lifetime a follow-
of devout laity who composed a sort of third
0^^ order, beside the Friars Minor and the
iJ^J?^ Clarisaes. It seems probable that the
rule drawn up in 1285 for Dominican
aries served as a model for the corresponding
leisean rule mentioned by Nicholas IV. in his
Supra mantem of Aug. 18, 1289. This rule
ides persons living in the estate of matrimony,
does not prescribe absolute renunciation of
sr^ or the wearing of the Franciscan habit.
jncepiM as to fasting are comparatively mild.
allowing the use of meat three times a week, and
the devotional exercises required are very much
less than in the first and second orders. The
brothers are expressly allowed to render military
service in defense of the Holy Roman Church, the
Christian faith of their own fatherland. The po-
sition midway between the Church and the woild
taken by this rule corresponded to a need widely
felt at the time, and contributed toward the spread
of the mendicant principle. The growth of the
third order was not without opposition. Frederick
II. took severe measures against it, and now and
then the Franciscan tertiaries were confused with
the heretical Beghards; especially after the con-
demnation of this sect by the Council of Vienne,
many of its members sought entrance into the
third order of St. Francis or adopted it« habit and
manner of life, so that John XXII. was obliged
to issue a special bull (Sancta Romana, 1317) to
distinguish the true and false tertiaries. The
growth of the institute continued throughout the
Middle Ages, and numerous pious brotherhoods
and sisterhoods grew up either within it or in close
connection with it. Under Leo X. a new system
went into effect (1517), separating from the gen-
eral body those tertiaries who accepted a new rule
drawn up for them. These took the three monas-
tic vows, had a minister-general of their own, and
could be admitted into the first order. The re-
mainder were divided into three classes: those who
lived in community, bound by simple vows, on the
basis of the old rule of Nicholas IV.; those who
lived alone, bound by a simple vow of celibacy, and
wearing the habit of the order; and others of both
sexes, single or married, who made no vows and
did not live in community. The third class is by
far the most numerous, and comprises all the affili-
ated members living in the world.
It is to these that the comprehensive rearrange-
ments refer which were ordered by Leo XIII.
toward the end of the nineteenth century. In
the encyclical Auspicalor of Sept. 17, 1882, he ur-
gently commended the third order, and
2. NewAr-
rangrements
dwelt upon its high usefulness in mod-
of Lto"^" ®™ conditions. By the constitution
xm. Misericors of May 30, 1883, he made
a number of changes in the obligations
to be imposed on the members. No vows are now
required on entrance, but a simple promise to keep
the rule and wear the scapular and girdle under
the ordinary clothing; a few fasts are imposed, es-
pecially on the vigils of the feasts of the Immacu-
late Conception and of St. Francis; the duty of
monthly communion and grace before and after
meals is insisted on, together with that of a gen-
erally self-denying and temperate life. These easily
fulfilled regulations have brought about a marked
increase in the number of members, which in the
single country of Germany is estimated at about
half a million. (See Tertiaries.)
(O. McKLERf.)
Biblioorapht: Full lists of works on the subject are given
in Hauck-Herzog, RE, vi. 197-220; Heimbucher. Orden
und Konffregationen, i. 265-271; Potthast, Wegweiaer,
pp. 1318-21; and in the British Museum Catalogue
under '* Francis [Bernardoni]." Consult also P. Robin-
son, A Short Intvduclion to FranciMcan Literature, Ne^
Francis, Saint
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOQ
888
York. IWn. Tb« olde«i and welffhUcAt n>uree« for a life
tti 3U Froaeia u« ibs two Kilos' by Tboma« of Cclatio, th«
Cftrcini^i« /ra<H« Jardani a J ana, th« 6«i7vrKda trium ■«■•
dwritn* (Leo, Ru^tu and AngeLiu Tamcredi) And Ihe
oelebmtcKl Vila by B. BoiiAVenttir&. Theso, with tbe ex-
wptioQ of thft fuller Filct of Thomaj, are collected to-
gether with a commentary in AS /I, Oct., ii. MS -798. Tbe
principal editiona^ anil traxulatiDnH will bti noted beiow.
Other sourc&i are of caiu^e the Opera of 8t. Fraacii, ed.
Waddini^. Colosiic. \M^, and Morvy. PorJn, ISSO, inada
a^tabW in En«* tmiwl, London^ 1800, and by P, Robin-
son^ Philadelphia, 100&; and the Saentm eommerrivin
(written anonymoupLy 6. 1227), £iic. tranal. by IL Cix-
Duebael. London, 1001,
The beat modern life in by P. Sabatier, Faria, 1804,
which baa run through many edltloiu, Eng. traniL, Lon-
don, 1SP8. BabtLtier edited tbe Sptc^tim perft^HonU of
Leo of Aasiii, Pari a, lJBi98. of wbich Eng. traDJsUf. appeared
by Sebastian Evaflh, London , 1899. Countess De la Watr,
190^. asid Robert Steele, 1903, Next to tbeae should be
noted H. G. RovedaJe, SL Pran/CtM of jliiiti tteeordinQ to
Brotfur Thoma* at Cdaim, tp%th CrUicai in^oducHon. Lon-
don. 1904 (for the beat eitition), cf. H^oma* of CeUuio,
Tkn tAv€M) of SU Frnna* n/ A*mnt tranaL by A. G.
Ferwrt HoweU, ib„ 1^08- Other accounts are by
K. Hmo, Leipdie, lg5<S (lon« tbe «t*tidard); B«raaFdiD»
2 volt.. Parin, 1£80; a ftumptuoua work in 3 parts, S,
FrancoU d'Asaise, cont*JninK the VU by F. EL Chftvio de
MalanH lir^it published Parin, lg4.'5« S* FranCm* AprH aa
mffft and S. fVsnfjsii dann f'sjrt, Farii, 1BS5: H. 9. Lear,
Loodon, ISSSi Hias Lockharl (from the Ltomd* af St
Bonav^niurs), ib. td89^ J. M. 9. DauHenac, Abbeville*
18ST; L. Lfl Monnier, Pads, 1890, Ens. transl., London,
1&&4; J. W. Knox Little, lb, W&l', tho Bum Le&rjidm of
Bonarentiira, Quarstcchi (near Ftorence), 1S08; J. Ad-
der ley, Loudon, 1900; A. Biirine {B. FrancM* ^ , , wi la
hgtt^e dem troin compagfmra), PariA, 1901; L. de Cb^rmn^,
PariB, 1 892, Exig. traniil, LoT»don, 1901; J. Herkle«s
FraMi9 and Dtymimc, pp. 16-80, N«w York, 1901;
W. O, E, Oeslerjey, London. 1901; B. Chrinten, Inn*-
brurk, 1902; L. de K&tv&I Paris. 1902 (a Fr. transi. of
the leicend of the three companiona); A. Goffia, lirusselB,
1902 (ftlM a Fr, transL of the same); E. O. Salter, Lon-
don, 1902 {Eos- tranAl of the «ainfl>; J, U. Mctlvaioe.
New York, 1902^ Anna M. Stoddart, London, IOCS: S.
Bonaveotura, ib. 1904 (Eng. tfmnal); L. L. Du BoJn,
New York. 190fi; J. J^Kensen, Dtn hdliffm FrttnM of
A^mAi, (}or«nha£en, 19DT; M. A. Heins, New York. 190g.
On the portraiture conjiult N. H. J. West hike, (H (fte
Authentic PuTtraitur* qf SL Francii qf AMmn. Loodon*
1897; O. Kuhan, Si. Frandt iif Asrim. New York, 190C,
The Rules are given in L. Watldin^. B, Fran^aei
oputcula, Antwefp, 1623, ed, V. der BtitiE. Cologne, 1SS9,
and in Horoy'i edition of the Opera of Bt. Frandfl,
Fans. 1880. Consult abio Rtm^ ajUiqim fratmrn ei te^^
rerun* de paniieMia aeu ttrtii crdinie S. Franeoia, ed. F.
Babatier, Paris, 1901, atid ef. K. M Oiler, Die AnfUnga
dea M inariten&rdm^, pp. 4-114, 185-188, Freibmg^, 1S&5,
Tbe 7*eatamenjhtm was edited fforo the Cottonian MS. in
the British Muneum by J. S. Brewer in Mtmumenta Frtin-
ci*m^nja, i (I8AS1, 562-566, and is given in Sabatier't
Vie, 9th ed.. pp. 3^9-393.
Consult al(w: B. Francis, Aule cind Ceremiiniol of (^
Third Order, London. 1883; Manual t>f the Third Order,
ib, 1883; NouvHU rfgk du Hwi^-Qfrdre s^cm/mt. Pans, 1883;
F. Bertiiius, Afonun/ &J the Third Order. London. 1SS4;
LiUte Manual of the Third Order, ib. 1899; Gerard, Docu"
menta pour erjUitjuer la rigla du ttert-onfrs. Parift. 1S99.
For (h« history of the order Aourcee are; Chrmdemt
/rofrt* Jifrdania a Jano, ed. G. Voiei. vol. v. of Abhand'
iunffen der kiiniglirhen M&chaUi^n GeieMMchaft der Wim-
KnscAfl/(fn, y ilBlQ\ 421 sqq. tgood for Gcnnany);
Chraniche dt^U ordini inatituti dnl S. Franeeaeo, in Fortu-
enese and E^pimi^h, 3 I'ol;!., lisbon and dalamanca, i5>50-
1670, Fr, tranal, 4 \ah.. Pari:*, IttOO. Germ. transL, 2
TO Is., Constanee, 1604; A, Parkjn^m. Coilr<Uiuea Anulf^
minoritiea. London. 1720; J.H. Sbaralea. BulLnium Fran-
eUcanum . * . conet^tntmnea, epiaUyltr. diplomata . . * ,
4 vols., Rome, 1759-68 {vnl. 4 by D. A. Ro«ii>; Analeria
Franciacami. 2 vols ^ t^utinirdii, 1 885- 87 <a collection of
Chronicles, and vjirioiiJi dorumentary «our«^).
Of more modern aeeountrt tht* IwHt an?: L. Waddini^,
Annaie^ mi-mrumt voL it-vji.» Ley den, 1625-^S, Tol. viiL
Rome, 1654, 2d ed. bcffttn by J. It FoniKa, vdi, L-
zvi,, Ronwi 1731^6, cnntiniied al interval^ tiaL ^f.,
1887; Helyot, Ordrea momuHqiua, -loL vii«, d. L p^
had. srin.^ Heimbucber, Ordem. mud Ka^gn^esin^n, i
264 -3S5i f'onsult aim: Y. Greidet«', Gfrsieiitf Fns*
ciacana, 2 voU,, Innsbruck, 1777 -SI; G, F. C Ewn,
,4 niaieela ad frairum fRinenrnt kiManamk, Ltiphc, WS^
K. Mailer, Bi* AnfOnff^ dm MinorUmtfdem, fnOxt^
1885; D. de Guh^nutia^ OHrim mrapkaataL Hid, itM%n
ordinihua o , . . iS. FrKfnatm imtHfuHK new eiL. Q»>
raccht, 18&7 aqq.; F. Serrata Dirks. Hiai. mrwinim
frht* mim^tra an B^ffiqmm, Antwerp, 18S8; EL Bft^M;
Die Frtfnriacan^^ im dtn Vefwimgtty^ Stealrw, Cdopi,
1892; A. G. Little, Tkw Gr*v Friara in Otftrd, QskH,
1892; J. M. Stone. Su#«rtfi«* 0/ BngUak J^wueraffisv
ina SSth aiid ITth CenJvrin, Lf^fido^ 1803; 0. Bstti>
br&ukef, Der Mifumt^miTdent Berlin, 1B8£; T. EdAt,
Di* kinJdii^m Sruderachaftm umd daM r^ipi&K Mn,
Erlan«en. 1895; Tha<.1detis. The Franciat^^ in £^b<
im)0~tS5O, London, 1S9S; Anne Maedowell. Stm 4
FrdA^, New York, 1902; D, Mustey^rJU ^Finti^lW
t^Monnt. ib.. 1908,
On tbe Third Ordeir consult; F. J. d'Eaerritk, U Twt-
^rrdre da S. Franfoia, Lille, 1S87; L^q« U TWt Ot^
airapkique. Psris, 1887; P. B. da. Gre«do. II Ttr^ OrUm
di San Franeeaeo, Qti&nLcchi, ISSS: P. de Hir^|»tt Le
Tisrs^ordrs , . . d'aprH Lr'ori X///., Le MAM, 189i; Hat'
bert, Le# Reiii^tuMe^ franeiaminem, Pmna. 1M7; R ^
tiste. Spirii of tis Third Order of SL fVafiei«, loKks,
1899; J. G. Adderley and C. L. Mar>on, **TMfd Qr^nT
ib. 1902; F. O. Kaercher Summarjf of iwivktiuwi!, hm-
UvtM, and Favort Granied to the Skadar Bramtk d Ar
Third Ord^ of SL Franda, ^t. Ixiuic 1903; T. C. L Jm,
St Francia of Aaaiai and the Third On|p, ik 1001
FRAITCIS BOEGIA, SAUfT. See Jiaijm.
FRAJfCIS, JOSEPH MARSHALL: FrobciUal
Episcopal bishop of Indt&napoliBp Ind.; b^ it
Eaglearacre, Pa., Apr, 6» 1862. He studied at
Raeme CoUege (1870-82) and Oxford (188^-86Htiid
was ordered deacon in 18S4 and printed two jmn
later. Aftar being in charge of the misaioa charebei
of St, Edmund, Milwaukee, and of St, Peter,
GreenEeldt- Wis,, 1SS4-S6, he was canon of All
Saints' Cathedral, Milwaukee, 1886-S7 and rector
of St Luke's, Whitewater, Wis., l8S7-n88. He then
went as a missionary to Japan, where he remMoed
until 1897, being professor of dogmatic thtdogy
in Trinity Divinity School, Tokyo, 1891-&7 and
Bubdean of the same institution 1893-97. Re-
turning to the United States, he was rector of St.
Paul's, Evaniiville, Ind,, 1898-99, and in 1899 wu
consecrated bishop of Indianapolifl. In thedogy be
is in '' entire conformity with the teachlnjr ol the
Episcopal ChtiFch as laid down in the Book of Com-
mon Prayer,"
FRAHCIS, SAIirr, OF PAOLA: Founder of the
Order of Minims; b. at Paola (13 m, w,n,w,ofCfflrti-
ea), Italy, 1416 (according to the Bollandist*), [4-38;
d, at PleBflifl-l^-Tours (1 m, s,w. of Toui^), Fraace.
Apr, 2, 1 507* His parents dedicated him at »n early
age to St. Francia of A^iai, to vrhoee interoeseioa
they attributed his b^'rth. At tbe age of twelve he
entered the Franciscan monastery of San Marco in
Calabria, and quickly surpassed the strictest monb
in his rigid obeervanee of the rule. After spent^
a year as novice, he accompanied his parents ia a
ptlgrimage to Assisi, Rome and other holy pkces,
and after hb return to Paola lived for 6131 yeaw in
a cave on the seashore, gradually gathering about
h i m a band of disciples. After a few yearn t be aitb-
bishop of Coaenza gave permission for the et^'OQ
(6S
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Francis, Saint
4 a monastery and church, probably about 1464,
Ithough the date is usually given as 1435. This
narks the establishment of his order, which as-
umed the title of '* Eremites of St. Francis '' and
itrove to surpass the Franciscans by a more rigid
application of the vow of poverty and by extreme
uBceticism. The fame of the miracles of St. Francis
oon attracted the attention of Paul II. who sent a
chamberlain in 1469 to test them. The result was
avorable, and the rule of the new order was con-
irmed by Sixtus IV. in a bull issued May 23, 1474,
;heir founder himself being appointed corrector-
general. The rule was slightly modified by Inno-
Dent VIII., Alexander VI., and Julius II., the second
changing the name of the order to Minimi frcUres
(" L^ist of the Brethren "), probably in aUusion to
Matt. XXV. 40. Niunerous miracles are recounted of
St. Francis, many of them closely resembling those
of Christ. As a consequence, Louis XI. of France,
when near death, simmioned him to his court, but
was obeyed only at the command of the pope, St.
FranciB declining to attempt to prolong the dying
monarch's life by his prayers. The new king,
Charles VIII., induced him to remain in France,
consulted him both in spiritual and secular matters,
and built for him two monasteries in France, one at
Plessis-les-Tours and the other at Amboise, as well
as a third at Rome, to be occupied solely by French
monks. Francis was canonized by Leo X. in 1519.
The Minims are bound, in addition to the three
monastic vows, by a fourth which devotes them to a
vita quadrigeHmalis, or perpetual fast, enjoining
abstinence from all meat and lacticinia, and per-
mitting only bread and water, oil, vegetables, and
fruit to be used for food. The appointed fasts of
the Church are intensified by the Minims, who are
also bound by strict rules of silence. The rule of
the Minimite nuns, whose first convent was estab-
lished at Andujar in Spain in 1495, closely resembles
that for the monks, but the Tertiaries of both sexes
are subject to far less rigid restrictions, especially
with r^ard to diet. During its period of greatest
prosperity, from the death of its founder to the end
of the sixteenth century, the order had 450 houses,
and extended its missionary activity as far as India.
It now has only nineteen cloisters, the mother house
at Paola, Sant'Andrea della Fratte in Rome,
fourteen in Sicily, and one each in Naples, Marseilles,
and Cracow. (O. ZOcKLERf.)
Bibuoorapht: The earliest life of the founder is in ASB,
April, i. 105-234. Other lives are by Hilarion de Coste,
Paris, 1655; I. Toscano. Venice, 1704; C. du Vivier.
Douai, 1722; Holland. Paris. 1874; J. Dabert, Paris,
1877; and in KL, iv. 1824-26.
Early accounts of the order are: L. de Montoia, Cro-
meo 0^^*^!^ ^ 2o orden de lo% Afinimot, Madrid, 1610;
Louis Doni Datichi, Hist, ginirale de Vordre dee Minimee,
Paris, 1624; F. Lanovius. Cfuronicon generale ordinie Mini-
mcrtun, ib. 1635. Consult: Helyot, Ordree monaetiquee,
rii. 426-452; Heimbucher. Orden und Konaregationen,
u. 627 sqq.; Currier. Religioue Ordere, pp. 268-270. On
the Rules consult: C. Passarelli. Statuta fratrum Mino-
rum, Naples. 1570; Lee R^lee dee frhee et Bcnure et dee
Hd^M . . . de Vordre dee Minimee, Paris. 1632; Digeetum
mpieriHiB Biinimitana tripartitum, ed. P. Baltas d'Avila,
Lille. 1667; Traduction nouvelle dee r^lee , , . de Vordre
dee Minimee, Paris. 1703.
FRANCIS OF PARIS. See Jansen, Cornelius,
Jansenism, § 7.
FRANCIS, SAINT, OF SALES: Saint Francis of
Sales, noted preacher and devotional author; bom
at the chdteau of Sales near Annecy (25 m. s.
of Geneva) in Savoy, Aug. 21, 1567; d. at Lyons
Dec. 28, 1622. He was a member of a noble fam-
ily of Savoy and at the age of twelve entered
the Jesuit college in Paris, where he devoted him-
self to the study of philosophy, the classics and
Hebrew, leading at the same time a life of stem
asceticism in fulfilment of an early vow to the
Virgin. From 1584 to 1690 he studied civil and
canon law at. Padua, but gave himself up more
and more to theology under the guidance of the
Jesuit Possevin. During a severe illness he deter-
mined to enter the priesthood, and carried out his
purpose in 1591, in spite of the opposition of his
family.
Placed under the authority of the bishop of
Geneva, who was then residing at Annecy, Francis
began to play an important part in the movement
for bringing back to the Roman faith the inhabitants
of the province of Chablais and of the district
of Gex, lying on the Lake of Geneva.
Activity Conquered in 1536 by the Bernese
in Chablais, and converted to Protestantism,
Gex, and Chablais and Gex were restored to
Geneva. Philibert Emmanuel of Savoy by the
Treaty of Lausanne in 1664 with the
assurance of religious freedom. This pledge,
faithfully kept by Philibert, was broken by his son
Charles Eknmanuel, who succeeded in 1580, and
discerned in the close connection prevailing be-
tween the people of the two regions and the inhab-
itants of Bern and Geneva a menace to his political
authority. Peaceful methods were at first decided
upon, and to Francis of Sales the mission was con-
fided. In spite of his zeal, courage, patience and
remarkable gifts of persuasion, Francis met with
absolute failure at Thonon, the capital of Chablais,
whose inhabitants entered into a compact to re-
fuse even a hearing to the eloquent preacher.
Only among the peasantry and the nobility could
he point to a few isolated conversions. Convinced
that nothing was to be accomplished by peaceful
means, he abandoned the field of his labors in the
winter of 1696-97, and at Turin in the ducal council
declared himself for a policy of forcible conversion,
calling for the expulsion of the Protestant clergy, the
prohibition of Evangelical literature, the re-estab-
lishment of the Roman Catholic parishes, the foun-
dation of a Jesuit college, and the restoration of the
mass in the city of Thonon. The plan was adopted,
priests and monks were sent into the country,
soldiers were quartered upon the inhabitants; and
with the additional weapon of exile the Iloman
reaction was speedily triumphant. Encouraged by
their success, the authorities turned their eyes to
Geneva whither Francis went in 1597 at the in-
stance of Pope Clement VIII. There he came
into repeated contact with the aged Beza, and,
convinced that the great Huguenot could not be
gained over by argument, attempted bribery —
an act which roused Beza to great indignation.
To his very last day Francis retained an irrecon-
cilable hatred for Geneva, which he designated as
the home of the devil and of heretics.
Franois, Saint
Franok
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
864
In 1602, on the death of the bishop of Geneva,
Francis succeeded to the see, of which he had for
some time been coadjutor. In the performance of
the duties of his office he lived up to the very
highest standard of pastoral obligation. His fame
as a preacher caused him to be sum-
Bishop moned repeatedly to France, where
of Geneva, he enjoyed great influence. With the
aid of Madame de Chantal he founded
in 1604 the order of the Visitation (see Visita-
tion, Order op the) devoted to the care of the
sick and later also to the education of the young.
In 1618 Francis composed his Introduction A la
vie d&vote, one of the most popular books among
Roman Catholics to the present day, the object of
which, as he explained in his preface, was to meet
the pious needs of those whose calling lay in the
spheres of active life. The book is in the form
of a discourse addressed to a certain Philothea,
and treats in five chapters of repentance, prayer,
the various virtues, temptations, and pious practises.
"The world," he says, "often looks
His with contempt upon piety because it
Works and pictures the pious as men of downcast
Doctrine, and sorrowful faces, but Christ him-
self testifies that the inner life is a
soft, sweet, and happy one." In his indulgence
to the demands made by the world he often goes
to extremes. His views find their systematic ex-
pression in his Traitd de Vamour de Dieu. Pro-
ceeding from the principle that the will, ap-
pointed by the Lord as ruler of all the powers of
the soul, finds its highest expression in the love
of God, he finds two principal manifestations of
this love, one passive, revealing itself in attrac-
tion toward the divine, and one active, finding
expression in the performance of the will of God.
The first consists primarily in prayer, by which is
understood not merely verbal utterance of devo-
tion but the inner approach of the soul toward
God. The inner form of prayer is of two degrees,
the lower, meditation, the higher, contemplation.
Its highest degree is the total absorption of the
soul into its God, ecstasy. In Francis we find an
undisguised exposition of the doctrines of Quietism.
As a counterpoise to the evil consequences that
might possibly follow on the extreme interpreta-
tion of his mystic doctrine, Francis sets up the act-
ive love of God, which consists in the fulfilment of
the divine will. In three books he gives a de-
tailed account of the various virtues in which this
active love manifests itself, a love which in Francis
himself revealed itself throughout his life. He
was canonized in 1665, and in 1878 was declared a
doctor of the universal Church. (J* EHNif)
Biblioqrapht: The CEuvres of St. Francis appeared 16 vols..
Paris, 1821: 8 vols., Lyons, 1868; ed. H B. Mackey. An-
necy, 1890-97; also an ed., Paris, 1908; (Euvres choisies, ed.
M. Pag^s, 3 vols.. Paris. 1890; Selection from Spiritual
Letters, by H. L. S. Lear, London. 1892 ; a selection in
Fr. by F. Pracht, Paris, 1893. Several of his works are
constantly reproduced in English, e. g., Practical Piety,
London. 1851; Spiritual Letter a (or selections from them),
ib., 1871; Spiritxial Conferences, ib., 1S62: Introduction
to a Devoid Life, Oxford, 1875. For his life or phases of
it consult: Baronesa Herbert of Lea, Mission o/ St
FrancU in the Chablais. London. 1868; J, P. Camus, The
SpirU of Francis of Sales, ib., 1880; A. Perat^, La Mission
de Francois de Sales dans le Chablais, Rome, 1886: G.
Port«r. The Heart of St Franda, Loodoo, 1^; J. F.
Gouthier. La Mieeion de 8. Franeoia de Sales dam . . .
Chablais, Annecy, 1891; H. B. Mackey. 8L Frwis it
Sales as a Preacher, London, 1898; F. Strowski, S. Fm-
cois de Sales, Paris. 1898; A. Delplanque. S. Frsafcitii
Sales, humaniste H icrivain latin, Lille, 1908; Manofiet,
Vie de 8. Francois de Sales, Touib, 1908; R. Ornsby. li^if
St, Francis de Sales, London, n.d.; KL, iv. 1826-38i
FRANCIS XAVIER, SAIHT: The founder and
pioneer of modem Roman Catholic missbns to the
heathen; b. at the castle of Xavier, near Pamplooi
(195 m. n.n.e. of Madrid), in Navarre, Apr. 7, 1506;
d. on the island of San-ehan (Chang-Cfauang, Sl
John's Island, on the south coast of China, 125 m.
s. of Canton) Dec. 2, 1552. He ^rang from u
aristocratic family of Navarre. While preptring
himself for the higher spiritual career at the Uni-
versity of Paris, he became acquainted with Igna-
tius Loyola, soon stood completely under his influ-
ence, and was one of those who on Aug. 15, 1534,
bound themselves by a vow at Montmartre and
formed the nucleus of the subsequent Society of
Jesus (see Ignatius of Loyola). The field of labor
falling to Francis Xavier was that of miasiooa to
the heathen. As King John III. of Portugal de-
sired Jesuit missionaries for the East Indies, he
was ordered thither, leaving Lisbon on Apr. 7,
1541; from August of that year tiU Mar. 1542,
he remained in Mozambique, and reached Gca,
the capital of the Portuguese colonies, on May 6.
His first missionary activity was among the Para-
vas, pearl-fishers along the southerly portion of ibt
east coast of Hindustan. He then exerted himself
to win the king of Travancore to Christianity, on
the west coast, and abo visited Ceylon. Dissatisfied
with the results of his activity, he turned eastward
in 1545, and planned a missionary journey to Macas-
sar, on the island of Celebes. Having arrived in Ma-
lacca in October of that year and waited there three
months in vain for a ship to Macassar, he gave up
the goal of his voyage, and went to Amboyna and
other of the Molucca Islands, returning to India
in Jan., 1548. The next fifteen months were oc-
cupied with various journeys and administratis
measures in India. Then his displeasure by reason
of the unchristian life and manners of the Portu-
guese, whereby his proselyting work was seriously
impeded, drove him forth once again into the un-
known Far East. He left Goa on Apr. 15, 1549,
stopped at Malacca, visited Canton, and on Aug.
15 reached Japan, w^here he landed at Kagoshinia,
the principal port of the province of Satsuma, on the
island of Kiushiu. He was received in friendly
manner and was permitted to preach, but, not
knowing the native language, had to limit hinoself
to reading aloud the translation of a catechism.
For all this, his sojourn was not without fruits,
as is attested by congregations established in Hiudo,
Samaguchi, and Bungo (see Japan, III., 1, § 1).
After more than two years in Japan, he returned
to India, and was back in Goa by Jan., 1552.
In April he was again under way, aiming for China,
but died on the journey.
Francis Xavier accomplished a great missionary
work both as organizer and as pioneer. By his
compromises in India with the Christians of St.
Thomas he developed the Jesuit missionazy methods
366
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Francis, Saint
Franok
alon^ lines that subsequently became fateful for
his order (see Jesuits; Accommodation, § 8);
the instruction he dispensed in connection with
baptism was superficial; and he combined mis-
edons with politics, and approved of the extension of
Christianity by force (cf . his letter to King John
III. of Portugal, Cochin, Jan. 20, 1548). Yet he
had high qualifications as missionary; he was
animated with glowing zeal, the consciousness of
acting in God's service never forsook him, he was
endowed with great linguistic gifts, and his activity
was marked by restless pushing forward, iiis ef-
forts left a significant impression upon the mis-
sionary history of India; and by pointing out the
way to East India to the Jesuits, his work is of
fundamental significance with regard to the history
of the propagation of Christianity in China and
Japan. The results of his labor that he himself
witnessed were not slight (mere figures may be
disregarded, as they are difficult to verify); but
still greater were the tasks he proposed. And
since the Roman Catholic Church responded to his
call, the effects of his efiforts reach far beyond the
Jesuit order; the entire systematic and aggressive
incorporation of great masses of people on broad
lines of policy by the Roman Catholic Church in
modem times, dates back to Francis Xavier. He
was beatified by Paul V. on Oct. 25, 1619, and was
canonized by Gregory XV. on Mar. 12, 1622.
Carl Mirbt.
Bibuographt: The best sourcen for a life are the letters,
146 in all. translated into Latin by R. Minchaca, with the
title S. FrancUd Xaverii . . . epiatolarum omnium libri
guattuor, Bologna, 1795; next is the MonumerUa Xave^
riana, in the Monumenta hUtorica toeietatis Jeau, Madrid,
1809. Consult: H. F. Coleridge, Life and Letter* of St.
FraneU Xavier, 2 vols.. New York, 1886; Mary H. Mac-
Clean, Life of FranciM Xavier, London, 1895; H. Haas,
GeMdUchU de» Chrietentuma in Japan, 2 vols.. Tokyo,
1002-04; L. J. M. Cros. S. Francois de Xavier, Paris, 1903;
KL, iv. 1839-43. A really critical life is still a desider-
atum.
FRAHCISCANS. See Francis, Saint, of Assisi,
AND THE Franciscan Order.
FRAHCISCnS a SANCTA CLARA. See Daven-
port, Christopher.
FRAUCK, f rOnk (FRANK), JOHANN : German lyric
poet; b. at Guben (79 m. s.e. of Berlin), Branden-
burg, June 1, 1618; d. there June 18, 1677. He
studied law at Kdnigsberg, was a councilor in his
native town, later on mayor and a member of the
county council of the Niederlausitz. Under the
influence of the Silesian School and of Simon Dach
of Kdnlgsberg he produced a series of poems and
hymns, collected and edited by himself in two
volumes (Guben, 1674), entitled: Teutsche Gedichte,
enthaUend geistliches Zion samt Vaterunserharfe
nebst irdischem Helicon oder Loh-, Licb-^ Leidge-
dichte, etc. His secular poems are forgotten; about
forty of his religious songs, hymns, and psalms
have been kept in the hymn-books of the German
Protestant Church. Some of these are the hynm
for the Holy Communion " Schmiicke dich, o licbe
Seele " (" Deck thyself, my soul, with g adness ");
the Advent hymn " Komm, Heidenheiland, Lose-
geld " (" Come, Ransom of our captive race; "
a translation into German of J. Campanus's " Veni
Redemptor gentium "); a hymn to Christ, " Jesu,
meine Freude " (" Jesus, my chief pleasure ")•
The music for his hymns by the Guben organist
Christoph Peter appeared first in the Andachtacym-
beln, the oldest Guben hymn-book, in 1648. In
honor of Johann Franck a simple monument has
been erected at the south wall of the Guben parish-
church. A. Werner.
Bibliooraphy: H. Jentsch, Johann Franck von Ouben,
Guben, 1877. On his hymns consult A. Knapp, Evan-
Oeliecfier LiederSchaU, ii. 849 Stuttgart, 1850; Julian,
Hvmnolooy, pp. 386-387.
FRANCK (FRANK), SEBASTIAN.
His Peculiar Views (5 1). The Chronica (| 3).
His Literary Activity (§ 2). Other Works (| 4).
Sebastian Franck, one of the popular writers of
the Reformation, was bom at Donauwdrth (25 m.
n. of Augsburg) 1499; d. Basel (?) 1542 or 1543. He
entered the University of Ingolstadt in 1515, and
continued his studies at Bethlehem college, an insti-
tution of the Dominicans at Heidelberg, incorporated
in the university. Here he met his later op-
ponents, Martin Frecht and Butzer. Bethlehem
was still dominated by the scholasticism of the
closing Middle Ages, but influences of humanism
also made themselves felt. Subsequently Franck
became priest in the bishopric of Augsburg, and in
1527 he occupied a clerical position at Gustenfelden,
a small borough near Nuremberg.
At this time his standpoint was strictly Lutheran,
and he attacked the Sacramentarians and Anabap-
tists. But in his Tiirkenchronik (1530) his radical-
ism began to find expression. Here he treats of
*' ten or eleven nations or sects of Christianity "
of which none possesses the full truth, and at the
close he intimates that beside the three faiths,
the Lutheran, the Zwinglian and the
z. His Anabaptist, there would soon arise a
Peculiar fourth, an invisible spiritual Church
Views, which would be governed by the eter-
nal invisible word of God without any
external means such as ceremonies, sacraments and
sermons. Thus Franck appears as the representr
ative of a mystic spiritualism which placed him in
strong contrast with ecclesiastical Protestantism.
In 1528 he resigned his position at Gustenfelden
and went to Nuremberg and in the following year
to Strasburg. In the free atmosphere of the two
imperial cities his views underwent an entire
change — the theologian became a popular writer,
the Lutheran an opponent of every Christian
system that is bound by ecclesiastical rules. He
searched for God's truth among all people, in nature,
and history as well as in the Bible. In Strasburg
he came into contact with congenial opponents of
the ecclesiastical Reformation, especially with Ser-
vetus and Hans BUnderlin of Linz. Lender the in-
fluence of the latter as well as of Schwenckfeld his
spiritualism reached its full development. He
held that the whole external Church and all its in-
stitutions were corrupted by Antichrist imme-
diately after t!ie time of the apostles. It is not
God's will, he thought, that it should be reerected,
the inner illumination by the spirit of God being
sufficient. We must all unlearn what we have
learned from the pope, Luther, and Zwingli.
Franok
Franoka
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOQ
866
In 1531 there appeared at Strasburg Franck's
first great work, Chronica, ZeUbuch und Geschichta-
bibel. The frank criticisms in the book caused a
great sensation, there being no party which had not
received its share. Princes became aware of the
dangerous character of the book, and prominent
men like Erasmus entered their complaints. In
1531 Franck was imprisoned and his chronicle
confiscated, but he was soon released
2. His and expelled from Strasburg. He
Literary went to Esslingen where he established
Activity, a soap factory for the support of his
family. In 1533 he was permitted to
settle at Ulm. Here he established a printing-press
and printed some of his works which again brought
him into conflict with the theologians and authori-
ties. At the instigation of Martin Frecht, first
preacher at Ulm, Franck was ordered in 1635 to
leave the city, but he protested against this decision
and was allowed to remain. He published several
other works which, however, he was not allowed
to print at Ulm. They appeared at Frankfort
and again offended the theologians. Frecht suc-
ceeded in inducing the Town Council to expel
Franck from Ulm in 1539. In 1540 a resolution
written by Melanchthon was passed at the con-
vention of theologians in Schmalkalden in which
Franck was accused of separation from the
Church, contempt for the Bible and the ministry,
and of heresy. These experiences naturally in-
creased the bitterness of his criticisms, but did not
paralyze his energy. In 1539 he moved with his
family and printing-press to Basel where he was
active in the production and printing of numerous
writings until his death.
Franck has left no adherents as he belonged to no
party. The ecclesiastical leaders of the time did
not understand his independence; they only recog-
nized the incongruity of his ideas with their theology
and the contradiction between his abstract idealism
and their newly established Church. He was
severely attacked by Luther, who criticized him
for his pessimism and the lack of positive Christian
thought in his works; the other Protestant theolo-
gians judged similarly. But in spite of all dam-
natory criticisms by theologians Franck's produc-
tions were circulated in numerous editions and
remained popular for more than a century. Even
more lasting and greater was their influence upon
the development of free thought in the Netherlands.
Franck was no original thinker in the higher sense.
Most of his tlioughts on spiritualism were borrowed
from the older pliilosophic mysticism, and he had
too little of a religious nature to mark an epoch in
the history of mysticism. While his works are
superficial and betray a lack of erudition, they are
full of a glowing patriotism and pointed remarks
and criticisms on the shortcomings of his people
and his time. Franck's Chronica consists of three
parts; the first comprises the time from Adam to
Christ, the second treats of emperors
3. The and secular affairs, the tliird of popes
Chronica, and spiritual affairs. The larger part
of the material has been taken from
other works, but the book is original in its ar-
rangement, in its leading ideas, in its criticisms of
ecclesiastical phenomena of the past and present
and of the political and social conditions of the
people; it became very popular, and many later
works of a similar kind were dependent upon it
Apart from the information on contemponuwooi
history and customs, the chief value of the book
lies in the Ketzerchronik of the third part Here
Franck has compiled all the different beliefs which
according to the judgment of Romanism would hsTe
to be considered heretical if it were ccHisistent
Among the reformers appear the Anabaptists sod
enthusiasts; among the heretics rejected by the
Church such as Marcion, Arius, Huss and Wydif
are found the great pillars of the Church— Augus-
tine, Ambrose, etc. — in so far as they taught diffe^
ently from the sixteenth-century Roman Chuich;
by the side of the prophets of the Old Testament
appear the sibyls, philosophers, and poets of the
pagans — everything in alphabetical order with
epitomes of their writings and pervaded by a deli-
cate irony. Franck's purpose was to show the
vain presumption of Rome and of all other sects
in their claims to possess the only right faith. He
criticizes severely the violence of princes and the
nobility, but not less the stupidity of the mob in
changing its faith like a garment, and the arrogance
of the learned. He demands a decisive refonn
in State and society, being conscious of the miseiy
and disorder of social and ecclesiastical condi-
tions. The Weltbuch, Cosmographie (Tilbingen,
1534) appeared as the fourth part of the ex-
ecutive work.
Franck printed his Paradoxa, 280 TFtimferrwfai
at Ulm in 1534, and calls it the true and divine
philosophy and theology for all Christians. Here he
developed, on the basis of Dionysius the Areopagite,
Eckhart, Tauler and the Deutsche Thedogie,^
mystical and speculative theories on the relation
between God and the world, God and sin, liberty
and necessity, spirit and flesh, Christ and Anti-
christ. Subsequently there appeared his Gemrnia
Chronicon (Frankfort, 1538) and Dit
5. Other gUldene Arch (Augsburg, 1538). In
Works, the latter work he placed side by side
passages from Holy Scripture, from
the Church Fathers, and from illuminated pagans.
By the side of Augustine is placed Hermes Trisine-
gistus; by the side of Thomas, Orpheus; by the aide
of Plato, Tauler. Franck also translated Eraanus's
"Praise of Folly" (1534) to which he appended
treatises, one concerning the vanity of aU human
arts and sciences; the second concerning the tree
of knowledge of good and evil, and the third wn-
ceming the praise of the " foolish divine word
and the difference between the internal and ex-
ternal word. DasKriegsbilchleindesFriedensifi^
1539) was directed against the court preachers
who justified war like the princes. Das tw*«f'
schierte Buch (1539) is a sort of concordance which is
arranged in such a way that the contradictions m
the letter of Scripture become prominent, and was
intended to lead away from the letter to the
spirit. Franck also published two collections of
proverbs (Frankfort, 1541) which became popular
and were enjoyed by Lessing.
(A. HBQLEBt.) K. HOLL.
ie7
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Franok
Franoke
"Rtwi.ioohaphy; The most important work is A. Hegler,
CTcmC und Sdurift bei SOxutian Franek, Freiburg. 1892.
Consult alao: C. T. Keim, Die Reformation der ReidiMtadt
Uim, Stuttgart, 1851; C. A. Base, SebatUan Franek, der
Seh%earmgeiet, Leipsic, 1869; C. Sepp. OeMchiedkundige
Namporinoen, i. 168 Bqq., Leyden, 1872 (important); C.
Gerbert. GeedtidiU der Straeeburger Sektenbewegung, Stras-
Imrs* 1889; E. Tausch, Sebattian Franek . . . und teine
Ltkrmr, Halle. 1893; ADB, vii. 214 Bqq.
FRAIICKE, AUGUST HERMANN.
Early Life and Studies (i 1).
His Work in Leipsic. Erfurt, and Halle (i 2).
His Philanthropic Institutions ({3).
His Service to Missions and Pedagogy (i 4).
His Writings (i 5).
August Hermann Francke, founder of the char-
itable institutions at Halle bearing his name, was
bom at Labeck Mar. 12, 1663; d. at Halle June 8,
1727. In his third year his father, a jurist, re-
moved to Gotha, on the call of Duke Ernest I. the
Pious (q.v.), and died there a few months later.
The pious influences of his home determined the
son to study theology. He was edu-
I. Early cated by private tutors and at the
Life and gynmasium of Gotha, where he passed
Studies, his final examination in 1679. After
half a year's stay at Erfurt he went to
Kiel, where he was influenced by Christian Kortholt
(q.v.), a theologian of Spener's tendency. His
memoirs illustrating this period show how strict he
was in his self-discipline and how eagerly he longed
for a perfect Christianity. After three years he
went for two months to Hamburg where he per-
fected his knowledge of Hebrew under Ezra Ed-
sard. Then he returned to Gotha, always dis-
satisfied with himself as being a mere " natural ''
man. In 1684 he continued his studies at I^ipsic
and in 1685 became master of arts, receiving at
the same time permission to lecture as privat-
docent.
In Leipsic his future Pietistic tendency began to
manifest itself by his absorption in Holy Scripture.
He helped to foimd the Collegium philobiblicum (see
Pietibm) for a closer study of Old and New Testa-
ment exegesis. These Bible studies became very
popular, and Francke confessed that he grasped the
deep truths of Scripture first in these gatherings;
but he was still dissatisfied with himself. In 1687
he went to Liineburg to continue his Biblical studies
under the guidance of the learned superintendent
Sandhagen. The period at Liineburg was destined
to become the turning-point of his inner life as he
dated from this time his conversion. In 1688 he
was again at Hamburg, where he continued his ex-
egeti(^ studies under the influence of the learned
preacher Johann Winkler, a friend of Spener.
Toward the end of the same year he returned to
Leipsic, visiting Spener at Dresden for two months
on the way. The intimate intercourse with this
congenial man exerted a great influence upon
Francke, and ever after they were united by a
bond of cordial affection, assisting each other in
their labors and keeping up their correspondence
until 1702.
After Francke's return to Leipsic in Feb., 1689,
and the resumption of his earlier academic activity,
his influence began to make itself felt in larger
circles. By his lectures — which were chiefly exe-
getical, and attended by so many that the largest
auditorium could hardly hold all his hearers —
as well as by his sermons and his per-
2. His Work sonal intercourse with the students,
in Leipsic, he was the originator of a movement
Erftut, which struck deep roots in the minds
and Halle, of his hearers and was destined to
effect a deepening of piety by a con-
scious devotion to Christ in a living, personal faith.
It was inevitable that his success should arouse
envy, and it must be confessed that not everything
in the movement of Francke and his friends was
commendable, as, for instance, the contempt of
science and distrust of earnest philosophical study
united with self-complacency and conceit among
those who were only superficially inspired by the
Spirit. Francke's chief opponent was his colleague,
J. B. Carpzov (q.v.), at whose instigation, the fac-
ulty prohibited the continuation of the CoUegia
biblica and instituted a formal investigation against
Francke, the result of which was that he had to con-
fine himself to lectures of a philosophical nature.
In 1690 he gladly accepted a call to the Church of the
Augustinians at Erfurt. Here he developed again
in an extraordinary manner his successful activ-
ity in the spirit of Pietistic Christianity. Students
from Leipsic and Jena followed him to Erfurt,
and his influence made itself felt beyond the town.
But the opponents of Francke rose again and in-
stituted a commission, the result of which was his
dismissal from office (1691). He went to Gotha
and from there was invited to Berlin by Spener.
Owing to the latter's influence, he received in
1692 a parish at Glaucha, now a suburb of HaUe,
and at the same time the chair of Greek and Orien-
tal languages in the University of Halle. Here he
found among his colleagues a circle of congenial
men who followed the tendency of Spener. The
opposition of the orthodox town clergy was soon
overcome. Francke's parochial activity and pas-
toral care exercised the deepest and most far-reach-
ing influences. His sermons centered in the great
theme of Pietistic theology, sin and grace. They
were spontaneous utterances of his innermost
being and testimonies from his own experience.
His practical activity enlivened his lectures and
made his study of the Bible more fruitful for the
calling of his students, and his scientific work in its
turn had a wholesome effect upon his sermons and
religious instruction. He entered into intimate
relations with his colleagues J. J. Breithaupt and
Paul Anton (qq.v.), who held the same theological
convictions, and the three men gave to the newly
founded faculty its characteristic stamp of Pietism.
The chief factors were a profound study of the
Bible, an unfolding of the thoughts of salvation
contained in it without the mechanical dogmatics
of the orthodox, practical guidance in the success-
ful performance of the clerical office, and insistence
upon pious conduct and a godly life. In accordance
with Francke's general views his lectures treated
first of all Biblical exegesis, but hermeneutics,
homiletics, and parenetics were not excluded.
But his chief activity belonged from the begin-
ning to his congregation. His eminent gifts showed
Franoka
Frank
THE NEW 8CHAFF-HERZ0G
themselves not only in his pastoral care, but also
in the field of pedagogy. In both spheres he
developed the most strenuous activity, taxing his
powers to the utmost. He preached twice on Sun-
day, conducted daily prayer -meetings and daily
catechizations of children, and paid regular visits to
the members of his congregation. In 1695 he
opened his paupei^school in the parsonage with
the aid of a poor student, and this un-
3. His Phil- dertaking of Christian charity was the
anthropic seed from which all the other insti-
Institutions. tutions of Francke developed. The
number of children grew rapidly, and
soon larger accoomiodations had to be provided,
and the number of teachers had to be increased.
In 1696 there originated the P&dagogium which
was intended chiefly for the education of boys
whose parents lived out of town, and almost simul-
taneously the orphan asylum was established.
The teaching staff of these institutions consisted
for the most part of poor students, who, in compen-
sation for their services, received free board. In
1697 there was founded the so-called Latin School
to prepare boys for academic studies. There was
something almost miraculous in the growth and
rapid development of these various institutions,
and Francke revealed an extraordinary talent of
organization in their management. His trust in
God awakened everywhere the same spirit, and
voluntary contributions poured in from far and
near so that he considered his success a direct an-
swer to his fervent prayers. In the year of his
death more than 2,200 children were being in-
structed in liis institutions, among them 134 or])hans;
175 teachers and eight inspectors were employed;
and about 250 students received free board. There
were also added a printing-press and publishing
establishment and a pharmacy which contributed
a large profit to the institutions.
Not less important was Francke 's interest in
foreign missions. The orphanage with its numer-
ous assistants and teachers became for a time an
important center for the education of mission-
aries for India. Ziegenbalg, PlOtschau, and C. F.
Schwarz were trained in Francke's institutions
and, together with the Moravians, deserve the
credit of having inaugurated the mis-
4. His Serv- sionary history of modem times for
ice to Mis- Germany. Another undertaking due
sions and to the influence of Francke is the
Pedagogy. Bible Institute founded in 1710 by
Baron von Canstein (q.v.), a faithful
admirer of Francke. Francke also rendered great
services to the cause of pedagogy. As he was free
from the restrictions by the authorities, he was able
to realize some of his innermost ideals. The main
purpose of education was for him to lead children to
a saving knowledge of God and Christ and to tnie
Christianity. Without true love to God and man
all knowledge appeared to him worthless, and he
considered it the task of the higher as well as of tlie
lower schools to further not only Christian instnic-
tion, but Christian life. He hated all empty
formalism and tried in every way to introduce
object-lessons, and to emphasize instruction for the
practical matters of Hfe.
Francke's writings were numerous, but i
unimportant. His Pddagoffische Schrifkn haveb
edited by G. Kramer, with an accoont of M
life and institutions, as vol. zi. of the BAKh]
thek pddeagogisher KlasMer (2d ed.,
1885). His Fus88tapfen des noch kbendat (kkd
an account of his institutions (Halle, 1701, aii
many later editions), was ttBuhhil
5. His into English {An AhMtrad of ikiUth]
Writings, vellous Footsteps of Divine PM&m^ |
London, 1706 and often). Other Ed|^ I
translations which were higlily popular in their te I
are Nicodemus or a treatise against Ike fear 0/ an ]
(London, 1706); A Letter to a Friend concemtif tte
Most Useful Way of Preaehing (1754); f oift »
Christ inconsistent with a Solicitous Concern oboitf
the Things of this World, a sermon (1759); AGwkk
the Reading and Study of the Holy Scripture (1813).
(T. FOBOTERt.)
Bibuoqrapht: G. Kramer. Beiiriige gur GmdAAk 1. fl.
Francke'; BrufwedimL Francke's umd Spmtr'a, EJk
1861; idem, Neue BeitrSge tur Geeckiddt FrmAi^ ik
1875; idem. Auguti Hermann Francke. Bim LAmMi,
2 voIb.. Halle. 1880-82 (the best, some mistake! ia vhiA
are corrected in W. Schrader, OeechiekU der FrieinAh
nniverntat in Halle, 2 vols.. Berlin. 1804); T. FtaM;
Auffu»t Hermann Francke. Bin Lebenrinld, HaUe. 18B1
Consult also. A. Ritschl. OeeehiekU dee PieUemue, tqL ii,
Bonn. 1884; J. Jangat-Stettin, PieHaten, pp. 24-38^ Tl-
bingen. 1906.
FRANK, FRANZ HERMANll REIHHOLD VOI:
German Lutheran; b. at Altenburg (26 m. s. of
Leipsic) Mar. 25, 1827; d. at Erlangen Feb. 7, 1894.
His early Ufe was spent at ZschemiU, and in 1839
he entered the gymnasium of Altenburg. matrie-
ulating in 1845 at the University of Leipsic to study
theology, philosophy and philology (Ph.D., 1850;
licentiate of theology, 1851). There, under the
influence of Harless, Frank underwent an entire
change of views, and from a rationalist he became
an enthusiastic admirer of the La-
Early theran confession and of early Prot-
Life. estant theology. Li 1851 he became
subrector of a schocd at Ratxeburg,
and two years later teacher of religion in the gym-
nasium of Altenburg. In 1857 he was appointed
extraordinary professor of church history and
systematic theology in Erlangen, and in the follow-
ing year became ordinary professor; while from
1875 until his death he occupied the chair of sys-
tematic theology.
Not only as a theological leader, but also as a
moral character, Frank exercised a far-reaching in-
fluence. He was thoroughly convinced of the
truth of his conservative ideas; but deeply rooted
as he was in Evangelical principles, he still main-
tained a deep interest in modem life with its aims
and problems, while he was opposed to reactionary
tendencies in ecclesiastical affairs, and to external
authority in political relations. He may be styled
the dogmatician of the " Erlangen theology."
T\\ice his views were essentially changed — in Leip-
sic he was won for the old truth, in Eriangen. under
the influence of Hofmann, for the ** new mode of
teaching the old truth."
Frank's most characteristic work was his Sys-
tem der chrisllichen Gewissheit (2 vols., Eriangen,
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Fran oka
Frank
ma70-73; 2d ed., IS81-83; Eng, tmnsl. by M. J.
-Stvans, " System of Chnstian Ccrtaiiity," Edin-
IsuE^ 1886). The gns&t queitioa whieh Frank
^^Uieizipted to answer la this work waa the basia of
t>ttllef. The answer is offered by th^ poettive slb*
vurajQCC of the Christian. The OhiiBtian ia tmns-
IpCHcd into a new stale of life, and into a state of
l?ie^neratioD and converston of wtdch he becomes
pontjyeJy a;^ured. This assurance, however, im-
plies alao tbe a^uranee of an objectivi^ cause.
Iliiifl there result three groups of objects of Chris-
tian assurance; the immanent objects
theory of as the effects of the objective cause
Christian inherent in the subject (knowledge
Certitude, of sin; reality of the new life)j the
transcendent objects (God a« the
Biq>rammidano factor, the Trinity; the atoning
Qod-M&D); and the transmit tent objects (the
Word, the Sacranient«r the Church )« or the
historical and concrete media by which faith
experiences the effect of the supramundane cause.
Bac-b of the^ three groups is opposed by a develop*
ment of modem inteilectyalism; so that rationahsm
fienieB th« reality of the pecuUar religious experi^
e&ce of the Christian; pantheism does away with
tbe causality of a personal God; and criticism (as
f^reoentedby Baur and Strauss) tries to prove fh©
Church and church Ufe to be merely natural phe*
nomeua devoid of any specifically inherent trauB*
cendent causality. Aceoixling to Frank, the objects
of faith are implied in the assertion of the E>go of the
new man, and he is assured of them according to
the degree of the certainty of that Ego concerning
it«elf.
Having thus acquired the realiti^ of Christian
faith. It is the task of dogmatics, as set forth by
Frank In his System der christlkhtn Wakrheii (2
i?ohs,, Erlangen, 1878^^; 3d cd., 189::J-94), to
P»8p and represent the objects of Chrintian
faith in their inner connection. Here
Dogmatic Frank no longer starts from sub-
System, jective assurance, but from the first
cause of Christian realities, from the
principium emtndi^ or God. His work accordingly
represents the evolution of the humanity ot God.
The first part treats of the '^ principle of evolution "
and establish^ the doctrine of God, The second
part is devoted to the ^' realization of evolution "
in three divisions: generation (creation, world,
man), degeneration (sin, devil), and regeneration,
the latter comprising the humanity of God as being
realised for the God-Man; the humanity of God
as posited in the God-Man; and the humanity
of God as evolving from the God-Man, that is (a)
the humanity of God as the object of becoming
(the means of grace); (6) the humanity of God as
the subject of becoming (the order of salvation);
and {c) the humanity of God ss the object-eubject
of beooniing (the Church). The third part deseribes
the ** aim of becoming," or eschatology.
The life-work of Frank as a systematic theologian
found its completion in his System der chriMchen
5MtcA/?^7(2vols.,Erlangen, 1884-87; Eng, traml.,
SyMem oj the Christian Ceriaimij. Edinburgh. \M^.)
The leading point of view in this work h the "evolu-
tion of the G od-Man. * * Frank attacked the theolo^
IV.— 24
of Ritschl in his Ueber die kirchliche B^dcutung
der Theohgu A . Ritschls (Leipsic, 1S8S) and Zur
TheohgUi A. Ritschls (3d. ed., 1891); and he also
wrote Evangelische Schulreden (Altenhnrgj 1856);
Die TheQhgitder Coneordienformei (4 vols.^ ErlangeUi
1868-65); Aus dem Ijeben rhristlicher Frauen (GO*
tersloh, 1S73): DogrmHitehe Stvdien {heipsk, 1892);
Vademicum fur angekende Thcohgen (1892); and
Geschichte und Kritik der rteueren Theologie (1804;
3d ed., 1898), (R. SEEBEao.)
BiBLioanAPHT; R. Scebetg^ F* ff* B. von Frank; #*n C7e-
drnkhhti, Lcipdc. tB94; J. CSoilactuck, Du KirchlKhkml
der ffoff^natintim tirchtichen Theoi'Offie, pp. 110 sci<x-< Frei"
bun^, IS^; F. NippoliJ, Handbuch drr neu^t^n Kirchen-
ffe*chieht*, iii* pftj-t I, pp. 405 sqq.i Berlin, \^0; O,
PBciUi^rer^ Die Entuicklvns der prolestantisehrn Theokiffig
ftril KarUr pp, 183 pqq.< Frcibynp. J SO I; G. Daxer. D«r
Svb}rktit^itmu9 in Fmnke " Svitrm der chriMUi^tn GeurivH
AWr' Gntersloh. 1900; F. K. E. Weber, F. H. R. e^
Frankt Guiteahhrr, Ldp^c, lOOi.
FRANK, GUSTAV WILHELM: German Protes-
tant; b, at 8chleiz (24 m. e.w> of Gara) Sept, 25,
1832; d. at Vienna Sept. 24, 1904. He studied at
Jena^ where he became privat-dooent in 1869 and
was appointed associate professor of theology in
1864. In 1867 he was called to Vienna as full pro-
fessor of dogmatic and symbolic theology, and the
same year became a member of the Evangelical
ecclesiastical council In Vienna. He edited E. F.
A pelt's RetigionsphilmQphie (Leipsic, 1860) ^ and
wrote Menwrabilia quf^dam Fiiidana (Schleia,
1856); De Luthero Tolionalismi prtEcursore (Leip-
ste, 1857); De Acidemia JeTWTisi evangeiicw vcri^
ialt^ aitkce (Schleiss, 1858); Die jenaische Theo-
hgie in ihrer geschichUichen EntwtcktluTig (Leipfiic,
1858); De Maitkim FUidi iUyrici in Ubrm mcroM
meritis {IS59); Geachtchle der jyrotestantiBchen Theo-
hgie (vols, i.-iit., 1862-75, vol iv., with Lebens-
abriss by G, L5sche, 1905); Jokann Major,
der WiUenherger Poet (Halle. 1863); Das Tok^
ranspatent Kaiser Joseph 11 (Vienna, 1882); and
Symbol m ml recervtiorem C R. ordinis Theologorum
evangelie^mm Vindoboneims historiam eongeMtm
(1896).
FRANK^ JACOB (Jankiev Lebowici): Jewish
adventurer^ founder of the sect of Frankista; b. in
Podolia C.1720; d, at Offenbach (4 m. e. of Frank-
fort) I>ee. 10, 179 L He was the son of a rabbi and
originally a distiller, but afterward traveled as a
merchant in Turkey, where he received the sur-
name of Frank, the usual desi^ation for Occiden-
tals among the Turks. In Turkey he lived chiefly
in Salonica and Smyrna, the centers of Shabbe-
thflianism,and himself became a prominent member
of the Beet of Shabbethai 2ebi, On hia return to
Poland he beca.me famous as a ca balls t. In 1755
he settled in Podolia, gathered about him a group
of local sectaries and began to preach to them a
new gosp>eL The essence of his teaching seems to
have bpcn a negation of moral and religious
laws?, hifl mission J in his own w^ords, being " to free
the world from the laws and regulations which have
hitherto existed." When it leaked out that at his
meetings orgies were celebrated similar to thoHe of
the Adamites (q.v.), the Roman Catholics joined
the orthodox Jews in the suppression of the Frankist
b€Ct* At the rabbinical court held at Sovanta
Frank
Frankfort Baoeaa
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
370
many of the sectaries told of immorality practised
under the guise of religious symbolism. As Frank
was a Turkish subject he was allowed to leave the
country, but many of his followers were imprisoned,
and a congress of rabbis at Brody proclaimed ex-
communication against all the imp)enitent heretics.
Acting on the advice of Frank, his followers, as
being anti-Talmudists, now enlisted the sympa-
thies of the Roman Catholics. They claimed to
find in the Zohar (see Cabala), which they substi-
tuted for the Talmud, the doctrine of the Trinity,
and expressed their belief in the Messiah, but with-
out saying that they meant Shabbethai Zebi. The
bishop of Kamenetz took up their cause, freed
those who were in prison, and compelled the Tal-
mudists to pay a fine to their opponents and
deliver up aU copies of the Talmud, which were
then publicly burned at Kamenetz.
To escape the persecution to which they were
again subjected after the death of their patron, the
bishop, the Frankists joined the Roman Catholic
Church in 1759, Augustus III. of Poland acting as
godfather to Frank. The insincerity of the Frank-
ists, however, soon became apparent, and early in
the following year Frank was arrested, convicted
as a teacher of heresy, and imprisoned in the fortress
at Czenstochova. He was liberated by the Rus-
sians in 1773 and then became a secret agent of the
Russian government. Frank's imprisonment only
increased his influence, and the contributions of his
numerous followers, together with the large sums
received from the Russian court, now enabled him
to live in princely splendor. He resided successively
at Brtinn, Vienna, and Offenbach, whither he re-
paired in 1788, when his hypocrisy had brought
him into disfavor at the Austrian court. To his
followers he pretended to be the Messiah, and they
thought their " holy master " immortal. On his
death his daughter Eve succeeded him as the " holy
mistress." The contributions now fell oflf, and
Eve died in obscurity in 1816. The Frankists still
survive in Poland, Moldavia, and Turkey. They
are nominally Roman Catholics, but maintain
their Jewish nationality by marrying only among
themselves.
BinLioGRArHT: H. Grfttz. Frank und die FrankUten, Bree-
lau. 1866; A. Theimer, Vetera monumenta Polonia . . .
ex tabtdnriia vaticanie coUertie, iv., Rome, 1860; JE, v.
475-478 (where the titles of the literature in Polish arc
given).
FRANKENBERG, JOHANN HEINRICH, COUlfT
OF: German cardinal; b. at Gross Glogau (35 m.
n.n.w. of Liegnitz), Silesia, Sept. 18, 1726; d. at
Breda (24 m. w.s.w. of Bois-le-Duc), Holland, June
11, 1804. He was educated at the Jesuit college
of his native town, at the University of Breslau,
and at the German-Hungarian college in Rome
and upon his return to Germany, became coadjutor
to the apofitolic vicar and archbishop of Gdrz. On
Jan. 27, 1769 Maria Theresa appointed him arch-
bishop of Mechlin and member of the Belgian coun-
cil of state, and in 1778 Pius VI. invested him with
the dignity of a cardinal. When Joseph II. abol-
ished the episcopal seminaries in 1786 and founded
state seminaries at Louvain and Luxemburg in
their stead Fraukenberg was the first to voice the
dissatisfaction of the clergy. The emperor, h(nh
ever, further enacted that only those who hadooo-
pleted a five years' course at one of these institotiooi
were eligible for major orders, whereupon thp
cardinal vainly renewed his objections, mMntMim^
that the new seminary waa instituted soleljr for the
propa^tion of Jansenism. The dissatiaf actioD of
the pupils, however, resulted in open antanomm
to the seminary, and the institution was practiolfjr
disorganized. Frankenberg, who was suspected df
being the instigator of their unrest, was summooBd
to Vienna to give an account of his actioiu. and
was kept in confinement for a time; but the tuifao-
lence in Belgium increased, and he was finaUj Mi
free, being hailed as a martyr upon his retrnn.
He continued his protests against the general sem-
inary, and restored his archiepiscopal iDsdtotioB
of learning; but an order was issued forfoiddiDglum
to teach theology under penalty of a fine of 1,000
thalers. He declared this order invalid, and
was thereupon directed to go to Louvain, inspeet
the general seminary and give an account of Ui
objections against it. He obeyed the order, aad
on June 26, 1789, framed an opinion in whidi he
declared the professors, the text-books, and tin
method of instruction unorthodox and Jaiuenistie:
This decision was published and used as a meaoiof
agitation. Frankenberg was then accused by the
imperial minister Count Trautmannsdorf of bf-
ing incited the people, but he responded that he
had acted only as a true shepherd of the faith,
and petitioned the emperor to restore to the CSiuidi
its privilege of educating the clergy as well as the
youth of the land. The disturbances in Belginm
at length assumed the character of an uprising
and Frankenberg was accused of being its lesd-
ing spirit. The minister chax^ged him with coiupn^
acy and ordered him to return his various insignia
of honor, whereupon the cardinal appealed to the
emperor, but Joseph died before the letter reached
him. Wlien the French Revolutionists invaded
Belgium, Frankenberg bravely resisted them, tsA
was accordingly sentenced by the Convention to
deportation, dying a fugitive. (K. KLtJpFELt)
Bibiioorapht: A. Theiner. Der Cardinal J. H.Qtc\^
Frankenberg, Freiburg. 1850; XL, iv. ia»-1702.
FRANKENTHAL COLLOQUY: A conference
between representatives of the Reformed Church of
the Pahitinatc and Anabaptists, held at Frankenthal
(20 m. n. by w. of Speyer) May 28-June 19, 1571.
There were Anabaptists in the Palatinate fno
1525, both native and immigrants. They hid
settled in great numbers along the Hardt Rivff
after they had been cured of the wild fanaticiffl
of the earlier time. As they were industrioui
cultivators of the soil. Elector Ottheinrich did m*
dislike them. Hoping to win them over to the
Church of the Palatinate, he ordered a colloquy to
be held at Pfeddersheim in 1557. No agreerna*
was reached, but the Anabaptists were still toleiated
under the condition that they should keep aloof
from disturbances and innovations. As some of
their teachers from Moravia tried to incite theift
against the Reformed, Elector Frederic III. the
Pious called the colloquy at Frankenthal. It waa
opened in the presence of the Elector by ChanodSior
971
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Frank
Frankfort Becess
(Siristoph Ehem, who had been joined by the
Electoral delegates, Wenzelaus Zuleger. Hans
Rechklau, and Otto von H6vel. On the side of the
Reformed seven prominent preachers were called
to the conference, most of them Nctherlanders who
had entered the service of the Palatine Church or
who were preachers of foreign congregations —
eourt preacher Petrus Dathenus, Gerhard Verstegus,
Petrus Colonius, Franz Mosellanus, Engelhert
Faber, Konrad Eubiilseus and Georg Gebinger.
Prominent Anabaptists were Diebald Winter,
Raufif Bisch, Hans Rannich, and Hans BQchel.
Thirteen important points of doctrine in which the
Anabaptists deviated from the Reformed were dis-
cussed— the authority of the Old Testament, the
Trinity, the substance of the body of Christ, original
sin, good works, the resurrection of the body, the
relation of the Christian to the secular authority,
to the sword, and to the oath, and others; finally
the baptism of children. The chief speaker of the
Reformed was Dathenus, while Rauff Bisch was the
most efficient defender of the Anabaptist cause.
The Anabaptists showed great haughtiness and
stubbornness, refusing to acknowledge in some
points the authority of even such Anabaptists as
Ifenno Simons, Jakob Hutter, and Matthsus
Oervas. They rejected a thorough theological in-
vestigation as a quibble of words. Thus an agree-
ment was impossible, but the two bodies departed
without hostility, after a comprehensive protocol
had been examined and signed on both sides. The
Elector was not satisfied with the result, but decided
not to expel the Anabaptists; their leaders, how-
ever, were strictly forbidden to teach or baptize in
his country. (F. W. CuNof.)
Bibuographt: The prooeedii^cs (ProtokoU) were printed,
Heidelberg, 1571. by Johann Mayer. ConHult: B. G.
Struve. Benefit von der pfdlziaehen Kirchen-Hiali/rie, pp.
238 sqq., Frankfort, 1721; H. Altinii;. Hittaria eccUaia
PaiaHruB, Groningen. 1728; F. W. Cuno. BldUer der Erin-
fMTuna an Dr. K. Olevianue, pp. 37-38, Barmen, 1887.
FRANKFORT RECESS (or AGREEMENT; caUed
also Frankfort Book, Formula pacis Francofor-
diana): A document signed Mar. 18, 1558, aim-
ing to compose the disputes between the strictly
orthodox Lutherans with Matthias Flacius (q.v.) as
their leader and the Philippists (q. v.) who adhered
to Melanchthon. The gulf between the two parties
had been widened by personal quarrels between the
two Saxon lines, the Ernestine line as protector of
Flacius and the Albertine line as protector of
Bfelanchthon, also by the rivalry of the University
of Wittenberg and the newly founded University
of Jena, which took side with Flacius. The Evan-
gelical estates tried to settle the conflict by appoint-
inga convention at Frankfort in June 1557, but it did
not come about. The Consultation of Worms (Aug.-
Dec. 1557; see Wormb) proved ineffectual since the
princes did not appear. When Ferdinand I. was
proclaimed emperor in Frankfort in Mar., 1558,
the Electors Ottheinrich of the Palatinate, August
of Saxony and Joachim II. of Brandenburg in-
duced Count Palatine Wolfgang of ZweibrUcken,
Duke Christopher of Wtirttemberg, and Land-
grave Philip of Hesse, to take a personal part in
coDsultatiooa over the settlement of the disputes.
The negotiations took place on the basis of a recom-
mendation of Melanchthon, which was approved and
made the basis of an agreement signed by the above-
mentioned estates. The introduction of the recess
attempts to refute the reproaches of the Roman
Catholics that the Evangelicals disagreed among
themselves. It was stated that they did not in-
tend to set up a new confession, but rather to ad-
here to the pure doctrine as laid down in the Bible,
the three principal creeds, and the Augsburg Con-
fession with the Apology. They thought it advi-
8ablc,|however, to chscuss some points of controversy
on the basis of the Augsburg Confession: (1) justi-
fication; man is justified by faith alone. (2)
Good works; new obedience is necessary in the
justified. (3) The sacrament of the body and blood
of Christ; Christ is really present in the Lord's
Supper. (4) Adiaphora; minor ceremonies may
be used or omitted without sin and detriment.
Then follows a number of resolutions upon which
the princes had agreed; new controversies should
not be divulged, but examined by the consisto-
ries and superintendents; no theological treatises
should be printed without having gone through the
hands of the censor; the publication of libelous
treatises should be strictly prohibited; consistories
and superintendents should be instructed to depose
from his office any one who taught or acted in dis-
agreement with the confession; the old differences
should be forgiven and forgotten to make possible
an agreement of all Evangelical estates on the basis
of this recess; the other estates should be invited
to join the recess.
The recess was received differently in various
places. For some the real presence of Christ was
not taught with sufficient emphasis. Others cen-
sured the recess because heresies were not specially
noted and condemned. Others again complained
because secular princes had assumed the right to
decide on ecclesiastical doctrines without the con-
sultation of theologians. But the strongest op-
position came from Jena and Weimar. In Weimar
Amsdorf at the order of John Frederick of Saxony
attacked the recess, and in Jena Flacius wrote
two replies, which seem to have been circulated in
manuscript only — ReftUatio Samariiani Interim^
in quo vera reliffio cum aectis et corrupte lis 8celerate
et pemiciose confunditur, and Grand und Ursachf
warum das Frankfurter Interim in keinem Weg
amunehmen. The same arguments were used by
the theologians whom John Frederick of Saxony
asked in 1558 to reply to the invitation of the six
princes to join the recess. They were answered
by Melanchthon at the order of the electoral court,
in a treatise entitled Responsum Melanchthonis de
censura formxdce pads Franco fordianoe, scripta a
Theologis Wimariensibus (Sept. 24, 1558, in CRj ix.
617 sqq.). John Frederick did not succeed in
gathering the opponents of the recess in Magdeburg;
but on the other hand, the purpose of the recess
to settle the controversies was not attained.
(C. Endefis.)
Ribliooraphy: The document is best preson'ed in CR, ix.
489 sqq. A raonofrraph is J. F. Lebret. De recensu Franco-
furH, 1668, Tubingen, 1796. C. A. Salig. H^storie der
augtburoiechen Confeanon, iii. 363 sqq.. Halle, 1745: G.
J. Planck, Geechidite . . . unaert proteatanU»chen Lehr-
Frankfort SMplta
VraUoeUi
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
878
begrifft, vi. 174 sqq.. Leii>gio, 1800; W. Preger, MaUhiaa
Flaciiu lUjfricua und 9ein€ Zeit, ii. 70, Erl&ngen, 1861;
J. C. L. Gieaeler, Churdi Hutory, ed. H. B. Smith, iv.
444 sqq., New York, 1868 (valuable aa a summary).
FRAICKFORT RESPITE: A temporary agree-
ment between German Roman Catholics and Protes-
tanta, signed at Frankfort Apr. 19, 1539. After
the diet at Schmalkalden (Feb., 1537), where the
Protestant estates refused to attend a council
summoned at Mantua, the Catholics and Protestants
were more vehemently opposed to each other than
ever. The Protestants were strong, and they
threatened to become dangerous to the emperor if
they formed an alliance with Francis I. of France.
The outbreak of war seemed imminent. Under
these circumstances Dr. Held, the imperial com-
missioner, found it necessary to unite the Catholic
estates, and agreed with King Ferdinand to form a
Catholic league of defense, after the model of the
Schmalkald League. After difficult negotiations the
so-called Nuremberg League was formed on June
10, 1538. The membership, however, was small,
the ecclesiastical estates almost all keeping aloof,
and the league did not attain any importance.
The political situation compelled the emperor to
seek the aid of the Protestants against the Turks,
and against Duke William of Jtdich-Cleve-Berg,
who had made himself duke of Geldem and, since
the death of his father, united four duchies under his
power and tried to come in touch with the Schmal-
kald League. Moreover, the emperor was in finan-
cial straits. Therefore the archbishop of Lund
was commissioned to negotiate with the Protestants,
who since Feb. 14, 1539, had been assembled at
Frankfort. They required nothing less than an
unconditional peace for all time, including those
who might still join the Augsburg Confession. The
Catholics were not willing to concede so much; but
finally the following agreement was arrived at. All
adherents of the Augsburg Confession, not merely
those included in the Peace of Nuremberg (see
Nuremberg, Religious Peace of), should be
granted a respite of six months. During that
time no actions should be taken against them, and
the ban which had been imposed upon Minden on
Oct. 9, 1538, should be suspended. The Evangel-
icals bound themselves not to refuse aid against the
Turks and not to deprive clerics of their revenues
^-ith the exception of what they needed for the
support of their own parishes, schools, and hospitals.
The respite should last eighteen months or till Aug.
1, 1540. Its importance is not great, but peace
was at least secured for a short time for those who
had been won over to the Evangelical cause since
the Peace of Nuremlxjrg ; and still more important
was the fact that there was no talk of a council;
the agreement promised that a Christian union
should be discussed at a diet to he held in Nurem-
berg, without the presence of papal legates. Thus
the period of religious colloquies was inaugurated.
(T. KOLDE.)
Biblioorapht: O. Moinnrclus, in Fnrschungen zur deutwhen
GeachichU, xxii. t>05 054. (Jottingcn, 1882; M. Lenz,
BriefwecJuiel Durers mil Landgraf Philipp, pp. 70-75.
I^ipsic, 18S0; O. Winckelmann, Strassbvrga poUti»che
Correapondem, ii. 549 sqq., 500 sqq., Strasburg, 1887;
F. von Beiold, ReformaHonsgenchichte, pp. 685 sqq.. Ber-
lin. 1891: W. Frieden^burs. NuntUdmhmdik, n. 2M
sqq., GothA. 1892; MoeUer, Chri$iian Chtnk, m. 281-2S7.
FRANKFORT, SYNOD OF, 794: A gsthoii^
convened by Charlemagne at Frankfort, attended,
according to later writers, by 300 bishops inm
Germany, Gaul, England, Spain, and Italy, ud
two delegates of the pope. Fifty-fiix canoDs axe
ascribed to it, the most important being tbe
first, condemning Felix and Eli[>andu8, the kaden
of the Adoptionists; and the second, condeomisg
the decisions of the Second Council of Nicca (787)
concerning image-worship, which had bera aoeqited
by Pope Adrian I. See Adoftionisx; CAEOuan
Books; Images and Image-worship, II.
Bxbuoorapht: Hefele, CanciiiengeaehidUe, iii. 678-M;
Manai. Concilia, vol. xiii.
FRANKINCEirSE: An aromatic substanee mide
of the resin secured from the bark of different trees,
particularly BosweUia wrraia. The Hebrew term ii
Ifbhonahy and the Arabic cognate is Ivban; the tens
frankincense means ** free (-burning) incense." The
gum is a product of South Arabia and was knovn to
commerce as early at least as the seventeenth cen-
tury B.C.; it was never cultivated in Palestine, and
the word for the so-called dark frankincense from
Lebanon is usually translated by the word " myrrli."
The trade in frankincense was important; there vas
a deity whose significance was due to his function
as a protector of the industry and the growth of
the material; it is believed that the name Ethiopia
comes from the word meaning " collector of frank-
incense." The gathering of the raw material was
associated with peculiar customs, the product being
regarded as the blood of a tree the soul of which
was a divinity. The best kind was that known as
masculine frs^incense (Pliny, ^t^. nai., xiL 32).
The substance became an article of luxury: wine
was spiced with it, it figured in the presents t« kings
(cf. Matt. ii. 11), and it was burned at their burial
(II Chron. x\'i. 14, xxi. 19; Jer. zxxiv. 5). It was
indispensable at heathen worship (II Kings xxiii. 5;
Isa. Ixv. 3; Jer. xliv. 17 sqq.). For its employment
among the Hebrews see Incense.
(R. Zehnptund.)
Biblioorapht: G. E. Post, Flora of Syria, Palatine and
Sinai, Beirut. 1896; Stade. in ZATW, iii (1883), 143 Bqq.
168 sqq.; F. Hommel, AUiMraelitisehe Ueberlitfentnoen, pp.
279 sqq.. Munich. 1897; idem. AufaAUe und Abkandhtngtn,
vol. ii. passim, ib. 1900; idem. Die Inael der Sdigm, pp,
12, 18. ib. 1901; DB, ii. 65, 460; EB, it 1563-64; JE.v
494-495.
FRANKS : A name applied after the middle of
the third century to the Germanic tribes of Chattic
descent dwelling on the middle and lower Rhine,
who during the decline of the Roman power became
the most formidable enemies of the empire. In
spite of repeated defeats they succeeded in making
themselves masters of the Roman possessions on
the lower Rhine, establishing themselves in Batavia,
Toxandria or Holland, Zealand, and Brabant
A distinction in names now appears between the
inhabitants of the coastlands or Salic Franks and
the dwellers on the banks of the Rhine or Ripua-
rians. In the course of time the left bank of the
Rhine, the basins of the Scheldt and the Somme,
and the valley of the Moselle came into their
power; their victory over Syagrius at Soissons in 486
973
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Frankfbrt Bespite
FratloeUi
ilittttered the Roman power in Gaul and extended
Ibetr authority to the Loire; their victory over the
Vidgothfi in 507 carried it to tiie Garonne, while on
the eaat the overthrow of the Alemanni (49G) and of
the Thuringiana (531) made the Neekar and the
Rednitz the boundary of their kingdom. On the
emsi bank of the Rhine the inhabitants remained
purely GennanlCf but in Gaul the Franki«ih element
waa speedily absorbed by the Roman and the
Romnjiized Celtie.
The great episode in the advance of the Franks
wma the conversion of their king Clovis in the year
496. That he was from the beginning no enemy to
Chmtianity is shown by the fact that his wife was
ctf that faith and that hii t^ns were baptised with
his penoiasioii. His own conversion was primarily
actuated by the belief that the step was necessary
for the preservation of his kingdom. The common
k^end that Clovia while hard pressed in battle by
the Alemanni made a vow of baptism if the god of
the Ohiistiajis would grant him victory finda no
historical aubatantiation. On the contrary, hia con-
version seems to have been the result of delibera-
tion and to have been hastened by the exhortations
of hie Christian wife. The baptism of Cloviit is of
primary importance in the history of the Church
in that it raUied to its support the most powerful
of the barbarian kingdoms and thus injured
the triumph of Christianity among tJie Germanic
tribes. Moreover, it marked the beginning of the
end of Arknism and guaranteed the unity of the
Church in the West, The convei^ion of the Frank-
ish king was followed by that of his people, but the
new faith made unequal progress in the different
parts of his dominions, most in Gaul, least in the
GermaiiiG territories to the eaat of the Rhine, wheret
aa late aa the beginning of the eighth century , the
greater part of He^e waa stiQ pagan. The organi-
lation of the Church under Oovia remained un-
ehanged. The Gallie and Rhenish bishoprics
esrtended their influence across the Rhine where
no new sees were created. The Church remained
in possession of the rights which it had enjoyed
under the RomanSj but in the course of time the
king succeeded in gaining the right of confirming
the nomination of bishops and summoning the
church aissemblies, powers which ^ together with
the restriction of the papal jurisdiction, made the
FranJdsh Church a truly national one, a charac-
ter which it retained throughout the Merovingian
period. . (A. Hauck/)
BiBLECKiajLPFiT: Sources tx9, Gregory of Tours, Opera, ta
MGfi, Script. r«r, Merov., vol. u. 1886: Fredegftr, Chrani^
tarum Ubri. ib. voti, u.-iiL. ISSS, lEm; MGIL L^ffum^
Sect, II., Capihiiaria reg. Fmnc, V^ls. i.-iIm 1S83, ia90;
Diplomata ng. Frqnc",, ici MO If, DipL. vol. i., 1S72:
MQH, Concilia ofvi Mercv., vol. i., 1892; EpiviolfF Afrrow:
a Xansf* mv% in MQH, Epitt., HI, voL j,, 18fl2: Rtrum
GaiUcamm el Frandearum scriptsrrtt^ ed. M. Bouqu«Ct 23
vol^, Paris, 173a- 1876; E. Le Blant. InfaipHoTiM cftr^
Ikftfiet d* la Gauti, 2 Yolm., Pmifl, IS5&-65.
ExoallKit modem mnnatructioTuii of history are found
la Rettbene, KD, vol, i.; Friedrich, KD; Hauck KD, L
99 aqq. OoEumlt further: Fuiitel de Coutarieflflh, Hiti. dn
tPufiCuH^nji potitiquet rfe rancitnnt Ftonce. Pari a, 1875;
H. Chevalier, fiitt dti ta Franeg, S&S-ttfO. ib. 1882; V.
GAntitCp R^novatmn de t'hitL de* Fmnk*. firuMeb. 1883.
H. ron Schubert. Di* Untene^fung der Atantannert unter
die Franktn. Btra«bure, 1884: J. Havetit QueMiiont Mir^-
nn^pienitu, Pahi, 1885^ E. A. FreetQAb, Tmiionic Con^
ffuei* in Qaui, London, 1888: J* B, Luootte. ^tablUwment
du Chri*tianimn4i dar%i ta Gatdea, Dijon, 1888^ A. Thierry,
HfdiM dtt tempa Mermnni^niiet, London, 1888; I. Fav^,
L'Empife dem Franc*. Fan a, iSfid; Melin, Hi^t dm {a
Fmnct, 39&-tB7Q. MouJinji, 1800; W, E. Colli na. Early
HiML nf Friaio, London. 1801; H. Froidovnux* ^finrfe »ur
la "LejF diiia Francorum Chamavifmm," Paris, IBOI; B.
L. H, Martin. Lte Chiginea d^ la France, ib, 1891; M, Lipp,
Die Afarken dea FrankenreitheM unief Karl dem GfoMMen,
K6iueeb«rf. IH92; A* Schiber, Z>i> fr&nkiiithen und al#-
manniechen Si«dluni^en in Gall ten, StfiuiburK, 3804; F*
t>ahD^ Dir Franken unier den Mer&vingen und den Kof^
Hnsen, Leipiuc^ IS&il-^; O, Havmrd, Chtia, France au
V«. eikle, Parift. 1890; Q. Kurth, CloviM, Toum, 1896;
M. Prou, La Gauh in^rtminffienne, Pwin, 1807; L. 3er*
ffeant, The Franka, London, ]^»8; P. Imbart d« la Tour,
Le$ Oriffina religietiteM di fa Francet Farii, 1900.
FRATERMTIES. Se© CoNrRATBaNiriES, Rk-
LJOIOUS.
FRATICELLI : An antleccIcsiasticAl sect which
developed in the latter part of the thirteenth cen-
tury from the Observantine Franciscans. The
name of ** little brothers " was originally applied
to the Htrict Franciscan Obser van tinea whom
Celestine V- had united whh his own order in 1292
and who, after the mippresaion of the Celestin®
(q,v.) by Boniface VI 1 1, ten years later, had con-
tinued their opposition to the Conventual Minor-
ites. Later becoming a general designation of all
aeparatietic Obaervantine Franciscans, the term
Fraticelli gradually acquired a sinister connota-
tion, being; applied to heretics of the most dangeroua
type and equivalent to Beghards, Bizochi (" wal-
let-carrying vagabonds," from Fr. beaacef "wal-
let *^}t Lollards, and similar epithets. The Fraticelli
quickly spread throughout Italy, boh them France,
Flandem, and portions of Germany, despite the
Inquisition. Their principal Italian leaders were
the Observantine Angelus de Clareno in the east-
central part., Enrico de Oeca in Tuscany, the Celc^
tine hermits of Mount Majclla in Abruizi, and Duke
Lodovico de Dumz^o in southern Italy, while in
Achiea and the Peloponnesus they were harbored
by the Latin princes, forming both here and in the
south of Italy an organized hierm^by under their
own bishops in opposition to the Church,
In life and practise the Fraticelli differed from
tfie Observant ines chiefly in that they desired to be
entirely independent both of the Minoritee and of
the Church and its hierarchy. Their garb was
uncouth and they wore short cowli and dirty waUeta
to distinguish themselves from the Franciscans.
They also rejected the Roman CathoUc Church aa
fallen from Christiaji purity, and considered the
popes since Celestlne V. or at least since John XX IL
as usurpers, while the sacraments administered by
priests were held to be inefficacious and pai>al
indulgences worthless. The Fraticelli were sub-
jected to severe persecution as a r^ult of the bull
of condemnation issued by John XXII. on Jan, 23,
1318, especialiy in Toulouse and its vicinity, in
Italy after 1321 and again after 1360, repeatedly in
Flanders after 1322, and in Florence even in the
fourteenth century, while a number were put to
death in Rome as late as 1466, (O, ZdcKi^Rf^)
DtBLiooHAPirt: F. EhrJe. in Archip flkr Littaratwr und Kir-
chen&ettrhvchte. \ {tSS&h 500-570; li (1886), lO^-Jfii; lU
(1887). 553-023: A. Limboreh, HUt.v! the lnm*uHion, tStO;
H. C. Leu, HisL of the Imptiwition, vob. il-lti,. Now Yortc^
Frayssinous
Frederick HI
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
874
1906; J. J. I. Ddllinger, BeUr&ge tur Sektengeschichie, ii. 417
sqq., 606 sqq., Munich, 1890; F. Tocco. in Bolletino della
aocielt ttorica Ahnutese, 1895, pp. 117-159; A. Hausrath.
Die Amoldiaten, pp. 262 aqq., Leipsic, 1895; KL, iv.
1926-36.
FRAYSSmOUS, DENIS, COUNT OF: French
Roman Catholic; b. at Curi^res (200 m. s.w. of
Lyons), Department of Aveyron, May 9, 1765; d. at
, St. Geniez, also in Aveyron, Dec. 12, 1841. He
was originally intended for the law, but his own
y inclinations led him into theology. After the sign-
ing of the concordat of 1801 (see Concordats
AND Delimiting Bulus, VI. 1, § 1) he became the
leader of a great agitation against the materialism
and atheism of current philosophy. Although he
was a zealous royalist, the government offered no
opposition to him, even making him an inspector in
the Paris Academy and giving him a canonry in
Notre Dame. Finally in 1809 his discourses at
the Church of St. Sulpice were prohibited; but
they were resumed on the restoration of the Bour-
bons. On the return of Napoleon from Elba,
Frayssinous fled to the mountains of Aveyron,
where he lived till he was recalled by Louis XVIII.
In quick succession he now became grand almoner,
court preacher, titular bishop of Hermopolis, grand
officer of the Legion of Honor, a count and a peer
of France. As minister of public instruction and
ecclesiastical affairs he supported Charles X. in
his plan to make Jesuitism dominant in legislation.
Deprived of his offices by the July Revolution, he
went into exile with Charles X. (1830), but re-
turned to France in 1838, living thenceforth in
retirement. His principal works are, Les Vraia
Principes de V&glise gallicane (Paris, 1818); and
Defense de Christianisme (3 vols., 1826, new ed.,
2 vols., 1889; Eng. transl., A Defence of Christianity ,
2 vols., London, 1836). (C. Pfender.)
Biblioorapht: F. Quisot, MMitationa sur ViteU act%td, de la
religion chritienne, pp. 66-70, Paris, 1866; Lichtenberger,
ESR, vol. V.
FRECHT, frcHt, MARTIN: German Reformer;
b. at Uhn 1494; d. at Tabingen Sept. 14, 1566.
He was the son of a councilor and master of the
shoemakers' gild. He matriculated at Heidel-
berg in 1613 for theology and philosophy, and was
dean of the faculty of arts from 1523 to 1526, pro-
fessor of theology after 1529, and rector of the
university and provisor domus Dionysiance in
1 630-31 . He ranked as one of the leading humanists
and discovered in the monastery of Eberbach the
Saxon chronicle of Widukind, which he published
at Basel in 1532. He listened with enthusiasm
.to Luther's disputation at Heidelberg (April 26,
' 1518), and was a friend of Brenz, Isenmann, L6ner,
Butzer, Schnepf, Blaurer, Capito, and (Ecolampa-
dius, while in 1524 he became acquainted with
Melanchthon. In 1531 he was recalled to Ulm to
teach the Bible to the clergy, monks and students, and
became pastor of the church at Ulm in 1533. His
sensitive nature and his lack of practical experience
in church work hindered him greatly, but he kbored
faithfully to promote the interests of his struggling
church by synods and visitations. The conflicts with
the enthusiasts, Anabaptists, Sebastian Frank, and
Caspar Schwenckfeld (qq.v.) who lived in Ulm, and
together with tlie evident neeil of an understanding
between the Protestants of northern and soatlien
Germany, impelled Frecht to join Butzer in ap- i
proaching Luther. He was a colleague of Butter ia \
the conference with the South Germans at CoDstaiM
(Dec. 16, 1634), and of Butzer and Blaurer in the |
disputation with Schwenckfeld at Tubingen (May i
28, 1636), while he also attended the Wittenbog i
Concordia in 1636, the deliberations at Frankfort ;
in 1639, the convention at Schmalkald in IMO '
(where he secured the condemnation of Frank and \
Schwenckfeld), and the conferences at Wonns in ''•
1640, and Regensburg in 1641 and 1646. InlSiS I
he made peace between the ministers at Biberach,
and three years later he was sent to Dillingen bgr
the Schmalkald League to begin a refonnistie
propaganda in the diocese of Augsburg. The
disastrous termination of the Schmalkald war, hot-
ever, obliged him to return to L^lm, but the rejection
of the Interim exasperated the emperor, and on
Aug. 16, 1648, Frecht and other mimsters of Uk
were imprisoned in the fortress of Kirchheim.
He was released, though on hard terms, Mar. 3, 15tt,
and then went to Nuremberg, which he left fof
Blaubeuren, where he lived under the protection
of Duke Ubich of WQrttemberg. In 1551 Dub
Christopher appointed him inspector of the theo-
logical seminary at Tiibingen, where he lectured
on Matthew andC^enesis. In the following year he
became professor of theology, and rector in 1555.
G. BOSSERT.
Biblioorapht: G. Serpilius, EpOapkia, pp. 67 aqq^ B»-
gensburg, 1707-10; L. M. Fischiin, Memona fhtdutaim
Wiriembergenaium., i. 42, supplement, pp. 36 aqqn Ubii
1709-10; A. Weyerm&nn, Nachriehien vcn Gddtrtn . . .
aue Ulm, Ulm. 1798: T. Keim, Reformation der RndtttA
Ulm, Stuttgart, 1851; Keidel, in WUrttanbergiide Vith
teljahrahefte, 1866. pp. 204-223; the lettera of FTMhtii
WUrUemberffiache VierldjakrehefU, 1881. pp. 252-2Si^
1882, pp. 251-265; G. Bosmrt. Dae Inierim in ffwfli^
berg, Halle. 1895; S. Fincher. Chronikvon C;2m,eiK.(&
Vesenmeyer, Ulm, 1896; ADB, vii. 325-327.
FREDERIC OF HEILO: Dutch ecclesiastic; b. [
at Heilo (17 m. n.w. of Amsterdam), Holland, in
the early part of the fifteenth century; d. netf
Haarlem (14 m. w. of Amsterdam) Oct. 11, 145i
It is uncertain whether he belonged to the monastery
of St. Willibrord at Heilo, but he is described ««t
priest and oblate in the monastery of the Viaitatioo
near Haarlem, where his superior was John i
Kempis, brother of the more famous Thomas. He
also acted as confessor in the monasteiy at Wa^
mond, possibly in the house of the Brethren of the
Common Life. Later he resided at Leydenandin
a nunnery at Bereswijk. According to a letter d
his the nuns so embittered his life that, to reg^w
peace of soul, he returned to his monasteiy. His
writings are extant in two manuscripts, and con^
prise the following works: Epistola contra plvxaiir
totem confessorum et de regimine sororum^ proving
that a nunnery should have but one confessor; i&
epistle of similar content advising that women
should not V)e governed but should be instructed
by men; a letter to a priest who had entered into a
monastery governed by strict seclusion, warning
him to beware of losing his spirituality thioii||li
contact with the world. Apologia super resignationi
regiminis sororum (ed. J. C. Pool, see below);
epistle to a monk concerning his moral life; Trao
870
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Frayoaixioiis
Frederiok HI
iatus de peregrinantibua contra peregrinante^, a
polemic against the misuse of pilgrimages solely for
the sake of indulgences (ed. Pool); and liber de
fundatione domus regularium prope Haerlem, a chron-
icle extant only in fragments, but important on
account of its information concerning the ecclesias-
tical and moral conditions of the times, especially
the year of jubilee 1450 and Nicholas of Cusa. In
addition to these extant writings, the following
workB, now lost, are also mentioned: De inclusiane
TtUgoeorum^ aUerum de eadem materia; De dignitate
taeerdoUiU; De doctrina peccoH venialie et mortalia,
nve contra nimis ecrupulosos et de remediie; De
officiie rectorie eive pastoria; De coUectione mentis
in 9e; De choreie; Contra sacerdotem lubricum eive
eonMoloHo super infamia fratrie; Contra detractores
nUgioBorum; De fonte qui ascendit de paradieo;
De imagine et eimilitudine Dei; Carmina de sancia
BaaiHa in Warmunda quiescente; De feeUvitatibua
beaicB Marios virginis ; Sermonee de tempore et de
tanctia, and Epistolare eatis puUkrum. The stand-
point of Frederic was ethical rather than mystical,
although he was a faithful adherent of medieval
theology with its semi-Pelagian tendency.
L. SCHTTLZB.
Bibuoorapht: The one biography is by J. C. Pool, Frederic
van Heilo en tijn achriften^ Amsterdam, 1806 (written at
the suggestion of Moll the historian). Consult also J. G.
R. Aoquoy, Het Klooeter to Winieeh^im, Utrecht, 1875.
FREDERICK m., THE PIOUS: Elector of the
Palatinate; b. at Simmem (26 m. s.w. of Coblenz)
Feb. 14, 1515; d. Oct. 26, 1576. He was strictly
educated in the Roman faith at his father's
court and at Cologne, but, influenced by his wife,
the pious princess Maria of Brandenburg, whom
he married in 1537, he followed the Reforma-
tion, and in 1546 made a public profession of his
faith. He succeeded his father as duke of Simmem,
May 18, 1557, and became elector Feb. 12, 1559,
on the death of Otto Henry. Under his predecessor
strict Lutherans like Tilemann Hesshusen, Melanch-
thonians, and Calvinists had found a place in the
Palatinate. In the summer of 1559 bitter contro-
versies arose among them. Theses on the Lord's
Supper prepared by the Heidelberg deacon Klebitz
provoked a bitter controversy between him and
Hesshusen. When efforts at mediation failed
Frederick deposed both, Sept. 16. To get a clear
understanding of the controversy Frederick spent
days and nights in theological studies and was thus
led more and more to the Reformed confession.
A disputation held in June, 1560, between the
Saxon theologians Stdssel and Mdrlin and the
Heidelberg Boquin, Erast, and Einhom increased
Frederick's dislike for the Lutheran zealots.
After the Naumburg Convention (Jan., 1561; see
Naumburo Convention) Frederick fully adopted
the Reformed dogmas. In March, 1561, he called
Emmanuel TremeUius, and in September the famous
Zacharias Ursinus, to Heidelberg. The whole
Church was now transformed. Caspar Olevianus
had been there since Jan., 1560. Images of the
saints, vestments, baptismal fonts, and other
" idolatrous works," even organs, were ruthlessly
removed from the churches. In the celebration
of the Lord's Supper the breaking of bread was
introduced. The revenues from monasteries and
foundations were confiscated and applied to Evan-
gelical church piuposes or charity. The Heidelberg
catechism prepared by Ursinus and Olevianus
now served as the norm of doctrine and for the
instruction of the youth. The church-order of
Nov. 15, 1563, and the consistory order of 1564
closed the changes. The opposition of ministers
inclining to Lutheranism was suppressed by their
dismission. Among the Lutherans Frederick's
measures caused a great sensation. The religious
colloquy held at Maulbronn, Apr., 1564 (see Maui^-
bronn) increased the animosity. In 1565 the
Emperor Maximilian ordered to annul the changes
made. A unanimous decree of the diet held at
Augsburg in 1566 also demanded the abolition of
the changes. Frederick, however, declared in a
session of the diet. May 14, that a matter was con-
cerned over which God alone has the rule, and if
it was intended to proceed against him, he would
find comfort in the promises of his Savior. The
decree was not carried out. After completing the
work of reform in the Rhine Palatinate Fred-
erick endeavored to continue it in the Upper
Palatinate; but here he was resisted by the zealous
Lutheran estates. He continued his work of re-
form on the Rhine by introducing in 1570 a strict
church discipline. A stain on Frederick's life is
the sentence of death which he pronounced on the
antitrinitarian Johannes Silvanus based on the
opinion signed by Olevianus, Ursinus, and Boquin,
and which he had executed after long hesitation,
Dec. 23, 1572. In other matters he was an excel-
lent, intelligent, truly pious ruler, who wished to
promote the welfare of his people in every way.
With the Reformed abroad he had intimate con-
nections. In 1562 he gave Frankenthal for a
refuge to the Evangelicals driven from the Nether-
lands. His like-minded son John Casimir he sent
in 1567 and again in 1576 to France in aid of the
Huguenots. In 1569 he assisted also the Count
Palatine Wolfgang on his way to France. His
last years were troubled by domestic affiictions.
As his older son Louis was a strict Lutheran, he
could not hope that after his death his work would
be carried out in his own spirit. Juuus Net.
Bibuoorapht: His letters were edited by A. Kluckhohn,
2 vols., Brunswick, 1868-72; and this editor also wrote
his life, Ndrdlingen, 1879. also the sketch in ADB, vii.
606 sqq. Consult also L. H&usscr, Oenchichte der rhein-
ieehen PfaU, ii. 1-85, Heidelberg, 1856; K. Sudhoff,
Olevianue und Ureinus, Elberfeld, 1857; K. Menzel, Wolf-
gang von Zu?eibrUcken. Munich, 1893; SchafF, Christian
Church, vi. 596-598; Moeller, Chriatian Church, iii. passim;
Cambridge Modem History, ii. 595-596, 619, New York.
1904.
FREDERICK IIL, THE WISE: Elector of Sax-
ony 1486-1525; b. at Torgau (31 m. e.n.e. of Leip-
sic) Jan. 17, 1463; d. at Lochau (now Annaburg,
40 m. n.e. of Leipsic) May 5, 1525. He received
the electoral dignity after the death of
His his father, Ernest, and governed the
Religious other Ernestine territories in union
Nature, with his brother, John the Steadfast
(q.v.). This article will consider only
his attitude in religion and church polity. He did
not originate an established Church in Germany, as
Frederick HI
Free Ohuroh Federation
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
876
some have believed, but, while his predecessors and
other princes were prompted chiefly by political
motives, the purely religious interest was strongest
in Frederick. He was the model of a pious prince
of the medieval kind. He lived and moved in the
forms of churchly devotion peculiar to his time,
and they fully satisfied his religious nature. He re-
ceived his first instruction in the school at Grimma,
where the Augustinians possessed a flourishing
monastery, and from that time he showed a pred-
ilection for their order. In 1493 he traveled to
the Holy Land, with a large suite, but as a mere
pilgrim. He was devoted to the worship of saints
like all pious men of his time. In his church at
Wittenberg he had the choicest collection of relics
that could be found in Germany. Most of them
he had probably bought on his pilgrimage for large
sums; others he brought from a journey to the
Netherlands, which he undertook in 1494, and he
never tired of adding new treasures. A catalogue of
the collection printed in 1509 (cf. the WiUe7d)erger
Heiligtumsbuch, ed. G. Hirth, Munich, 1883) con-
tains no less than 5,005 entries. The relics opened
the way to the free granting of indulgences; any
one who visited the collection was assured of the
forgiveness of his sins for a hundred years. It is
therefore not to be assumed that Frederick when
he founded a university at Wittenberg in 1502
meant to break with the past, by receiving adher-
ents of what was later called humanism.
Frederick probably heard of Luther for the first
time in 1512 when Johann von Staupitx (q.v.),
the general vicar of the Augustinians, asked him to
defray the expenses of promotion for the poor but
promising monk. It seems to have been Staupitz
also who directed the attention of the
Relations elector to the study of the Bible as
with the only certain source of salvation;
Luther, and he became an earnest student of
Scripture. It might be supposed that
Luther's theses concerning indulgences were likely
to arouse the anger of the elector, devoted as he
was to the practise and to the worship of saints.
But he was too large-hearted and possessed too
noble a nature. Luther was mistaken, however,
when he thought that Frederick's intention to pro-
tect him and not to allow his removal to Rome
originated in his " wonderful inclination toward his
theology. ' ' The attitude of the elector was due rather
to his love of justice, which could not endure that
Luther should be delivered to his enemies without
having been convicted, and to his wish to save for
his university as long as possible one of its most
celebrated teachers, as may be plainly seen from
his letter to Staupitz, Apr. 8, 1518 (T. Kolde,
Johann von Staupitz ^ Gotha, 1879, p. 314). Be-
cause he shrank from interfering with the will of
God, it was the policy of the elector neither to ap-
prove nor disapprove of Luther's actions, but to
let him fight out his own convictions. He himself,
however, clung to his saints and relics; in 1520 the
number of the latter had increased to 19,013.
Then followed the great events of 1520, the bull
of excommunication against Luther, the publica-
tion of his great reformatory writings, the appeal
to a council, the burning of the papal bull, etc.
Without misjudging the seriousness of the eoD-
dition, Frederick did not recede from his coone, re-
peating his demand that Luther's cause should be
entrusted to learned and unprejudiced judges. As
an obedient and faithful son of the Church, bov-
ever the thought never entered his mind to defend
Luther's doctrine; as a layman, he did not preteol
to understand anything of it. He followed the
same policy at the diet of Worms. Luther, he
insisted, should be convicted of heresy only l^
cording to the established principles and fonoi of
law. In confidential letters he showed a eordial
interest in the persecuted monk, but at the diet
he took great pains not to show it and to tfoid
all intercourse with him. It was imdoubtedly d»
to the influence of his brother, John of Saxooy,
who was a devoted Lutheran, that Frederick pro-
tected Luther after the diet. He probably gafe
his councilors an order in a general way to guaid
Luther, without definite directions, since for aki|[
time neither the elector nor his brother knew thit
Luther was in the Wartburg. At any rate, it WH
not the intention of Frederick to protect the eaai
of Luther, but only his person. He soon peroeiM
however, that his action had furthered the eaai
in the most powerful way.
Now the hardest and most troublesome yean of
his life began. No prince ever faced a more diflh
cult and responsible task than Frederick before
the disturbances and innovations in Wittenbeig;
but seldom has a prince practised greater self-re-
nunciation. Everything that be loved
Attitude so dearly was gradually deprived of
Toward the its value, and althou^ he ahnji
Wittenberg counseled moderation, he was not
Reforms, willusg to stem the tide because he
did not wish to act against the word
of God, and the new movement might perhaps be
his will. As a layman he tolerated everything in le-
licrion as long as the public order was not disturbed.
But his opponents did not acknowledge the jitftr
ness of this standpoint and made him responsibie
for everything that happened in the Saxon chnrcfaei
In 1523 he consented to make an end of the wor*
ship of relics In the Catholic Church. The abor-
tion of the mass must have cut deeply into hii
heart, but his opposition was of no avail He
could not be induced, however, to advocate hinfflf
the introduction of reforms.
Evidently he had become more and more ab-
sorbed in the study of Luther's doctrine and es-
pecially of the Gospel, under the influence of iui
faithful adviser and secretary Georg Spalatm
(q.v.), an intimate friend of Luther He strove
with hiB whole heart to live according to the Goe*
pel and fulfil God's will However
Accepts the severely Luther had attacked his ft*
Reformed vorite devotion and whatever trouble
Faith on His and care Luther's actions had caoBBd
Death-bed. him, he always retained for him the
same inclination, and accepted the
advice of Spalatin regarding him; but he rt»
avoided all direct contact with Luther- Luther
hardly ever saw him, except at the Diet of Wonw,
and never spoke to him. Only when the hour d.
death arriv^, did he send for Luther; but then it
S77
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Frederick HI
Free Ohuroh Federation
too late. Luther was far away in the Hartz
mountains, trying to quell the rebellion of the
peasants, which embittered the last days of the
peace-loving prince but did not shake his trust in
God. Spalatin consoled him on his death-bed.
Before his death, he partook of the Lord's Supper
in both kinds, from full conviction, and thus openly
avowed the Evangelical doctrine and joined him-
■df to the Evangelical Church. (T. Kolde.)
BnuooRAPBY: G. Spalatin. Friedrich det WeUen Leben
WMf ZeUguekiehte^ Jena, 1851; M. M. Tutuchmaim,
Fn^drick der Weiae, Grimma. 1848; G. L. Plitt. Fried-
ri€k der Weiee aU Sehirmherr der Reformation, Erlangen,
1863; T. Kolde. Friedrich der Weiee und die Anfange der
BeformaHon, ib. 1881; J. KdstUn. in TSK, Iv (1882). 601
■qq.; idem. Friedrich der Weiee und die Schloeekirche eu
WiUenberg, Wittenberg. 1892; Cambridge Modem Hie-
tory, ToL ii.. The Reformation, pp. 41, 116, 132-172, 606,
New York, 1904; Creighton, Papacy, vol. vi. passim; and
the biographies under Lxttheb, Mabtin.
FREE CHURCH: A name given to certain relig-
ious bodies in various countries of Europe, in some
caaes choeen by the oi^anization itself, indicating
somewhat loosely secession from an older and
larger communion, independence of the domi-
nant ecclesiastical authorities, and separation from
an established church. For the so-called Free
Churches of England, France, Holland, Italy, and
Switzerland, see the articles upon each country.
For the Free Churches of Germany see Luther-
ans, II; also Free Congregations. For the
Free Church of Scotland see Presbyterians. In
America the name " free church " is sometimes
given to a congregation which does not rent sit-
tings at a fixed charge, but derives its revenues
from the spontaneous contributions of attendants.
See Voluntaryism.
FREE CHURCH OF ENGLAND: A small Prot-
estant organization which broke off from the Church
of Eng^d (see England, Church of) in 1844
beeause of antagonism to the Oxford Movement
(see Tractarianism). Being free from State con-
trol, it claims the right to enter any parish where
advanced ritualism prevails, and to establish a li-
turgical service on the basis of the Evangelical
party of the Anglican CSiurch. Its churches are
widely scattered throughout England, although
their number is small. It is governed by its own
convocation and by its few bishops, consecrated
by Bishop Cimmiins (q.v.) of the American Re-
formed Episcopal CJhurch. The convocation meets
annually in June. Its clergy number twenty-four,
and its churches twenty-seven, with accommoda-
tions for 8,140. It has 1,352 communicants, 361
Sunday-school teachers, and 4,196 Sunday-school
schdars. Though practically identical with the
Refonned Episcopal Church of England (see
Reformed Episcopal Church), the two refuse to
unite on account of differences respecting govern-
ment and the rights of the laity.
FREE CHURCH FEDERATION: A union of
free churches for Evangelical work. The federa-
tion was initiated at a congress of members of free
churches in the city of Manchester in November,
1892. That congress was an outward and visible
sign of the growth of the inward and spiritual grace
of Christian unity, which had been proceeding for
at least the two preceding decades. The causes of
that development were: (1) the re-
Origin, turn of the churches to Christ Jesus
as the sole and exclusive authority in
the life of the soul and in the activities of the
churches; (2) the separation between the greater
and the lesser truths of revelation effected by the
providence of God in these later years; (3) the
growth of sacerdotalism within the Anglican
Church, and the total inability of Parliament to
control and check it; (4) the consequent necessity
for a united resistance to this sacerdotalism by
Evangelical Protestantism; and (5) the need for
more sustained and enthusiastic efforts to carry
the Gospel to the people of the large towns and
cities. The Congress formed itself into a Federation
in 1896. It embraced all the Evangelical denominsr
tions claiming spiritual autonomy and refusing to
recognize the patronage and control of Parliament.
It was the creation of a new organization in which
Baptists, Methodists, Presbyterians, Congregation-
alists, and others met, not as denominationalists,
but simply as Evangelical Free Churchmen. It
was a wider basis of union and fellowship than any
hitherto recognized. The sectarian element was
totally excluded. It was the Free Church of Eng-
land, with hopes of becoming the Church of Eng-
land of the future.
The denominations embraced within this federa-
tion areas follows: Baptists, Calvinistic Methodists,
Churches of Christ, Congregationalists, Ck>unte8S
of Huntingdon's Connexion, Indepeud-
Membership ent Methodists, Moravians, Presbyteri-
and ans, Primitive Methodists, Reformed
Statistics. Episcopal Church, Salvation Army,
Society of Friends, United Methodist
Church (formed in 1907 by the union of Bible Chris-
tians, Methodist FreeCk>nnexion and United Method-
ist Free Churches), Wesley an Methodists, and Wes-
leyan Reform Union. In England and Wales
the councils number 915, and the federations 53.
The movement is spreading in other countries. In
the United States a plan has been adopted for the
organization of a Federal Council of the Churches
of Christ in America representing an aggregate
membership of over 17,000,000. The movement
is also advancing in South Africa, Jamaica, Austra-
lia, New Zealand, Tasmania, Japan, Korea, India,
Germany, France, and Italy. The statistics for
England and Wales (1907) are: Sitting acconmio-
dation in places of worship, 8,483,925; conununi-
cants, 2,183,914; Sunday-school teachers, 405,-
391; Sunday-school scholars, 3,471,276. These
figures will be better understood if they are com-
pared with the statistics of the Anglican Church:
viz., sitting accommodation, 7,240,136; conmiuni-
cants, 2,053,455; Sunday-school teachers, 206,873;
Sunday-school scholars, 2,558,240. The interna-
tional figures (1906) are: Free CJhurch members,
21,731,713; Anglican communicants, 3,830,866.
The objects of the national council are: (1) to
facilitate fraternal intercourse and cooperation
among the Evangelical Free Churches; (2) to as-
sist in the organization of local councils; (3) to
encourage devotional fellowship and mutual coun-
Free Ohnroh Federation
Freamaaons
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
878
sel concerning the spiritual life and religious activi-
ties of the churches; (4) to advocate the New
Testament doctrine of the Church,
Objects and to defend the rights of the as-
and sociated churches; and (5) to promote
Work, the application of the law of Christ in
every relation of human life. But the
chief work of the Council from the beginning has been
directed to the proclamation of the Gospel outside
all churches. The Council has employed a body of
missioners, of which the chief members are Gipsy
Smith, W. R. Lane, and Tolfree Parr, to visit the
large centers of population and to organize the
churches for mission work: and more recently the
Rev. F. B. Meyer has been set apart for the minis-
try at large of the churches in England and Wales.
Conventions for quickening and nourishing the
spiritual life have been held, and a system of par
rochial visitation has been carried out. Social
purity has been promoted, social institutes created,
and Girls' Gilds, Auxiliary Societies for Young
Free Churchmen have been formed. The Council
has also been compelled to devote its energies to
the solution of the problem of state education on
exclusively civic lines. It has resisted the en-
croachments of Roman Catholicism through legis-
lation upon the rights of the people; and though it
has not formally adopted "passive resistance," yet
many of the leaders of the National Council have
given that movement their personal support. It
has also led crusades against gambling and intem-
perance. It supports a publication department,
from which it has issued The Free Church Year
Book (1896 sqq.); The Free Church Catechism
(1899); a series of thirteen volumes on Eras of
Nonconformity (1904 sqq.); Little Books on the De-
vout Life, ed. F. B. Meyer (1004 sqq.); The Free
Church Council Hymnal (1906); The Work of the
Fre^ Church Council; a Manual for Secretaries and
others (1906); various biographies, including those
of Dr. Clifford and Gipsy Smith, with miscellane-
ous literature bearing on the work; and The Free
Church Chronicle, 'the official organ of the move-
ment. John Clifford.
FREE CONGREGATIONS IN GERMANY.
The Friends of Light, or Protestant Friends (§1).
The Formation of Free Congregations (J 2).
The Free Congregations Since 1858 ($ 3).
The name " Free Congregations " (Germ. Freie
Gemeinden) is given in Germany to certain religious
bodies which have separated from the State
Churches, yet are distinct from the so-called Free
Churches of Germany (for which see Lutheranb,
II). In the fifth decade of the nineteenth century
a movement arose in Prussian Saxony, the adher-
ents of which were popularly named '* Friends of
Light " (Lichtfreunde), though they
I. The first styled themselves '* Protestant
Friends of Friends." The external provocation
Light, or for this movement was the disciplining
Protestant of Pastor W. F. Sinteris at Madgeburg,
Friends, because he had characterized prayer
to Christ as superstition. Certain
circles, offended by this procedure on the part
of the Magdeburg Consistory, foimd a leader
and organizer in Pastor Leberecht Uhlich in 18iL '
The movement underwent greater extensioD it
the hands of Pastor Gustav Adolf Wislioenns m
Halle, who on occasion of the seventh cooventiai
of those who favored it, at KOthen, May 29, 1844^
discussed the question whether Holy Scriptttre,or
the living spirit indwelling within us, is to be m-
garded as norm of the Protestant type of i^ipm
consciousness. From ecclesiastical circles then
ensued sharp and deprecatory expressions of opoi>
ion, and the Friends of Light soon came into con-
flict with the church authorities. The Brain
theological professor, David Schulz (q.v.), forfeited
his position as consistorial councilor. But greater
interest by far was aroused by the depositiooof
Pastor Wislicenus, on Apr. 23, 1846, " on aeooodt
of gross injuiy to the liturgical and doctrinal or
dinances in force in the Evangelical State Chinch."
The publication of his book Die Bibel im IMi
der BUdung unserer Zeit (Magdeburg, 1853), lob-
jected him to the penalty of a two years' impriaoh
ment, adjudged by the court ai Halle, though h»
escaped the same by flight to America. He re-
turned to Europe in 1866. His later worb, Uk
Bibel, fiir denkende Leser betrachtet (Leipdc, 1863;
2d ed., 1866), and Entweder—oder, Glaiibt okr
Wissenscha/t. Schnft oder Geist (1868), sbowthit
he consistently adhered to his eariier radical yiewi.
He died Oct. 14, 1875. Even before Wiaficeani
was compelled to leave the State Church, theachii-
matic pastor, Julius Rupp, in KOnigsberg, hadbeeo \
deposed on Sept. 17, 1845, '* on account of repeated '
violation of his official obligations by reaaon of
gross negligence." Uhlich, after prolonged pro-
ceedings, voluntarily withdrew from the ^te
Church. He died Mar. 23, 1872. Deacon W. E
Baltzer of Delitzsch resigned his ecclesiastical office
on account of his non-confirmation as pastor li
Nordhausen in 1847, and Pastor Adolf Timotbeoi
Wislicenus, the " physical and intellectual brother"
of the one mentioned above, accepted the conse-
quences of his doctrinal standpoint and withdiev
from the State Church.
These collisions with church authorities acquired
a greater significance, in that they furnished the
first incentive and became the means toward ea-
tablishing congregations outside the State Church.
At KOnigsberg such a congregation had come into
existence as early as Dec. 16, 1845, and had (f
ganized itself, on Jan. 19, 1846, as a *' Free Evan-
gelical Congregation." Other free congregatioBa
arose at Neumarkt in Silesia; at Halle, NordhaitKO,
Halberstadt, Magdeburg, Hambin^
2. The and Marburg. The attitude of the
Formation various governments in relatioo to
of Free Con- both the German Catholic (sec Go*
gregations. man Cathoucism), and the f^
Protestant movement, down to the
year 1848, was not quite uniform, though evincing
the same general character. In so far as the mow*
ment was regarded as a product of the revolutioo-
ary spirit, the government looked upon it with
great distrust, and sought to obviate its further
encroachments by the application of statutoiy
means. Finally, the outbreak of the RevolutioA
in Mar., 1848, afforded the " Free " religious move-
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Free Cfhnroh Federation
Freemasons
it the desired complete freedom, and gained
it, at the outset, a large increase. New congre-
ioDs arose in the Province of Saxony, in the
Tinoe of Brandenburg, in Brunswick, in the
lalt duchies, in the kingdom of Saxony, in
sia, East and West Prussia, in Nassau, Hesse
rmstadt, and elsewhere; aU told there were more
n seventy new establishments. At their height,
total nimiber of German Catholics and " Free
iteetants " in Germany — who are not subject
separate enimieration — amounted to approxi-
tdy 150,000.
Jut from 1850 forward, the German govem-
nts once again confronted the free religious
ivement in a hostile spirit. The most pronounced
nplaints, on the side of the Free Congregations,
re proffered against the government in Prussia,
eucular of the Minister of the Interior, Sept. 29,
51, declared that the dissenting associations
!re not simply religious societies, but rather po-
iol unions, furthering the subversion of the civil
id social order; and that by reason of insight into
e proper nature of these societies, it had grown
» be tlie peremptory duty of the State Govem-
eot to oppose them with every legitimate agency.
; ma only when Prince WiUiam of Prussia, later
JOg William I., assimied the regency, in Oct.,
SS8, that the free operation of their principles was
ully secured them.
On June 16 and 17, 1859, a large contingent of
beGemian Catholic and Free Protestant congre-
itioDs united in the Bund freircligidser Gemeinden
"Federation of Free Religious Congregations").
According to the latest revision of
|.T1ieFrtethe Constitution (1899), the funda-
Congregi- mental principle of the Federation is
lioni Since " free determination of the individual
1858. in all religious affairs according to his
own advancing knowledge "; its ob-
«t: " advancement of religious life independently
f dogma." Since 1877, a federate convention has
Kn held biennially. At present the entire Feder-
tioo comprises probably some 22,000 souls. The
igpst congregations are in Berlin, Mannheim, Of-
obach, and Magdeburg. The contemporary Free
QOgregations are unanimous in disclaiming all rc-
pM cultivated by the churches as being that of
petrified dogma-creed, but unanimous only in
05 negation. Indeed, a positive expression of
bat the advocates of free religion understand by
figioQ can hardly be attempted, since by that
sy process the freedom of independent deter-
ination would be invaded, and a relapse into
eonfefldonalism " would come to pass. But the
actical problems of religious instruction, preach-
6 propaganda, etc., tend to press the issue in
B direction of set standards of procedure. In
i face of this dilenmia, a varying attitude is
ipted. The E^t Prussians, the " K3nigsberg-
," represent the right wing within the Free
i^regations; they still maintain remnants of
rch ideas, and religious instruction is still im-
ted by them in connection with the Bible. The
uremberg tendency " represents the opposite
erne, and stands outright upon the basis of
iralinn and atheism. The center is occupied by
the " South German *' group, which perceives in
Jesus an ethical prototype. Public worship holds
only a very subordinate and accessory position.
Estabhshed and generally valid forms of worship
are altogether wanting; in this matter the sep-
arate congregations have their hands quite free.
The Lord's Supper is still solemnized at a good
many places. For baptism there had been sub-
stituted even as early as the sixties the so-called
Kindestoeihe (" infant consecration "). Since then,
however, it would appear to have gone out of ob-
servance entirely. Confirmation takes place in all
congregations; that is, Jugendweihe (" consecra-
tion of youth "), wliich terminates the religious
instruction that begins for the most part in the
ninth year of age. The movement was only tran-
siently a momentous force in the church life of
Germany; nor did it owe even this transient sig-
nificance at any time to great performances, but
essentially to the circimistance that people imputed
great things to it, and hoped or feared them.
Carl Mirbt.
BiBLiooRArHY: F. Kampe. Oeschichte der relioii^^en Be-
wegung der neueren Zeit, 4 vols., Leipsic, 1852-60; Drews,
in Zeitschrift fiir Theologie und Kirche, xi. 6 (1901), 484-
527; G. Tschirm, Zur 60j(Uirioen Oeachichte der freire-
ligi6»en Bewegung, BamberR. 1904; F. Nippold, HaruUmdi
derneueaten Kirchengeschic^, v. $ 18, Leipsic, 1906.
FREEDOM OF THE WILL. See Will.
FREEMAN, JAMES: Pastor of the first Uni-
tarian Church in America; b. at Charlestown, Mass.,
Apr. 22, 1759; d. at Newton, Mass., Nov. 14, 1835.
He was educated in the public Latin school, Bos-
ton, and at Harvard College (B.A., 1777; D.D.,
1811). After his graduation from college he went
to Cape Cod and drilled a company of recruits for
the colonial army. In 1780 he visited Quebec,
where he was arrested and held till 1782. He then
returned to Boston, became lay reader at King's
Chapel in 1782, and pastor in 1783, but with the
stipulation that he might omit the Athanasian
Creed from the service. Having become a Uni-
tarian in his views, he openly renounced the doc-
trine of the trinity, and in 1785 induced his church
to change its liturgy, thus converting the first
Episcopal Church in New England into the first
Unitarian Church in America. On being refused
ordination by Bishop Provost he was ordained by
his own people, Nov. 18, 1787. He remained pas-
tor of the church till 1827, though in 1826 he gave
up his pastoral duties to his colleague, Francis W.
P. Greenwood, and retired to a country residence
near Boston. He published Sermons and Ad-
dresses (Boston, 1832), and made many contribu-
tions to periodical literature, and to the collections
of the Massachusetts Historical Society, of which
he was one of the founders.
Bibliooraphy: W. Ware, American Unitarian Biograj^y,
2 vols., Boston, 1850-51; W. B. Sprague. AnnaU of the
American Pulpit, viii. 162, 9 vols.. New York. 1865-73;
J. H. Allen, in Amencan Church Hist. Seriea, x. 186-186,
ib. 1894.
FREEMASONS : The name of the members of a
well-known secret society, derived from those med-
ieval stonemasons who were allowed to migrate
Vr96iiutBoni
Free Spirit
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
at will, as distinguished from their fellow workmen
in the gilds. The latter were restricted to certain
localities and confined to their gilds, while the
former went from land to land, and formed a wide-
spread organization imder the supervision of the
supreme lodge at Strasbuig. The institution of
the lodge lasted longest in England, receiving a new
impetus through the biuning of London in 1666.
Far different, however, is *' symbolic freemasonry, "
which is a secret organization for the erection
of a spiritual temple of humanity in the heart of
man. The change from the ancient masonic craft
to modem freemasonry began as early as the end
of the sixteenth century. After the rebuilding of
London and the completion of St. Paul's, the mar
jority of lodges disappeared, but the four which
survived formed a grand lodge at London on St.
John's Day (June 24), 1717, surrendering manual
masonry, and seeking a new sphere in moral and
social life. The original organization of medieval
masonic fraternity was retained, however, espe-
cially the distinction of masters, journeymen, and
apprentices, as well as mutual help, the applica-
tion of a detailed symbolism in words, pictures,
and signs, and the solemn obligation to secrecy
covering everything pertaining to the lodge. In
1721, one of the founders of this union, James An-
derson, an English Presbyterian minister, drafted
a " constitution '' for this cosmopolitan organizar
tion, which bound all '' freemasons " to a faithful
observance of the moral law, humanity, and patri-
otism. In religion, however, they are non-secta-
rian, and profess only that faith in which all men of
honor agree. Doctrines going beyond that are
tolerated as private opinions, but no one is per-
mitted to m&ke propaganda for them. The char-
acteristics of masonry are, therefore, humanistic
morals, the cultivation of fraternity, and a deistic
belief. It was the outcome of English deism and
latitudinarianism, and was soon adopted in Ger-
many in radical religious circles. In those Roman
Catholic countries where no Protestantism ex-
isted, masonry even obtained the importance of
an opposing church, and freemasonry is accordingly
regarded as in league with Satan. In the en-
cyclical humanum genus on freemasonry, dated
Apr. 20, 1884 (2d ed., Treves, 1885), Leo XIII.
solemnly condemned it, as other popes had re-
peatedly done since 1751.
From England masonry soon spread to the Brit-
ish colonies and to the continent of Europe. In
1725 it was in Paris; in 1733 in Florence and Bos-
ton; and in 1737 in Hamburg. In 1738 the Prus-
sian crown-prince, afterward Frederick the Great,
was solemnly initiated at Brunswick by a deputa-
tion from the Hamburg lodge Absalom. As king
he energetically labored for the spread of the sys-
tem, and in 1744 was made grand master of the
grand lodge " Zu den drei Weltkugeln " in Berlin.
As the tendency of masonry is essentially subjec-
tive, many internal dissensions arose. In addition
to the Brotherhood of St. John, diNasions were
formed with a knightly organization and the most
varied degrees of fantastic terminology and
mysterious ceremonial. Rationalism in Germany
helped to introduce masonry among the middle
classes, where it stiU has a strong hold (m t
of the advantages, especially in social rapecti.
enjoyed by many of its adherents, such ss phyB>
cians and merchants. Spiritually it has not ad-
vanced. For Evangelical churches with tkeir
charitable interests, freemasoniy is wholly soper
fluous. The Roman Catholic Church is oppoied
to the freemasons.
In Europe the number of masons is estimated to
be over 300,000, most of them beloDging to the
grand lodges of Great Britain. In Am^ica, in ad-
dition to freemasons proper, who number sbont
750,000, there are similar societies with about 4,6S0,-
000 members, divided into Odd FeUows (820,000),
Knights of Pythias (475,000), Ancient Order of
United Workmen (361,000), Maccabees (244,000),
Modem Workmen of America (204,000), and aboot
twenty smaller orders, this entire body
annually about $25,000,000 for benefit money.
Paul TscHAcuirr.
Bxbuoorapht: Lists of books »re furnidied by G. ¥km,
Bibliothek der Frtimaurerei, Frankfort (1846). Sqifife-
ment by G. Findel Leapsio, 1866, and W. Ganm,
Catalogue of Books on Fnemamnry, New York, 1858. 0»
suit, A. G. Mackey, Eneydopadia of Frmmammy, lUi-
delphia, n.d.; idem, HitL of Frtemaaovry, 3 psrts, N«v
York, 1000: J. O. HalliweU, Early HiaL of Fnmaamt
in England, London, 1843; C. L. Platon. Frmmamm%
iU Svmbolimn, Religioiu Natun^ etc, ib. 1873; L. Hyiie-
man. HtMt. of Frtemaaonry in England^ Hew York. 1878;
R. F. Gould, HiaL of Froemammry, 6 Tols., London. 1884-
1887; H. Boos, Gesc^tcAte der FrHmaunni, Asrsn. 18M;
¥.Ka,\xh,EntMiehungund . . . Endxwedt der Frtmmnm,
Berlin, 1897; J. Sassenbach, Die Freitnawerti, ib. 1887;
O. KuntsemQller, Die Freimaurerei und ikre Gtgm,
Hanover. 1807; A. Churchward, Origin and Anli«w<y M
Freemaeonry^ London, 1898.
FREE METHODISTS. See Methooistb, IV., 5.
FREE RELIGIOUS ASSOCIATION: An asBO-
ciation established in Boston May 30, 1867, aiming
at the emancipation of religion from sectaiun
limitations, the reconciliation of faiths, and the ap-
plication of scientific methods to the study of relig-
ion, and emphasizing practical morality. Octar
vius Brooks Frothingham was the first presidenti
and for many years Ralph Waldo Emerson waa
one of the vice-presidents. Members are allowed
the utmost liberty of opinion. The elastic nature
of the organization — ** any person desiring to co-
operate" is "considered a member" — renders
exact statistics impossible. The association has
not attempted to organize local societies,
but has contented itself with holding conventions
and distributing publications. An annual report
is usually issued in pamphlet form.
Edwin D. Meaj).
FREE SPIRIT, BRETHREN OF THE.
Meaning and Origin (§1).
Mjrstic Pantheism Wide-epread (| 2).
Various Groups ($ 3).
Brethren of the Free Spirit is a name under which
the heresiologists of the Middle Ages classed vari-
ous extreme developments of quietistic and pan-
theistic mysticism. Modem scholars also have ac-
cepted the existence of a pantheistic sect, sharply
marked off from the fellowship of the Church,
usually recruited from the laity, and hft^dmg down
II
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
VzarauuMma
Free Spirit
and
Origin.
doctrines practically unaltered from the thir-
snth to the sixteenth century. It is possible to
ov, however, that the phenomena classed under
is title have points of such radical difference
to destroy the conception of one single pan-
theistic tradition reproducing itself
through more than one century by
means of an actual sect; and that the
origin of this pantheistic quietLstic mys-
ticism is found not among the ordi-
uy laity but in the monasteries and among the
eghards and Beguines, who came so strongly
ider monastic influence; also that in the foUow-
ig centuries the boundaries between monastic
gnticism and sectarian pantheism were never
Ely stable. There is no adequate ground for be-
enng that the teachings of Amalric of Bona (q.v.)
mid acceptance among a section of the French
fakfeiiBes, and then about 1215 spread from east-
ro France into western and southern Germany.
Ik earliest authentic information about the ap-
Miance of this sort of mysticism on German soil
Inn certain Swabian heretics about 1250 teach-
ing a radical pantheism and determinism. Start-
pgfrom the belief in the divine essence of the soul
Hid of all earthly things, they considered the as-
9uioiiof the soul to God the goal of all religion.
Ilk was to be attained by abstraction from all
irthly activity and also from moral and religious
nmnandments which distracted the soul from its
nrpose of union with the Godhead. The *' per-
eet man " who has reached this goal is sinless;
OB win is God's will; the Church's laws and means
i grace are without significance for him. All
ibe was taken both from moral effort and from
cdeoastical ordinances by the bchef that every
nman act had been predestined from eternity,
m this points to these doctrines being a straggling
Aboot of the monastic mysticism of the school of
Slint-Victor, as drawn by its adherents from Dio-
vjwjB the Areopagite. When Richard of Saint-
Vietor (q.v.) says of the soul united with God (De
ptpar. animi ad contempl., ii. 13) " Here first the
nul recovers its ancient dignity, and asserts its
daim to the innate glory of its own freedom,"
k UBes expressions only too easily misunder-
■tood by extravagant mystics, and serving them
M a foundation for their doctrine of spiritual
i^Mdom.
The decrees of the Council of Vienne (1311)
^pinst the Beguines and Beghards shows that the
•Iwrch authorities of that time were disposed to
ttt these communities throughout Germany with
*0|u]ar pantheistic heresies. The consequences of
*to view have been that up to the present day it
^ been usual to attribute a much wider exten-
sion than the facts justify to the pan-
J. Myitic theistic doctrines, and to consider the
hiiXbeaam characteristics of the orthodox Beg-
Vide-<|iread. uines and Beghards, e.g., their es-
teem for poverty and mendicancy, as
lfaii^;uishing the heretical mystics. The fact is,
iowmr, that it is difficult to draw a sharp line of
bmareation between orthodox and heretical mys-
ieuDd. How true this is may be seen not only
om the complaint of David of Augsburg that the
friends of mysticism were persecuted on no other
ground than as heretics or as possessed by demons,
but also from the accusations of spreading aUeged her-
esies which were brought against Tauler, Suso, and
Ruysbroeck, to say nothing of Eckhart. Among
the cloistered women of the thirteenth and four-
teenth centuries the line of demarcation was even
more fluctuating. The ecstatic-mystical life and
the visionary condition of many of them produces
frequent expressions from which to pantheism is
but a short step. It can scarcely be denied that
this pantheism won many adherents through the
influence of the great German mystics of the four-
teenth century. The theory that close personal
relations existed between Eckhart and the " Free
Spirit " heretics at Strasburg and (Cologne is un-
proved and unlikely; but the sectarian pantheistic
mysticism was unquestionably aided and influ-
enced by his speculations. In a well-known pas-
sage of Suso's BUchkin der WahrheU (ch. vi.), in
which he is arguing with the leaders of the pan-
theistic mystics, the latter quote Eckhart as a high
authority. This attempt to show him as on their
side, however unjustifiable, throws light on the
close correspondence between the propositions con-
demned as his by John XXII. in 1329 and the ex-
tracts given by Mosheim from a lost sectarian book
De novem ruptbua; apparently the papal censure
was based not upon Eckhart's authentic writings
but upon this pantheistic treatise which was given
out as his.
The opponents of the teaching of the '* Free
Spirit," e.g. Tauler, Rulman Merswin, Gerson,
Ruysbroeck, and Geert Groote, give the impres-
sion that they are combating, not an
3. Various organized sect, but a morbid tendency
Groups, and an exaggeration of mystical piety.
The confusion frequently found in
writers of that period between the adherents of this
pantheistic mysticism and the Fraticelli and Apos-
tolic Brethren springs partly from ignorance of the
points in which they differed widely, and partly
from the use of the expression " secta spiritus
libertatis " as a common designation for quite dis-
tinct heresies. This has led some modem writers
into the supposition that the teachings of the Ger-
man heretical mystics had been spread in the four-
teenth century among the Itahan Fraticelli and
ApostolicaLs, as well as through the so-called " Tur-
lupins " (q.v.), in France. It is clear that the at-
tempt to trace the development and organization
of a single definite pantheistic sect in the Middle
Ages must be unsuccessful. The records of the
tribunals, however, make us acquainted with vari-
ous groups of this kind and with a whole series of
individual representatives of heretical mysticism.
The condemnation of Margareta Porete, a Beguine
of Hainault, who was executed in Paris in 1316,
precedes the Council of Vienne. In her writings
the soul, " annihilated " in God, is released from
the obligation to practise virtue, which, however,
comes naturally to the soul united ' with God.
Probably similar to hers was the teaching of the
mystical work of Marie de Valenciennes, contro-
verted by Gerson, which, appealing to an alleged
Biblical counsel " Ama et fac quod vis," denied
Preethixiker
French Sevolution
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
the binding force of the moral law for those who
were filled with the mystical love of God. With
the Flemish poetess and visionary Hadewich Blom-
maerdino (q.v.), the pantheistic element is not
prominent. About the same time in Cologne, a
Netherlander, Walther, burned c. 1322, was the
center of a wide-spread pantheistic movement, in
the contemporary descriptions of which we meet
for the first time with the nocturnal Adamite
orgies (see Adamites). In southern Germany
Berthold of Rorbach (q.v.), burned 1356 at
Speyer, and Hermann Kiichener of Nuremberg,
who recanted at Wtirzburg in 1342, were the
apostles of a similar movement. Another interest-
ing group is that of the " Friends of God "
(q.v.), whose leader, Nicholas of Basel was burned
at Vienna in 1396. Pantheistic-antinomian ele-
ments are mingled with apocalyptic views of the
Joachim type in the " Homines intelligentisB "
(q.v.). The sources for the history of these her-
esies in the fifteenth century are so confused that
little can be made of them. That pantheistic ideas
still had power in the Reformation period is shown
by the rise of the Loist sect at Antwerp (1525-
1545), and the Libertine or Spiritual party (see
Libertines, 3) which after 1529 spread from the
Netherlands through France, western Germany,
and Switzerland, as well as by certain develop-
ments of the Anabaptist movement.
(Herman Haupt.)
Bibuooraphy: Sources are: P. Frederioq, Corpus docit^
merUorum inquisitionia N eerlandicce, vols, i.-ii., Ghent,
1889-96; Ulanowski, in Scriptores rerum Polonicarum,
xiii. 233-250. Cracow, 1889. Consult: H. C. Lea, HiaL
of InquUition, vol. ii., passim, New York, 1888; C. U.
Hahn, OeachichU der Ketzer, ii. 470, Stuttgart, 1847; J.
C. L. Gieseler. Kirchengeschichte, II. ii. 642 sqq.. Bonn.
1849, Eng. transl., ed. H. B. Smith, ii. 590 sqq.,
New York, 1871; W. Moll, Kerkgeschiedenit van Neder-
land, II., iii. 59 sqq.. Utrecht, 1869; W. Preger. GeBchicMe
der deuiJichen Mystik, vols, i.-iii., I^ipsic, 1874-93; H.
Haupt. ZKO,v. 478. vii. 503, xii.35; H. Renter, Oeschichte
der religidBen Aufkldruno, ii. 240 sqq.. Berlin, 1877; W.
Wattenbach. in SiUungaberichte der Berliner Akademie,
1887. pp. 517 sqq.; J. J. I. von DdlUnger. Sektenoeachichte,
ii. 378 sqq., 702 sqq., Munich. 1890; Neandor, Chriatian
Church, iv. 633. v. 393, 401, 408.
FREETHINKER : In general, one who reaches
his conclusions by following the demands of rea-
son, rather than those of authority; more particu-
larly, one who rejects the supernatural elements
of Christianity. The term was first used toward
the close of the seventeenth century, though it
does not seem to have gained general currency till
after the publication of Anthony Collins' Dis-
course of Freethinking (1713, see Collins, An-
thony). The term then came to be applied spe-
cifically to the group of deistic writers formed by
Collins, Woolston, Tindal, and others (sec Deism).
Although Collins defined freethinking as merely an
attempt to judge a proposition according to the
weight of evidence, his book was regarded as an
attack on the fundamental tenets of Christianity;
and from that day to this the term freethinker has
carried with it, in the popular understanding, the
implication of skeptic, infidel, and even libertine
and atheist. The freethinker of to-day does not
reject Christianity; he explains it.
Bibliography: Consult the Uterature under Antttrini-
tarianihm; Dkirm.
FREE-WILL BAPTISTS. SeeBAPTiSTB,IL,4^c
FREISING, BISHOPRIC OF: A bishopric »
ganized by Boniface in the spring of 739 after hli
return from Rome, with the other Bavarian bab*
oprics, under the approval of Duke Odilo. It m
of small extent; the boundary joined Au^iboiiQi
the west, ran to the south along the ric^ of tla ■,
hills on the north side of the Inn valley, then alon^ '
the top of the Mangfall range, and touched Ua
river at the present Kufstein, following its oooni
to Gars, where it turned to the north and eaaa
round to meet the Augsburg line again aboie
Geisenfeld. In charge of it Boniface placed EmD-
bert, brother of Corbinian (q.v.). The number e(
monasteries it contained was large. The moel lar
portant of them was that of St. Quirinus on the
Tegemsee, which goes back probably to the reigi
of King Pepin, and asserted its inmiediate depend*
ence on the Empire imtil the time of Louis tfal
Bavarian. (A. Haucl)
The histoiy of the diocese presents few featm
of more than local interest up to the Refonnitiai^
in which period it must be said that the preeerf^
tion of Bavaria to the Roman Catholic faith is d»
rather to the zeal of the dukes than to the infis-
ence of the bishops. Both, however, were nol in-
willing to show a reasonable spirit, and the BjntA j
of Salzburg in 1562, including Bishop Maurice fa i
Sandizell of Freising (1559-66), assented to the [
laying before the Council of Trent of the caoat
sions desired by Duke Albert V. of Bavaria and '
the Emperor Ferdinand — ^the marriage of thedeigf
and communion in both kinds. The next l»flfao|i^
Ernest (1566-1612), was himself of the ducal fan-
ily, which gave the see two more bishops, Albert
Sigmund (1652-85) and John Theodore (1727-®.
The title of prince-bishop was conferred by Ferdh
nand II. upon the incumbents of the see. By the
secularization of 1802-03 Freising was incapO"
rated as a principality with the Bavarian Palati-
nate, except the portions situated in Austria and the
Tyrol, which were given to Salzburg. By the coO"
cordat of 1817 a combined archbishopric of MuniA
and Freising took the place of the old bishopric
(see Concordats and Deumitino Bulls, VL, %
§2).
Biblioorapht: C. Meichelbeck, HiaL Friainoenaia, 2 Toi&.
Auffsburg. 1724-29; Graf Hundt. in AM A, Tob. nL-
xiii.; K. Roth. Koeroha Renner, Munich, 1854; vkm,
Verxeichnia der Freiainger Urkunden, ib. 18&5; i^^
OertiichkeUen dea Biathuma Freieing, ib. 1856; 8. Bieda;
OeachichU Bayerna, Gotha. 1880; H. G. Gengler. 5aH^
zur Rechtageachichte Bayerna, i. 58. 185 sqq., LttpoclMi
Rettberg. KD, ii. 257; Hauck, KD, i. 491.
FRELINGHUYSEN, frt'Ung-hoi-'zen, THEODORB:
Dutch Reformed educator; b. at Millstone, N. J., Mir.
28, 1787; d.at New Brunswick, N. J., Apr. 12,1862.
After his graduation (1804)fromtheCdlegeof New
Jersey (Princeton) he studied law and was admittfid
to the bar in 1808, when he removed to Newark. He
was attorney-general of New Jersey 1817-29, UMt«d
States senator 1829-45, mayor of Newark 1837-3^
chancellor of New York University 183^50, and
president of Rutgers College 1860-62. In 1844 hewn
the Whig candidate for the vice-presidency, on the
ticket with Henry Clay. In the senate be won for
B88
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Freethinker
Frenoii Bevolation
himself the title of " Christian statesman." It is
Mid that no other American layman was ever as-
•odated with so many great religious and char-
itable enterprises. He was president of the Ameri-
am Bible Society 1846-62, of the American Tract
Soeiety 1842-48, and for sixteen years president of
the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign
marions. He was vice-president of the American
Sunday-school Union 1826-61, and for many years
WB8 vice-president of the American Colonization
Society.
Bduoorapht: T. W. Chambers, Memoir of Theodore Fre-
Umakuyen, New York, 1863.
FREMANTLE, WILLIAM HENRY : Dean of Ripon ;
b. at Swanboume (17 m. n.e. of Oxford), Bucking-
haoMhire, Dec. 12, 1831. He studied at Balliol Col-
lege* Oxford (B.A., 1853), and was ordered deacon
in 1855 and ordained priest in 1856. He was fel-
low of All Souls, Oxford, 1854-63 and fellow of
Balliol and tutor 1883-94. He was curate of
Middle daydon, 1855-57, vicar of Lewknor, Ox-
fordshire, 1857-65, rector of St. Mary's, Bryan-
■ton Square, London, 1865-83, and canon of Can-
terbuiy 1882-95. Since 1895 he has been dean of
Ripon. He was chaplain to Bishop and Archbishop
Tait 1861-82, select preacher to the University of
Oxford in 1879-80, Bampton Lecturer in 1883. and
William Belden Noble Lecturer at Harvard Uni-
▼enity in 1900. He has written The Influence of
Commerce en Christianity (London, 1854); Lay
Power in Parishes (1869); The Ecclesiastical Judg-
ments of the Privy Council (in collaboration with
G. C. Brodrick; 1865); Reconciliation to God
ikraugh Jesus Christ (1870); The Gospel of the Secu-
lar Life (university sermons; 1882); The World as
ihe Subject of Redemption (Bampton Lectures;
1885); Eighty-Eights: Sermons on Armada and
Revolution (1888); The Present Work of the An-
flfican Communion (1888); and Christian Ordi-
nances and Social Progress (Noble lectures for 1900;
Boston, 1901). He also translated the works of St.
Jerome and Rufinus in the Nicene and Post-Nicene
Fathers Xin collaboration with G. Lewis and W. G.
MarUey; Edinburgh, 1893), and edited Church Re-
form (London, 1888) and the Sermons of B. Jowett
(3 vols., 1895-1901).
FRENCH CONFESSION OF FAITH. See Galu-
CAN Confession.
FRENCH PROPHETS: A fanatical sect in Eng-
land started in 1706 by refugee Camisards (q.v.),
who pretended to have the gift of prophecy and
the power of working miracles. Their specitd mis-
sion, they claimed, was to declare the speedy es-
tablishment of the Messiah's kingdom, which was
to be accompanied by wonders and the infliction
of severe judgments on the wicked. For a time
they produced a deep impression in London and
the larger provincial cities and won the allegiance
of such well-known people as Lady Jane Forbes,
Sir Richard Bulkeley, and John Lacy. Bulkeley
elaimed to have been miraculously cured of con-
tinuous headache, stone, and rupture, and con-
tributed large sums to the support of the sect, at
the time of his death (1710) he was on the point of
selling his estates and distributing the proceeds
among the prophets. He wrote in their defense,
An Answer to Several Treatises Lately Published on
the Subject of the Prophets (London, 1708).
Lacy, who was a member of Edmimd Calamy's
church, fell under the influence of the prophets
soon after their arrival and " entered into all their
absurdities, except that of a community of goods,
to which he strongly objected, having an income
of two thousand pounds per annum." He became
a seer and healer and published several works for
the cause, including A Cry from the Desertj or Tes-
timonials of Miraculous Things Lately Come to Pass
in the Cevennes (London, 1707), a translation
from the French of Francis Maximilian; Prophetical
Warnings of Elias Marion (1707); The Prophetical
Warnings of John Lacy (1707), a collection of his
own prophecies; A Relation of the Dealings of God
to his Unworthy Servant, John Lacy (1708), an an-
swer to an attack by Edmund Calamy; and A
Vision of J. L., Esq,, a Prophet (1715), inspired by
the Jacobite rising. In 1707 the prophets were
convicted of publishing false and scandalous pam-
phlets and holding tumultuous assemblies and
placed in the pillory, though prosecutions against
Lacy and Bulkeley were quashed. This seems to
have made the sect temporarily more popular than
ever, and soon there were no less than 400 persons
spreading their fanatical prophecies in various
parts of the country. They even went so far as to
predict that one of their number, Thomas Emes,
lately deceased, would rise from the dead on May
25, 1708. In a pamphlet entitled The Mighty
Miracle, or the Wonder of Wonders, Lacy issued a
general invitation to everybody to come to Bun-
hill Fields to witness this event. The failure of
Emes to emerge from his grave at the time ap-
pointed weakened the influence of the prophets,
and from that time they fell into disgrace.
Bibuoobapht: D. Hughson [pseudonym for Edward Pugh],
A Copious Account of the French and Englieh Proph^,
London. 1814; R. AdamB, The Relioioue World Dieplayed,
Edinburgh, 1800; Englieh Review, iz (1852), 22-23; and
especially DNB, xxxi. 382-383, where a copious literature
on the subject is indicated.
FRENCH REVOLUTION, RELIGIOUS EFFECTS
OF.
Early Friendly Attitude of the Church (f 1).
Influence of Financial Considerations ($ 2).
Reconstitution of Church and Clergy (§3).
Clerical Opposition Causes Persecution ($4 ).
More Extreme Anticlerical Measures ($ 5).
Movement Becomes Antireligious ($ 6).
Rationalistic Cults Introduced (§7).
The Turn in Aflfairs (J 8).
The Coming of Napoleon ($ 9).
The violent commotion which, toward the end
of the eighteenth century, shattered the vital struc-
ture of the French state was directed
I. Early primarily against medieval feudalism.
Friendly But, inasmuch as this was closely re-
Attitude lated to the Roman Catholic Church,
of the the element of destruction of necessity
Church, reached the Church. From tliis it was
an easy step to the attack upon religion
in general. Distrust of the positive teaching of the
Church and the frivolity which was hampered by
French Se^olution
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOQ
m
the moral philosophy of the day combined to arouse
the suspicion that the clergy clung to their pre-
rogatives, social organization, and possessions not
because of their conviction of the essential rightness
of these things, but simply from a desire for power.
As financial stringency had given the first impulse
to the revolution, so later it seemed just and natural
to make use of the wealth of the Church to save the
State from bankruptcy. But from the beginning
the political status of the clergy was a matter of
consideration. It was commonly expected that they
as a body would side with the nobility; but while
the nobility maintained their purpose to contend
for their ascendancy in the assembly, on June 22,
1789, 148 of the 308 clerical delegates sided with the
third estate, and on June 24, 151 others joined in
the movement under the leadership of Talleyrand.
The abolition of tithes aroused little opposition;
already the clergy had offered their possessions for
the national good; and the proposal to use the
church vessels for public relief had been agreed to,
while the offer of 140 million francs was accepted
by the assembly Sept. 29. But the advancing
revolutionary spirit was no longer satisfied with a
friendly attitude on the part of the Church; it would
satisfy its hate by appropriating all the Church's
possessions. It is therefore noteworthy that a high
dignitary of the Church, Talleyrand, bishop of
Autun, recognizing that the especial prerogatives of
the Church could no longer be preserved, lent his
aid to the expression of the general feeling. He
proposed, Oct. 10, 1789, that a third of the ecclesi-
astical revenue (fifty millions of francs) be applied
to cover the deficit in the accounts of the State,
justifying the proposal by the fact that the clergy
were not owners of the Church property, but merely
in possession of a usufruct, while the State had
power over every institution within its jurisdiction.
Talleyrand, Mirabeau, and Abb6 Gr^goire carried
their point against the opposition of Sieyds and the
Abbds Maury, Montesquieu, and others, by a vote
of 586 to 346. A resolution passed reciting that all
ecclesiastical property was at the disposal of the
State on the condition that the latter defray the
expenses of public worship and provide for the sup-
port of the Church's officers and for the maintenance
of the poor. Two days later this was ratified by the
king while in confinement. Yet the clergy, so far
from receiving sympathy, were the recipients of
ridicule and insults from the populace.
New plans against the clergy came continually to
the front, personal attacks were made upon the
church dignitaries, while the monas-
2. Influ- tcries were especial objects of assault,
ence of On Veh. 11, 1790, Treilhard proposed
Financial for the second time the abolition of
Consider- monasteries and of monastic vows,
ations. After many debates the resolution
passed on Feb. 13, 1790, dissolving all
orders and congregations of both sexes with the ex-
ception of those devoted to the instruction of chil-
dren and to the care of the sick. Monastics might
leave their cloister? on notifying the local author-
ities; monks who were unwilling to leave were
assigned houses for their use. Great numbers seized
the freedom offered and became most enthusiastic
in their devotion to the revohition. Nuuioi
allowed to remain where they were, and fev left
their orders. Pensions were granted to thoR vb
entered civil life, depending in amount upoQ ihb
condition of the monastery, the rule of the oider,
and the age of the individuals. The dtofj M
hoped that the resolution to sell the property oCtk
Church would be a dead letter, but the ladLcfgoId
and the growing deficit made this measure in im-
mediate eventuality. The archbishop of Aix pro-
posed a loan of 400 millions of francs, guaranteed bj
the property of the clergy, who would pay the in.
terest and then gradually the principal throo^tle
proceedings from sales. But the majority wodd
not accept this plan, not recognizing the poBitiaDof
the clergy which could warrant the offering of nek
a sum. Meanwhile, Dom Gerles, a member of tlie
clerical conunittee, luiged that, in order to naif
those who feared for the existence of religioo, the
Roman Catholic religion be regarded as that of ^
nation, and that its services alone be Regarded u
authorized by the State. After considerable debate
the assembly decided not to entertain the propoed,
since it was neither willing nor able to enter decnei
upon matters of religion (Apr. 13, 1790). TheFkn
chapter, the members of the Right, and the citieiof
Nlmes, Nantes, and Rennes complained agaiutthii
decision and defended the Roman Catholic refigioD.
The assembly determined to assume adnunii-
tration of the clerical estates tmder the diieetan
of departments and districts, 400 millions to be
paid therefor and the money to be given to the
clergy.
Behind the financial .gain which the people
thought to make on thir occasion lay the main pin^
pose, the dissolution of a detested yet
3. Recon- powerful aristocratic body. Thedeigr
stitution of was regarded as the comer-stone of the
Church and feudal system, the demoUtion of whidi
Clergy, was the goal of the whole politieal
movement. Several other moves fol-
lowed the completion of the change in the status of
the clergy. The number of bishoprics was reduced
from 134 to 83. The bishop became the immediate
pastor of the community in which he hved, and in-
stead of the former chapter had a nimaber of viean
who formed his council and gave him advice in all
matters. The bishops were chosen by the same
bodies as named the' members of the departmental
assemblies, and were forbidden to seek papal con-
firmation. The choice of the pastor was left to the
active citizens of each district, but he was inducted
into his post by the bishop. Bishops and pastors
took the oath of all^iance to the nation, the law,
the king, and the constitution. These changes, con-
cluded May 31, followed a severe struggle led on the
part of the clergy by the archbishop of Aix and the
Jansenist theologian Camus. The civil constitution
of the clergy was finished July 12, the salaries being
fixed as follows: the archbishop of Paris, 50,000
livres; the other bishops, 20,000; the vicars, 2,000
to 6,000; and the pastors. 1,200 to 4,000, with
dwelling and garden. The king, being urged to sign
this constitution, found himself in difficulties, and
wrote the pope for advice. The latter could no
better solve the problem, called a meeting of ca^
886
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
French Bevolutlon
dinab, and asked the king to await the result of
their deliberations. But the aspect of the people
and assenibly was so threatening that the king
qgned Aug. 24, 1790, though the pope and the
bMhops b^an a passive resistance. Protests from all
quarters came in, the leading one by Boisgelin, arch-
bishop of Aix, who voiced the feelings of the Church
and its opposition to the new constitution in a paper
under tl^ title Expasitum dea principeSf signed by
110 bishops. The assembly, regarding this as a
levolutionary movement, replied by a decree of
Nov. 27, 1790, requiring all bishops to take the oath
of obedience to the civil constitution of the clergy,
and threatening those who resisted with dismissal
from their posts. At the suggestion of the king,
Bongelin, in the hope of securing f ome concessions,
presented to the pope a paper to the following pur-
port: it suggested (1) that the pope confirm the
anangement made by the assembly for the metro-
politan and other dioceses; (2) that the bishops
who were deprived of sees or whose dominion was
fimited be advised to approve the new divisions;
(3) that he give his sanction to the establishment
of the new dioceses; (4) that he give the metro-
politan power in the matter of canonical investiture
of tbe new bishoprics; (5) that he approve of the
miDgement for a coimcil of vicars for the conduct
of parochial business; and (6) that he admonish
tie bishops to accept the transfer of the vacant
ptiisheB to the incumbents chosen by the people
in caae there were neither moral nor canonical
veasoDs against it. The archbishop did not expect
that the pope would assent to these propositions,
yet he laid them before him, while the latter took
refoge in procrastination. Meanwhile the king was
driven to sign the threatening decree, Dec. 26, 1791,
and on the next day Abb6 Gr^goire took the oath
of aOegianoe, and was at once followed by Talley-
nnd and three other bishops and by seventy-
Qoe of the 300 clerical members of the assem-
bly. It was the purpose of the assembly to
have the new Church free from the authority of
the pope,
Jan. i, 1792, was the day set for the general ad-
Dimstration of the oath. It was a day of great
bitterness of feeling in the assembly,
4> Clerical but the majority of the clergy of Paris
Oppodtioii took the oath; in the provinces three-
Canaea fourths of the clergy remained true to
Hnecation. the old order. These consecutive steps
against the clergy had created a great
^ among the French people. The nobility and
those who, from the circumstance of birth or of
M or political position, were hostile to the new
Older joined with the clei^gy who were opposed to
tbe constitution. The king, realizing his position,
began to think of flight and of retaliation with out-
lide aid. Tbe assembly, on the other hand, saw
telf checked by the very extreme to which it had
been carried. In the South there were rumors of
■o insurrectionary movement; the large number of
tiiooe deprived of positions was itself a cause for
i;rave apprehension, and it was not due to thoughts
if charity that pensions were provided for these and
urtber persecution checked. While the Roman
Satholic clergy were lamenting the dissolution of
IV.— 26
their church, Protestants were enjoying their newly
found liberty as granted by the new civil constitu-
tion. The latter thus became the friends of the
revolution, their clerg3rmen taking the oath without
hesitation. The pope at last broke his silence, an-
noimcing his absolute rejection of the civil consti-
tution. The first declaration was in a document
sent to the archbishop of Sens, threatening him with
degradation from the cardinalate imle^ he formally
retracted the oath of allegiance to the constitution.
The archbishop replied by sending his cardinal's hat
to the pope, but declared his intention to remain as
bishop at the head of his church. The pope ex-
pressed his condemnation of the civil constitution
in other acts. He wrote on Mar. 30 to the thirty
bishops who had joined in the memorial of the
archbishop of Aix in the Exposition des principes^
and threatened them with canonical punishment
in case of failure on their part to retract their
oath of obedience to the constitution. In other
letters he declared all arrangements made in
accordance with the constitution null and void;
he commanded all clei^gjrmen who had taken
the oath to retract within forty days imder
penalty of permanent suspension, and warned the
people to have no dealings with the prelates or
pastors who had been forcibly installed. These
letters afforded a new basis for the opposition of
the bishops and clergy, and many withdrew their
oaths. But the very zeal of reaction aroused again
hatred for the cleigy, Church, and religion. The
pope became the object of insult, and on May 4,
the day after his letters had been made public, he
was burned in effigy before the palace with the
applause of the populace. The bishops were driven
from their diocese partly by direct conmiand of
government, partly by turbulent violence. Talley-
rand resigned his bishopric and returned to private
life. The churches of the resisting bishops were
closed or put to other than religious use. At this
juncture the clergy began to break away from celi-
bacy, and this the assembly encouraged, promising
to pay the pensions and declaring that there was no
law forbidding the marriage of the dei^gy. In later
times of persecution those who had married found
their marriage state a protection, as it signified that
the priest had discarded his ecclesiastical relation-
ships. The opposing clergy avoided this step, and
the upholders of royalty regarded it a duty of honor
to seek the sacraments from these only. The king's
vain attempt at flight in June, 1791, became a new
pretext for persecution of the clergy, and this in
Nantes was carried to extremes. The suspicion that
the clergy had been connected with this unfortunate
attempt was strengthened by a letter of July 7 from
the pope to the king, expressing the pope's high hope
of the king's speedy and victorious return to Paris,
clothed with full authority and surrounded by the
regular bishops, who would then be able to return
to their respective dioceses. This letter fell into the
hands of the revolutionists. The immediate results
were more severe regiilations against the disobedient
clergy, and the union of Avignon and the county of
Venaissin to France, Sept. 14. Reports of condi-
tions in Vendue and Montpellier, as well as from
other parts of the country, aroused a new hatred of
French Bevolntlon
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOa
the Church, which was shown in a decree of the
assembly, Nov. 29. Priests who had not taken the
oath were given eight days' grace in which to take
the oath of citizenship; all failing then to do this
were to be deprived of their pensions, were to be
considered as under suspicion, and were liable to
imprisonment ; if they were found in a place where
trouble occurred, in case this was due to religious
causes, they might be removed from the place. The
government of each department was charged with
the carrying out of these regulations and was to
report to the assembly in case further measures
^'ere required.
The opposing clergy in Paris, as well as the direc-
torium of Paris, urged the king to veto this bill,
which he did on Dec. 19, 1791, moved
5. More also by regret at signing the previous
Extreme bills. Now a storm of indignation
Anticlerical broke out against the king and mon-
Measures. archical institutions: he was called a
traitor and the ally of internal and ex-
ternal foes, whose sanction of the laws was not
needed. While the resolution of Nov. 29 had not
the force of law, proceedings took place in many
departments — Toulouse, Nantes, Rennes, Angers —
which assumed its binding force, and the nonjuring
priests were maltreated and cast into prison. The
hate which first was directed against the priests was
now turned against the Roman Catholic Church and
against religion itself, as was particularly the case
in the Jacobin club. Nevertheless, though many
showed themselves atheists, the attitude taken by
Robespierre indicated plainly that the revolution
was not wholly under antireligious influence. Robes-
pierre expressed himself thus: *' To call upon divine
Providence, not to be willing to lose sight of the idea
of the divine Being who influences so essentially the
affairs of nations, who appears to me to be in par-
ticular watching over the PVench Revolution — and
this last does not api)ear to me to be too bold a
thought — all this is for me a necessity. How could
I, relying upon my own spirit alone, have endured
all these conflicts which Ciill for more than human
strength, had I not raised my soul to God? " On
Apr. 28 a law was passed abolishing clerical dress,
and on May 27 a bill went through directing that at
the request of twenty active citizens of a canton
the directors of a department should see to the
deposition of nonjuring priests as instigators of
sedition. The apparent justification of this law lay
in the fact that there were rumors at the time of
the suppression of a conspiracy in the department
of Tarn to kill the Calvinists of that locality. The
king delayed ratifying this l)ill, and indeed finally
interposed his veto, a deed which by no means
bettered the condition of the priests or enhanced
the security of his throne. At first the means of
deportation of the priests failed, yet in Lyons,
Chdlons, Angers, Nantes, and Dijon there were
numerous arrests of priests. On Aug. 10 began the
close confinement of the king, while the extreme
party gained the ascendancy in the assembly. On
Aug. 23 a bill passed connnanding all nonjuring
priests to leave France wit Inn fourteen days under
penalty of being sent to Guiana. Then came the
dark month of September m which so many priests
were slain. Many were brought to Paris t<^ ^
deported, and on the way to the place of dete^i^
in the city eighteen were killed by the mob and ^|^
more in the courtyard, while later in the monastefr
of the Carmelites 200 were killed. As a consequence
the priests delayed no longer in obe3ring the law to
leave the country, finding refuge in the papal domm.
ions in Switzerland, in the Netherlands, and in Spun.
In consequence of this law 40,000 priests were ex-
patriated, and in Protestant England 8,000 foond
a home.
The next attack was upon institutions which cod-
nected civil life and Christianity. A decree of Sept.
20, 1792, transferred the registry oC
6. Move- births, marriages, and deaths fnmi tbe
ment Be- Church to the civil authorities. Only
comes Anti- a few days earlier, Aug. 30, divorce
religious, was made possible by simple Jedarar
tion only, and on Sept. 20, by common
agreement; already for Protestants declaratiofn
before a judge had constituted legal marriage. Tbe
calendar was changed at this time. Since Sept. 22
they had reckoned from the first year of the repub-
lic; on Oct. 5, 1793, an entirely new calendar «rai
devised in which each of the twelve months w^
divided into three decades, the first of each dec&de
of days taking the place of the Christian Sunday.
The five surplus days of the year were made a fcstil
period. The names of the days were taken from
natural products of the soil and the like. The nt-
tional convention which succeeded the national
assembly on Sept. 21, 1792, assumed an attitude
still more inimical to Christianity. At the inst^
tion of Chaumette, a noted despiser of religion, ihi
Christmas festival was abolished and in its place
was installed the "feast of the sansculottes." At-
tacks upon church rites, dignities and feasts weie
numerous, and atheistic declarations were frequeot.
In its earlier days the convention was milder in iti
dealings with the clei^, declaring the outrage!
against them punishable. But the harsher side came
to be seen before long. Some of the school-children,
of course prompted to this course, asked that they
be not made to pray in the name of a so-called God,
but that they be given instruction in the funda-
mentals of equality, the rights of mankind, and the
constitution; but at the time this petition met with
rebuff. Toward the end of the year 1793 atheistic
fanaticism gained ascendancy, and on Nov. 1 »
delegation from Nantes petitioned for the abditioo
of Roman Catholic services. On Nov. 7, after tie
reading of a letter to the convention, beginning:
•' I am a priest, that is, a charlatan," Gobel, the
archbishop of Paris, went to the president's dedt
and laid his letter of appointment to the post upon
the table, saying junid great applause that theww
of the people had been his first law, and that from
this time on there could be no national worehip
except that of freedom and equality; he renounced
his position as a servant of the Roman Catholic
Church. lie received congratulations from the
president of the convention, and then laid aside hia
red cap, his cross, and his ring, and his vicars ateo
deposited there the insignia of their offices. Bui
this unworthy act brought Gobel no safety, since five
months later he ascended the scaffold on tbe charge
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Frenoh Bevolution
the destruction of morals. In the scene
^ a Protestant minister took part —
'oulouse, declaring that Protestantism
; charlatanry, and that henceforth he
no other sanctuary than that of the law,
in freedom, no Goppel tlian the repub-
tution. He died at the guiiic'ine in
Bishop Gr^goire was the only eccle-
le convention to oppose this unworthy
His stand was bold and his declaration
lat his religion was a part of his most
actions; his office was from the hands
le, but his call to it came neither from
lor the convention. He was violently
it remained steadfast, continued to
lastical dress, and presented so im-
ien that no one ventured to lay hands
council instituted, in celebration of the
the Roman Catholic religion, a feast of
reason, carried out on the twentieth of
Brumaire (Nov. 10), 1793, in Notre
Dame, in which a so-called temple of
philosophy was erected, in which sat
as the representative of reason an opera
singer. Mademoiselle Maillard. The
was continued in the national conven-
er the representative of reason was
sedan-chair, was proclaimed goddess of
: freedom, and reason. ITie procession
igain to the cathedral, where the cele-
held and hymns were sung to reason,
ny was imitated in other parts of the
e sanction of the convention having
o the new cult of reason. On Nov. 13
lates of the convention were empowered
le renouncements of the clergy and the
urged to abjure Christianity. In the
churches were often plundered and the
propriated as state property. Proposals
to destroy the towers which held the
be sculptures of Notre Dame on the
they implicitly opposed equality. The
received reports from various quarters
: of Christianity and the abolition of the
God. In cases where the clergy sub-
le demands made upon them, the fact
ind celebrated as the triumph of phi-
• prejudice and error, while the churches
d of adornment and turned into temples
even put to ignominious uses Books
hymns were burned, the citizens were
► teep Sunday as a holy day, while on
bishops and clergy who had renounced
ms were assured of pensions. In spite
iere were many, especially women, who
i the churches for prayer and worship,
convention the voice of Robespierre was
3t the prevalent tendency, and on Nov.
Mns' club he declaimed against Hubert,
t delivered a harangue upon the dangers
n and priesthood. He declared that
nen who under the pretense of destroy-
rion made a sort of religion of atheism,
lo for aristocrats, but the people neede<i
ieing to watch over oppressed innocence
and to punish victorious crime. But the representa-
tives of atheism were not to be overthrown without
a struggle. A few days later they put through the
city Council a decree to close the churches and
making ot all who contraverted this suspicious
persons.
Chaumette, however, secured a partial recall of
this resolution, and on Nov. 26 Danton carried the
resolution in the convention that the
8. The antireligious masquerades should cease
Turn in and that an end be put to the persecu-
Affairs. tion of the priests, while no obstacle
was to be laid in the way of any wor-
ship, the decree for freedom of worship passing the
convention on Dec. 6. Robespierre began to pose
as the patron of religion; and though he was far
from desiring to give to the priests their earlier
power, declaring them to be in religion what char-
latans were in medicine and that the true priest of
the Highest Being was nature, whose temple was the
universe and his worship virtue, yet he prevailed
upon the convention, May 7, 1794, to make the
following declaration: The French people acknowl-
edges the existence of a Supreme Being and tlie im-
mortality of the soul; it recognizes that the worthy
worship of him is the fulfilment of man's duties,
the first of which are the detestation of faithlessness
and tyranny, the punishment of tyrants and traitors,
and the support of the unhappy; festivals shall be
appointed with the object of bringing mankind
again to the thought of the deity. The first of the
festivals provided for was celebrated June 8, 1794,
at which Robespierre, then president of the con-
vention, appeared in gay costume and delivered
a political-moral address. Though shortly after
Robespierre went to the scaffold charged with ma-
king for himself a priesthood, his speeches marked
the turning-point in favor toward religious belief.
On May 30, 1795, the use of the churches was
granted to their former possessors, though the public
announcement of service, as by the ringing of bells,
was forbidden. The constitution of Aug. 22, 1795,
granted freedom in matters of religion to all who
submitted to the law. Oversight by regular au-
thorities was provided for, the clergy was forbidden
to interfere in the matter of the registry of vital
statistics and to publish foreign documents hostile
to the republic. The last was aimed against the
pope, who by rescripts was continually endeavoring
to control the French Church. Full freedom was
given to the rearing of religious sects, and owing
to this was a remarkable development of " Theo-
philanthropists,'' which reduced all religious teach-
ing to the doctrines of God and of immortality and
the moral ideas which flowed from them. The dis-
persal of these sects caused no little trouble later
when Napoleon, after the signing of the concordat
(see Concordats and Delimiting Bulls, VL, || 1-
2), forbade their meetings, especially those of the
Theophilanthropists, whose sect had spread widely
over France. Even after the decree of 1795 the pei^
secutions of religion did not entirely cease. In Oct.,
1795, the convention threatened with death all exiled
clergy if they returned to France. But the lot of
the religious was making advance towarri better-
ment during the year 1796 and the first part of 1797.
Vr«nch Bevolntlon
Fresenlus
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOO
S88
On June 17 Camille Jordan, deputy from Lyons,
delivered an address in favor of the priests and
calling for a revision of the laws respecting religion.
On June 24 the directorium reported to the Five
Hundred that, in consequence of the more favor-
able outlook in religious affairs, a large number of
priests had returned and many religious organiza-
tions were asking freedom of worship. Finally a
decree was passed to restore to the priests their civil
rights, though in September of 1797, during a tem-
porary period of control by the republican radicals,
persecution of the priests was renewed, and of the
returned priests stem requirements were made,
such as vowing hatred to royalty. Under these con-
ditions many of the exiled clergy returned, and
about 17,000 took the required oath; but others
were exiled, and about 380 transported to Guiana,
while others died miserably on the islands of Oieron
and Rh6e.
The return of Napoleon from Egypt gave to the
affairs of the Roman Catholic Church a favorable
turn; the imprisoned ecclesiastics were
9. The released, and freedom of worship was
Coming of proclaimed (Dec. 28, 1799). The serv-
Napoleon. ices of the Church were no longer con-
fined to the first day of each decade,
and the only requirement of the clergy was that
they declare their submission to the law and the
constitution of 1799, while the festivals of the Revo-
lution were reduced to two. Bonaparte, believing
the assistance of the Church essential in establishing
his power, oi>encd negotiations with Pius VII., and
on Apr. 18, 1801, a solemn service was performed in
Notre Dame. In spite of the strong hold unbelief
had gained in France during the Revolution, 40,000
communities shortly returned to the Roman Catholic
Church. A great difficulty arose in this restoration
of the Church owing to the split in the ranks of the
clergy over the oaths imposed by law. The nonjur-
ing clergy considered themselves the only true
representatives of the Church; on the other hand,
the constitutional priests maintained that their atti-
tude of yielding had saved its existence, thereby
rendering the greater service. Napoleon at first
was drawn toward the side of the nonjuring priests,
since they seemed to be held in higher esteem by
the people. Then he attempted to aid Bishop
(jr^goire, the head of the constitutional clei^, to
secure reconciliation. But he soon saw that neither
the pope nor the nonjuring priests would have any-
tliing to do with the constitutional clergy, and
won the supi>ort of the nonjuring element by con-
cluding a concordat with the pope in 1801 against
the advice of Gr^goire. Since in the concordat no
mention was made of the Protestants, and the first
article st^oniofl to make the Roman Catholic cultus
the one liaving principal rights, a special statement
of Mar. 9, 1802, declared thiit the other churches
wore to enjoy equal rights with the Roman Catholic,
it being the duty of the State to protect the noble-
minded Protestant minority, which had many claims
uj)on the respect and favor of the nation. Three
months were allowed for the organization of the
different ecclesiastical bodies. The ratification of
the conconlat could not be accomplished so quickly,
however, there being many obstacles in the way.
Many of the constitutional and of the nonjuru^
clergy, and some statesmen also, were opposed to
the proposed restoration of the churches. A difficult
part of the work lay in getting the bishops to kj
down their offices. The pope, however, in Oct, 1801,
directed both classes of dei^gy to lay down thdr
offices, and was obeyed by all, even ihe exiled, ex-
cept those in England. Bonaparte found opposition
also among the political forces, the senate, the
tribunal, and the legislature, and he had to use his
constitutional right to reduce the membership d
the tribunal before introducing the concordat. The
concordat itself needed a ** constructive " article
defining the public policy of worship according to
the principles of the document itself. This artide,
assuring to every religion the sufferance and pro-
tection of the State, was presented to the coimdl
Apr., 1802. According to it, without the permission
of the government no bulls or briefs might be pub-
lished nor any councils held; every priest was to
acknowledge " Bossuet's declaration " of 1682 and
promise obedience to the Church in spiritual matters
and to the civil power in tempoml affairs; the
bishops, appointed by the First Consul and coo-
firmed by the pope, were allowed to name their
pastors, provid^ they sought civil approval before
installing them; they might build churches anl
seminaries, but in the choice of teachers the con-
firmation of government was necessary, and the
pupils might not become priests before their twenty-
fifth year; the new archbishoprics created were
Paris, Malines, Besan^on, Lyons, Aix, Toulouse,
Bordeaux, Bouiges, Tours, and Rouen; the salaries
of the archbishops were to be 15,000 francs, those
of the bishops 10,000, and of the pastors 1,000 to
1,500. Of the property of the Church there were to
be restored only the pastoral dwellings and the ap-
pertaining gardens; the use of bells was again per-
mitted. The repubhcan calendar was modified so
that the week and its days were as they were before,
Sunday thus being restored; in marriage the eccle-
siastical ceremony was again given its place, but a
prior civil license was required. This article also
provided for the Protestants that no confessions
were to be published without governmental ap-
proval; the State paid the salaries of the pastors,
previously appropriating church property. Two
seminaries were permitted in eastern France for
the instruction of the candidates for the Lutheran
ministry, and one in Geneva for the Reformed faith
The direction of Lutheran affairs was placed in the
hands of local and general consistories, while the
Reformed were to have synods based upon the
Church census. This constructive article became
law without being submitted to the pope. The ap-
pointment of bishops became the bone of contention,
the pope desiring that the constitutional bishops
be wholly excluded, while Napoleon g&ve tweU'e
of the sixty bishoprics to them. By the concordat
the pope had yielded to the First Consul what had
been refused to the assembly — submission of the
Church to the civil power, while the nonjuring clergy
had now by command of the pope to agree to what
they had formerly resisted. On the other hand, the
Church had won a politically recognized existence
and with this a laige part of its Intimate power,
REUGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
French Bevolution
Freaeniufl
and in later time the papacy regarded as one of
tbe victorious results the relegating of the French
episeopacy to a position of dependence upon Rome.
The concordat thus became the introduction to the
Vttican Decrees (see Vatican Council).
(P. TSCHACKERT.)
Bhuooiapht: A fine list of eouroes and literature w given
m Hiock-Heraog. RE, xvl 713-714. Consult further the
vorb on the general history of the period. This bibli-
cgiapliy, like the text, has in mind only the relifrious side
of tlM French Revolution. Consult: F. C. Dresrfus, L'At-
tiiteMttoua la Ugiaiatwre ei la convention, 1791-1796, Paris,
1905; A Barruel, Hittory of the Clergy during the French
hfMum, 3 parts. London, 1704; H. Gr^goire, MimoireM,
frhidti d'une notice hietorique eur I'auteur par M. H.
Ctnai, 2 vols.. Paris, 1837; Abb^ Jager, Hiatoire de
figUm d$ France pendant la rfvoluiion, 3 vols., Paris, 1852;
W. H. Jervis, The Gallican Church and the Revolution,
London, 1882; F. X. Plasae. Le CUrgi franQaierifugii en
k^H/dient, 2 vols.. Paris. 1886; A. Gasier, Etudee eur
fiMrt rdiffieuee de la rH^olution franpaiae, Paris. 1887;
P. L Sciout, Hiatoire de la conatitution civile du cUrgi,
Pkris. 1887; E. de Presnens^. L'£gliae et la rhsolution
^snpoue, Paris, 1889; B. Robidou, Hiatoire du clergS
fmknt Ja revolution francaiae, 2 vols., Paris, 1889; F.
Cbnurd. La Revolution, le concordat et la liberU religieuae,
hra, 1881: P. G. Moreau. Le Centenaire du martyre dea
Ctrmdika de Compitgns 1794. Compi^gne. 1894; F. Bour-
MDd, U CUrgi aoua la terreur. Tours. 1895; A. Sicard,
i k ndtertke d*une religion civile, Paris, 1895; P. A.
Hamart. CcUecAea h travera I' Europe pour lea pritrea francaia
diportet en Suiaae pendant la Revolution, 1794-1797, Paris,
1807; F. A. Aulard, Peoria pendant la reaction thermido-
nauw d aoua le directoire, 5 vols., Paris, 1898-1902; L.
Booipin, L*£gliae d'Angera pendant la revolution et jua-
fi'n 1870, Paris. 1898; A. Debidour. Hiat. dea rapporta
it r^oKae el de Vetat en France, 1789-1870, Paris. 1898;
0. Ddare, L'6gliae de Paria pendant la revolution francaiae,
1789-1901, Paris. 1898; I. Manaeau. Lea Pritrea et religieux
Upcrttt aur lea cdtea et dana lea (lea de la Charente infirieure,
STob..LiIle, 1898: J. F. E. Robinot. Le Mouvement reli-
IMS h Paria pendant la revolution {1789-1801), 2 vols.,
Ptra, 1898: A. Thys, La Peraecution religieuae en Belgique
»m U directoire, 1789-1799, Anvers, 1899; M. Bonneau.
ilfolii pour aervir ii I'hiatoire du clergi de I' Yonne pendant
hrholution {1790-1800), Gens. 1900; B. Erdmannsddrfer,
ifira6eau. Bielefeld. 1900; Abb^ Ange de L^ve des Or-
BauK, Maaaacrea de aeptembre dana lea priaona de Paria;
^natoHon dea prHrea et dea aeminariatea de S. Sulpice h
/«%, leiir empriaonniment dana I'igliae dea Carmea, Paris,
IWO; H. Belloc, Robeapierre, London, 1901; Sophia H.
l(«deho9e, The Laat Daya of the French Monarchy, Glas-
P"^' IWl; idem. From Monarchy to Republic in France,
ifS8't79t, Glasgow, 1904; T. Cariyle. The French Revolu-
^ new iflsue, 3 vols.. London^ 1902; C. Gomel. Hiatoire
^^tiidihtdela Uffialative et la convention, 1792-1796, Paris,
|M2-igo5; R. de Teil. 6viquea et pritrea maaacuria aux
^fl^de aeptembre 1792 a Paria, Paris, 1902; T. Kicfer.
^ dtpnHerten Biachdfe der franaOaiachen Nationaiver-
■■wihiiV vnd die cotatit^Uion civile du clergi in den Jahren
i^l7H, FreibuiK. 1903; G. L. Scherger, The Evolution
^Uodem Liberty. The French Declaration of the RighU of
j[^ New York. 1904; H. d'Alm^ras, Lea Romana de
•^"^ladSiame et le culte de la raiaon, Paris, 1905; U.
y*^l VorgeadiidUe der franxdaiachen Revolution, 2 vols.,
jy**en. 1905-07: H. G. Graham. Society in France
'^ort thg Revolution, Edinburgh, 1908.
WlEPPEL, frep"pel', CHARLES EMILE: French
^<*nan Catholic prelate; b. at Ehnheim (14 m. n.
rf Schlettstadt), Alsace, June 1, 1827; d. at Paris
^> 22, 1891 . He studied at Strasburg and was
«toed priest in 1849. After teaching philoso-
phy <^t a Carmelite school in Paris and being di-
rector of the episcopal college at Strasburg, he be-
ounc one of the staff of Ste. Genevieve at Paris in
i^ and dean in 1867. From 1854 to 1870 he
was professor of sacred eloquence in the faculty of
Boman Catholic theology at Paris. In 1869 he
fis called to Rome to aasiBt in the preliminary ar-
rangements for the Vatican Council, and was a
pronounced adherent of the dogma of papal infalli-
bility. He was consecrated bishop of Angers in
1870, and was a vigorous prelate, being active in
organizing pilgrimages to Paray-le-Monial, Puy,
and elsewhere, and in founding a Cathohc univer-
sity at Angers. In 1880 he was returned as dep-
uty from Brest, and became the leader of the
clerical party. He attracted great notice by his
opposition to the government, and by his out-
spoken ultramontanism, as well as by his anti-
German sentiments. He favored the expeditions
to Tunis (1881), Tonkin (1883), and Madagascar
(1885), but his interference in Prussian ecclesias-
tical affairs was so active that it was suppressed
by the French government. His numerous works
include: Les Pbrea apostoliques et leur dpogue
(Paris, 1859); Le8 Apologistes chrHiens au deu-
xUme sUcle (I860); St. Ir^rUe (1861); Examen cri-
tique delavie de J^sus-Christ par M. Renan (1863);
Conferences eur la divinity de J^sus-Christ (1863);
TeHullien (2 vols., 1864); St. Cyprien (1865);
CUment d*Alexandrie (1865); Examen critique dee
apdtree de M. Renan (1866); Orighie (2 vols., 1868);
(Euvrea pastoralee et oratoires (9 vob., 1869-94);
CEuvres poUmiques (9 vols., 1874-^88); U^gliee et
lea auvriers (1876); Lee devoire du chritien dans la
vie civile (1876); and La Vie chrHienne (1879).
After his death appeared his Bossuet et Vdoquence
sacrie au dix-septihne sikde (2 vols., 1893); Ser^
mons inCdiis (2 vols., 1895), and Les Origines du
christianisme (2 vols., 1903).
Biblioorapht: J. Subileau, Cinquante ana de miniatire
paroiaaial et d*autoriU ipiacopale en Anjou. Mgr. Ange-
bault et Mgr. Freppel, 2 parts, Paris, 1894; A. Ricard,
Monaeigneur Frejrpel, ib. 1892; E. Comut, Mgr. Freppel
d'apria dea documenta authentiquea et inidita, ib. 1893;
E. Lesur and F. Boumand, Un grand ivique: Mgr. Frep*
pel, ib. 1893.
FRESENTOS, frft'sd-ni'us, JOHANN PHILIPP:
German theologian; b. at Niederwiesen (near
Kreuznach, 8 m. s. of Bingen), Germany, Oct. 22,
1705; d. at Frankfort July 4, 1761. Despite his
poverty, he entered the University of Strasburg
in 1723, where he devoted himself especially to the
study of the works of Luther. On Sept. 26, 1725
he defended a series of theses on justification, but
was compelled to interrupt his studies on account
of the illness of his father, whose clerical duties he
assumed for a year. He was then appointed tutor
in the family of the count of Salm-Grunbach, but
his father died shortly afterward (May 25, 1727),
and he became his successor at Oberwiesen. In
1731 he published at Augsburg his Antiweisling-
erus in answer to the Friss Vogel oder stirb of the
Jesuit J. N. Weishnger. This pamphlet so angered
the Roman Cathohc clergy that an attempt was
made to arrest him, but he escaped to Darmstadt,
where he became acquainted with Landgrave
Ernst Ludwig, who appointed him second court
preacher at Giesscn (1734). In 1735 he became
collega primarius at the Psedagogium illustre, and
also began to dehver exegetical and ascetic lec-
tures at the university. From 1736 to 1742 he
officiated as court deacon at Darmstadt, where he
founded an institute for proselytes which added
400 members to tbe Lutheran CSiuroh. Ftom 1742
Freyllnffhanoen
Frledrioh
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
890
to 1743 he was assistant professor and second city
chaplain at Giessen; and from 1743 until his death
he was minister at Frankfort.
Fresenius was a zealous opponent of the Mora-
vian movement and of Zinzendorf , who called him a
" devil incarnate." He also opposed the Reformed
congregations of Frankfort, and thwarted their
endeavors to obtain free exercise of their relig-
ion, and permission to estabhsh churches. Among
Frcsenius's many works special mention may be
made of the following: Beicht- und Kommunion-
buck (Frankfort, 1746); Bewdhrie Nachrichten
von Hermhuiiachen Sachen (4 vols., 1747-51);
Notige Priifung der Zimendorffschen Lehrart (1748);
Pastoral-Sammlungen (24 parts, 1748-60); Heil-
same Betrachtungen iiber die Sonn- und Festtagsevan-
gelien (1750, 1845, 1872); &ndZuverlds8ige Nachrich-
ten von dem Leben, Tode undSchriften D, J oh. Albrecht
BengeU (1753). (G. E. SrEiTzf.)
Biblioorapht: A life was appended to the aermoa preached
at the funeral by K. K. Qriesbach (Halle, 17617). Con-
sult J. M. Lappenberg, Reliquien dtM Fr&iUein von Klei-
tenberg, pp. 227-231. Hamburg, 1847.
FREYLINGHAUSEN, fri'ling-hau"zen, JOHANN
AJfASTASIUS: Pietist leader and hymn-writer;
b. at Gandersheim (36 m. s.w. of Brunswick) Dec.
2, 1670; d. at Halle Feb. 12, 1739. His father was
a merchant and BUrgermeister of Gandersheim.
He attended the school in Eimbeck, living there
with his grandfather, the councilor Dietrich Frey-
linghausen, and studied theology at Jena, Erfurt,
and Halle. In Halle he assisted Francke as well
in his sermons and parochial duties as in the es-
tablishment of his well-known institutions (see
Francke, August Hermann). When Francke,
in 1715, was called as pastor to the church of St.
Ulrich, Freylinghausen became his assistant and
married his only daughter. Assistant superintend-
ent of the Paedagogium and of tlie orphan asylum
from 1723, he became, after Franckc's death,
and in association with the lattcr's son, super-
intendent of both institutions and also head pas-
tor of St. Ulrich 's. From 1728 he had sev-
eral attacks of paralysis, but continued his labors
to the end.
Freylinghausen is one of the most noteworthy
of the group of gifted men who, deeply interested
in the ideas of Spener, worked together zealously
for their realization. Francke often called him his
right hand. He is most widely known as a poet,
and is distinguished among the poets of German
Pietism oy his imagination and delicacy of taste.
His hymns — forty-four are ascribed to him with
certainty — are characterized by Scriptural phrases
and conceptions, but never sink to the level of
Bibhcal doggerel. His importance in the history
of spiritual song, however, depends principally on
the hymnals which he edited, in which many
hymns from the circle of the Pietists first saw the
light. The earliest of these hymnals appeared in
1704 and contained 683 hymns (2d ed., 1705, with
seventy-five additional hymns); the second in 1714,
containing 798 hymns and seventeen psalms for
festal occasions (2d ed., 1719, with three addi-
tional hymns). A selection from both was pub-
lished in 1718, containing 1,050 hymns. A com-
plete hymnal after Freylinghausen was brou^t
out by Francke's son, Gotthilf August Francke, in
1741. In these hymnab, the personal devotioa
peculiar to Pietism appears for the first time to
claim an equal place with the objectivity of the
older hymns. The musical part was even more d
a novelty than the poetical. The melodies, some-
times composed by Freylinghausen himself, differ
from the older ones in tlieir triple-time, in the 1
tripping movement of the tune with the constani
refrains, and in the flourishes with which the prin-
cipal part is overcharged.
Freylinghausen was also prominent as a cate
chist. His Grundlegung der Theologie (HaUe, 1703)
was even used as a guide in academic lectures by
Rambach, Baumgarten and others. That t,\»
simple and instructive style of Freylinghausen'^
preaching was fully appreciated appears from "tlie
fact that, at the request of the theological faciil'^
of Halle, he delivered lectures to the students en
homiletics, a branch of study which was first in-
eluded in the theological curriculum on the ini'^ift'
tive of Halle. Carl Bertheact -
Bibliography: The hymxiB were edited by L. Grote Id <1»
aeoond part of W. Schirck's OeUtUt^ SAnger, H ^^^
1855. and many were translated by Catherine Winkiro*th
in Lyra Germanica, London. 1868. For the life ooo^rvilt:
EhrengedOchtnia Freylinghatuena, Halle, 1740: Naekm-mekr
ten von dem Charakter und der Amtaflihrung redUttsfkaf'
fener Prediger und SeeUorger, v. 188-108. ib. 1777 • H,
Ddring, Die gelekrten Theologen Deutachlande, i. 43&— '445,
NeuBtadt, 1835; J. L. Pasig. in Knapp's Ckrittit^m ijn.
1852, pp. 211-262; A. Walter, Leben J. A. Frt^mmi-
hautena, Berlin. 1864; £. E. Koch. OeechiehU dm MUr-
chenliedee, iv. 322-334, Stuttgart. 1868; ADB, vii. 370-
371. On his hymn-books and the new melodies Um^reiii
consult Koch, ut sup., iv. 300 sqq.. v. 586 sqq.; G. DO-
ring. Choralkunde, 159 sqq. et passim. Danxig. 186>5; J.
Zahn. Die Melodien der deuteehen evang^iedun MCirek-
enlieder, vi. 573 sqq. et passim, GQtersloh. 1893; Julian,
Hymnology, pp. 395-397.
FRIAR : A corruption of /rater, the distinguish-
ing title of the members of the Mendicant Monks
(q.v.).
FRICKE, GUSTAV ADOLF: German Lutheraxi;
b. at Leipsic Aug. 23, 1822; d. in Leipsic March
30, 1908. He studied at the university of tt«
native city, where he became privat-docent i*
1846. In 1849 he was appointed associate profe^"
sor of theology in the same imiversity, and in 183 1
went to Kiel as full professor of theology. In 18^
he returned to Leipsic as chief catechist at S*^-
Peter's, and in 1867 was appointed professor o*
New Testament exegesis, ethics, and dogmatics.
He wrote Die Erhebung zum Herm im Gebete (Leip*
sic, 1850); Lehrbuch der KirchengeschichU, i. (1850);
Gottesgriisse (sermons; 2 vols., 1883-86); and Avs
dem Feldzuge 1886, Briefe aus dem Felde tmd Pred-
igten und Reden im Felde (1891).
FRIDOLm (FRIDOLD) : Reputed founder of the
monastery of Sftckingen (on the Rhine, 20 m. above
Basel), which is first mentioned as presented by
Charles the Fat in 878 to his wife. According to
the detailed but unreliable life by Balther, a monk
of St. Gallen of the tenth or eleventh century,
Fridolin waa bom in Ireland of noble parents. He
891
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
XTlecLrioli
'haasen
received an excellent education, and decided to
become a priest. After preaching the Gospel in
his own country he went to Gaul as a missionary,
making his abode at Poitiers. Here he occupied
himself chiefly with collecting relics of St. Hilary,
and the saint appeared to him in a vision and ex-
horted him to revive his cult. With the aid of
CIo\Ts, the ruler of the Franks, he erected a church
for the bones of Hilary, who then commanded him
to go to Alemannia to an island in the Rhine.
After founding a monastery and several churches
on the Rhine he finally reached the island (Sftckin-
gen), and founded a church and a nunnery there.
He was highly esteemed for saintliness and on ac-
count of the miracles which he wrought. This re-
port was written about 500 years after the date
of the alleged events. Balther claims to have
taken his account from an older biography of Frido-
lin, but this is doubtful, and the whole history
seems to have been Bait her 's invention as it. fits
into neither the reign of Clovis I. nor that of
Clovis II. (A. Hauck.)
Bibliookapht: Balther'a life, ed. B. Kninch. ia in MGH,
Script rer. Merav., iii (1896), 350-360. and with a thir-
teenth century German transl., in F. J. Mono, Quellen-
tammluno der badischen Lande»oeschictUe, i. 1-17, 99-
111, Carlsruhe. 1848. Consult Rettberg. KD, ii. 29 sqq.;
Friedrioh. KD, ii. 411 sqq.; Hauck, KD, i. 328; J. H. A.
Ebrard, Die irosckottiMche AfvmonMkirche, p. 285. Gaters-
loh, 1873; H. Leo, Der heilioe Fridolin, Freiburg, 1886;
Wattenbach. DOQ, i. 620; ADB, vii. 385-387.
FRIDUGIS, fri"da"zhi' (FREDEGISUS, FRIDU-
GISUS, FREDEGIS, FREDUGIS): French eccle-
siastic and statesman; b. in England in the second
half of the eighth century; d. in France 834. He
left his native country for France some time before
796 and became a favorite pupil of Alcuin. He
was a deacon at the French court in that year, and
four years later had become archdeacon and teacher
at the academy. After the death of Alcuin in
804, Charlemagne appointed Fridugis abbot of St.
Martin's in Tours, later giving him the monas-
teries of St. Omer and St. Bertin. From 819 to
832 he was chancellor of Louis the Pious, in which
office he made a number of praiseworthy innova-
tions, but his career as an abbot was less credit-
able. Fridugis was the author of an Epistola ad
proceres^ in which he discusses light and darkness
as positive entities, not as abstract negations. He
likewise wrote another work which is lost, although
its contents are known from Agobard's Liber con-
tra objertiones Fredegesif which states that in it
Fridugis maintained the doctrine of the verbal in-
spiration of Scripture.
Biblioorapht: Sources are the Epistolfe of Alcuin. nos.
99. 105. 155, 180, 197. and the Vita Alcuini (see under
Alcuin); Einhard. Vita Karoli, chap, xxxii. in MGH,
Script., ii (1829), 426-463; Theodulph, Carmina, 25, ed.
DOmmler in MOH. Poetce Lat. cevi Carolini, i (1881).
569-573. Consult: C. B&hr, GeMchichte der r&miachen
Literatur, Carlsruhe. 1840; H. F. Reuter, GeMchichte der
rdiffiiyaen AufkUbruno, Sondershausen, 1875-77; M. Ahner
Fredegia van Tours, Leipsic, 1878; Hauck, KD, ii. 137,
148 sqq.. 574.
FRIEDBERG, frtd'berg, EMIL ALBERT: Ger-
Dian Protestant jurist; b. at Konitz (62 m. s.w. of
Danzig) Dec. 22, 1837. He studied in Beriin
CDr.Jiir., 1861) and Heidelberg, and was pri vat-do-
cent at Berlin (1862-65), associate professor at Halle
(1865-68), and full professor at Freiburg (1868-69).
Since 1869 he has been professor of canon and Ger-
man law at Leipsic. Among his numerous wri-
tings mention may be made of the following, as of
theological interest: De finium inter ecclesiam et
civitatem regendorum judicio quid medii art doctores
et leges statuerint (Leipsic, 1861); Die evangeliache
und katholiache Kirche der neu einverleibten iMnder
in ihren Beziehungen zur protestantischen Landes-
kirche und zum Staate (Halle, 1867); Aus deutschen
Bu88buchem (1868); Daa Veto der Regierung bei
Bischofswahl in Preussen und der ober-^heiniachen
Kirchenprovim (1869); Agenda vne e8 in dee Chur-
fiiraten zu Sachaen Landen in den Kirchen gehalten
wird (1869); Der Stoat und die katholische Kirche
im Grossherzogtum Baden seit 1860 (Leipsic, 1871);
Akten-Stiicke zum eraten vatikanischen Konzil (1872);
Grenzen zwischen Stoat und Kirche. (3 vols., Tti-
bingen, 1872); Johonn Boptiat BaUzer (Leipsic, 1873);
Der Stoat und die Biachofswahlen in Deutachland
(2 vols., 1874); Akten-Stucke die altkatholiache Be-
wegung betreffend (Ttibingen, 1876); Corpua juria
canonici (2 vols., Leipsic, 1879-81); Lehrbuch dea
katholiachen und evangeliachen Kirchenrechta (1879);
Quinque compilationea antiqua (1882); Die gelten-
den Verfaaaungageaetze der evangeliachen deutachen
Landeakirche (Freiburg, 1885); also four supple-
mentary volumes, 1888-1904); and Canonea Samm"
lungen zwischen Gration und Bemhard ixm Pavia
(1897). From 1864 to 1892 he edited the ZeU-
achrift fur Kirchenrecht in collaboration with R.
Dove, and since 1892 he and £. Sehling have edited
the successor of this periodical, the Deutache Zeit-
achrift fiir Kirchenrecht,
FRIEDLAENDER, MICHAEL: Jewish scholar;
b. at Jutroschin (38 m. n. of Brcslau), Germany,
Apr. 29, 1833. He studied in Beriin and Halle
(Ph.D., 1862), and at the Tahnud Thorah, of which
he was director until 1865, when he became
principal of Jews* College, London, resigning in
1907. He has written, edited, or translated The
Commentary of Ibn Ezra on laaiah (3 vols., Lon-
don, 1873-77); The Guide of the Perplexed of
Maimonides (3 vols., 1885); The Jewiah Religion
(1891); and also a revision of the Authorized Ver-
sion with the Hebrew text (1882) and the second
edition of Lady Katie Magnus' Oritlinea of Jewiah
Hiatory from B.C. 686 to C.E. 1885 (1888).
FRIEDRICH, J0HA5N: German Old Catholic;
b. at Pdxdori June 5, 1836. He studied in Bam-
berg and Munich, and was ordained to the priest-
hood of the Roman Catholic Church in 1859. He
was chaplain of Markscheinfeld until 1862, when
he became privat-docent at Munich. In 1865 he
was appointed associate professor in the same uni-
versity and in 1869 was called to Rome as a coun-
cilor in the Vatican council. He refused to accept
the dogma of papal infallibility and in 1871 was ex-
communicated and was also deprived of his bene-
fice for violating a fundamental principle of the
Church in giving the sacrament to a colleague who
had fallen under ecclesiastical condemnation. Not-
withstanding the protests of the bishops, he was
promoted to the raiik of full professor in Munich in
Friends of God
Friends, Booiety of
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOQ
898
1872, and in 1874-75 was professor of church his-
tory at Bern. He then returned to Munich, but
in 1882 was transferred, in deference to the pro-
tests of the Ultramontane party, from the theo-
logical to the philosophical faculty of the univer-
sity, where he has since been professor of history.
He has written Johann Weasel (Regensburg, 1862);
Die Lehre dee Johann Hue und ihre Bedeuiung
fUr die Entwicklung der neueren ZeU (1862); Aa-
trologie imd Reformation (Munich, 1864); Das wahre
ZeUaUer dee heiligen Ruperts (Bamberg, 1866);
KirchengeschichU DeiUschlands (2 vols., 1867-69);
Tagebuch wdhrend dee vaHkanisdien Konxils gefOhrt
(NOrdlingen, 1871); Documenta ad iUustrandum
concilium Vaticanum (1871); Der Mechanismus der
vatikanischen Religion (Innsbruck, 1876); BeUrdge
zur Kirchen-Geschichte des achUehnten Jahrhunr
derts (Munich, 1876); Geschichte des vatikanischen
Konxils (3 vols., Bonn, 1877-87); Zur dUesten Ge-
schichte des Primats in der Kirche (1879); Bet-
tr&ge zur Geschichte des Jesuiten-Ordens (Munich,
1881); Die Konstantin-Schenkung (NOrdlingen,
1889); Johann Adam MdUer, der SynioUker (Mu-
nich, 1894); Jakob Froschhammer (Fttrth, 1896);
and Ignaz von DoUinger (3 parts, Munich, 1899-
1901). He likewise published a revised edition of
J. J. I. von DOllinger's Janus under the title Das
Pabsttum (Munich, 1892) and prepared the second
edition of the same theologian's Pabstfchdn des
MitUlaUers (1890).
FRIENDS OF GOD: A group of German mystics
of the fourteenth century. The expression " Friend
of God *' is taken from the Bible (John xv. 14-15).
In the twelfth century it was used to
Meaning denote a religious tendency which was
of Term, strongly influenced by the teaching of
Bernard of Clairvaux. In the next
centiuy it became commoner, but in the fourteenth
in the writings of the mystics its meaning became
more restricted and expressed the ideal which they
strove to reach, the being raised through (Christ
out of a state of servitude into the divine friend-
ship and sonship. Three stages in man's religious
development were recognized by the mystics: begin-
ning, growth, and perfection. The perfect man,
the true friend of God, can put justification by faith
at the beginning of his career, for God will deny none
of his requests. Such friends of God Tauler called
the pillars of the Church; and not only could priests
and monks become friends of God, but even a
devout layman. However, there were many kinds,
including a more perfect class, the hidden sons of
God; some even enumerated nine different grades.
Heretics were sometimes called friends of God, for
instance, the Waldenses. Though they differed
from their fellows in their thoughts and in their
withdrawal from the world, these "friends" did not
form a definite sect. They had no brotherhood;
but their ideal was a mystical union such as Henry
of NOrdlingen (q.v.) urged his penitent Margareta
Ebner (q.v.) to work for with other women. Henry
of NSrdhngen is the only source for an accoimt of
the spread of this mysticism, whose teachers in-
cluded such men as Eckhart, Tauler, Seuse, Henry
of NOrdlingeni Nicholas of Strasburg, and others,
in the valley of the Rhine, Switseiland, Bavarii,
and Franconia.
Rulman Merswin, the chief author of the Frieodi
of God, was bom in Strasburg in 1307. and died in
the cloister of the " Grtlner Wflrth" ^
Rulman (on an island in the 111 near Stnabtng)
Merawin. July 18, 1382. He was, as his fatliv
had been before him, a welU(Hlo
banker in his native city. When he was forty yem
old, he and his second wife renounced the woiid ^
and ten years later were granted an indulgence by
Pope Gement VI. In 1367 he obtained from the
Benedictines the cloister of the " GrCiner Wfirth,"
which four years later he gave to the KmghtiQl
St. John, retiring thither himself. He named tbs
conm:iander of the order as the head of the moni^
tery, but obliged him to render a report <tf his ad-
ministration yeaxiy to Merswin and two othen.
Merswin remained the real ruler of the monaflteiy
until his death. In his lifetime he was never loi-
pected of being a writer, but after his death maay
books were found written by his pen: the " Stoiy
of my Conversion "; the " Book of the Nine Rocks'*;
the " litUe Banner Book "; the " Book of tbi
Three Conversions and of a Holy and Learned Pas-
tor who was the Pupil of Master Eckhart"; a
selection from the " Spiritual Marriage " of Royi-
broeck; and the " Seven Works of Mercy " (these
works have all been printed except the hut one).
All these tracts are compilations, with Henwin's
own thoughts scattered here and there. The mt
inal matter is plainly the work of an ignorant, un-
skilful layman; its chief content is compLaints of
the corrupt manners of the Christian oonununities
of the time. In the story of his conversion Men-
win relates how he made the acquaintance of the
''Great Friend of God from the Higfilands" in
1351, who, although unknown to the rest of the
world, became his secret friend. At his request he
wrote the story of his own conversion and in return
received a like treatise from the Great Fiieod.
These two books were to be kept quite secret from
aU but themselves.
The Knights of St. John told how the Great
Friend entrusted to Merswin a large quantity <^
writings, which Merswin kept coii-
The Great cealed for thirty years, but four yea*»
Friend, before his death showed them to tX^^
brothers of the order, first carefaU^
erasing all the proper names. There are abo"**^
fifteen separate works attributed to the Gp^^
Friend, besides a large collection of letters said ^
have been written by him to the monks in 't "f
" Grtiner W6rth." From all this material it ^
gathered that the Great Friend after a sudden c^^
version in the midst of worldly pleasures reti^^
into sohtude and formed the central pdnt o^
secret brotherhood by whom he was reveren^:^
almost like a god. His influence extended to ^
classes, even to Jews and heathens, and he ^^^
correspondents in Hungary and in Italy. In l^r
he retired to a mountain in the territory of the di^^
of Austria, but Merswin alone knew the exact sp'^'
Regarding the retreat of the Great Friend t^
Knights of St. John questioned Merswin in vai^
even on his death-bed| wheni howeveri be 'wkmutd
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Friends of Ood
Friends, Sooiety of
the secret messenger passing between
e Great Friend had died the previous
y^ expeditions were sent to search for
^riend, even as late as 1390 In later
reat Friend was identified with Nicholas
layman who, having spread the heresies
iitis (see Beohards, Beguines) through
aroimd Basel, was burned at the stake
]39o); also with John of Chur, a pious
lived in a cell on the Riltberg in the
)t. Gall. In his writings everything is
there are many contradictions. He has
doctrines and no more knowledge of
an any other devout layman. An ac-
)ilgrimagc to Rome in 1377 is certainly
The Great Friend must have been an
no one could see him or could carry on
lence with him except through Mcrswin,
klerswin died all trace of him suddenly
It is then almost certain that Merswin
nted the whole story of the Great Friend,
J that is strengthened by the close corre-
in matter and style between his own
d those attributed to the Great Friend.
(Philipp Strauch.)
r: On the Friends of God oonsult: K. Schmidt,
'auler van StroMburg, pp. 161 aqq., Hamburg,
I, IHe Gottufreunde itn 14. Jahrhundert, Jena,
ich. in ZHT, x. 1 (1840). 118 aqq.; W. Wacker-
inere Schriften, ii. 146 aqq., Leipdc, 1873;
tutgche Predigten und Oebete, pp. 381 aqq.. 583
, 1876; M. Rieger, Die GoUeafreunde itn deuU
lalUr, Heidelberg, 1879; KL, v. 893-900. For
md life of Merswin consult the editions of the
the Nine Rocks " by K. Schmidt. Leipaic,
). Waalkes. Leeuwarden. 1882; by Strauss, in
far deutache PhUologie, xxxiv (1902), 235 aqq.;
•. J. G. V. Engelhardt. Richard von St. Victor
net Ruualfroek, pp. 345 aqq., Erlangen, 1838;
t, in ZHT, ix (1839), 61 aqq.; idem, in Revue
i (1856), 145 aqq., 193 sqq.; A. Jundt. Hist,
me populaire au moyen dge, pp. 211 sqq., Pari$>,
. Vaughan, Hours with the Mystics, i. 224. 321.
., London, n.d. The extensive literature upon
n of the " Great Friend of God " is indicated
iersog, RE, xvii. 203.
5 OF LIGHT. See Free Congrbga-
BRllANT.
FRIENDS, SOCIETY OF.
History. Wilburite Movements
a*l). (§7).
irth (I 2). Missionary Work ($ 8).
I the Ameri- II. Doctrine and Practise.
>nie8 ($ 3). Distinctive Greed ({ 1).
I (i 4). The Ministry (52).
lopment (§5). Worship ($ 3).
The Hick- III. Educational Institutions,
ration ($6). IV. Organizations and Sta-
neyite and tistics.
3ty of Friends originated in England in
enth century and spread thence to the
onies. A few small congregations have
times in other coimtries (France, Ger-
way, etc.), but practically the history
!ty is confined to England and America,
r name ** Quakers " is said to have been
k local judge at Derby, Oct. 30, 1650
^eton, The Acts of the Witness of the
J4-96, London, 1699; cf. DNB, xx. 119).
and History: The rise of the Friends
emoet noteworthy events in the religious
history of England in the seventeenth century.
In the midst of the efforts then made to rescue the
Church from the corruptions which had grown up
around it, there were men who felt that Luther
and Cranmer had not gone far enough, and that
there was still much sacerdotalism to be purged
away, before the original simplicity of Christian-
ity could be restored. Such men found a leader
in George Fox (q.v.). He and his followers an-
nounced as their aim the revival of primitive Chris-
tianity; and this phrase remains as the best defini-
tion of their work. The privilege of direct access
to God, without the intervention of human priest
or rite, was revealed to Fox's soul. Having found
one, " even Christ Jesus, who could speak to his
condition," he longed to impart his discovery of
the spirituality of true religion to others, and in
1647 began his labors in public ministry, going
forth through England on foot, and at hia own
1 Gkeorffe ^^'*8<^^- ^^ message appears to
Pox. ^^® beenjnainly to direct the peo-
ple to the great Shepherd and Bishop
of souls, who died for them, and had sent his spirit
into their hearts, to instruct and guide them in the
things pertaining to life and salvation. " I was
sent,'* he says, " to turn people from darkness to
the light, that they might receive Christ Jesus;
for, to as many as should receive him in his light, I
saw that he would give power to become the sons
of God, which I had obtained by receiving Clmst.
I was to direct people to the Spirit that gave forth
the Scriptures, by which they might be led into all
truth, and so up to Christ and God, as those had
been who gave them forth." To the illumination
of the Holy Spirit in the heart he turned the at-
tention of all, as that by which sin was made mani-
fest and reproved, duty imfolded, and ability given
to run with alacrity and joy in the way of God's
commandments. He preached repentance toward
God, and faith in the Lord Jesus Christ, and showed
that one became a true disciple not by a bare as-
sent of the understanding to the truths contained
in the Bible, nor by any outward rite, but by a
real change of the heart and affections, through
the power of the Holy Spirit. The inward light
became not merely a mystical communion with
God, but also a source of strength and guidance in
the practical affairs of rehgion.
The soil was ready for the seed, and the rapid
spread of Fox's doctrines was surprising. All
classes flocked to his preaching; and among his
converts were persons of the best families in the
kingdom, priests of the Eistablished Chiurch, and
ministers of other societies, and many men of
2 BaDid ^®^^^ ^^^ learning. For four years
Growth. ^°^ ^^ *^® ^^y ™i^ster of the so-
ciety; the second preacher was Eliza-
beth Hooton (d. 1672). In the fifth year there were
twenty-five preachers; in the seventh, upward of
sixty. Within eight years, ministers of Friends
preached in various parts of Europe, in Asia, and
m Africa, and heroically endured persecution in
Rome, Malta, Austria, Hungary, and other places.
Among the noteworthy preachers in the earlier
years, Francis Howgill, John Audland. and Samuel
Fisher had been clergjonen; George Bishop, Rich>
Friends, BooUty of
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOQ
m
\
ard Hubberthom, and William Ames, officers in the
army; Anthony Pearson and John Crook, justices
of the peace. The courtly and cultured William
Penn, and Robert Barclay (qq.v.), a member of a
noble family in Scotland, a near relative of the
Stuart kings, and a man of thorough classical and
patristic scholarship, joined the society about
twenty years after its formation. In 1680 the
number of Friends in Great Britain was not less
than 66,000.
America was first visited by Friends in 1656,
when Mary Fisher and Anne Austin arrived in
Boston from Barbados, to which island they had
gone to preach the Gospel the preceding year.
They were charged with holding " very
T\^ dangerous, heretical, and blasphe-
American °^^^ opimons," and were kept m close
Oolonies. confinement, at first on the vessel, and
afterward in jail. Their books were
burned by the common executioner, and even their
persons were searched to discover signs of witch-
craft. They were then sent back to Barbados.
In 1660 this same Mary Fisher held an interview
with Sultan Mahomet IV., at Adrianople, where
he was then encamped with his army. Two days
after the banishment of the first Friends from Bos-
ton, a vessel having on board eight other Friends
arrived from London. They were at once impris-
oned, and, eleven weeks afterward, were sent to
England. But, nothmg daunted, others of the
same faith continued to arrive in New England,
to suffer scourging, imprisonment, banishment, and
four of their number (William Robinson and Mar-
maduke Stevenson in 1659, Mary Dyer in 1660,
and William Leddra in 1661), death by the gal-
lows. Monthly meetings had been established in
New England before 1660, and in 1661 a yearly
meeting in Rhode Island, which has been continued
regularly to the present date. New York, New
Jersey, Maryland, Virginia, and the Carolinas were
visited very early; and, although there was much
persecution, flourishing communities of Friends
sprang up. George Fox himself made an extended
journey in America in 1671-73. But the most im-
portant event in the early history of the society on
this continent was the settlement of Pennsylvania
by William Penn and a large number of his breth-
ren in faith, beginning in 1682. In 1690 there were
at least 10,000 Friends in the American Colonies,
and in 1702, 20,000 in Pennsylvania and New Jersey.
For an account of the schism in America, 1692
and later, see Keith, George.
While no Friends in England suffered immedi-
ate martyrdom, the sum of their persecution was
very great. Between 1650 and 1689 14,000 of
them were fined and imprisoned; and 369, inclu-
ding the majority of the first preach-
oution " ^^' ^^*^^ "^ J^^^' ' °°^ ^^ mention cruel
mockinsrs, buffetings, scourgings, and
afflictions innumerable." Never w^erc persecutions
borne in a more heroic spirit of endurance, or
in a more Christian spirit of forgiveness. Never,
too, were the inalienable rights of conscience
more bravely asserted, and the privileges of Eng-
lishmen more boldly claimed. " The trials of the
Friends, and especially that of John Crook in 1662,
and that of William Penn and William Mud in
1670, at the Old Bailey, will forever remun a
noble monuments of their resistance to the aibi-
trary proceedings of the courts of judiature at
that time, and the violent infringement of tliepm-i-
lege of jury." Soon after the Revolution of 1688,
the persecution ceased on both sides of theAtUntie.
When the martyr age had passed, the society
became less aggressive, and made fewer eonveits
to its views; but it devoted itself to the quiet
_ j^^ jj^ practise of the Christian virtues, and
velopment. ^ *^^^ philanthropy. An exag-
gerated asceticism in oertam direc-
tions, and a rigid, though in some respects an ad-
mirable, discipline, visiting with excommmucatjon
even the offense of marrying a person not a mem-
ber of the society, cooperated to keep it numerically
small. In the recognition of the equal rights d
women, in the abolition of slavery and the 8la?e-
trade, in the protection and instruction of the In-
dians and the weaker races of mankind, in the
amelioration of penal laws and prison disriidine,
in the adoption of enlightened methods for the
care and relief of the insane, in testimony against
war, intemperance, oaths, corrupting boob and
amusements, extravagance, insinceri^, and Tain
display, it has been in the forefront of Christian
reformers; while it has maintained high standards
of integrity and practical virtue, and in the every-
day charities of life its bounty has been liberal
The Society in early days was an association of
sympathetic believers without any adopted writ-
ten creed or list of members. In time birthright
membership was introduced and this created a
non-convinced element. About the middle of the
eighteenth centuiy such varied vievs
^~J|?*" and practises prevailed that on both
Hioksite ^^^®® °^ ^^® ocean disciplinary regula-
Separation. ^i^ns were adopted, and these in time
came to be looked upon as an essential
part of original Quakerism. Men of 1 iberal views and
varying habits were lost. This rigidity lasted well
into the nineteenth century, but in 1827 came the
great separation. The differences had been smol-
dering for years. The central figure was Elias
Hicks (q.v.), an eloquent minister from Long
Island. From him one body was called Hicksite
while the other was known as Orthodox, though
neither side formally adopted the title. The for-
mer contained many Unitarians, but their basis
was the non-necessity of the beliefs commonly
known as Orthodox. In many cases there was an
extension of the belief of the early Friends as to
the guidance of the Holy Spirit, so as to repudiate
the common Orthodox conceptions of the deity
and atonement of Christ and the inspiration of the
Scriptures. The other body held to these, as
taught by their ancestors, but held to them with
such disciplinary rigidity that sympathetic be-
hevers, who cared more for freedom of opinion than
for any particular belief were driven into the op-
posite branch. The formal separation began in
Philadelphia in 1827 and extended to the yearly
meetings of New York, Baltimore, Ohio and In-
diana. In the three eastern yearly meetings the
Hicksites were a large majority. In London* Dub-
t95
REUGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Friends, Society or
fin, New En^nd, and North Carolina, the whole
mBeting went with the Orthodox body, lea\nng
tliem as a whole the strongest and best organized.
Both bodies have lost numbers in the eastern
United States since this date, though of late years
tiie tide has probably turned. In England there
lu also a gradual loss till about 1870 when " adult
tAocl" work and missionary effort began to in-
CRftse the zeal and spirit of the younger members.
EDglish Friends, with divergent doctrinal views,
hiTc been free from serious dissensions and are
BOir an open-minded and progressive body.
About 1S40 there began a new tendency among
Orthodox Friends — an Evangelical reaction from
the Hicksite position. This was led by an Eng-
Ui minister, Joseph John Gumey (q.v.), and hence
is commonly known as a '* Gumey-
^JJ?®^ ite " movement. The opposition from
I5[?* JJ?~ a stanch upholder of ancient ways was
mS^ caUed " Wilburite " (see Wilbur,
^m^ John). The controversy so far as it was
theological centered about such ques-
tkoB as the relative authority of the Spirit and the
Scriptures, the historic and the living Christ, and
theirplaces in the plan of salvation. Small divisions
nwlted, the Wilburite bodies being generally few
in number, though Philadelphia as a w^hole sym-
pithiied with them. In the West the Gumeyite
nwvonent swept on with a great revivalistic agi-
tition on Methodist lines, bringing great numbers
into monbership, but for a time almost destroy-
0| the landmarks of Quakerism. This has since
in torn produced its reaction and the original basis
of friendly doctrine and practise has to some ex-
tent r&isserted itself.
Organized missionary work of Friends is of com-
pintively recent date, although in earlier time a
number of itinerant ministers carried their mes-
i^n to many parts of the world. About 1866 the
F^riends' Misdonary Society in England established
the work in India. The next year some work in
fliXiBBion Madagascar followed, and two years
ttyWork"^^' stations were organized in Syria.
In 1886 China was added to the list,
•nd in 1806, Ceylon. The English Friends now
maintain about 100 missionaries in the field in
tiiese stations, and very considerable success has
•tt«nded the effort. American Friends have mis-
Boos in Alaska, Mexico, Cuba, Jamaica, Japan,
ttd East Africa, and are associated with English
Friends in the miBsions in Syria and China. These
have afl been established since 1871, and are man-
iged for the most part by the American Friends'
Board of Foreign Blissions, which sustains about
ninety workers. The English Friends devote
Jttriy about $150,000 to the work, and the Amer-
ican Friends something like one-half this amount.
The tendency of the work of the missions has been
iaigely educational as well as Evangelical, and no
fpecial attention has been given to adding members
to the Society of Friends.
IL Doctrine and Practise: The creed of the
Society of Friends, if it may be so called, has
always been simple and Biblical. What is most dis-
tinctive of the Society is its belief in the imniedi-
«te influence of the Holy Spirit, and its expecta-
tion of the guidance of the Spirit in worship and
all religious acts. This might degenerate into pure
mysticism, were it not correotecl by the Society's
recognition of the inspiration and au-
ive Creed." ^*^°"^y of the Scriptures, by which
they admit in the words of Barclay
" as a positive certain maxim, tliat whatsoever
any do, pretending to the S[)irit, which is con-
trary to the Scriptures, should be accounted and
reckoned a delusion of the Devil." Their belief in
the spirituality of Christianity lias led them, also,
to the disuse of the outward rites of baptism and
the Lord's Supfx?r, while they fully believe in the
necessity of s[)iritual baptism, and the privilege of
spiritual communion with the Father and the Son,
through the Holy Spirit. They do not find, in
the texts ordinarily understood as establishing
these rites, any indication of such intention, an(l
regard the rites themselves as inconsistent with the
whole spirit of Christianity, in which types liave
given place to the substance.
Their views in regard to the ministry are also
characteristic. They believe that no one should
preach the Word without a direct call from God,
and that this call may come to male or female, old
or young. No high human learning and no course
of theological study are necessary qualifications for
a minister, who may be as unlettered as were most
of the apostles, if plenteously endued
with heavenly grace. But Friends do
not deny the self-evident proposition,
that learning and intellectual ability conduce to
the usefulness of a preacher of the Gospel, and tliat
a chim;h needs men ))08sc8sing both, to assert and
defend the truth. Any one who feels it laiil upon
him is allowed to speak in the meetings for worsliip,
so long as he speaks things worthy of the occasion.
If, after sufficient probation, he gives evidence of
a divine call, he is formally acknowledged as a
minister, and is allowed one of the seats at the head
of the meeting. Besides ministers, the Society
appoints elders, whose especial duty is to sympa-
thize with and advise ministers, and watch tliat
they be sound in the faith; and overseers, as in the
primitive Church, who have a general care of the
flock. In meetings for business, the society recog-
nizes the presidency of the great head of the
Church, and strives to do all in his fear, and with
his guidance. Decisions are not made by votes
and majorities, but are recorded by the clerk, in
accordance with wliat apjxjars to be " the weight "
of either side; or, if there is not a general spirit of
acquiescence, action is postponed.
Believing tliat every act of divine service should
proceed from an immediate impression of duty,
prompted by the Holy Spirit, many meetings of
the Society for worship are held in silence, unless
some one feels called upon to preach or teach, to
offer prayer in behalf of the congrega-
tion, or to give pniise to the Most
But this silence is itself intended to be oc-
2. The
MixListry.
8. Worship.
High.
cupied with religious acts. Highest of these is the
direct communion of the soul 'with its Maker and
its Lord, in rapt devotion, in thanksgiving and
prayer. But there are services, in the.«« hours of
silence, adapted to every degree of rehgious ex-
Friends, 8ooi«ty of
Friends of the Temple
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOQ
m
perience and every serious mood of mind. One of
tlie most profitable of these is self-examination.
As in the sight of the All-Seeing Eye, the humble
worshiper recounts his thoughts and deeds, con-
fesses his sins, supplicates for pardon for the past
and strength for the future, and prays that he may
be cleansed even from secret faults. Another ex-
ercise is religious meditation. At least, every at-
tender can force himself to think on profitable
themes by repeating to himself texts of Scripture,
or the verses of some suggestive hymn. ** Some-
times a light surprises " the humble worshiper;
his thoughts are led on and upward by a higher
Power; new meanings of texts flash upon his
mind, a new illumination is given to the path of
duty, and m. answer to the prayer breathed forth
by his inmost soul he feels conscious of a closer
union with God, and strengthened for his future
warfare with the world, the flesh, and the devil.
And, if some brother or sister is led to offer vocal
service, it often happens that the word of exhor-
tation or reproof or comfort, or the earnest petition
to the throne of grace, harmonizes with the private
exercise of mind which the hearer has passed
through, confirming his faith, and invigorating his
resolution.
ni. Educational Institutions: The educational
institutions of higher grade among Friends of Eng-
land are, — Dalton Hall, a hall of residence con-
nected with the University of Manchester, which
supplies living and instruction, but grants no de-
grees, and Woodbrooke Settlement, an institution
near Birmingham, where courses of study are given
to adults in sociology, Bible history and criticism,
and religious movements. Of the secondary grade
there are the following: Bootham and Mount
Schools at York, one for boys and one for girls,
which prepare for London matriculation examina-
tions; Leighton Park School, near Reading, which
prepares for the universities; Ackworth School,
founded in 1779, of rather lower grade than the
others; belonging to the same class, educationally
considered, are Sidcot, SafTron-Walden, Ayton,
Sibford, and one or two others. A very strong
movement in England of a different character is
the adult school system, originated and managed
chiefly by Friends, which embraces Bible lessons,
educational oi)portunitie8, and many beneficial
agencies. There are (1906) about 82,000 scholars
in these schools and the number is rapidly increas-
ing. It is a movement of great moral and social
significance.
In America the Orthodox bodies have Haver-
ford and Bryn Mawr Colleges near Pliiladelphia,
Guilford College in North Carolina, Wilmington
College in Ohio, Earlham College in Indiana, Penn
College in Iowa, Pacific College in Oregon, and
Wliittier College in California. New England,
New York and Philadelphia yearly meetings also
conduct boarding-schools and the latter a number
of primary and secondary schools. The school
founded by William Penn, the William Penn Char-
ter School, is managed by a board of Philadelphia
Friends. There are various Friends* academies in
the West. Swart hmore College near Philadelphia
is under the control of the Hicksite branch, which
also has a number of flourishing schools in and
around New Yoric, Philadelphia, and Baltimore.
While Friends in early days had an exodknt sys-
tem of schools, so that illiterate Quakers iiere
imknown, the belief that education was not im-
perative for ministers led to a ne^tect of higher
training; attempts to rectify this began to be made
about 1850, and the colleges mentioned above ha?e
sprung up since this date.
IV. Organization and Statstics: The congre-
gations are grouped together to constitute nsonthly.
quarteriy, and yeariy meetings; the monthly meet-
ings send representatives to the quarterly, and the
quarterly to the yeariy. The yeariy meetings are
separate in their jurisdiction, each one determining
its own course of procedure. They are united with
each other in epistolary correspondence, and the
Orthodox meetings send representatives to the
"Five Years' Meeting," the conclusions of which are
simply advisory. The yearly meeting? and all
subordinate meetings have no presiding officer.
There is a clerk appointed yearly whose duty it is
to minute the conclusions of the meeting. If nec-
essary he may exercise the office of moderator, but
he is distinctly the servant and not the master of
the meeting. Votes are not usually taken. After
a full discussion the clerk writes his minute and
reads it. If this is not satisfactory the noeeting
may direct a change. If there is division of senti-
ment, it is his duty to gather the " sense of the
meeting," the wei^t of the speakers as well as
their numbers counting in his final estimate. If
there is strong opposition to a new proposition it
is dropped. A simple majority would not intro-
duce an innovation. In all meetings except the
representative meetings, which are in reality execu-
tive bodies, every member of the Society of Friends
is entitled to be present and to speak to business.
The recent establishment of " The Five Years'
Meeting,'* composed of delegates from each of the
yearly meetings, bids fair to become a permanent
national organization of great consequence. There
are two yearly meetings of the Orthodox in Great
Britain and fourteen in America; of the Hicksiies,
six in America. The total figures are as follows:
Orthodox— America (1904) 92.265
BriUsh lalandB (1904) 21390
Hicksite — America (19(X)). .
Wilburite — America (1890).
Foreign BlisBion Fields.
114,155
21.35fl
4.561
140.072
5,767
145,839
Isaac Sharplebs.
Bibliographt: For lists of early books by. on, sod
afcainst Qtiakers consult: J. Smith. Demxiptivt Qatar
logue of Friendt' Books, privately printed. 1867; idem,
Bibliotheca ArUi^iuakeriana, ib. 1873; idem, Supfi*-
merit, London, 1893. Consult: George Fox, Journal,
London, 1694, ed. R. M. Jones. Philadelphia, 1904;
I. Penington. Works, London, 1681; W. Sewcl. HisLof
the People called Quakers, London, 1722, Philadelphia.
1855; R. Claridffe, Life and Posthumous Works, 0>nected
by J. Besse. London, 1726; J. Besee, Sufferinos of tkt
People called Quakers, ib. 1738; William Penn, Seled
Works, ib. 1771; J. Woolman. Journal of Life, Gospd
Labourt, and CKristian ExperUnoe, Dublin. 1776, tdittd
«97
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Vrlends, Societr of
Vrlends of the Temple
vith Introduction by J. G. Whittier, Boston. 1871; J.
Goush. HiML of the People called Quaker; 4 vols., Dub-
lin, 1789-00 (comes down to 1764): EUas Hicks. Ser-
mtma, Philadelphia. 1825; idem. Journal, New York.
1832; J. Comly, Priende' Miacellany, 12 vols., 1831-
1839; U. Christmas. Conciee Hiet. of the Hampden Con-
ttoveny, London. 1848; J. Bowden, Hiet. of Frienda in
America, ib. 1850; J. Barclay, Diary of Alexander J af-
fray, and Memoire of the Quakere in the North of Scotland,
Edinbursh. 1856; E. Michener, Porhraiture of Early
Quakeriem, Philadelphia, 1860; W. Hodgson, Select Hie-
lorical Memoirs of the Society of Friende . . . 17th and
18tk Centuries, Philadelphia, 1867; idem. Society of
Friends in 19th Century, ib. 1876; J. Cunningham, The
Quakers, Edinburgh. 1868; C. Evans. Friends in the 17th
Century, Philadelphia, 1875; Frances Anne Budge, An-
nals of the Early Friends, London, 1877; 8. M. Janney,
HieL of Friends, 4 vols., Philadelphia, 1859-67; idem.
Memoirs, ib. 1881; idem. Life of William Penn, ib.
1882; R. Barclay, The Inner Life of the Religious
Societies of the Commonwealth, 3d ed., London, 1879;
A. C. Appl^carth, Quakers in Pennsylvania, in Johns
H&pkins University Studies, ser. 10. nos. 8, 9, Baltimore,
1892; I. Sharpless. A Quaker Experiment in Government,
Philadelphia, 1902; idem. Quakerism and Polities, ib.
1905; J. Bellows, Letters and Memoirs, London, 1904;
T. E. Harvey, Rise of the Quakers, ib. 1905; A. C. and
R. H. Thomas, Hist, of Friends in America, Philadelphia,
1905; J. Rowntree, Essays and Addresses, London, 1906.
On the Doctrines of the Friends consult: Robert Bar-
day, Theologice vera Christianice apologia, Amsterdam,
1676, Eng. transl.. Apology for the True Christian Divin-
ity (Aberdeen?), 1678. reprinted Philadelphia, 1855;
W. and T. Evans, The Friends' Library, 14 vols., ib.
1837-50; E. Bates, The Doctrines of the Friends, London,
1843; J. J. Gumey, Observations on Distinguishing Views
and Practice of Friends, ib. 1859; Book of Christian Dis-
cipline of Society of Friends, ib. 1883 (compiled from the
documents of the yearly meetings, 1672-1883); J. M.
DeGarmo, Hicksite Quakers and their Doctrines, New York,
1897; J. Rowntree, Society of Friends; its Faith and
Pradiee, London, 1901; R M. Jones, Social Law in the
Spiritual World, Philadelphia, 1905.
FRIEIVDS OF THE TEMPLE: An organiza-
tion which originated in Germany for the setting
up of the Kingdom of Christ upon earth according
to the Law and the Prophets, with its capital in
Jerusalem. The founder, Christoph Hoffmann,
was bom at Leonberg Dec. 2, 1815, as the son of
the burgomaster G. W. Hoffmann and younger
brother of the future court preacher Wilhelm Hoff-
mann (q.v.). The impressions which
The he early received at Komthal (q.v.),
Founder, his father's foundation, were decisive
of his future career, and he regarded
his own work as the fulfilment of his father's plans.
His theological training was largely along lines of
his own choosing, and the lack of a scientific knowl-
edge of the Scriptures was always obvious in him.
His course was determined by the conception of
the kingdom of Christ on earth as set forth in the
writings of P. M. Hahn (q.v.); and his marriage to
Hahn's granddaughter brought him into connec-
tion with the Paulus brothers, in whose educational
work he assisted imtil 1853. He came out against
the conventional Christianity of his time in his
21 SdUe gegen GoUesleugner (Ludwigsburg, 1844)
and other writings of the kind; and he car-
ried hid campaign further in the periodical pub-
lished by him in conjunction with Paulus, the
Suddeulsche Warte (called after 1877 Warte des
TempeU). In the eventful year 1848 he was elected
for the Ludwigsburg district to the Frankfort As-
sembly, in which he voted with the Left for the
complete separation of Church and State; but, dis-
satisfied with the way things were going, he re-
signed his seat the next year, giving utterance to
his views in Stimmen der Weissagung iiber Babel
und das Volk GoUes (1849). If the Church was to
fulfil its mission of renewing the national life, it
must itself be revivified; and this was the purpose
of the Evangelischer Verein, founded in 1848 and
composed of about 450 local branches, and of a
school of evangelists under Hoffmann's direction,
the lay preachers trained in which were to put
new life into Pietism. It was not long before his
peculiar ideas began to come out strongly — social
regeneration through the " assembling of God's
people " with a central point, the Temple, con-
ceived partly in a spiritual sense, and partly in a
realistic as involving the restoration of the Temple
and the theocracy at Jerusalem. With these views,
it was natural that Hoffmann should stand apart
from the Inner Mission, which arose at the same
time, and ultimately from the Church. With his
followers he left the Evangelischer Verein, and at
the same time turned his back on Pietism, whose
leaders, in their predominantly eschatological con-
ception of the kingdom of God, declared decidedly
against his views and forbade their members to
read the Warte. He gained a vigorous ally, how-
ever, in Georg David Hardegg of Ludwigsburg,
who aided him to assemble there (Aug. 24, 1854)
a gathering of the " Friends of Jerusalem." This
body sent a petition to the Frankfort Assembly
with 500 signatures, requesting it to bring pre&sure
to bear on the sultan for the sanction of a settle-
ment in Palestine. Since nothing came of this
and similar efforts, Hoffmann imdertook to build
up the Temple in Germany. He wrote a projected
constitution for the people of God, an appeal to
Christians and Jews alike to support his project,
and a book intended as a contribution to the social
question, Geachichte des Volkes GoUes (Stuttgart,
1855). The first practical step was the purchase of
a place near Marbach in 1856, which was intended
to be a preliminary settlement on the road to
Jerusalem. While his sympathizers settled there
under regulations based on the Law and the Proph-
ets, Hoffmann went, with Hardegg and Bubeck,
to Palestine, and after a thorough investigation
came to the conclusion that there was no use at-
tempting the erection of the Temple imtil after
much preliminary work.
Hoffmann was suspended from the privileges of
a Lutheran candidate in 1857 by the Consistory,
and then, refusing to give any satisfactory expla-
nation of his attitude, formally ex-
Organiza- pelled from the communion of the na-
tion as tional Church in 1859. The next step
a Sect was definite organization as a separate
religious body, accomplished in 1861
in a gathering of sixty-four men at Kirschenhardt-
hof, the headquarters. The Temple was to be gov-
erned provisionally by Hardegg as secular and
Hoffmann as spiritual leader, with an advisory
council of twelve elders. A constitutional election
was first held in 1867. The movement spread in
Franconia and especially in the Black Forest, until
the number of adherents was estimated at 3,000.
Friends of the Temple
Frith
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
888
Hoffmann was incessantly active in the organiza-
tion of various departments at Kirschenhardthof,
in lecturing (most frequently at Stuttgart), and
most of all in the composition of his book Fort-
fichritt und Rilckschritt, oder Oeschichte des Ab falls
vom Christenthum (3 vols., Stuttgart, 1863-^).
From 1861 to 1868, however, the real leadership
of the movement wsis not in his hands but in Har-
degg's. He was a fanatical dreamer, and Hoffmann
was forced into an antagonism to him which grad-
ually became apparent. Hoffmann even thought
for a time of resigning the whole charge into his
hands and seeking to reahze his own views in
America.
In 1868 they made an attempt to settle in Pales-
tine, the first settlement being at Haifa near Mount
Carmel, where Hardegg remained while Hoffmann
migrated to Jaffa the next year, found-
Colonization ing there a school and a hospit^.
in Palestine. The acquisition of a tract of ground
in the plain of Rcsaim near Jerusa-
lem in 1873 marked an important advance; and
smaller settlements arose at Nazareth, Tiberias,
Beirut, Ramleh, and other places, including Alex-
andria. About 1,500 colonists in all took up their
abode in these places. In 1874 occurred an open
breach between the two leaders. Hardegg went
his way, founded an organization of his own (the
Temple Union), and died in 1879. Hoffmann
now foun^led an inner brotherhood for the strict
carrying out of his principles, and in 1878 trans-
ferred his headquarters to Jerusalem. He grad-
ually broke more and more with orthodoxy, con-
testing many of its fundamental doctrines and
leaving the use of the sacraments wholly voluntary.
His pen was still busy; Occident und Orient (Stutt-
gart, 1875) is a noteworthy production of this
period. A definite constitution was drawn up in
1875, and replaced by another in 1879. Hoffmann
was forced by infirmity to resign his leadership in
1884, and died Dec. 8, 1885. At that time there
were 1,3(K) colonists in the East, and in 1901 1,406.
Another new constitution, promulgated in 1890
and since then little modified, placed the rule in
the hands of the ** (iuardian of the Temple " (from
1893 Christoph Hoffmann, Jr., the founder's son),
and prescrilx'd very simple rites, requiring uncon-
ditional ol^edience to the governing body. But
with Hoffmann's (!eath the movement lost its stim-
ulus. A new colony was founded in Palestine in
1903; there is one community in Wlirttemberg
(with a diminishing number of members — 244 in
1905), and a few adherents are found in Saxony,
in Russia, and in America [in the United States in
1905, four churches with 340 members]. Among
the colonists in Palestine divisions have occurred,
which an attempt at reunion in 1897 did not fully
reconcile. A numlx^r of them have shown a tend-
ency to return to the Lutheran Church and accept
its ministrations. The importance of the move-
ment there to-diiy is to he found in its economic
aspect^s, which now admittedly predominarte, and
in its support of (ji^rnian interests in the East.
Hoffmann's c^irious mixture of suijernatural and
rationalistic, Judaizing and Christian, Pietistic and
socialistic elements could never have served as the
basis of a permanent structure; and in what \^
set out to do he may be said to have defioiteif
failed. (C. Kolb.)
Bibliography: F. Lange. Geadiichte dea Tempd*, Stnttprt,
1890 (goes only to 1884); C. Palmer. Gemtinaduftnui
Sekten, Tubingen. 1877; WUrttembenfiaefu Kvckn^
9chichU, Stuttgart, 1893; E. Kalb. Kirchen tnd &ita
der Oegenwart, ib. 1907 (the two last-named contain fiv-
ther literature). Hoffmann issued an autobiofniiiijr
under the title Mein Weg nach Jerusalem, 2 vob., Stllt^
gart. 1881-84.
FRIENDSHIP : A relation between men for the
purpose of mutual support and furtherance, having
its root in the natural instinct for association be-
tween those of like tastes, aims, and desires. It is
to be distinguished from the conununion of sexei,
and from relations of authority [e.g., that between
employer and employed]. As long as the individual
was absorbed in the community, the realization of
friendship was not possible. Since ancient Greek
philosophy was guided by the tendency to aecure
for the individual his personal value in oppodtiao
to the community, without finding the right ethicd
basis for mutual relations, it naturally esteemed
friendship, especially between men of like philosoph-
ical training. Owing to their deficient appreciation
of the moral value of married life, Greeks like
Socrates and Theophrastus even went so far as to
give friendship the precedence over every other
form of love.
In modem times speculation on friendship hai
been less prominent, because in Christianity friend-
ships arise everywhere as a matter of coutk.
Christianity prepared an entirely new soil for friend-
ship. While in the Aristotelian conception of
philia and in Cicero's amidtia the general ethical
sense of conununion is confused with the spedal
idea of friendship, in Christianity both are deariy
separated. The former has been purified and pe^
fee ted in the love of one's neighbor {philaddT^\a,Vi
Pet. i. 7); still higher must be ranked the union of
the saved children of God (John xiii. 34, xvii. 21),
as being in its spiritual and moral content supe-
rior to all conceptions of the pre-Christian worid.
While, moreover, the ancient world considered
friendship the highest form of communion, because
it did not estimate the moral personality of woman
and the moral value of married life, Christianity,
by placing woman on an equal footing with man in
a religious and moral asj)ect, showed in married life
a natural form of conmiiunion far superior to eveiy
kind of friendsliip in intimacy, satisfaction of the
soul, and permanence. But since Christianity ap-
preciates every j\ist natiu^ instinct, and purifies
it ethically, it acknowledges the right of the natural
relations of friendship as long as they do not intc^
fere with the moral obligations in family, Church,
and State.
The purpose of friendship has been variously
stated. According to Socrates and the Stoics, it »
profit; according to Aristotle, profit, pleasure, and
virtue; according to Epicurus, the purpose is profiti
the consequence enjoyment. Cicero more correctly
put the natural impulse which binds men to mca
before a conscious striving for profit, although be
would liave done still better, had he said want and
need instead of natural impulse. Fhendsldps
a«o
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Friends of the Temple
Frith
flourish best in the period of youth Ix^causc then the
Kftced for help from outside oneself is 8tn)ngefit.
There are sentimental friendships based on like im-
t^resaiottsand feelings; esthetic friendships, like that
between Goethe and Scliiller (cf.theirintercliange of
letters); and scientific friendships, between men
caf like vocation. The highest form of friendsliip
u the religious, in which the Christian's love of his
fellow man unites with natural sympathy differing
«nd yet like-minded individualities, because there
is developefl here the deepest intimacy, sincerity
and truth of spiritual communion in connection
with the mast devoted sense of sacririce.
(L. Lemme.)
Bibliogbapht: (Ticero and R. W. EmerBon. Friendship;
liro E99avM, New York, 1904; H. «lack. Friendship, ib.
1904; F. L. Knowlcs, Value of Friendnhip. Hoston. 1904;
H. D. Thoreau. Katay on Frirndahip. Kant Aurora. N. Y.,
1904: M. A. Ayor. Joya of Friendahip, Boston, 1905; Aris-
totle. Ethics, ffoorl Kng. tranHl.. etl. J. Burnet. London,
1904.
FRISIANS : A people of Germanic stock dwelling
along the coast of the North Sea from the Sinkfal,
a tributary of the Scheldt, to the lower courses of
the Weser, with an outlying spur (the North Frisians)
on the western coast of Sleswick-Holstcin. Their
neighbors to the north and east were the Saxons,
and to the south and west the Franks. With the
latter they came into close contact, and accord-
ingly as the Frankish influence advanced or receded
the influence of Christianity rose or waned among
the Frisian tribes, their conversion remaining un-
completed until the final incorporation of their
territory by the Frankish empire. Mission work
was begun among the Frisians in the early part of
the seventh century but was followed by a pagan
reaction which wiped out all traces of the new faith.
The process of permanent conversion may be dated
from the year 678 when Archbishop Wilfrid of
York (q.v.). cast away on the Frisian coast, was
hof»pitably received by King Aldgild at whose court
he remained during the winter preaching and bap-
tizing. It was, however, a pupil of Wilfrid, Willi-
brord. who came to Friesland in 690. who deserves
the name of apostle of the Frisians (see Willibrord).
At the time of his advent the successor of Aldgild
was engaged in conflict with the Frankish king
Pepin, and Willibrord was compelled to restrict his
labors to that part of the region south of the Rhine
which was under the Frankish power. There his
efforts met with pronounced success and in 695 the
Frisian territory as far as the river Fly was organized
into an archbishopric of which Willibrord became
the first head. Till his death in 739 he was busy
in perfecting the organization of the church, inter-
rupted only by a short period when the Frisian
King Radbord, in conjunction with the forces of
Neustria succeeded in WTesting the conquered
territory from the Franks (714-718), only to lose it
to Charles Martel. Under the immediate successors
of W^illibrord the mission failed to make decisive
progress in the region beyond the Fly and it was not
until 785 that the Frisians were brought entirely
tmder the influence of the dosjwl. Politically
the western Frisians came under the authority of
the counts of Holland and from them passed to
the houses of Burgundy and Hapsburg, while the
eastern Frisians after dweUing for a long time as
a league of inde[)endent communities finally chase a
common ruler, who in the reign of I'!m|wror Freder-
ick III. became count of East Frieshuui. The Refor-
mation plunged Friesland into a protracted conflict
between the Liitheran and Reformed tendencies
which had made their way into the country from
lower Saxony and Belgium and Holland rcsixictively,
a conflict in wliich the two parties showed them-
selves matched with suflicient evenness to pre-
vent the estabUshment of a church organization of
cither type. In loOO a concordat was concluded by
which the two confessions were both recognized as
the legitimate offs])ring of the Augsburg Confes-
sion and the control of church affairs was vested in
a consistory comprising represent^itives of both
parties. The principles of the concordat, however,
w^re not carried into effect. In 16^13 a consistory
was organized of an exclusively Lutheran chart cter,
but it was antagonized by the ruling body of the
Reformed Church. Full e(iuality between the two
denominations was established by the law of
Dec. 12, 1882, when the Reformed clnirchcs of
Friesland together with those of the counties of
Bentheim and Plesse were united into the ecclesias-
tical province of Hanover under the authority of a
consistory at Aurich established in 18S4.
(G. UHLIIORNt.)
BiBTJotiRAPiir: T. D. Wianla, Ostfriesische Geschichte, 10
vols., ib. 1792-1817: C. A. Comeliui*. Der Antheil Ost-
frieslands an der Reformation, MfiUHt«r, 1852; P. Claessens,
£clairci«sementa aur Vftubliasements dea rvfchva dana lea
Pays-Has, Louvaiii. 1850; W. Moll, Kerkgeachiedenia van
Nederland, Arnhern. 1864^71; W. T. Hewett. Friaian
Language and Literature, New York, 1879: P. O. Bartelfl,
Zur Geschichte des ostfriesischen Konsistoriums. Aurich,
1885: P. J. Blok. Friesland im Mittelalter. Leer. 1891;
W. E. Collins, Early Hist, of Frisia, London. 1891 (on
tho conversion of Frifia): Hofstede de Groot. Hundert
Jahre aus der Reformation der Niederlande. (iilteniiloh,
1893; P. nUim. Oesehiedenis van Oud-Friesland, Leeu-
warden. 1900; RettberR, KD; Ilauck, KD. i. 295 rtqq.,
393 sqq., 541 (Kiq.. ii. 310 sqq.; KL, iv. 2049-50.
FRISSELL, HOLLIS BURKE: Presbyterian; b
at Amenia, N. Y., July 14, 1851. He was graduated
at Yale in 1874 and Union Theological Seminary
in 1879. After being assistant pastor of the Madi-
son Avenue Presbyterian Church, New York CMty,
for a few months in 1880, he was appointed cha]:)lain
of Hampton Institute, Hampton, Va.. remaining
there in that capacity until 1893, when he was ap-
pointed to hLs present position of principal.
FRITH (FRYTH), JOHN: English Reformer; b.
at Westerham (19 m. s.e. of London) 1503; d. at
London July 4, 1533. He was educated at Eton and
Iving's Ck)llege, Cambridge (B. A.. 1525), but imme-
diately after taking his degree he Injcame a junior
canon of Cardinal (^ollege (now Christ Church),
Oxfonl, liis patron being Cardinal Wolsey. In tho
same year he met Tyndale in London, and aided
him in liis translation of the New Testament.
With several friends he was im])risoned in his college
for teaching the doctrines of t lie Reformers. He
was released, however, at the instance of Wolsey,
on condition that he shoiild n>mnin\>'ithin ten miles
of Oxford, but he went to (Jennany, spending the
most of his time at Mari^urg. After living on the
Continent about four years, during which time he
Frith
FroflMi&t
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
400
married, he returned to England and went to Read-
ing. There he was net in the stocks as a vagrant,
but was released at the request of the schoolmaster
of the town and went to London, where Sir Thomas
More, the lord chancellor, issued a warrant for his
arrest as a heretic. Frith sought concealment,
but was seized at Milton Shore, Essex, as he was
attempting to escape to Holland, and was com-
mitted to the Tower. His imprisonment was not
rigid, however, and became still milder when Sir
Thomas Audlcy became chancellor in 1633. Mean-
while Frith had formulated his views on the sacra-
ment, holding the following four points: The
doctrine of the sacrament is not an article of faith
to be held under pain of damnation; the natural
body of Christ had the same qualities as those of all
men, except that it was free from sin, and it is
therefore not ubiquitous; it is neither right nor
necessary to take the word of Christ literally, for it
should be construed according to the analogy of the
Bible; the sacrament should be received according
to the institution of Christ, and not according to
the order in use. A tailor named William Holt
obtained a statement of these views from Frith
by pretending to be his friend, and gave a copy to
More, who prepared a reply, of which the prisoner
managed to secure a written copy. He immediately
wrote a refutation, but was attacked by one of the
royal chaplains in 'a sermon before the king. Henry
VIII. ordered him to be examined, and he was ac-
cordingly tried, refusing a proffered opportunity
to escape. He again appeared before the bishops
of London, Winchester, and Chichester on June 20,
1533, but as he persisted in his denial of transub-
stantiation and purgatory. Bishop Stokesley of
London condemned him to die at the stake as an
obstinate heretic. Frith was therefore delivered to
the secular arm and was confined in Newgate imtil
he was taken to Smithfield for execution.
John Frith was a prolific writer, his chief works
being Fruit fiU Gatherings of Scripture (n.p., 1529 [?];
a translation of the Loci of Patrick Hamilton);
A Pistle to the Christen Reader; the Revelation of Anti-
Christ (Marburg, 1529; one of the first English
attacks on Roman Catholicism); A Disputation of
Purgatory (Marburg [?] 1531 [?]); A Letter unto
faithful Followers of Chris's Gospel (n.p., 1532 [?]);
A Mirror or Gla.ss to Know thyself (1532 [?]); A
Mirror or Looking Glass wherein you may behold
the Sacrament of Baptism described (London, 1533);
and The Articles wherefore John Frith he died (1548).
Frith 's complete works were edited, together
with those of Tyndale and Barnes, by John Foxe at
Ijondon in 1573. To liim arc also ascribed the
Vox Piscis (3 parts, London, 1626-27), containing
three brief treatises, including the Mirror or Glass
to Know thyself y all said to have been found in a
codfish in Cambridge market in 1626; An Admoni-
tion or Warning that the faithful Christians in Lon-
don &c. may avoid God's Vengeance (Wittenberg,
1554) and the Testament of Master W. Trade,
Esquire (Antwerp, 1535), Tyndale being a collabora-
tor in the latter work.
BinLiooRAPHY: Life and Marturdom of John Frith, Ijon-
don, 1824; A. k Wood, Athence Oxoniensea, ed. P. IUIsh,
i. 74, London. 1813; Athene CantahrigienBet, ed. C. H.
and T. Cooper, i. 47. ib. 1858; T. Fuller. CkwA HiM. «f
Bntain, ed. J. S. Brewer, iii. 85, Oxford, 1846; DNB,
XX. 278-280.
FRTTZSCHE, CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH: Re
formed theologian; b. in Nauendorf (10 m. n. of
Halle) Aug. 17, 1776; d. at Zurich Oct. 18, 1850. He
studied in the Latin school of the HaHe orpian
asylum and entered the University of Leipsic in
1792; in 1799 he became pastor in Steinbach ud
Lauterbach near Boma, and in 1809 preacher and
superintendent at Dobrilugk. He took a waim
interest in the public schools and wrote monognphi
and articles on the theological questions of the time
from the supematuralistic point of view. When
he became too deaf to preach he was made hononij
professor of theology at Halle in 1827, ordinal^
professor in 1830; and held the position till 1848.
His writings were collected in two vdmnes of
OpusctUa academica (Leipsic, 1838, and Zuiidi,
1846). (O. F. FRirascHEt.)
Bibuoorapht: C. W. Spieker. Aim dem LAen da...
C. F. Breaciv, Frankfort. 1845; Aua d*n Brigfn m
C. F. BreMciua an C. F. FrUztehe, yon O. F. Fiitad»ii
ZKG, xiv. 214-240.
FRTTZSCHE, KARL FRIEDRICH AUGUST: Ge^
man exegete, son of Christian Friedrich Fritxsche
(q.v.); b. at Steinbach, near Boma (15 m. asjtM
Leipsic), Dec. 16, 1801; d. at Giessen Dec. 6,18(6.
He was educated from 1814 to 1820 at the Tbomae-
school in Leipsic and then studied theology at the
same place. In 1825 he became professor on thi
philosophical faculty. In 1826 he went as profesior
of theology to Rostock, and in 1841 to Giesaen.
His theological views were rationalistic, and he eon-
centrated his efforts chiefly upon the exegesiB of
the Bible, especially of the New Testament. Bih-
lical exegesis in the second decade of the nineteenth
century was at a low ebb. The prevailing concep-
tion of language was purely empirical; general U«i
were deduced from superficial investigations, and
by confounding the meaning and sense of woids
the most different and contradictoiy interpre-
tations were often justified; there was no trace of a
penetration into the fundamental spirit of langua^-
Exegesis had become the vehicle of dogmatia,
and everything displeasing was simply explained
away from the Bible. The reform of these condi-
tions in the sphere of philology was started by the
Rostock philologist Gottfried Hermann, and it w*
transferred to Biblical literature by Winer and
Fritzsche. The strictly grammatical method of
Bible study was first introduced by Winer in hi*
Grammatik des neutestamenUichen SprachidiaM
(Leipsic, 1822), and Fritzsche was one of the most
industrious contributors to the later emendations
and editions of this work. He paid special atten-
tion to the linguistic element in exegesis; textual
criticism was one of his favorite occupations. His
most important works are: De nonnuUis potkn-
oris Pauli ad Corinthios epistolce locis disBertationa
duT (1823-24) and his commentaries on Matthew
(1826), Mark (1830), and the Epistle to the Ro-
mans (3 parts, Halle, 1836-43). Some of his
miscellaneous writings have been collected ii
Fritzschiorum opuscula academica (Leipsic, 1838)
Against the purely diplomatic method which Lach
401
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Frith
Froment
Dun applied to the New Testament he wrote De
wmjcrmaHone Novi Testamenti critica, quam C. Lack-
moMusedidityCommentatioI (Giessen, 1841).
(O. F. FRITZBCHEf.)
Bduogkafht: a. Knobel, Qrabredet Giessen, 1847; All-
prntine Zritung fitr Chriaienthum und Kirche, 1847. no.
2; AUgemeine Kirdkemeituno, 1847, no. 26.
FUTZSCHE, OTTO FRIDOLIN: German theo-
logian, youngest son of Christian Friedrich Fritz-
1^; b. at Dobrilugk (66 m. s.s.w. of Frankfort),
hoBoa, Sept. 23, 1812; d. at Zurich Mar. 9, 1896.
He studied at Halle and became privat-docent there
iDl836, but in 1837 was called as professor of theol-
ogy to the University of Zurich, where he was active
in his official capacity until 1893. In 1837 he was
abo made librarian in the theological department of
the Library of the canton and in 1844 chief librarian
of the same library. He lectured on New Testa-
ment exegesis and church history and wrote valu-
able books in these fields. His exegesis is based
QD the new principles in linguistic research advo-
cated by Gottfried Hermann, liis older brother
Kari Friedrich August Fritzsche (q.v.) and Winer.
His text editions contain extensive collections of
(fiffeient readings and critical introductions; his
edition of the Apocrypha of the Old Testament
(Leipdc, 1871) is the most compix^hensive and im-
portant. NotwithstandiniT some objections that
maybe raised, it is the best edition now in existence.
Itiehief merit lies in the collection and systematic
Qtfliiation of the material collected by Holmes
and Parsons for the " Oxford Septuagint " (5 vols.,
178l>-1827; see Bible Versions, A, I.), to which
V^itnche added the Codex Sinailicus and the frag-
Dttta of the Codex Ephraemi, while for Sirach,
Binifh, the Epistle of Jeremiah, and the additions
ia Daniel he unfortunately did not compare the
C«fei Vaticanua, At the end of this text edition
tbeiB are to be found some of the so-called Pseud-
cpignpha — the Psalms of Solomon, the Fourth and
Rfth Books of Ezra, the Apocalypse of Baruch,
Uid the Ascension of Moses. The Pseudepigrapha
•»e also published separately (1871). Fritzsche
^ edited the double text of the Greek translation
if the Book of Esther with the Greek additions
1848-49), the Greek translation of the Book of
^Uth (1864) and of the Book of Judges (1866-67).
^ther publications belonging in the same cate-
V*J are — Probe einer kritischen Ausgabe der oUen
^^iachen Uebersetzung des Neuen Testamentea
11867), which consists of the text of the first five
^pters of the Gospel of Luke; and the edition of
^ fragments of the old Latin translation of the
kok of Judges as an appendix to the above -
mentioned edition of the Greek translation of the
3ook of Judges. Of text editions belonging to
he sphere of church history may be mentioned —
kr Brief des Clemens an Jakobus in der lateinischcn
'ebenetzung des Rufinus (1873); Die Werke des
aeUmiius (1842); Theodora von Mopsuestia exegc-
idle Sehri/ten zum Neuen Testament samt den
'Offmenten seiner Schrift: " De incamatione filii
pi" (1847); Anselm of CJanterbury's Cur deus
mo (3d. ed., 1893); Conjessio Helvetica posterior
339). He also prepared a biography of the Zu-
h theologian Johann Jakob Zimmermann (1841)
IV.-26
and Glareanus, sein Leben und seine Schriften
(1890). His principal work in exegesis is the
Kurzgefasstes exegetisches Handbuch zu den Apokry-
phen des AUen Testamenies (6 vols., 1851-60).
which he wrote with Willibald Grinun. It is still
the best commentary on the Old Testament apoc-
rypha. The first, second and fifth volumes are
the work of Fritzsche; they comprise the third
book of Ezra, the additions to Esther and Daniel,
the Prayer of Manasseh, the Book of Baruch and
the Epistle of Jeremiah in the first volume, the
books of Tobit and Judith in the second and the
book of Jesus Sirach in the fifth volume.
(Victor RyssELf.)
Bibugorapht: V. Ryasel. in TheologiMche ZeUaehrift au§
der Schtoeiz, 1806. pp. 108-123; Steiner. in Theologische
Zeitachrifl auB der Schweiz, 1887.
FROESCHEL, frO'shel, SEBASTIAN: German
Protestant; b. at Amberg (35 m. e. of Nuremberg),
Bavaria, Feb. 24, 1497; d. at Wittenberg Dec. 20,
1570. From 1514 till 1519 he studied at Leipsic,
when he heard the disputation between Luther and
£k;k in the latter year and received an impression
tlierefrom which proved decisive for his subsequent
career. Ordained deacon in 1520, and priest in
1521, he soon came into conflict with the Roman
Church, and, as a result, removed to Wittenberg
in the autmnn of 1522. While on a visit to Leipsic
in Oct., 1523, he preached a series of sermons,
which led to his arrest and expulsion from the
country as a heretic. After a short ministry at Halle
he returned to Wittenberg in 1525 as assistant to
Bugenhagen. During the remainder of his life he
served the church at Wittenberg, becoming deacon
there in 1528, and later archdeacon. He was on
terms of intimacy with both Luther and Melanch-
thon. From 1542 to 1566 he frequently assisted
in the ordination of foreign ministers at Wittenberg.
In his writings he appears as the interpreter of
Mclanchthon. He published a Latin commentary
on St. Matthew (Wittenberg, 1558; Germ, transl.,
1559; reprinted in C/J, xiv.535-1042); CaUchismus
(1559; 2d. ed., 1560); Von den heiligen Engdn,
vom Teufel, und des Menschen Seele (1563); Von
der Passion . . . Christi (1565); Vom Priestertum
(1565); and Vom Kiinigreich Christi (1566).
Bibliography: J. C. Erdmann, Biographie aammUichcr
Paatoren . . zu Wittenberg, p. 11 and Supplement, pp.
56-62, Wittenberg, 1801-08: J. C. Seidemann, Die Leip-
ziger Disputation in 1619, pp. 132-134. Dreflden, 1843;
G. Buchwald. Zur Wittenberger Stadt- und Univerntdt-
Geachidite, Leipsic, 1803.
FROMENT, fr6"mah', ANTOINE: One of the
men who introduced the Reformation in Geneva;
b. at Mens (25 m. s. of Grenoble), in Dauphin^,
1508; d. in Geneva Nov. 6, 1581. From 1529
he accompanied Guillaume Farel, the pioneer of
the Reformed faith and preached the Gospel in
western Switzerland. On Nov. 3, 1532, he went to
Geneva, where the Evangelicals were still few and
timid. He opened a school, and advertised that
" a man had come who within a month would
teach every one, men and women, great and small,
to read French and to write, even if they had never
been to school"; if any one did not learn in that
space of time, he should have nothing to pay; also
Vrommit
Vmlt-Treea
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
408
hm would heal many sjcknessea gratuitously. Fro-
tD^nt wa8 a. capital teacher; he ujved the Bible m a
text-book and crowtia of people , old and youngs came
to him. On New Year's Day, 1533^ so many mshcd
to hear him that he was compelled to preae|i in the
market-place. Taking Matt, vii. 15-16 aa his t«xt^
he criticiMjd the pope, the monks, and the priceta aa
false prophets and denounced their shameful liv-
ings He was soon obliged to depart from Geneva,
but when the Protestant party became stronger
and was supported by Bern he came back (July
1533). The bishop of Geneva, Pierre de la Baume^
had just left the city* Froment resumed hiJ* Evao*
gellfttic work with great success. The Roman
Catholic party called a popular preacher, Giiy
Furbity, a doctor of divinity of the Sorbonne, as
Advent preacher. When he spoke violently of the
new doctrine in a sermon Froment answered in
the church of St. Pierre. A great tymult followed
and once more Froment was eompeUed to leave
Geneva. Bern took offense at Furbity's preach-
ing and threatened to break its alliance with Geneva
if an apology was not made {Jan,, 1534). Fro-
ment and Viret came back with the Bemese depu-
ties. The government of Geneva gave way and the
Reformation made steady progress, .After Mar,,
1534, Froment went to the Waldenses in Piedmont
and Daupiiin^. In 1535 he was in Geneva when
the priests, it is alleged, induced a female eervani
to give a poisoned soup to the Reformere, of w*hich
fortunately neither Farel nor Froment partook,
but Viret was taken very seriously Ul, Meantime
ProteataDtisra gained so much ground that Ihe
majority of ihe citizens favored the new doctrine.
In Aug., 1535, the mass was abolished and Ihe
Reformation practically established- Froment
ministered for a time in the Bernese province of
Qiablais and was deacon at Thonon, but he was
busier as a merchant tlmti as a pastor. Then his
wife, Marie Dentidre of Tournai, a former abbess,
betmme unfaithful to hira, and he had to resign his
charge. He acted for a time as secretary to Boni-
vard, the former prior of St. Victor and prisoner of
Chi lion, tlien (Dec. 31, 1552) he was appointed
notary. In 1562 he was put in prison and banished,
being convicted of unchastity. For ten years the
old man led a poor and miserable life; at last he
was allowed to come back to Geneva (1572) and
even to resume his place om notary (1574), His
most notable work is; Les Actmd gestes merveilltux
de la nI6 de Genh^e (ed. G, Revillicxl, Geneva,
1854), a chronicle of the years hSS^-SS, very
interesting, but not always accurate,
EtTGfeNE Choist;
BTBLioaAAFiTT: E. ind t. H&afr. /vO France protestante. ed.
Heati Bonrliflr. vol. v.. Punm. lH86s A> L. Henninili.rd,
Comvpondanre dtm rAformtit^um, 0 vols,, Geneva, 1866-97;
A, Guillof , f^* D^atM dt ta R^formati&n & GenH^i, Gt^atiVA^
18S5.
FRONTOlf, fr6h"t6h', DU DUG (also Fronton le
Due; Lat. FTonio Ducwus): A learned Roman
Catholic writer; b. at Bordeaux ITthHi d. in Paris
Sept. 25, 1624. He wiws a Bon of a councilor of the
parliament of Bordeau?£* entered the Society of
Jesus in 1577, and acted as teacher at Pont-i-
Moussou, Bordeaux, and Paris, where he became
librarian of the College of Clermont in 1804. A
friend of Casaubon and very well known as a Qmk
scholar, he revised the text of the worki of tht
Greek Fathers and translated them into lAtio^
with the addition of notes {BiUioih&sa potvm
gr€tco-latma^ 2 vols., Paris, 1624). He also wrote
three volumes against Du Ple^sin'Momay *b book
on the Eucharist (Bordeaux, 1599- 16CE!).
EUG^Nl Cboist.
BiBLiooRAPftT: Nic^ran, Mfimmwa, xxxviii, 1^; A. *ai
A. dr Backer, Bibiiath^qut d&t ^mnnnf de ta «&d^ lr
J^mts, III 2S3, 7 vqU,. U^, 1853-61; H. Hiirter, Vi-
mendator literariuM recenUoria thstdogim catholkm^ i. ^
Innsbruck, 1892.
FROSSARB, fres^sar', BENJAMHf SIGIBMOID;
French Protestant^ b. at Nyon (14 m. n. of i^eneva),
Switzerland, 1754: d- at Montauban (110 dl u.
of Bordeaux) Jan. 3, 1830. He studied tbedogyit
Geneva and in 1777 became pastor of the RefoimHt
Church at Lyons, where he remained till tbe ei^
of the city in 1793. While visiting England ia
1785 he received an honorary doctorate from the
University of Oxford. In 1795 he became pfo-
feasor of mornJjB in the Ecole Cent rale of OcmiQiil-
Ferrand* Later he went to Paris, becara* t
member of the consistory there, and collabomt«d
with Rabaut-Pommier in tbe preparatioo of the
organic articles of the Reformed worship, la
1S09 he was charged with the organixatioii of A
Protestant theologic^d faculty in filotit^ubiii,
where he became pastor and president of thtm-
sj story. In IStO he became the ^rst dean of the
new faculty and professor of morals aad siend
eloquence. The reaction of 1815 deprived him
of both deanahip and pastorate, though he rctAind
his professorship. His chief publications are i
translation of Hugh Blair 'si sermons (3 vols., Lycift
1782); La Cause des mdatv^ n^grts d du Mifaiii
de la GuinH (2 vols., 1789); and Le CkiMmim
des gens du Tmmde mu en oppogUifm avec k tti^
iabk ChriMiaHMme (2 vols., Montauban, 1831), »
translation of Wilberforce's Pradie^l Viev.
Bibuogeiai'ht: Licht«Dbere:er, ESR^ v. 345-344 Pw*
1S78, wbcne ncmrcca are indicated,
FROTHUfGKAM, OCTAVTOS BROOKS: Eir
tionaliBt; b. in Boston Nov. 2(5, 1822; d. tbcft
Nov. 27, 1895. He was graduated at Harfifd
in 1843, and at tbe divinity school in 1&46, Eb
filled charges at Salem, Mass. (1847-55). Jerfey City,
(1850-59), and New York City {ISS^'^i rra^ned
on account of ill health in 1 879, and after IS8I liTtd
in Boston, He founded the Free Religious AsbooIp
tion (q,v.) in 1867 and was its president till 1878.
He was noted for eloquence and seholaraliip. ^
was e.i;treme in his religious view^f*. His New Ydt
church was originally called The Third Uaitinsfl
but it separated from that denoniination ia 1S7#
and was culitHl The Independent Liberal Chuff* d
New York. He published lives of Theodore fe^^
(Boston, 1874), GerriU Smiih (New York, 1SI81.
George Ripky (Boston, 1S82), and WUliQm Rm
Chnnning (1886); The Religum of Hfinumily(^
York, 1873); A Hii^tary o/ rrnn^wmdrralaiuw «
Neif* England (1876); BmUm Unitan^mkni, lS$h^^
a study of the life and work of his father, Natbini^l
Langdon Frothingham (1S90).
•408
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
VrOBMAt
Vralt-Traes
FROUDE, frQd, RICHARD HURRELL: The
En^ish theologian remembered chiefly for his
connection with the beginning of the Oxford Move-
ment, and brother of James Anthony Froude, the
historian; b. at Dartington (2 m. n. of Totnes),
Devonshire, Mar. 25, 1803; d. there Feb. 28, 1836.
He was educated at Eton and at Oxford (B.A.,
1824; M.A., 1827). In 1826 he won a fellowship
at Oriel, of which he was also tutor from 1827 to
1830. He took deacon's orders in 1828 and priest's
in 1829; but symptoms of consumption soon ap-
peared, and he was obliged to pass a large part of
the few years that remained to him in the south of
Europe and the West Indies. Though he died at
Buch an early age, his force of intellect and character
made a deep impression on all who knew him. and
contributed not a little to influence the course of
the Oxford Movement. Thomas Mozley, who was
intimately associated with the whole group of men,
says of these early days (Reminiscences , i., London,
1882. p. 225) that " if there could ever be any
question as to the master spirit of this movement
... it lies between John Henry Newman and
Richard Hurrell Froude." He wrote three of the
Tracts for the Times, and contributed to the Lyra
Aposiolica the charming verses signed p. Two
volumes of his Remains were published in 1837,
with a preface by Newman. See Tractarianism.
Bibliography: Consult, besides the Life prefixed to the
Remaina: J. H. Newman, Apologia, pp. 76. 77, 84-87, 96,
109-110, et passim. London, 1864; T. Mosley, Reminia-
eeneea, i. 224-228. 291-305. ib. 1882; J. B. Mosley's UU
ten, pp. 75. 102, ib. 1884; DNB, xx. 290-291.
FRUCTUOSUS OF BRAGA: Archbishop of
Braga and apostle to the Suevi and Lusitani; d.
about 665. He was of royal stock, but retired
to monastic life at an early age. After completing
his education at a school founded by the bishop
of Palencia, he sold his estates and devoted the
proceeds partly to the poor and partly to the
establishment of cloisters. By 647 he had founded
seven monasteries in Lusitania, Asturia, Galicia,
and the island of Gades, but, instead of as-
suming the direction he retired to solitude, where
his scholars from Complutum (not the well-known
town of that name, the modem Alcala, but
a place apparently in northwestern Leon, or,
according to others, in Asturia), sought him
out and induced him to take charge of their
monastery. Such was the growth of the cloister
that the king forbade any except women to join
it, fearing that the number of men available for
military service would be depleted, whereupon
Fructuosus built a nunnery for about eighty virgins
who chose him for their spiritual head. He is best
known, however, through the two rules which he
drew up for his monks. The first of these, based
in part on the Benedictine rule and designed for
the cloister of Complutum (whence it is known as
the Regula CompliUensis), is divided into twenty-
five sections and inculcates the most implicit and
detailed obedience on the part of the monks. In
the second rule (Regula communis) the problem
of double monastic life is considered, so that
husbands might live with their wives and children
in monastic purity. Here again absolute sub-
mission to the abbot was required, family ties were
completely dissolved, and the sexes were rigidly
separated, although a few aged monks of proved
morality were permitted to reside in nunneries at a
distance from the cells of the sisters, to exercise
supervision over them. No one was permitted to
enter a monastery, moreover, unless he first re-
noimced all his wealth in favor of the poor.
Despite the asceticism of Fructuosus, he was
obliged to enter upon high ecclesiastical office. He
was planning to make a pilgrimage to the East when
he was consecrated bishop of Dimiio in Galicia, and
in 656 the Synod of Toledo elevated him to the
arehbishopric of Braccara (Braga). Throughout
his life lie was unwearied in the erection of monas-
teries and churches, and after his death many
miracles were ascribed to his body, which was
buried at Santiago de Compostella. He is still
honored as the patron saint of many churches,
especially in Spain. (O. ZOcKLERf.)
Bibuoorapht: The Vita, by a contemporary, is in ASB,
Apr., ii. 431-436, and ASM, ii. 581-590. Consult C. F.
de T. Montalembert, Lea Moinea d'oceiderU, ii. 221-226,
6 vols., Paris, 1860-77. Enff. trans!., 7 vols., London,
1861-79; P. D. Gams, Kirchenoeachichte Spaniena, ii. 2,
pp. 152-158. 3 vols.. Regensburg. 1862-79; O. ZAckler,
Aakeae und Mdnehtum, pp. 378-381, Frankfort, 1897;
Helyot, Ordrta monaatiquea, v. 30-34.
FRUCTUOSUS OF TARRAGONA: Bishop of
Tarragona and martyr; d. about 259. Little is
known concerning his life, except the events con-
nected with his martyrdom, which is said to have
taken place in 259, during the reign of Valerian and
Gallienus. At the command of iEmilianus, the
presiding judge, Fructuosus, with his two deacons,
Augurius and Eulogius, was taken from prison to
the amphitheater, where all three were burned to
death. The festival of Fructuosus is celebrated by
the Roman Church on Jan. 21, St. Agnes' Day.
(O. ZOCKLERt.)
Bibuoorapht: Sources are: ASB, Jan., ii. 239-240; Pru-
dentiiv, Periatepkanon, hymn 6; E. Hflbner, Inacrip-
tionea Hiapanice ChriaHana, nos. 57-58, Berlin, 1871.
Consult: Tillemont, Mhnoirea, iv. 198, 645; P. D. Gams.
Kirchenotachichie Spaniena, i. 265 sqq., Regensburg, 1862;
DCB, ii. 571-572; KL, iv. 2066-2067.
FRUIT-TREES IN THE OLD TESTAMENT.
Tbe Cultivated Olive (§1). The Mulberry, Almond, and
The Wild Olive (fi 2). Pomegranate (fi 5).
The Fig (fi 3). The Apple (§ 6).
The Sycamore (fi 4). The Date-palm (fi 7).
Olive- and fig-trees and grape-vines were culti-
vated in Palestine by the Canaanites long before
the advent of the Israelites. In the old parable
of Jotham (Judges ix. 7-15) these appear as the
characteristic plants of the land. The olive-tree
belongs to the cultivated plants of the Mediterranean
region. Its habitat is south hither Asia, where it
was early improved and made to yield
I. The paying crops. It requires calcareous
Cultivated soil and a mean temperature of
OUve. 15° C. (60* F.), and must be protected
against strong winds and excessive
heat. In the earliest times the olive was cultivated
throughout Palestine (Deut. xxviii. 48); and olive-
oil has always been one of the chief products of
the country (Deut. viii. 8; Joel i. 10; Amos iv. 9,
etc.). The regions particulaiiy rich in olives were
Fruit-Trees
Fry
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
40<
the low plains of the coast, where the royal gardens
were located (I Chron. xxvii. 28), the region of the
bay of Akko (Deut. xxxiii. 24), and the shore of the
Sea of Galilee (Josephus, War, II., xxi. 2). The
export, especially to Egypt, was considerable (Hoeea,
xii. 1), likewise to Phenicia (Ezek. xxvii. 17; cf.
I Kings V. 11). Olive orchards are planted with
seedlings, which are then improved. The tree does
not bear for ten years, and only after thirty years
does it yield a full crop. On an average, there is a
full yield every second year, and with good care,
a half-crop in the intermediate years. The tree,
according to Pliny {Hist, not., XVI., xliv. 90, XVII.,
XXX.), may live 200 years; and very old olive-trees
may be seen in Palestine to-day. An old stump will
continue to send up new stems, as if its vitality
were indestructible. The oil is found not in the
kernel of the stone but in the juicy flesh of the
fruit, which ripens in September and October.
The fruit is gathered when purple, before it gets
black and overripe, as the oil has a much finer
flavor then. Olives were eaten everywhere, either
raw or pickled, after the bitter taste had been re-
moved by allowing them to lie in brine. The finest
oil was obtained by placing the bruised ripe olives
in a basket and allowing them to drip without being
pressed (Ex. xxix. 40, etc.). Such oil was used for
the golden candlesticks and in the preparation of
the holy anointing oil. Most of the olives were
trodden and mashed in stone presses, just as were
grapes (Mic. vi. 15; Joel ii. 24). Many such oil-
presses are still seen in Palestine.
The wild olive, or oleaster (Rom. xi. 17 sqq.),
which is also referred to in the Old Testament, but
by a different name (I Kings vi. 23, 31, 33; Neh.
viii. 15), must not be confused with the cultivated
olive. This had short, broad leaves and thorny
branches, and yielded an inferior
2. The quality of oil used only in the prepara-
Wild tion of ointment. The wood, on the
Olive. other hand, furnished good timber.
The olive-tree, perennially green and
always rejuvenating itself, was a favorite symbol of
prosperity (Ps. lii. 8, cxxviii. 3; Jer. xi. 16); and
the falling off of the leaves after a frost was typical
of the early destruction of the wicked (Job xv. 33).
In case the tree lost its branches, wild olive
branches were grafted on the cultivated stock (Rom.
xi. 17.) For the Orientals olives and olive-oil are
necessities, and the failure of the olive crop is a
national calamity (Amos. iv. 9; Hab. iii. 17; cf.
II Kings iv. 2 sqq.).
The home of the fig-tree is likewise in hither Asia,
and in ancient times it was planted throughout
Palestine (Num. xiii. 23; Deut. viii. 8, et€.). It
has a smooth trunk, gray bark, attains a height of
fifteen to eighteen feet, and its dense foliage affords
a splendid shade (I Kings iv. 25; II Kings xviii.
31; Micah iv. 4). It is noted for its vitality
and its ability to thrive on any soil;
3. The Fig. though in Palestine its fniit is not
particularly large. In the Old Testa-
ment three varieties of figs are distinguished:
(1) BikMrim, early figs that ripen in June; (2)
te*enim, late figs, which begin to ripen in August,
growing on branches that were forced in Januaiy;
(3) phaggim, late figs, which, still green in tiie
autunm, hang on the tree all winter and ripen m
the spring, when the sap rises. It was such winter
figs that Jesus expected to find on the leafy %.
tree as early as the Passover (Matt. xxi. 19). Figi
are very nutritious, and are eaten both fresh and
dried, in the latter case pressed into cakes (I Sao.
XXV. 18; II Kings xx. 7). In antiquity the heailDg
power of figs was generally known and priied
(Pliny, Hist, not., XXIII., Ixiii.; II Kings xx. 7).
The sycamore (Ftcua Sycomonis), mentioned
frequently in the Old Testament, is one of the com-
monest trees of ancient and modem Egypt, which
was considered its habitat, hence Pliny speaks of it as
Ftcua ^gyptia {Hist, nai., XIIL, rir;
4. The cf. Diodorus, i. 34; Ps. Ixxviii. 47).
Sycamore. It is common in Palestine and Sjnria
(II Chron. i. 15), e.g., at Gaza, Jaffa,
Ramleh and Beirut; and the present Haifa used to
be called " the CSty of Sycamores " (Strabo, xvi.758,
etc.). It grows best on low ground, and was found,
therefore, chiefly near the coast, in the vaUeyof the
Jordan, on the plains of lower Galilee, and in the
Shephelah (I Kings x. 27; I Chron. xxvii. 28;
Isa. ix. 10). It attains considerable size and height,
and its wide-spreading branches, covered withbean-
tiful green leaves, make a magnificent shade. The
fruit is yellow, resembling the fig in appearance
and odor, and has a sweetish, insipid taste (Strabo,
xvii. 823). It was eaten by poor people; but, to
be made edible, just before ripening the fruit had
to be pierced so that a part of the juice could escape
(Amos vii. 14; Theophrastus, Hist. plantarum,'vi.
2). The wood is very durable, particularly in
water, and serves chiefly for building purposes (ha.
ix. 10). In Eg3rpt it was used for mummy casea
The mulberry-tree is mentioned only in I Mace,
vi. 34, unless Luke xvii. 6 refers to it. The white
mulberry (Morus alba), now planted extensi^-dy
on Mount Lebanon for silk-worms,
5. The Mul- was introduced into Palestine compaia-
berry, Al- tively late. Before its advent, the
mond, black mulberry (Moms nigra) waa
and Pome- cultivated, from the fruit of which an
granate. intoxicating drink was, and is stiH
made. The almond-tree (AmygAfi^
communis) grows wild in Afghanistan, Kurdistan,
and Mesopotamia, but in hither Asia and Palestine
it has been cultivated from remotest times (Gen.
xliii. 11; Num. xvii. 8; Jer. i. 11; Eccles. xii. 5).
It puts out its leaves as early as the end of Januaiy,
before any of the other fruit-trees, and hence, per-
haps, the Hebrew name shakedhy " the waking one."
The pomegranate-tree (JPunica Granatum) is io-
digenous to liither Asia; it was common, both
wild and cultivated, in Egypt (Num. xx. 5), Arabia,
Syria, and Palestine (Num. xiii. 23; Deut. viii. 8;
I Sam. xiv. 2), and the frequent use of the name
Rimmon as a place-name shows the prevalence
of the tree in Canaan (Josh. xv. 32, xix. 13; Jud^
XX. 45). Pliny mentions eight varieties. In a«
and shape the pomegranate resembles an orange; it
has a bright red color shining out from a yeDow and
white background, and is juicy and refreshing-
From the juice a sort of fruit-wine is prepaid
(Cant. viii. 2; Pliny, His^. not., XIV., xix.)- Withite
-405
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Fmit-Trees
Fry
numerous cavities, each containing a kernel, it
became the symbol of fruitfulness in ancient relig-
ious imagery. Hence its use in the Hebrew cult
on the colunms of the temples (I Kings vii. 20 sqq.;
Jer. lii. 22-23) and on the robe of the priest (Ex.
xrviii. 33).
It is fairly probable that the Hebrew word tap-
puah refers to the apple (Prov. xxv. 11; Cant. ii. 3,
vii. 8, viii. 5; Joel 1. 12). Names o
6. The cities compounded with tappuah show
Apple, that the fruit was fre(]uently cultivated
in Palestine. The pleasant odor re-
oeives special mention (Cant. vii. 8). However,
it has often been denied that there were any apple-
trees in Palestine in olden times, and the word
has been interpreted as "quince" (cf. PSBA,
XII., i. 4, 2 sqq.), or as " citron " (cf. Dclitzsch, on
Prov. xxv. 6), or as " apricot " (cf. H. B. Tristram,
Fauna and Flora of Palestine, p. 294, London, 1884).
The date-tree (Phomix dactylifera) belongs to
subtropical vegetation. It requires sandy soil and
a mean annual temperature of 21° to 23<» C (70° F.).
It thrives on the scorching breath of the desert;
but at the same time its tiiirsty roots
7. The must have water. It grows slowly,
Date-palm, reaching its maximum height of about
fifty feet in about 100 years, and lives
to the age of about 200 years. Tlie fniit is eaten
fresh, or it is pressed into a cake and then dried,
as are apricots. In Jericho a kind of sirup was also
made of dates (Josephus, War, IV., viii. 3; Pliny,
HUt. not., XIII., ix.). Its cultivation in Palestine as
a fruit-tree was restricted to the plains by the Sea
of Galilee, the valley of the Jordan, and the region
of the Dead Sea, where it thrived, as these were the
localities offering the proper conditions. Jericho
bore the name, " City of Palm-trees " (Deut. xx.,
xiv. 3; II Chron. xxviii. 15). In other parts of the
country the tree was cultivated as an ornament,
and in the temple pictures of palm-trees were em-
ployed extensively as decoration (I Kings vi. 29
sqq.; Ezek. xl. 17 sqq., xli. 18 sqq.).
I. Benzinqer.
Bibugorapht: G. E. Poet, The Flora of Syria, Palestine,
and Sinai, obtainable of the PEF, is the best single work.
Consult: H. B. Tristram. Fauna and Flora of Palestine,
London. 1884; Maria Callcott. Scripture Herbal, ib. 1842;
H. S. Osbom. Plants of tKe Holy Land; inth their Fruits
and Flowers, Philadelphia, 1860; Auderlind. Fruchtbaume
in Syrien, in Zeitschrift des deutsehen Pal6stina Vereins,
xi (1888). 60 sqq.; V. Hehn. KuUurpflanMen und Haustiere^
Berlin. 1894.
FRUMENTIUS. See Abyssinia and the Abts-
8INIAN Church, § 2.
FRY, ELIZABETH: English philanthropist, be-
longing to the Society of Friends; b. at Eariham
(3 m. w. of Norwich), Norfolk, May 21, 1780; d.
at Ramsgate (on the coast, 67 m. e.s.e. of London)
Oct. 12, 1845. She was the third daughter of
John Gumey, a banker of Norwich, and at the age
of twenty was married to Joseph Fry, a wealthy
London merchant. At the death of her father, in
1809, she spoke for the first time in public, and was
soon recognized as a minister among the Friends.
Her attention being drawn in 1813, by a report of
Friends, to the wretched condition of criminals
in the jails, she visited the prison at Newgate, and
found nearly 300 women with their ctiildren crowded
together in two wards and two cells, all sleeping
on the bare floor. She at once instituted measures
for the amelioration of prison morals and life, daily
visiting the prison, reading to the prisoners the
Scriptures, and teaching them to sew. A committee
of women was organized in 1817 to carry on the
work on a larger scale. These labors effected a
great change in the condition of the criminals,
and many profligate characters went out of the
prison renewed.
In 1818, in company with her brother, J. J. Gur-
ney, Mrs. Fry visited the prisons of northern
England and Scotland, and in 1827 those of Ireland.
Slie also visited Kaiserswerth (see Deaconess, III.,
2, a; FuEDNER, Theodor), and was impressed
with the advantage of training lor nurses. Her
efforts led to the formation of societ ies for the help
of female criminals in various parts of Great
Britain; and the fame of her labors stimulated the
competition of women in foreign lands. In 1839,
1840, and 1841 she visited the Continent, extend-
ing her travels as far as Hungary, where many of
the criminals slept in stocks, and whipping was
universally practised, even to bastinadoing. Her
efforts secured remedial legislation, and the organi-
zation of prison-reform societies in Holland, Den-
mark, France, Prussia, and other Continental
countries. In the mean while her efforts secured
the organization of a society (1839) for the care
of criminals after their discharge from prison, and
for the visitation of the vessels that carried the con-
victs to the colonies. See Prison Reform.
Mrs. Fry did not confine her labors to prison
reform. She successfully prosecuted a plan to
supply coast vessels and seamen^s hospitals with
libraries. A governmental grant was supple-
mented by liberal private donations which en-
abled her and the society to distribute 52,464
volumes among 620 libraries (report for 1836).
She established a " nightly shelter for the homeless "
in London, and instituted a society in Brighton to
discourage begging and promote industry. In
1828 her husband became bankrupt, and thence-
forth she was imable to continue the liberal con-
tributions of money she had been in the habit of
making, but her zeal and personal exertions con-
tinued unabated. She was a woman of even
temper, great practical skill, tenderness of heart,
and deep knowledge of Scripture. Her maxim
was " Charity to the soul is the soul of charity."
Mrs. Fry published: Observations on Female
Prisoners (London, 1827); Report by Mrs, Fry
and J. J. Gumey on their Visit to Ireland (1827);
Texts for Every Day in the Year (1831; trans-
lated into French, German, and Italian); and wrote
a preface for John Venn's Sermon on the Gradual
Progress of Evil (1827). D. S. Schaff.
Biblioorapht: A list of books by and on Mrs. Fry i» in
J. Smith, Descriptive Cataloffue of Friends' Books, i. 811-
813. privately printed. 1867. Consult: R. E. C[rem-
well]. Memories, London, 1845 (Mm. Cresswell was a
daughter); Memoirs of the Life of Mrs. Fry, by two of her
Daughters, ib. 1847. Ijves have been written also by
Thomas Timpson. ib. 1847: Susanna Corder, ib. 1853;
I. M. Ashby. ib. 1892; £. R. Pitman, 1895. Conmilt also
DNB, XX. 294-296.
iaIdA
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOQ
4(K
FRY, JACOB: Lutheran; b. at Trappe, Pa.,
Feb. 9, 1834. He was graduated at Union College
in 1851 and the Lutheran Theological Seminary,
Gettjrsburg, Pa., in 1853. He was pastor of the
Lutheran Church at Carlisle, Pa., 1854-65, and of
Trinity Lutheran Church, Reading, Pa., 1865-96.
Since 1891 he has been professor of homiletics and
sacred oratory in the Lutheran Theological Sem-
inary, Philadelphia. He has written History of
Trinity Lutheran Church of Reading^ Pa, (Rea(Ung,
Pa., 1894) and Elementar Homiletics (Philadel-
phia, 1897).
FUERST, farst, JULIUS: German Jewish scholar
and Orientalist; b. at Zerkow (35 m. s.e. of Posen)
May 12, 1805; d. at Leipsic Feb. 9, 1873. He
studied in Berlin, Breslau, and Halle (Ph.D., 1832),
and became privat-docent in Leipsic. On the
twenty-fifth anniversary of his services in this
capacity he was appointed honorary professor by
the Saxon government (1864). He was editor
of Der Orient, which he founded in 1840, and of the
SabbathbUat, and translated Daniel and Ezra for
L. Zunz's German Bible (Berlin, 1838) and wrote
Lehrgebdude tier aramdiachen Idiome, oder Formen-
lehre der chalddiachen Grammatik (Leipsic, 1835);
J^aruze Peninim, PerlenechnHre aram&ischer Gnomen
und Lieder, oder aramdiache Chreatomathie (1836);
0^ Leahon ha-l^odeaK Concordantia lAbrorum
Veteria Teatamenti aacrorum (in collaboration with
Franz Delitzsch; 1837-40); Pirke Aboth, Die
SprHche der Voter (1839); Hebrdiachea und chaldd-
iachea Schulwdrterbtxh tiber daa AUe TeatamerU
(1842); Urkunden zur Oeachichteder Juden, t. (1844);
CtUtur- und Ldtteraturgeachichte der Juden in Aaien, i,
(1849); Hebrdiachea und chalddiachea Handwdrter-
buck aberdaa AUe Teatament (2 vols., 1857-61; Eng.
transl. by S. Davidson, London, 1865); Oeachichte
dea KoTdertuma (3 vols., Leipsic, 1862-69); BibHo-
theca Judaica (3 vols., 1863); Geachichte der bib-
liachen LdUeratur und dea jOdiach-helleniatiachen
SchrifUuma (2 vols., 1867-70); Der Kanon dee Alien
Teatamenta nach den Ueberlieferungen in Talmud und
Midraach (1868); and llluatrierU Prachtbibel (1874),
together with a translation of the Emunoth we-De^oth
of Saadia Fayyumi (1845).
Biblioorapht: XL, iv. 2081-82.
FULBERT, fttl"bar', OF CHARTRES: An early
French prelate and scholar; b. between 952 and
962; d. at Chartres Apr. 10, 1028. His birthplace
is variously given as Aquitaine, the diocese of Lau-
dun, and the town of Chartres. After studying
under Gerbert (later, Pope Sylvester 11.) at Reims,
he opened a school at Chartres where, in addition
to the ordinary studies of the Trivium and Quad-
rivium, he lectured on medicine and theology.
In 1006 he was made bishop of Chartres, in which
character he became of importance in the political
and theological controversies of the time. He
was notable especially for his vindication of the
rights of the Church against the encroachments
of the turbulent nobility. His writings include
letters of the highest interest for the ecclesiastical
and political history of France, sermons, poems,
und devotional forms. Some of his letters touch on
dogmatic questions, and declare with considerable
distinctness for the doctrine of transubstantia.
tion. His significance lies in the services he ret),
dered to the cause of the new thought which q
his time was struggling into being. He continued
the tradition of Gerbert, and, without evincing vaj
marked creative ability, was eminently succeflrfol
in handing down that tradition to distinguuhed
pupils, among whom were Hugo of Langres, Add-
mann and Berengar ot Tours. Hi^ school tt
Chartres was, after Reims. " a second fertile
nursery of learning, and not for France aiooe."
He laid greater emphasis on the positive elemeot
in Gerbert's doctrine than on his dialectic and
critical system, enjoining close adherence to the
authority of the Fathers of the Church.
(F. NrrzscHt.)
BiBUoaRAPHT: The BpUtola are acoeflsible in A. Ducbooe,
HUttoria Franeorum acriplorea, iv. 172-198, 5 toU.. Pirii,
1639-49; in Bouquet. Recueil, x. 443-482, and in MPL,
oxli., which contains the rest of his woiiu. Goiralt:
C. Pfister. De FuJberU . . . vita el operibu*. Nantes, ISSS:
OaUia Chrialiana, viii. 1744; Hiatoirt liUermn ie k
France, vii. 261-282, Paris. 1746; Cartidairr de S. Phn
de Chartree, ed. J. M. Qu^rard. ib. 1840; H. Reuter. Q*-
•ehuhJbe der religibeen AufkUkrung, i. 89-92. Berlin, 1875;
K. Werner, Oerbert von AurUlac, pp. 273-286, Vienni,
1878; Wattenbach, DOQ, iii (1886), 130, 149: ii (1894).
165; Neander, ChrieHan Church, iii passim (contiioi
selectionB from his writings); KL, iv. 2092-93.
FULCHER, ftll"sh6', (FOUCHER) OF CHARTMS
(Fidcheriua Camotenaia) . A monk, b. at Chartres e.
1059; d. after 1127. He took part in the firstcru-
sade and became chaplain to Baldwin I., the second
king of Jerusalem; according to some accounts
he was afterward bishop of Tjrre and patriarch
of Jerusalem. Under the title Gesta Frmieonm
Hieruaalem "peTegrinantium, he wrote a valuable
history of the Crusades from 1095 to 1127 (in AfPI,
civ. 823-940, and, with title Hiatoria Himv^
mitanaf in RecueU dea hiatoriena dea croifoda,
Hiat. Occid., iii., Paris, 1866, 311-485, cf. preface,
xxvii-xxxvi.; French transl. in Guizot, Coflerfwn.
xxiv. 1-275, cf. preface, i.-v.; Eng. transl. in Pur-
clias' Pilgrima). (A. HAua.)
Biblioorapht: H. von Sybel, Oeschidite de* erUn Krt^
xugea, pp. 46-53, Leipsic. 1881; T. A. Archer and C. L
Kingsford, The Cruaadee, pp. 49-50. 55. 98-99. 135. 13»-
140, 142. 170, 440; J. M. Ludlow. The Age of the Cnr
aadee, pp. 110-116, New York, 1896.
FULCO (FOULQUES) OF NEUILLY: French
ecclesiastic, preacher of the fourth crusade; h.^
the second half of the twelfth century; d. at Neuilly
(2 m. w. of Paris), Mar., 1202. While still a young
man he was placed in charge of the parish (rf
Neuilly. His youth had been devoted to the pur-
suit of pleasure, rather than to the preparation foi"
his calling, and he was now reproached by his
parishioners for his ignorance and inexperience. I^
1192 he reformed, gave up worldly pleasures, an^
set his people an example of the most rigorous ascet-
icism and devotion to duty. He resumed his stud-
ies and walked to Paris every week-day to leam O"
Peter, the famous cantor of Notre Dame. Soon
he had won the respect of his parishioners and m&ue
himself known far and wide as a fearless preacher.
He even warned Richard the Lion-Hearted to
banish from his household the vices of arrogance,
cupidity, and luxury. In 1198 he was cliar!"i
407
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
JrSi
Ida
by Innocent III. with the preaching of the fourth
crusade in France. He now went from place to
place, accompanied by a few Cistercians and Pre-
monstranU, preaching to enormous crowds. Many
of his hearers were attracted by his reputation as a
healer and performer of miracles, and his success
was great. At the chapter-general of the Cistei^
cian order in 1201 he reported that under his
preaching 200,000 people had taken up the cross.
In the midst of this work he retired to Neuilly for a
short rest, and was there stricken with fever. At
his request he was buried in the parish church at
Neuilly. After having been cared for and decorated
for centuries his grave was desecrated and destroyed
during the French Revolution.
(F.W.DlBELIUS.)
BiBXJoaRAPHY: Jacobus de Vitriaoo, Hist. orienialUt ed.
F. MoechuB, pp. 275 t<qq.. Douai, 1597; Geoffroy de Ville-
hardouin. La Conqutte de CorutatUinaple, ed. N. de Wailly,
pp. 1 aqq., Paris. 1872; Otto of San Bla», Chronicon,
xlvii., in MGH, Script, xx (1868). 304 sqq. Conault:
Gibbon, Decline and Fall. chap. 1x.; J. I. Mombert. Stiort
HiBL of the Crusadei, p. 184. New York, 1894; T. A.
Archer and C. L. Kingsford. Tha Cruaadet, pp. 180. 370-
371. ib. 1895.
FULDA, ABBEY OF: A famous German abbey,
founded in 744 by Sturm, a disciple of Boniface,
in the district of Grabfeld on the banks of the River
Fulda, on land given by Duke Carloman. The
modem town, which grew up about the abbey,
is in the territory of Hesse-Nassau, 54 m. s.e. of
Cassd. Three years after the foundation the
church and other buildings were complete, and
a large tract of land was under cultivation. Be-
fore the constitution was drawn up, the brothers
visited older monasteries, Sturm himself traveling
through Italy and studying especially the life at
Monte Cassino (q.v.). On his return he established
his monks under the rule of St. Benedict. Boni-
face bore a special love to the foundation, and for its
greater security obtained from Pope Zacharias a
bull placing it under the immediate jurisdiction of
Rome. Pepin confirmed the exemption in 753 and
promised the special protection of the monarchy
as well. Boniface continued his relations with
Fulda, and directed that his body should be buried
there; it rests in a stone sarcophagus at the present
main entrance to the church. Sturm died in 779.
The number of the monks and the extent of their
possessions steadily increased, and their wealth
was admirably employed. The abbey was one of the
earhest centers of German ecclesiastical art ; numer-
ous churches were built in the surrounding country
and enriched with paintings, mosaics, and beautiful
vessels and manuscripts. Learning was not less
encouraged. The school which was founded, prob-
ably almost as soon as the abbey, was the earliest
home of theological learning in Germany. It
flourished es|)ecially under the rule of Rabanus
Bfaurus (q.v.), himself educated at Fulda and
abbot from 822 to 842. The education imparted,
to boys looking forward to a secular career as well
as to future ecclesiastics, included the " liberal arts,"
granmiar, rhetoric, dialectic, arithmetic, geometry,
physics, astronomy, theology, and the German
tongue. Among those who profited by it were
Walafried Strabo (q.v.), afterward abbot of Reiche-
nau, Servatus Lupus, Otfried, author of the Krist,
and Bernard the grandson of Chariemagne, after-
ward king of I taly . Charlemagne laid the foundation
of a library very considerable for that age, and
Rabanus largely increased it. A decline began
after his time; later abbots still had a care for
learning, but no more great scholars or important
works are found issuing thence. The most impor-
tant author of these later days was Williram (q.v.).
After the restoration of the abbey church by Hada-
mar (installed 948), artistic activity seems also to
have fallen off. Meantime discipline was decaying;
the reform of 1013 made no lasting improvement.
The vigorous rule of Abbot Markward (1150-65)
effected a cliange for the better; but later abbots
were largely interested in protecting the property
of the community from spoliation by the nobility.
In 1513 the neighboring abbey of Hersfeld, where
Sturm had made his first settlement, was imited
with Fulda. The Reformation had no little in-
fluence within the jurisdiction of the abbey, and in
1542 a reforming ordinance was wrung from Abbot
Philip Schenk which contained some distinctively
Protestant elements and permitted the further
extension of Evangehcal teaching. The Counter-
reformation was begun in 1573 by Abbot Bal-
thazar, and during the Thirty Years' War the Prot-
estants in the territory came near getting the upper
hand several times. The treaty concluded in
1631 between William V. of Hesse and Gustavus
Adolphus gave the territory of Fulda to the former
as a vassal of Sweden, and he did his best to forward
the Protestant cause there; but after the defeat
at Ndrdlingen he was forced to resign his claims to
Fulda, and Roman Catholic abbots once more took
possession. The settlement of 1803 gave the terri-
tory as a secular principality to the Prince of Orange.
In 1809 it was incorporated by Napoleon with the
grand duchy of Frankfort, occupied by Prussia in
1815 and assigned to the electorate of Hesse-Cassel,
with which it became part of Prussia in 1866.
(A. Hauck.)
Fulda has a somewhat peculiar history as an
episcopal see. In a sense it was a diocese as early
as 751, when quasiepiscopal jurisdiction over his
territory was granted to the abbot by Pope Zacha-
rias and confirmed by Pepin. The claim was often
contested and stoutly upheld during the next thou-
sand years, until Benedict XIV. placed it beyond
doubt by formally raising the abbot to the dignity
of a prince-bishop in 1752. After the Revolution,
the bishopric was restored in 1827, as a suffragan
see of the province of the Upper Rhine, though
with sHghtly altered boundaries in consequence of
the pohtical changes; and other changes were
made by Pius IX. in 1857 and 1871, giving the
diocese a Roman Catholic population of about
150,000.
BiBLioaRAPHT: Sources are: C. Brower, AnHquUaium Ful-
deneium libri quattuor, Antwerp, 1612; Codex diplomaticus
FtUden9is, ed. E. F. J. Dronke, Caaael, 1850; TradiHonea
et anUquitaiee Fuldensee, ed. E. F. J. Dronke, ib. 1844;
Eigil, Vita Sturmi, ed. G. H. Perti in MGH, Script., ii
(1829), 366-367; Bruno Candiduii, Vita EigUie, ib. xv
(1887). 221; lists of the abbots are given, ib. xiii(1881).
272 sqq., 340 sqq., and pp. 161-218 contain the AnnaUn^
necrologici FtUdenaet, 779-1066; Theotroohus. Epiet. de
ritu FuldenH miMCi ceUbrandsB^ in NA, iv. 409. Consult:
Fulffentiiis Ferrandns
FaUer
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
406
J. Gdasmann, BeUrOge tur Oeachichte dea FUratenthuma
FtUda, Fulda. 1857; K. Arnd. Geachichte dea HochaHfU
Fu&2a, Frankfort. 1862; J. Gegenbaur. DaaKloater Fulda im
KarolinQer ZeUaUer, 2 parts, Fulda, 1871*73; A.Hartmann,
Zeitgeachickte von Fulda, ib. 1895; E. Heydenreich, Daa
Mteate FtUdaer Cartular im Staataarchive zu Marburg^
Leipsic, 1899; Die eraten Anfdnge der Bau- und Kunat-
thntigkeU daa Kloatera Fulda, Fulda, 1900; G. Riohter.
Quellen und Ahhandlunoen zur Oeachichte der Ahtei Fulda,
Fulda, 1904; KL, iv. 2100-13; Rettberg, KD, vol. i.;
Hauck, KD, i. 564 sqq.; and the literature under Bal-
thazar OF Dernbach.
FULGENTIUS FERRAITOUS: Deacon at Car-
thage; d. there before 547. He suffered ban-
ishment from Africa under the Vandal King
Thrasamund and accompanied his friend and
teacher, Fulgentius of Ruspe (q.v.), into exile to
Sardinia, but returned to Africa in 523 and became
deacon at Carthage. Nothing is known of his later
life. Apart from an anonymously transmitted bi-
ography of Fulgentius of Ruspe (AfPL, Ixv. 117-
150), he left behind him several letters and circulars
on dogmatic and ethical questions {MPL, Ixvii. 887-
948). Best known, and of greatest interest as
regards church history, is the circular addressed
in 546 to the Roman deacons Pelagius and Anato-
lius on the occasion of the Three Chapter Contro-
versy (q.v.). The title is, Pro epistula Ibce episcopi
Edesaeni adeoque de tribua capUulis concilii Chalce-
donenaia adveraus acephaloa. Fulgentius expresses
himself very positively against the contemplated
condemnation of the Three Chapters; and he
succeeded in confirming the African bishops in t!ieir
opposition. There may still be mentioned, as of
moment for the history of canon law, his Breviatio ca-
nonum (MPL, Ixvii. 949-962), a compilation of the
church regulations at that time operative in North
Africa. G. KrOger.
Bibliography: The Letters of Fulgentius are collected in
A. Mai, Scriptorum veterum nova coUectio, iii. 2, pp. 169-
184. 10 vols., Rome, 1825-38; A. Reifferscheid, Anecdota
Caainanaia, pp. 5-7, Wratislaw, 1871-72; O. Bardenhewer,
Patrologie, p. 544, Freiburg, 1901; DCB, ii. 583-584.
FULGENTIUS OF RUSPE: Bishop of Ruspe in
the province of Byzacena, North Africa; b. at
Telepte, North Africa, 468; d. at Ruspe Jan. 1, 533.
He was bom of a senatorial family, and on account
of his good education and practical ability obtained
at an early age the office of fiscal procurator, but,
under the influence of Augustine's writings, he
soon entered a cloister and subjected himself to the
strictest asceticism. The persecutions of catholics
imder the Vandal King Thrasamund drove him
from his home to Sicily and Rome about 500. On
his return he became abbot of a small island cloister
on the African coast, and in 508 (or 507) bishop of
Ruspe. Scarcely had he entered upon his office
when with other catholics he was banished from
North Africa. With many of his fellow exiles, in-
cluding his biographer, Fulgentius Ferrandus
(q.v.), he settled at Cagliari, Sardinia, where he
developed great practical and literary activity
and became the recognized leader of the exiles in
their efforts to effect their return to Africa. In
515 Thrasamund summoned him to a disputation
that he had arranged between catholics and Arians,
but Fulgentius, j>ersisting in his conviction, had to
return into exile. He was likewise drawn into the
disputes of the Eastern Church by request of the bO-
called Scythian monks (see SEia-PELAGiAiosif
Theopaschiteb). On the death of Thrasamuiid in
523 he returned to Ruspe and resumed the aomin.
istration of his diocese, which he resigned a ynt
before his death.
Fulgentius was one of the most influential cham-
pions of orthodoxy against Arianism and Semi-Bela-
gianism, to which he opposed the Augustinian
doctrine, though avoiding, as far as possible, ita
subtleties and austerities. Of his numerous writi])^
the most important are: C<m^ra Arianoa; Ad Tknn-
mundum regem Vandalorum libri iii; De remimnw
peccatorum ad EiUhymium libri ii; Ad Monimm
libri iii; Deveritate prcedeatinationia etgraluBdeiai
Johannem et Venerium libri iii; De fide m di
regula vercs fidei ad Petrum^ his best-known and
most valuable writing; and Liber de incamatim d
gratia domini noatri Jeau Chriati, addressed to the
Scythian monks, and abo designated as Epist. (xm.)
ad Petrum diaconum. The best edition of the works
of Fulgentius is that of L. Mangeant (Paris, 1684;
reprinted in A/PL, Ixv. 105-1018). G. KrCgee.
Biblioorapht: O. Bardenhewer, Patrologie, pp. 544 kn..
Freiburg, 1901; F. Wdrter, Zur Dogmengeadtidtk dm
Semipdagianiamua, MQnster. 1900; Hamaek, Dogma,^'
255 sqq.. 203; DCB, ii. 57&-583 (rather detailed); ABB,
Jan.. i. 32-45.
FULKE, WILLIAM: English Puritan; b. in
London 1538; d. Aug. 28, 1589. He was educated
at St. Paul's School, London, and at St. John's
Ck)llege, Cambridge (B.A., 1558; M.A., 1563; B.D.,
1568; D.D., 1572). After studying law for ox
years at Clifford's Inn he returned to Cambridge to
study theology. He was appointed fellow in 156i,
principal lecturer of his college in 1565, and preacher
and Hebrew lecturer in 1567. On his return to
Cambridge he allied himself with Thomas Gut-
wright (q.v.), became a zealous champion of Puri-
tanism and an opponent of Roman (Catholicism.
He took a prominent part in the vestiarian con-
troversy, inducing about 300 students, at one time,
to discard the surplice in the chapel of St. John's.
This led to his expulsion, but he was soon restored
to his fellowship. On being narrowly defeated for
the headship of his college in 1569 he retired from
the university and shortly afterward secured the
livings of Warley in Essex, and Dennington in
Suffolk. In 1572 he accompanied Lord Lincoln
to France and was one of the friends who persuaded
Cartwright to return to England. In 1578 he ob-
tained the mastership of Pembroke Hall, Cambridge,
which he held till his death. He was also vice-
chancellor of the university in 1581. The safl*
year he was deputed to hold a public disputation
with Edmund Campion (q.v.) in the Tower of I/*'
don, and in 1582 he was one of twenty-five thedo*
gians appointed to hold disputations with RcHoan
Catholic priests and Jesuits. He was one of tbft
ablest controversialists of his time. Of his nume^
ous polemic writings, directed largely against the
leaders of the Cbunterreformation in England,
the most important are: T. Stapleton and MartiaJi
(Two Popiah Heretica) Confuted (London. 1580; ed.
R. Gibbings for the Parker Society, Cambridge,
1848); A Defenae of the Sincere and True Trana-
lationa of the Holy Scripturea into the English Tongue^
409
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Fuller
itiiis Ferrandiia
against . . . Gregory Martin (1583; ed. C. N. Harts-
horne, for the Parker Society, Cambridge, 1843);
and The Text of the New Testament . . . Trans-
lated out of the Vvlgar Latin by the Papists . , , at
Kheims (1589).
Bibliooraphy: John Strype, AnndU of the Reformation, 4
voU.. Ix>ndon. 1709-31; T. Fuller, Church Hiat of Britr-
otn, V. 79. ib. 1845; C. H. and T. Cooper. Athence Canta-
briffieruea, ii. 57-61, ib. 1861; DNB, xx. 305-308.
FULLER, ANDREW: English Baptist preacher
and author; b. at Wicken (12 m. n.e. of Cambridge),
Cambridgeshire, Feb. 6, 1754; d. at Kettering (13
m. n.n.e. of Northampton), Northamptonshire.
May 2, 1815. He was of humble niral parentage.
About Nov., 1769, ho exj>erienced conversion and
in Apr., 1770, he was baptized into the fellowship of
a hyper-Calvinistic Baptist church, of antinomian
tendencies, at Soham. The pastor of the church
was shortly afterward compelled to resign for
teaching that men have the power to follow or
resist God's will, the majority denying absolutely
any freedom on man's part and regarding as im-
pertinent and heretical any human eflFort for the
salvation of sinners. Fuller, who had received only
a moderate education, became greatly interested in
the theological questions that were being discussed,
and from 1771 onward read whatever pertinent
literature was accessible. He early became famil-
iar with the hyper-Calvinistic works of John Gill
and John Brine (Baptists) and was profoundly
influenced by the writings of John Owen, the Puri-
tan, and of Jonathan Edwards, the American
divine. In 1772 he was invited to preach in
the Soham church and in 1774 became its pas-
tor, sound Evangelical sentiments having by this
time gained ground in the community. The in-
fluence of the Evangelical revival in England and
America (led by the Wesleys, Whitefield, Jonathan
Ekiwards, and others) soon gained the mastery
over Fuller, and he became the protagonist of the
Evangelical and missionary movement among
British Baptists. Such was his industry and
strength of mind that, without academic train-
ing, he became a master in theological thinking
and writing and acquired a working knowledge of
the Greek and Hebrew languages. His tract en-
titled The Gospel Worthy of All Acceptation (North-
ampton, 1784) was widely circulated among
dissenters and Evangelical churchmen and pro-
duced a profound impression. His moderate, sane.
Evangelical C^vinism was embodied in effective
form in The Calvinistic and Socinian Systems Ex-
amined and Compared as to Their Moral Tendency ^
London, 1794. His writings on Sandemanianism
were occasioned by his coming in contact with this
type of religious thought during his Scottish tours
on belialf of foreign missions. He was one of the
founders of the Baptist Foreign Missionary Society
formed for the support of Carey and his coadjutors
in India, and by far the most influential home pro-
moter of its objects. His activity in visiting the
churches throughout Great Britain in this cause
diffused widely his interest in missions and his sane
Evangelical and Baptist views. His influence on
American Baptists has been incalculable.
Albert H. Newman.
Bibliooraphy: The Works have appeared in many editionn
—London. 1838, 1840, 1853; ed. by his son, A. G. Fuller,
with a memoir, for Bohn'a Standard Library, 1852; ed. J.
Belcher. 3 vols., Philadelphia. 1833. For his life con-
sult: J. Ryland, Life and Death of Rev. Andrew Fuller,
London, 1816; J. W. Morris, Memoir of the Life and Wri-
tings of Rev. Andrew Fuller, ib. 1816; T. E. Fuller. Memoir
of Andrew Fuller, ib. 1863; DNB, xx. 309-310.
FULLER, RICHARD: American Baptist
preacher; b. at Beaufort, S. C., Apr. 22, 1804; d.
in Baltimore Oct. 20, 1876. He was the son of
a prosperous South Garoilna cotton-planter, and
was brought up as an Episcopalian. In 1820 he*
entered Harvard, where he took high rank as
scholar and debater. Though he was obliged on
account of ill health to abandon his studies before
the completion of his course, he received his degree
in 1824. Returning to South Carolina he studied
law, was admitted to the bar, and by 1831 had
gained a high reputation in his chosen profession.
In Oct., 1831, he was converted under the ministry
of Daniel Baker, a Baptist evangelist, and soon
after began to preach with remarkable eloquence.
As pastor in Beaufort, his home town, he was emi-
nently successful and soon gained a national repu-
tation as preacher and denominational leader. He
was one of the most eminent of the Southern repre-
sentatives in the Triennial Convention at the time of
the rupture of the Northern and Southern Baptists
on the slavery question, and with Francis Wayland
as his chief opponent ably defended, in a literary
way, the Southern view of slavery. As pastor
of the Eutaw Place Church, Baltimore (1846-76),
he came to be recognized as the foremost pulpit
orator of the American Baptists, and as a denomina-
tional leader he was prominent in the great denom-
inational gatherings. In figure and feature he
was impressive and attractive.
His Sermons, in three volumes, were published
posthumously (Baltimore, 1877).
Albert H. Newman.
Bibliography: J. H. Cuthbert, Life of Richard FtUler, New
York, 1878.
FULLER, THOMAS: English theologian and
church historian; b. at Aldwincle (3 m. n.e. of
Thrapston), Northamptonshire, June, 1608; d. in
London Aug. 16, 1661. He was educated at
Queen's College, Cambridge (B.A., 1625; M.A.,
1628), afterward entering Sidney Sussex College as
a fellow commoner. In 1630 he was ordained and
appointed to the living of St. Benet's, Cambridge.
The next year he published his first book, in the
fantastic poetical style of the period, David's
Hainous Sinne, Heartie Repentance^ Heavie Pun-
ishment, and obtained the prebend of Netherbury
in Salisbury Cathedral. From 1634 to 1641 he
held the rectory of Broadwindsor in Dorsetshire,
but did not wholly break off his connection with
Cambridge. His first important book, the His-
tory of the Holy Warre, i.e., the Crusades, appeared
in 1639. A year later he was elected proctor in
convocation, and presently removed to London,
where his wit in the pulpit was widely celebrated;
ultimately he became lecturer at the Savoy Chapel.
In 1642 he published his most characteristic work,
The Holy State and the Profane State. His loyalty
caused him to be driven out of London and to take
Puller
Fundamental I>ootrlnes
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
410
refuge at Ojcfonl. He was chaplain for a time to
Princesa Henrietta, and then plMred himself under
the protection of Lord Montagy of Boughton, liv-
ing quietly and supporting himself by his pen.
During thcijc years he brought out his picturesque
geography of Palestine, called A Pisgah^Sight
(1650)* and his moat celebrated work, the huge
Church History of BrUain (1656), which, like all
his bookB, abounds in quaint humor and epigram-
matic sayings. Us accuracy was impugned by
Heylyn, and Fuller retorted in a lively Appeal of
injured Innocents (1659), his last publication of
importance. At the Restoration he recovered his
eeeleMiastieal offices, and was looking forrv'ard to a
bishopric when he was attacked by typhoid fever
and died. His famoua History of th& Worthies
of England appeared posthumously (1662). FuUcr
was never held preeminent as a divine, and as a
historian ha wsb too rapid and careless to inspine
conSdenee, but he holda an important place among
the prose-writers of the fleventeenth century, and
his quaint humor has given him an undying popu-
larity. Besideij tiie works already rtamed, his Good
Th&ughiA in Bad Tinm (1645) and Thmghin in Worm
Times (1647), and Mi^t Coni^mpUdions in Bttier
Times ( 1 660 ) may be mentioned * He aUo cont ribii-
ted Uvea to Abel Redlmms, a collection of biogra-
phies of ** modern© divines *' (London, 1651).
BiiauoQHAPTir : A vpry full lll^t of FuJlef^a works ih given at
the end of the skelch in DNB, xx. 316-320. The Church
Hiatary, Hisiory of Umvernty o- Cambrido^* vmd MUioru
of Widikam At^ii WQr<i edited by J&tnei NicitoLi, Lon-
don, 1838. and for the Oxford Univen^jty FreM by J. S.
Brewer. 1845. The ^rorftfeieii &f England wan r«prJDted
Londoci, 1840. The oHKinal authority on tlie liife is the
anonymciiu biocruphy printed io Brewer's cd. of the
Chittch Mittoru. The heiit Ufe is by J, E, Bail«y, Lif^ of
Thonuu FuUer, uH4h Noti€ft of hit Book*. hU Kintmen and
hiM Frienda, London, 1874. Cotuiult nlno M, Fallpr,
Th&moM FuUer. hit Life, Timet and WriHnot. 2 vola., ib.
IS86.
FULLOinUS, GIFLIELMUS {Guli€lm'us Gna-
pheuH, Wlilem tan de VoldvrHgraft, WiUetnde Volfier) :
Prot4?stant theologian; b. at The Hague, Holland^
149^; d. at Norden (75 iti. n.w. of Bremen), Han-
over, lo6S. He received a humanistic education
and became at an early age teacher in his native eity,
but Jiad to flee aft<ir various ji^jrKocutioaH on account
of his faith. From 1535 to 1^>I1 he was rector of the
gymnasium in Elbing, tlien went to Konij^sberg
as counselor of Duke Ailx^rt and wad active there
from 1544 to 1547 as rector of the academy* Ex-
pelled also from there he went to East Frisia, where
he died. On his therjlfjgieal eonflicti^i see BmESs-
MANN, Jomann; Stapbylus, FniOEIl[Ci:S*
(A. OaockO
BiDLionHAFRT: Studien en Biidragt^Ti op't fff4ii«i d^ hittoti^
ai-A* TheiftiHjie v^^am^M door . . . J, C?. d« /lottpSrheffer,
Amittcrdani. 18(18: l\ Tachackprt* UA'undrnbuch *itf
Rrformationaawchichte ti fJt H^s^thumM PrrUM»en, i. 254
FULTON, JOmi; Protestant Eiuscopalian; b.
in Glasgow, Bcotland. Apr. 2, 1H34; d, in Phila^
delphitt Apr. 24, lffl)7. He studied in Alierdeen,
and at the age of sixteen left Scotland for the
United States. In 1857 he was ortiained priest in
New Orleans and after serving as rector and journal-
ist wai% appointed in 1892 professor of canon law in
the Divinity School of the Protestant Episcopal
Church in Ptuladelphia. He wrote Leiiera tm Clru-
tian Uniiy (New York, 1868); Index Cantnm
(1S72); Law$ of Marrmgc (1883); The BectO^
Lond: Pahstine, HiHlffrieai, Ge^fgraphiccd. md
PicUmal (1891); The Chakedonian B^^m: *r,
Historical ChryftmnUy Misrepresenled by Modem
The^itogy, Confirrmd by Modem Seiertce^ and Ui^
touched by Modem Critici&Tn (Slocum lecturat; 1S92);
and M&n&%r» of Frederic A. P. Barnard (1*S8B).
He also edited Ten Epochs of Church Hidv^
(New York, 1897-99).
FUHCK, JOHAKH; Lutheran di\ine; b, it
W5hnl (a suburb of Nuremberg)^ Germany, Feb.
7, 1518; beheaded at Kdnigsberg Oct. 28» 1586.
Aftar obtaining the mjaster's degree at Wittenberg
and after pr^iching in several places, be wa^ nxnm^
mended to Duke Albert of Prussia by Vdt Die-
trich, and accordingly went to Kdoigsberf in ]Hl
where the duke was so plej^sed with the yoangckr0-
man tl^at he made him his court preacher (134^),
On the outbreak of the Osiandrian coatroirmjr,
Funck sided with Osiaoder and hij eoa-in^ai
Andreas Aurifaber (q-v.)r physician in ordiMrr to
the duke; when Oariaiider died (Oct. 17. 1552).
Funck delivered the eulogy. Joachim Mfirlio
(q.v,), hie principal opponent, was obliged tulmt
Prussia in 1&53. and Funck w^aa then conside?^ thi
dominant theologicjil representative of Ofii&iidef^^
teaching, Duke John Albert of Meckleabur?, tte
Luthei^n son-in-law of Duke Albert of Prus^kof
tried to influence his father-in-law a^iast hii
prot^, and Funck was obhged to retmct certain
'' heresies " at a synod held at Riesenburg in 15afi
and to promise to abide by the Augsburg Confe-
Kion and the Loci of Mebnchthon. The duke stiB
showed liira great favor, however, but *ftcr bii
marriage to Omander's daughter, the widow of
Aurifaber, who died Dec. 12^ 1559, tie tiiath of
Ofsiander*« opponents now turned upoa Funct,
who was both the coafe^ssor and counselor of the
duke and treasurer of the duehess. The disstDsion
"WHM increased by alien adventurers hke Paul SkaUch,
who took ailvantage of the senile duke. ^^
councilors belonging to the highest nobility wre
pushed aside. The estates, feeling that tbeir rightt
were infringed, appealed to the suierain of th
country. King Sigismund IL of Poland, who sent
a commission in Aug., 1566, to Konipberg lo is-
vestigate the matter, Fuuck, together mth tie
councilors Horst, Schell, and Steinbarh. wa«
charged with opposition to the ecclesiaatieal ^
pohtical governance of the state, and the Pcii^
commission directed that the case be tried b>^ tbfi
court in the Kneiphof, Kdmgsbei^, thm putii:i|
the accused at the mercy of their enemies. White
it was true that Funck 's position rendered Wm
partly liable for the measures of the duke, Albert
gat^e the final decision and was, therefore, persoaaHj
responsible. Little value can be attached to tk
confession extorted frora the prisoner by threats d
torture, and there is, therefore, no tangtble e\idencfe
of guilt. Neverthclcan, Funck, Horst, and Schaell
were iTOndemned and executed in the Kneiphd
market-place at Kanigsberg: Steinbaeh had to
lcav« the country: and Paid Skalich» the real cau^
of the mischief, had the good fortune to escape.
411
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Fuller
Fundamental Bootrlnes
The works of Funck are as follows: Chronologia ab
wrbe candita (2 vols., Konigsbcrg, 1545-52); exposi-
tions of Psalms xlvi. (1548), ciii. (1549), and i\.
(1551); Auszug und kurzer Bericht von der Ge-
reehtigkeit der Christen fur GoU (1552); Wahrhaftiger
und grundlicher Beriehi wie und was Gestall die
drgerliche Spaltung von der Gerechtigkeit dee Glauhens
sick anfdnglich im Lande Preussen erhoben (1553);
Der PcUriarchen Lehre und Glauben (1554); Vier
Predigien von der Rechlfertigung dea Sunders durch
den Glauben fur GoU. Item: Kurtze Bekenntnia
(1563). Paul Tschackert.
Bxbuoorapht: K. A. Hase, Hertog Albrecht von Preusaen
umd 9ein Hofprediger, Leipsic, 1789 (really a biography of
Funck); P. Tschackert, Urkundenbuch zur Reformation*-
099thidiU <Ua Henoglhuma Preuaaen, i.-iii., Leipsic, 1800
(contains essays on Funck's life up to 1551); idem, Un-
f^druckie Briefe nor allgemeinen Refomuitionageachidile,
G5tUn«en, 1894.
FUNCKE, OTTO: German Protestant; b. at
WOlfrath (6 m. w.n.w. of Elberfeld) Mar. 9, 1836.
He studied in Halle, Tubingen, and Bonn, and held
pastorates in his native town (1860-61), Elberfeld
(1861-63), and Holche (1863-68). Since 1868 he
has been pastor of the Friedenskirche, Bremen.
Among his numerous writings, mention may be
made of his Reisebilder und Heimatkldnge (3 series,
Bremen, 1869-72); Die SchuU des Lebem, oder
christliche Lehenabilder im lAchte des Buches Jonas
(1871; Eng. transl., School of Life^ London,
1885); ChrisUiche Fragezeichen (1873; Eng. transl.,
under the title Self Will and God's Will: or, How
to Discern What is God's Will in the Perplexing Ques-
tions of Life, by E. Stirling, London, 1887); Ver-
vjandlungen, oder wie ein Sehender blind und ein
Blinder sehend wird (1873); Tdgliche AndachUsn
(1875); St. Paulus zu Wasser und zu Lande (1877);
Freud, Leid, Arbeit im Eungkeitslicht (1879); Seelen-
kdmpfe und Seelenfriede (sermons; 1881); Willst
du gesund werden f Beitrdge zur christlichen Seelen-
pflege (1882); Englische Bilder in detdscher Beleucht-
ung (1883); Die Welt des Glaubens und die AH-
tagswek, dargesteUt nach den Fusstapfen Abrahams
(1885; Eng. transl. by S. Taylor, The World of
Faith and the Everyday World, Edinburgh, 1891);
Wie der Hirsch schreiet (sermons; 1887); Brot und
Schwert, ein Buch fur hungemde, zweifdnde und
kdmpfende Herzen (1889); Der Wandel vor Gott,
dargelegt nach den Fusstapfen des Patriarchen Joseph
(1890); Neue Reisebilder und Heimatkldnge (1892);
Jesus und die Menschen, oder angewandtes Christen-
turn (1894); Wie man glucklich wird und gliicklich
macht (1896; Eng. transl. by S. Taylor, How to
Be Happy and Make Others Happy, London, 1896);
Du und deine Seele (1896); Die Fussspuren des
lebendigen Gottes in meinem Lebenswege (2 vols.,
Altenburg, 1898-1900); UngeschminkU Wahrheiten
aber christliches Ltben (1902); and Reisegedanken
und Gedankenreisen eines Emeritus (1905).
FUIIDAMENTAL DOCTRHfES OF CHRISTIAinTY.
Fundamental and non-Fundamental Doctrines (§1).
The Fundamental Doctrines Defined Negatively (§ 2).
The Fundamental Doctrines Defined Positively (fi 3).
Late Schools and Theories (f 4).
The distinction between fundamental and non-
fundamental doctrines of Christianity is useful, since.
by emphamring the great cardinal articles of the
Christian faith, it promotes tlic union of the various
parts of the Christian Churcli and develops a spirit
of tolerance with regard to the articles
I. Fimda- of lesser importance in wliich they dis-
mental and agree. The Roman Catholic Church
non-Funda- rejects the distinction (cf. KL, arti-
mental cle " Dogma," iii. 1879-86) on the
Doctrines, ground tliat it resolves doctrines
into essential or necessary, and un-
essential or incidental. Nevertheless the Church
recognizes a distinction in the relative importance
of its doctrines. Thomas Aquinas and the Council
of Trent distinguish concerning the relative value
of the sacraments, baptism and the Eucharist (the
" crown of the sacraments ") being the " major
sacraments." Although the distinction is not
universally made by Protestant theologians, it
early came into use. N. Hunnius was the first to
use it in the Lutheran Church in his De fundamen-
tali dissensu doctrines Lutheranoi et Calviniance
(Wittenberg, 1626). He was followed by Quen-
stadt and others, and more recently by F. A. Philippi
(Glaubenslehre, i. 73 sqq., Gtltersloh, 1854), who,
starting from the atonement as the constitutive
principle, defines as fundamental all articles which
necessarily follow from it.
The distinction was urged by the younger
Tiuretin (d. 1737), and in England by Chilling-
worth (d. 1644), Stillingfleet (d. 1699), Waterland
(d. 1740), and others in the interest of ecclesiastical
toleration; before this, Francis Bacon, in his
Advancement of Learning, had insisted upon dis-
tinguishing between '' points fundamental " and
" points of further perfection." The Parhament of
1653 voted indulgence to all who professed the
'' Fundamentals," and appointed a commission,
consisting of Archbishop Ussher (who resigned, his
place being filled by Baxter), Owen, Goodwin,
and others, to define what the " Fundamentals "
were. Baxter was for holding to the Lord's Praver,
the Creed, and the Ten Commandments. But
the commission drew up sixteen articles which were
presented to Parliament, and only missed ratifica-
tion by its dissolution in 1653 (cf. Neal's History
of the Puritans, ii., 143-144, New York, 1863).
The varying importance of the doctrines of the
Christian system and the growing tolerance of
later times have produced the conviction that it is
desirable to emphasize the more important articles.
The Evangelical Alliance, on the assumption that
agreement in fundamentals is a sufficient foundation
for Catholic communion, has adopted a constitu-
tion of nine articles, which are regarded as essentials
of Christian union (see Evangeucal Alliance).
The distinction of fundamentab and non-funda-
mentals is based upon the valid assimiption that
some articles are of greater importance than others.
It is justified by the example of
2. The Fim- Paul in his teaching against the Ju-
damental daizing tendencies of his time. The
Doctrines following distinctions may be help-
Defined ful in defining the term : * Funda-
Negatively. mental when applied to articles does
not imply that they are the only
articles which it is expedient or desirable for a
Church to teach, and the individual to believe.
Fundamental IXootrinaa
Fonsten
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
41S
The apostasy of the angels, the eternal duration of
future punishment, the single or double procession
of the Holy Spirit (the filioque clause being rejected
by the Greek Church; see Filioque Controversy),
may all be Scriptural doctrines, and ought to be
beheved, but are not fundamental doctrines of
Christianity (although some would so consider the
endlessness of future punishment).
The fundamental doctrines of Christianity are
not to be confused with the distinctive tenets of a
denomination. Denominational differences may
and often do embody the truth; but the mode of
baptism, for example, or the particular theory of
the decrees (however valuable a right view on this
subject may be as a constructive principle in dog-
matic theology), or a special form of ecclesiastical
polity, can not be regarded as fundamental. Chris-
tianity might not do so well with one class of opin-
ions on these subjects (say, baptism by sprinkling,
supralapsarianism, and the congregational principle
of chureh government) as it would with another;
but it would still remain radically unchanged, and
continue to exert its beneficent influence.
The fundamental doctrines of Christianity are
not synonymous with the doctrines essential to
salvation. The latter depend upon the answer of
the individual to two questions — " What think ye
of Christ?" and " What must I do to be saved?"
A living faith in Christ as the one sent of God for
the salvation of the world is essential to salvation,
and sufficient for it (John vi. 47; Acts xvi. 31).
The fundamental doctrines of Christianity are
broader in their scope. They concern it as an ob-
jective system of truth.
The term fundamental is not properly applied to
doctrines which distinguish Christianity from natural
religion. There is a distinction between the funda-
mentals of religion and the fundamentals of Chris-
tianity. Religion is possible on the basis of the
Five Articles of Lord Herbert of Cherbury; but
the superstructure of the Christian religion has a
different foundation. Some of the tenets which
Christianity has in common with natural religion,
as the existence of God, are fundamental to the
former.
The Apostles' Creed, though a venerable and
excellent simimary of the Christian's faith, is not
a perfect statement of the fundamental articles of
Cfciristianity. On the one hand, it brings out only
by implication the doctrine of atonement, passes
over entirely the Scriptures, and, on the other, as
Waterland puts it, is ** peccant in excess."
The fundamental doctrines of Christianity, then,
are those which lie at the basis of the Christian
system, and without which its professed aim (the
glory of God and the highest welfare of man) could
not, by logical necessity and with subjective cer-
tainty, be evolved. Waterland's defi-
3. The Fun- nition is as follows: " Fundamental, as
damental applied to Christianity, means some-
Doctrines thing so necessary to its being, or at
Defined least its well-being, that it could not
Positively, subsist, or maintain itself tolerably,
without it " (vol. v., p. 74). And
again: " Whatever verities are found to be plainly
and directly essential to the doctrine of the Gospel
covenant are fundamental " (p. 103). AccordiDg
to Sheriock (p. 256), they are doctrines " which are
of the essence of Christianity, and without which the
whole building and superstructure must fall."
The most fundamental doctrine of Chhstiuiity
is salvation by Christ; and the principle wiU hold
good that whatever doctrine stands in most neces-
sary connection therewith is the most fundamental.
The statement in Rom. i. 1-6 (the divine exigence,
Scriptures, incarnation, grace, faith, and resunec-
tion) approaches nearest of any passage ia Scrip-
ture to a comprehensive enumeration of the funda-
mental doctrines. Waterland enumerated seven,
as follows: (1) The Creator, or Covenanter; (2)
covenant; (3) charter of the covenant, or Sacted
Writ; (4) mediator; (5) repentance and a holy
life; (6) sacraments; (7) two future states. The
central principle from which he started was the
Christian covenant. The sacraments, however,
can hardly be regarded as a fundamental. The
following statement is preferable: (1) The Fatlw^
hood of God; (2) the Trinity; (3) the incarna-
tion; (4) atonement; (5) faith or union with
Christ, the condition of man's best being; (6) the
immortality of the soul; (7) the Scriptures the
summary of the divine purposes concerning man.
In defining what is fimdamental in Christianity,
it is as desirable to avoid a narrow as to avoid
a latitudinarian tendency. Certain communions
insist upon regarding episcopacy and the authority
of the Chureh as fundamental. Individuab might
insist upon particular views of original sin, tha
divine decrees, the inspiration of the Scriptures, or
the duration and nature of future punishment. But
few of these are touched upon in the Apostles' Oeed,
and none definitely answered. Divergence of view
on these points is of inconsiderable importance in
comparison with the cardinal doctrines of (iod's
existence, the Messiah's work, saving faith, the
soul's immortality, and the sufliciency of Scripture
for human illumination and guidance, and can not
Hmit the perpetuity of Christianity. It is. however,
not to be forgotten that a Church may profess these
fundamental doctrines, and yet so combine funda-
mental errors as to modify, if not completely to
destroy, their force. Of such errors, as held in the
Roman Catholic Church. Sherlock says (p. 314) that
'* all the wit of man can not reconcile them with the
Christian faith." On the other hand, a religious
communion (as the strict Unitarians or Universalist*)
may deny fundamental truths, and yet sincerely
accept Christianity as the only and perfect religion,
and Christ as the Lord and Savior.
The views of the school of advanced New Testa-
ment criticism represented in varying degrees of
positiveness by dififerent scholars from Harnack
to Paul Wemle of Basel (Die Anfange unserer Re-
ligion, Tubingen, 1904) attempt to retain the
Christian religion as the final reUgion
4. Late and Christ as " the great Deliverer "
Schools from the bondage of legaUsm in re-
and hgious ritual and doctrine, and at the
Theories, same time cast aside some of the evi-
dent teachings of the books of the
New Testament, such as the bodily resurrection of
our Lord and those doctrines which it is claimed
418
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Vnnd»in«ntal Dootrlnea
Funsten
Paul invented by a process of reflection, such as the
vicarious atonement through Christ's death. It
would seem as if there could be no terms of agree-
ment between this school and the received views of
the Church. For what is fundamental in the views
of the Church is in part completely set aside if the
distinctive theology of tlie Pauline epistles is without
warrant in fact and only a product of the Apostle's
own brain.
Prof. Alfred Seeberg of Dorpat, in liis Katechismus
der Urchristenheit (Leipsic, 1903), has attempted to
arrange the articles of a supposed primitive cate-
chism of fundamental tenets, which, he thinks, it
was the custom to carry or send to new churches
for their adoption. He bases the existence of such
a formula upon Rom. vi. 17 (" that form of doctrine
which was delivered you "), II Thess. ii. 15, and
other passages, and reconstructs it on the basis of
I Cor. XV. 3-5 and other Pauline statements. He
includes in it a belief in the divine mission of the
Son of God, his crucifixion, resurrection, ascension,
and second coming. This formula became the nu-
cleus of the Apostles* Creed and was the kernel of
apostolic preaching. The treatment is suggestive
and points to the fact that in the pages of the New
Testament as they have been preserved there is a
distinctive set of tenets which were new when they
were proclaimed and composed the early Christian
teaching.
An indirect attempt to define what is fundamental
in the Christian system was made in the so-called
Chicago-Lambeth Articles, adopted first by the
General Convention of the Protestant Episcopal
Church in Chicago, 1886, and then by the Lambeth
Conference in 1888 (see Lambeth Conference).
They were intended as an invitation to church union
and a basis for it, but were officially rejected by
the Presbyterian General Assembly in the United
States and were unfavorably received by other
bodies. The fundamentals of the Articles (called
the " Quadrilateral " because four in number) were:
" The Holy Scriptures of the Old and New Testa-
ments as containing all things necessary to salva-
tion, and as being the rule and ultimate standard of
faith; the Apostles' Creed, as the baptismal sym-
bol, and the Nicene Creed, as the sufficient state-
ment of the Christian faith; the two sacraments
ordained 'by Christ himself — baptism and the
Supper of the Lord — ministered with unfailing use
of Christ's words of institution and of the elements
ordained by him; the historic episcopate locally
adapted in the methods of its administration to the
varying needs of the nations and peoples called of
God into the unity of his Church."
D. S. SCHAFF.
Biblioorapht: W. ChiUinsworth, The Relioion of ProUa-
ianU, i. 4-6. Oxford, 1638; W. Sherlock, A Discourse about
Christian Unity, Being a Defence of Bp. StUling fleet's Un-
reasonableness of Separation, chap, v., pp. 248-316, Lon-
don, 1681; J. A. Turretin, A Discourse concerning the
Fundamental Articles in Religion, ib. 1720; D. Wsterland.
A Discourse of Fundamentals, ib. 1736 (v. 73-104 of ed.
of Oxford. 1843): Tholuck, in Deutsche ZeUschrift fiir
iiiristliche Theologie, 1861. Modern treatments of the
subject do not appear under the title of Fundamentals;
the topic is discusaed more or leas directly in writings
upon Christian Unity and Church Union, e.g., A. M. Fair-
bairn, The Place of Christ in Modem Theology, New York,
1803; J. Martineau, Th€ Seat of Authority in Religion,
London, 1898; A. Hamack. Das Wesen des Christentums,
Berlin. 1900, Eng. trantU., What is Christianity, New York,
1901. which was ably answered by H. Cremer. Das Wesen
des Christentums, Qtiteraloh. 1901, Eng. transl.. Reply to
Hamack on "The Essence cf Christianity," New York,
1904. Consult also R. D. Browne, The Fundamental
Truths of the Catholic Church, London, 1890.
FUNK, FRANZ XAVER: German Roman Cath-
olic; b. at Abtsgrailnd, Wiirttemberg, Oct. 12,
1840; d. at Ttibingen Feb. 24, 1907. He studied in
Tubingen (Ph.D., 1863) and at Rottenburg, and
was ordained to the priesthood in 1864. He then
studied for a year in Paris, and was lecturer in the
Wilhelmstift at Tubingen 1866-70. In 1870 he was
appointed professor of church history, patrology,
and archeology at Tubingen. He wrote Ziru
und Wucher (Tubingen, 1868); Geachichte des
kirchlichen Zinsverbolea (1876); Die EchtheU der
ignatianiachen Brief e (1882); Lehrbuch der Kirchen-
geachichte (Rottenburg, 1886); Dodrina duodedm
apoatolorum (Tubingen, 1887); Die katholiache
Landesuniversitdt EUwangen (1889); Die apostoli-
8chen KonstittUionen (Rottenburg, 1891); Kirchen-
g€8chichUiche Abhandlungen und Unterauchungen
(3 vols.. Paderbom, 1897-1907); Daa Testament
unseres Herm und die verwandten Schriften (Mainz,
1901); and DidasccUia el ConstitiUiones apostolorum
(2 vols., 1905).
FUNK, ISAAC KAUFMANN: Lutheran; b at
aifton, O., Sept. 10, 1839. He was graduated at
Wittenberg College in 1860 and was ordained to the
Lutheran ministry in 1861. He was pastor at
Carey, O,, 1862-64 and of St. Matthew's Evangelical
Lutheran Church, Brooklyn, 1865-72. He then
resigned from the ministry, and after a tour of
Europe, Egypt, and Palestine was associate editor
of The Christian Radical (Pittsburg, Pa.) 1872-73
and of The Union Advocate (New York) 1873-75.
In 1876 he foimded The Metropolitan Pulpit and in
the following year The Complete Preacher^ merging
the two in 1878 into The Homiletic Monthly ^ which
has been called The Homiletic Review since 1885.
He established The Voices a total-abstinence paper,
in 1880, The Missionary Review in 1888, and The
Literary Digest in 1889. In 1878 he entered into
partnership with Adam Willis Wagnalls, founding
the publishing firm which was incorporated in 1890
as the Funk & Wagnalls Cbmpany. He has thus
been instrumental in publishing a large num-
ber of theological works, among which mention
may be made of The Jewish Encyclopedia, the
Schaff'Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge^
and The Standard Bible Dictionary. He is editor-
in-cliief of A Standard Dictionary of the English
Language, and has edited G. Croly's Salathiel under
the title Tarry Thou Till I Come (New York, 1901),
and has written The Next Step in Evolution (New
York, 1902); The Widow's Mite and Other Psychic
Phenomena (1904); and The Psychic Riddle (1907).
FUNSTEN, JAMES BOWEN: Protestant Epis-
copal missionary bishop of Idaho; b. at The
Highlands, Qarke Co., Va., July 23, 1856. He
studied at the Virginia Military Institute, Lexing-
ton (C.E., 1875), and the University of Virginia
(LL.B., 1878), and after practising law for a short
time, entered the Theological Seminaiy at Alexan-
Fumess
Future Punishment
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
414
dria, from wliich he was graduated in 1882. He
was ordered deacon in the same year, and was ad-
vanced to the priesthood in 1883. From 1882 to
1884 he was a missionary at Bristol, Tenn., and at
Marion, Va., and after traveling in Europe in 1884,
was a missionary attached to the staff of Christ
Church, Richmond, Va., 1884-90 and a general
missionary in Virginia 1890-92. From 1892 to
1899 he was rector of Trinity Church, Portsmouth,
Va., and in 1899 was consecrated missionary bishop
of Bois^, his diocese comprising portions of the
States of Idaho and Wyoming. In theology he is
Evangelical, and, besides having been editor of
The Sovihem Churchman 1885-86, has written
Chriat or the World (New York, 1890) and A Study
of Confirmation (1895).
FURNESS, Wn^LIAM HENRY: Unitarian; b. in
Boston, Mass., Apr. 20, 1802; d. in Philadelphia
Jan. 30, 1896. He studied at Harvard (B.A., 1820),
and after completing iiis theological training at
Cambridge was ordained pastor of the First Uni-
tarian Congregational Church, Philadelphia, Pa., in
1825, and held the office until his retirement in
1875. He was a leading abolitionist, and was author
of Remarks on the Four GospeU (Philadelphia, 1835);
Jeaus and his Biographers (1838); A History of Jesus
(1850); Thoughts on the Life and Character of Jesus
of Nazareth (Boston, 1859); The Unconscious
Truth of the Four Gospels (Philadelphia, 1868);
Jesus (1871); The Power of Spirit Manifest in Jesus
of Nazareth (1877); The Story of the Resurrection
Told Once More (1885); Verses: Translations from
the German and Hymns (Boston, 1886); and
Pastoral Offices (1894). He also translated D.
Schenkel's Das Charakterbild Jesu (Wiesbaden,
1864) under the title Character of Jesus Portrayed
(2 vols., Boston, 1866).
FURRER, HANS KONRAD : S\*'iss Protestant; b.
at Fluntcrn, near Zurich, Nov. 5, 1838; d. at Zurich
Apr. 14, 1908. He studied in Zurich (1857-62) and
was ordained to the ministry in 1862. In 1863 he
made a tour of Palestine, and in 1869 became privat-
docent for Biblical archeology in the University
of Zurich. He held various pastorates in the can-
ton from his ordination until 1876, when he became
pastor of St. Peter's, Zurich. He began to lecture
continuously at the university in 1885, and in
1888 was appointed professor of tlie general history
of religion. In theology lie was a liberal conserva-
tive. He wrote Wanderungen durch das heilige
Land (Zurich, 1865); Vortrdge iiber religiose Tages-
fragen (1895): Katholizismus und Protestantismus
(1899); and Vortrdge iiber das Leben Jesu Christi
(1902).
FURSA (FURSEY, Lat. Furseus), SAINT:
Irish monk and missionary; b. of noble family
probably in Connaught; d. at Maceri® (Mazeroeles,
on the Authie), in Ponthicu (northern France),
Jan. 16, probably 650. He was brought up in
Munster under monastic discipline and lived the
usual life of an Irish monk, founding a monastery
at Rathmat, probably in the northwest of County
Clare. For ten years he went up and down in
Ireland preaching repentance and judgment.
Then with hus two brothers and two monks he
traveled eastward, and in 637 (?) was lecdTed
by King Sigbert of East Anglia and asasted him
and Bishop Felix (see Felix, Saint) in establish-
ing Christianity among the only half-converted peo-
ple . He built a monastery at Cnoberesburg (Boi^
castle, 5 m. from Yarmouth), then, with a ongfe
companion, retired to a hermitage. After a year
the menace from Penda, the heathen king of Merda,
drove him away, and he went to France. He found
refuge at the court of the young Qovis II., king d
Neustria. Erchinoald, mayor of the palace, gave
him land at Latiniacum (Lagny-sur-Majne, 18 m. e.
of Paris), where he built a monastery in 644. He
was buried at P^ronne (75 m. n.n.e. of Paris) and
was long honored there. Miracles were attributed
to him even in his Ufetime.
Fursa was noteworthy chiefly for his vi^ons, which
were probably due to cataleptic attacks. He saw and
conversed with angels, was attacked by demons, and
beheld the awful torments of the wicked; impend-
ing calamities were foretold to him. He would
relate what he had seen, says Bede, only to those
who wished to hear " from holy zeal and desire of
information." Similar visions were not uncoounoD
experiences of the monks. The narratives of tbem
w^re highly popular and constitute a distinct dass
of medieval literature (cf . Plummer^s Bede^ iL
294-295, Oxford, 1S96. and. for Fursa's viaous,
Olden's Church of Ireland, pp. 87-90, London, 1895).
Bibuoorapht: Three lives of Fursa in ASB, Jau.. ii. 36-
55, of which the first and best, by an anonymous writer,
is also in J. Colgan, Ada Santtorum, i. 75-08. Lourain,
1645. ASM, ii. 300-315. and De Smedt and De B«cker.
Acta aanclorum Hibemiae, pp. 77 sqq., Edinburgh, 1888.
Consxilt: Bede, Hitt, eccL, iii. 19; J. Lanigan, Ecd. Hid.,
u. 448-464, 4 vols.. Dublin, 1829; J. O'Hanlon, Ltm ^
the IrUh Sainta, i. 222-286; HUL Uttfrain <U la Frmot,
iii. 613-615; J. Corblet. HaoiograpKie du dioekm d^Amiim,
vol. ii., Paris, 1870; G. GrOtsmacher. in ZKG, zix. 2
(1898), pp. 190-196.
FUTURE PUNISHMENT.
New Testament Doctrine (§1).
Historical Christian Belief (fi 2).
Tendencies of Recent Discussions (i 3).
Two Leading Views (f 4).
Endlessness (S 5).
This presentation is limited to punishment after
death; all reference to earthly punishment is not
excluded, but this is considered only so far as its
nature and aim have a bearing on the future state.
In the New Testament punishment is
I. New Tea- part of the eschatological program
tament which follows upon the judgment (q. v.) .
Doctrine. The wicked are sent into Gehenna (qv.),
or into a condition designated vari-
ously as unquenchable fire, the undying worm, outer
darkness, weeping and gnashing of teeth, eternal
destruction, and the second death (Mark ix. 43, 48;
Matt. XXV. 30; II Thess. i. 9; Rev. xx. 14; cf. II
Pet. iii. 7, and Jesus' parables of judgment — the
tares, the drag-net, the wedding guest, the virgins,
and the talents). Punishment is described as posi-
tive (as above), as natural (Gal. vi. 8; Col. iii. 25).
and according to degree of guilt. The finality of
punishment is supported by contemporary Jewish
belief, by the term Gehenna and destruction (Gk.
olethros, apdleia), by the parables of Jesus in which
finaUty is implied (Matt. xin. 39-43, 47-50), by the
Future PnnUhsMiit
THE- NEW SCHAFF-HERZOQ
416
tive era, and hence is final. (5) Every single sin
unrepented of deserves endless retribution. (6)
Character tends to final permanence, as seen in the
strengthening of the wrong decision, the consequent
bondage of the wiU, and the intensifying of the sin-
ful opposition to God in view of punishment ex-
perienced; naturally, final permanence can be
attained but once. (7) The conscience expects and
demands unending retribution in another life. (8)
Finally, reference is made to the long history of this
belief, and the eminent supporters of it in every age.
Relief from the painful conclusion here reached is
sought in many ways: appeal to human ignorance; a
probationary period between death and the judg-
ment for those who in this life have not finally
refused God (see Probation, Future); the incom-
patibility of the ultimate loss of any soul with the
perfection of the Creator; the injustice of ever-
lasting punishment for sins committed during the
short span of the earthly life; continuance of pun-
ishment for a time after death, but God will finally
succeed in his purpose of grace, or, on the other
hand, the incorrigible will be eventually worn out
with their punishment. See Eschatoloqy.
C. A. Beckwith.
Biblioorapht: The subject is invariably treated as a sec-
tion of systematic theology, and therefore the works cited
under Doqma, DoaifATics may be consulted. Much of
the literature under the articles on Eschatoloot; Ge-
henna; Probation, Futube; Univebbaubm, and re-
lated topics is pertinent. Consult further: M. Stoii^
Future PuniahmenU, in vol. iii. of Philologieal TracU, vk
Biblical Cabinet, 45 vols.. Edinburgh, 1838-44: R. W.
Hamilton, Revealed Doctrine of ReteanU and PuniAmmil^
London, 1853; H. M. Dexter. The Verdict of Reamnnpm
the . . . Future Puniahmeni of ... the ImpenitetU, fioi.
ton, 1865; 8. C. Bartlett. Future Puniahment, ib. Ig75;
IJ. M. Whiton], /• " Eternal " Puniahment Endlmt ib.
1876; N. Adams, Endleaa PuniahmenL Scriptural Arf^.
tnent for . . . future endleaa PuniahmerU, ib. 1878; E.
Beecher, Hiat. of Opiniona on the Scriptural Doetrim tf
RebrHnUion, New York, 1878; G. P. Fisher, in his Di».
cuaaiona in Hiat. and Theolooy, ib. 1880; E. M. Goal-
bum. Everlaating Puniahment, ib. 1880; J. B. Reimen-
snyder, Doom Eternal, Philadelphia, 1880; T. J. Stwyer.
Endleaa Puniahment, Boston, 1880 (Universalist); F. W.
Farrar, Mercy and Judgment, London, 1881; idem.
Eternal Hope, ib. 1892; W. Griffith. Evidence of Ike Bmih
geliata and Apoatlea on Future Puni^ment, ib. 188% R.
H. McKim. Future Puniahment, New York, 1883; V. M.
de Lizsi, De diiUumUate panarum, Naples. 1884; C A.
Row, Future Retribution in the Light of Reaaon (snd Ra-
elation. New York. 1887; W. G. T. Shedd, The Dodtrim
of Endleaa Puniahment, ib. 1887 (perhaps the itrooseat
affirmative statement of the doctrine since Edvirdi);
J. Macpherson, The Larger Hope, London. 1880; S. M.
Vernon, Probation and Puniahment, New York. 1890;
Wider Hope, Eaaaya and Stricturea upon the Dodrvte vi
Literature of Future Puniahment, xcith Biblioffrajikical Af-
pendix, London. 1890; R. L. Bellamy. The Harvat of tki
Soul, ib. 1902; J. Mew. Traditional Aapecta of HtU, Aw
dent and Modem, ib. 1903; J. Bauts. DU HsiUe, Maim,
1905; L. B. Hartman, Divine Penolon, New York. 190S;
J. R. Norrie, Eternal Torment: ia it a poaaibU kamn
Deatiny t ib. 1905.
FTJTURB STATE. See Eschatoloot, {{6-7.
OABLER, gd'bler, JOHANN PHILIPP: German
theologian; b. at Frankfort-on-the-Main June 4,
1753; d. at Jena Feb. 17, 1826. He studied for
ten years at the gymnasium of his native town, and
from 1772 to 1778 was a student at Jena, where
Griesbach and Eichhorn were his teachers in theol-
ogy. After filling minor positions in Frankfort
(1778) and Gdttingen (1780), and after officiating as
professor at the gymnasium at Dortmund (1783), he
was called to Altdorf in 1785 as deacon and pro-
fessor of theology. In 1804 he was called to the
University of Jena, and in 1812 he succeeded his
former teacher, Griesbach, as professor of theology
there. As a theological author Gabler is chiefly
known by his edition of Eichhorn 's Urgeachichief to
which he added a preface and notes (2 vols., Alt-
dorf and Nuremberg, 1790-93), also by a number
of Latin and German essays, several of which aj>-
peared in his periodicals: Neuestes theologisches
Journal (1798-1800), Journal Jiir theologiache
Literatur (1801-04), and Journal jiir auserlesene
theologiache Literatur (1805-11). Some of these
minor works are devoted to church history, and
others to dogmatics, but the greater number con-
sist of expositions and criticisms of narratives and
sayings of the New Testament. In tendency Ga-
bler was naturalistic and rationalistic. A collec-
tion of his essays, lectures, and Latin programs
and speeches was published by his sons, Theodor
August and Johann Gottfried Gabler (2 vols.,
Ulm, 1831), with an autobiographical sketch written
for Eichst&dt's Annales aeademim Jenensis (Joa,
1823). (E. HBNMt)
Bibliography: W. SchrOter, Erinnerunifen an J. B. Ga-
bler, Jena. 1827; O. Thomasius, Daa Wiedenrreadu* *•
evangeliachen L^bena in der ItUheriadien Kirche Bayemt,^^
21 sqq.. Erlangen, 1867.
GABRIEL SEVERUS: Greek metropolitan and
theologian; b. at Monemvasia (45 m. s.e. of Sparta)
1541; d. at Venice Oct. 21, 1616. After comple-
ting his education at Padua, he resided in Crete and
at Venice, where the Greek colony chose him priest
of St. George in 1573. Four years later he was
made metropolitan of Philadelphia, but continued
to live at Venice. He was one of the most learned
theologians of the modem Greek Church, whose
claims he passionately defended against Roman
Catholicism and the unionistic tendencies within his
own communion. The first of his three chief works
was the collection of three treatises on the honor
due the sacred elements of the Eucharist, the
" portions *' (Gk. merides, pieces of bread set aside
at the Eucharist in honor of the Virgin and the
saints, and for the spiritual welfare of all orthodox
Christians, whether living or dead), and the boiled
wheat distributed to the congregation on certain
days, generally in memory of the dead. This was
first published at Venice in 1604. His «c<»d
work was the *' Treatise on the Holy and Sacred Mys-
teries" (1600), of which separate portions have been
edited at various times. In its presentation the
book is scholastic and not altogether free frooa
417
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDU
Vntnre Pnniahmant
GHul
unconscious approximations to Roman Catholic
doctrines. The chief work of Sevenis is his "Ex-
po8ition against those who ignorantly say and unlaw-
fully teach that we, the true and orthodox Children
of the Eastern Church, are Schismatics from the Holy
and Catholic Church." Of tliis only the first portion
has been published {Qgdoas scriptorum gracorum
by N. Metaxas, Constantinople, 1627). It is a
pi^emic against the Roman Catholics, occasioned
by the charge of the Jesuits Possevino and Bellar-
mine that the Greek Catholics were heretics. In
hifl work he seeks to sliow what are the differences
between the Roman and Greek Churches, which is
the true Church, and the proof that the Orthodox
possess the true faith and are neither schismatics
nor heretics. Sevenis wrote little except in system-
atic theology, although he collaborated in Sir
Henry Savile's edition of Chrysostom (Eton, 1612).
Certain anecdota are given by Legrand, while
«omc of his letters liave been edited by G. Lami,
M. Crusius, and others. (Philipp Meyer.)
Buuographt: R. Simon, Fidea ecclence orierUaliB, Beu
GiMbritlia Metropolitce Philadelphientis, Paris, 1671; Fa-
briciiis-Harlesi. Bibliotheca Graca, xi. 625. Hamburg. 1808;
E. L^rand, Bibliographie HelUnigue, Paris, 1886 sqq.
GABRIEL SIONITA: A learned Maronite; b.
at EMdcn, Mount Lebanon, in northern Palestine,
1677; d. in Paris 1648. At the age of seven he
entered the Maronite college at Rome, where he
studied and taught till 1614. Through the French
ambassador, Cardinal du Perron, he was persuaded
to go to Paris to collaborate on a proposed
polyglot Bible. In Jan., 1615, he was appointed
professor of Arabic and Syriac at the Sorbonne. He
took his doctorate in theology in 1620 and became
a priest in the same year. After many interruptions
the Paris Polyglot was taken up by Michel le Jay
in 1630 and finished in 1645, Gabriel furnishing
the Arabic and Syriac versions (see Bibles, Poly-
quot). On account of liis unruliness and alleged
inaccuracy, the editors of the Bible discharged him
in 1640 and called Abraham Ecchellensis (q.v.)
to take his place. They even induced Richelieu
to put Gabriel in prison at Vincennes, but after
three months he secured his liberty and resumed
his former position, on promising to deliver the
Arabic and Syriac versions. He published several
works in Ambic, Latin, and Italian, including:
Gtographia Nubiensis (Rome, 1592; Paris, 1619);
and Grammatica Arabica Maronitarum (Paris,
1616).
Bibuooraphy: J. Le Long, BU>liot!teAa Mcra, ed. Masch,
6 vola., Halle, 1 778 -90; C. P. Goujct. Mrmoires hUtoriqueM
el litteraires »ur U: colUge royal de France, vol. iii., Parin,
1758; C. G. .I"i:her. Allffemeinen GeUhrten^Lexiam, iv.
619. Leijwic. 1787; KL, v. 4-6.
GABRIELS, HENRY: Roman Catholic bishop
of Ogdensburg, N. Y.; b. at Wanneghem, Belgium,
Oct. 6, 183S. He studied at Audenarde (1852-57),'
St. Nicolas (1857-58), Ghent (1858-60), and the
University of Louvain (S.T.L., 1864). He taught
theology in St. Joseph's Seminary, Troy, N. Y.,
1864-92 and was president of the same institution
1871-1892, in addition to being vicar-general for Og-
densburg and Burlington, and diocesan examiner for
New York and Albany. In 1892 lie was consecrated
IV.— 27
bishop of Ogdensburg. He has written QucBstianea
Mechlintenses in rubricas hreviarii et misscMa Ro-
mani (New York, 1887) and Rudiments of the He-
brew Grammar (a translation of the seventh edition
of the Rudimenta lingua! HebraiccB of C. H. Vosen and
F. Kaulen; St. Louis, Mo., 1891).
Bibuoorapht: A sketch of his life is found in the Mono-
graph Series of the U. S. Catholic Historical Society, iii.
7-16, New York, 1906.
GAD: The name of a Canaanitic deity of fortune.
In Isa. Ixv. 11 (A.V.) occur the words: " But ye
are they . . . that prepare a table for that troop "
(the Hebrew of which is better rendered in the R.V.
" that prepare a table for Fortune"; margin " Gad,"
Gk. tGi daimoniGi). The " Gad " of the R.V. margin
reproduces the Hebrew, which is evidently a proper
name introduced in connection with Meni (q.v.),
both Gad and Meni being deities worshiped by
apostate Israelites in the worship of the former of
which a table (lectistemium) was spread. This is
the only unquestionable mention of the deity in
the Old Testament. Other traces occur, however,
which make probable the fact of an eirtensively
propagated cult of Canaanitic or Aramean origin.
Thus a place named Baal-gad, " Lord of (good)
fortune," situated " in the valley of Lebanon . . .
under mount Hermon " is given as the extreme
northern limit of Joshua's conquest (Josh. xi. 17,
xii. 7, xiii. 5); while Migdal-gad, " Tower of Gad,"
appears as a place in the southwest lowlands of
Judah (Josh. xv. 37). In Gen. xxx. 11 (belonging
to the J narrative) at the birth of Zilpah's first son
her mistress is said to have exclaimed '* a troop
Cometh," R.V., "Fortunate!" margin, "fortune!"
or '* Fortune is come " (an attempt to render in the
R.V. more closely the Hebrew begad or ba gad).
The Talmudists understood this exclamation to
refer to the god Gad in the sense of *' Gad is here,
bringing good fortune," but later commentators
are much divided over the sense of the passage.
Since from the passage in Isaiah (and other evi-
dences to be adduced) it is clear that Gad is the
name of a deity, it would be expected that the
word would be found as an element in proper names.
In Niun. xiii. 10 appears mention of a " Gaddiel the
son of Sodi," and in xiii. 11 of " Gaddi the son of
Susi," the latter possibly a shortened form of the
former; in II Kings xv. 14, 17 Menahem is called
" the son of Gadi " (Septuagint, Gaddi), and pos-
sibly " Gad " in I Sam. xxii. 5 is a form still more
simplified. Azgad, " Strong is Gad," as the name
of a clan or a chief, appears in Ezra ii. 12, viii. 12;
Neh. X. 15. While all of these names do not neoech
sarily contain conscious reference to a deity, there
is a probability that, in the light of known practises
of later Jews, at least some of them may have been
formed with the god in mind. The practise of
spreading the lectistemium for Gad continued in
some Jewish families as late as the eleventh century,
this in a way vouching for the worship mentioned
in Isaiah, while Buxtorf {Lexicon ialmudicum)
adduces the custom of keeping in the house a couch
called " the couch of Gada," finely fitted up, never
used by the family, but reserved for '* the prince of
the house," i.e., the protector '•' Fortune."
In other Semitic regions the name appears as an
Oftd
GaUlee
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOQ
411
element in names, though the meaning can not
always be determined. In most cases it is possible
to take the element Gad as an appellative, ''for-
tune." Thus there are found in very different
provenance the combinations Gad-Nebo, '' Fortune
of Nebo," and Gad-shirath. So in a number of
Palmyrene inscriptions the word occurs in com-
binations where the second element is the name of
another deity, e.g., Gad-Allat, while gadya^ " for-
tunate," occurs. One Palmyrene inscription found
at a sacred spring points indubitably to a deity to
whom the spring was sacred, reading " to Gada "
(cf. the place name " Ayin-Gada," Ndldeke, ZDMG,
xxix., 1875, 441) and the '* Gad-spring " near
Jerusalem. In Phenician and Carthaginian environ-
ment the word is found as an element in personal
names, while in many more probable cases the
reading is not sufficiently clear to give entire cer-
tainty; moreover the meaning can not always be
definitely determined and may be appellative. Oad-
mdekj " Gad is king," is an inscription on a stone
found in Jerusalem, possibly due to Canaanitio
influence. In Arabic the proper name Abd al-Gadd
is found, certainly a deity's name (Wellhausen,
Hevderdum^ p. 146). Isaac of Antioch (Operaf ed.
Bickell, ii. 210, Giessen, 1877) reports that tables
were prepared on the roofs by his countrymen for
Gadda or (pi.) GaddCj and he mentions a " demon "
Gadlat as belonging to the city of Beth-hur. Jacob
of Sarug speaks of a female goddess of Haran named
Gadlat, while by the plural gadde he means demons.
It is noteworthy that both of these references fall
in with what is shown by comparative religion as
happening within the Semitic sphere; (1) the devel-
opment of a shadowy consort corresponding in
name to the male deity, and (2) in a subsequent
stage of development or under another religion the
degradation of both deities to the rank of demons.
Post-Christian Jews, especially the rabbis, used the
name as that of a demon. Temples of Gad were
known in Syria, and Buxtorf cites a passage which
sp)eaks of an image of Gad. Jacob of Sarug says
that " on the summit of the mountains they now
build monasteries instead of beitrgadde " (i.e., tem-
ples to Jupiter and Venus, who were identified with
the deities of good luck). In late times Gad appears
to have been so popular that his name acquired
the sense of " genius, godhead." Under the Greek
regime Gad seems to have passed over into the
Greek form Tyche, who is very often mentioned
on coins and in inscriptions in the region of Syria
and became a patron of very many Greek cities,
possibly also the patron of rulers. The Greek TychS
is unquestionably not of native Greek origin, but
is an importation from the East, and on Greek soil
was sometimes masculine. Whether the Syrian
Tyche is the earlier Gad, renamed under Greek in-
fluence, can not be definitely decided, as the data
are not yet sufficiently numerous or continuous.
The origin of the god Gad is in doubt. It is
possible that he arose as the {sersonification of the
abstract concept good fortune, though it must be
said that this process is not usual in the Semitic
sphere. None of the Old Testament passages which
bear on the question are very early, unless the view
of the critical school be correct which inclines to the
belief that the tribe of Gad, like that of Asher, took
its name from the god. The newer explanatioii of
the composite origin of the Hebrew nation as in-
cluding clans absorbed by conquest, tnuiitioi
recording this fact by assigning to the dans lo
absorbed a humbler origin as the descendants of
concubines, would make for an early origin of tb
deity. But these conclusions are by no meani
universally accepted, and the worship, even tb
existence, of Gad in strictly Canaanitic provenana
earlier than the Exile rests on the two plaoenamn
Baal-gad and Migdal-gad (ut sup.).
Geo. W. Giucori.
Bibuoobapht: J. Selden. De dU SyrU, I., L. London. 1617,
and the additions of Beyer in ed. of Amsterdam, IM;
F. C. Movers, Die PhOnixier, L 174, Bonn. 1841; D. A.
Chwolson, Die Aeabier, ii. 22&-227. St. PteterBbari. 18Sfl;
W. W. Ton Baudissin. Jahve el Molock, pp. 36 iqq.. Lop*
sic, 1874; F. Lenormant, Chaldaean Magie, p. 120. 1/mdoa,
1877; J. H. Mordtmann. in ZDMG, xxxi (1877X 9»-101,
xxxix (1885), 44-M; P. Schols, Gotieniienat vnd Zmtm-
weeen bei den Hebrdem, pp. 409-411. Regensbuig, 1877;
C. G. A. Siegfried, in JPT, i (1876). 356-367; F. W. A.
Baethgen, Beitr&ge tur aemii^eehen Religionegeadiidik, ppi
76-80. 150-161, Berlin. 1888; T. Ndldeke. in ZDUQ,
xlii (1888), 479 sqq.; G. Kerber, Die religumoetekiMik
BedeiUung der fiebrAiechen Eioennamen, pp. 66-68, FreQwift
1897; the commentaries of Dillmann. Cheyne. Dditoflk
and G. A. Smith on Isaiah, on the passage Ixv. 11. of
Delitssoh on Genesis, at zxx. 11. and T. K. Cheyne. /nfr*-
duction to Book of leaioK pp. 365-366, London. ISBS;
DB, u. 76; EB, ii. 1557-1558. " Fortune."
OADARA9 GADARENES. See Gerasenb;
Perjba.
GAETANO, g(l"4-t(l'n6 (CAJETAN), OF VSSSL
See Theatines.
GAILOR, THOMAS FRANK: Protestant Epi»-
copal bishop of Tennessee; b. at Jackson, }Sm^
Sept. 17, 1856. He studied at Racine College, Rar
cine, Wis. (B.A., 1876), and at the General TTieo-
logical Seminary (S.T.B., 1879), and was ordered
deacon in 1879 and ordained priest in 1880. Aftef
being rector of the Church of the Messiah at Pth
laski, Tenn., 1879-82, he was appointed professor of
ecclesiastical history in the University of the South,
where he was also chaplain after 1883 and vice-
chancellor after 1890. He was consecrated bishop
coadjutor of Tennessee in 1893, and became bishop
five years later, on the death of Bishop Quintsrd.
He has been a member of the General Convention of
the Protestant Episcopal Church since 1886 and a
member of many important committees, sucbasthat
on marginal readings in 1 895-1 902. He is at present
chairman of the Court of Review for ecderiastical
trials in the fourth department of the Cbuict
In theology he is a High-churchman with ^
sympathies. He has written A Manual of Detoti^
(New York, 1887) and The Apostolic Sucmsv»
(1890).
Biblioorapht: W. 8. Perry, The Epieeopaie in Amenta, ^
357, New York. 1896.
GAINES, WESLEY JOHN: Methodist Episco-
pal bishop; b. a slave, near Washington, Ga., Oct
4, 1840. Until the age of fifteen he remained 00
the plantation where he was bom, acquiring ^
elementary education by his own efforts, while w»
theological training was obtained later, especialjy
rn 1870, from Protestant Episcopal clergy. In \^
119
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDU
GkOilee
lie was taken to Stewart County, Ga., and in the
following year to Muscogee County in the same State.
He was licensed to preach (1865), was admitted
to the South Carolina Conference (1866), and was
ordained deacon and elder (1867). He was sta-
tioned at Florence Mission, Ga. (1867), Atlanta
(1867-69), Macon (1871-73), Columbus (1874-77),
again at Macon (1878-80), and Atlanta (1881-88).
In 1888 he was elected bishop. He has been a
tnistee of Wilberforce University, Ohio, vice-presi-
dent of Payne Theological Seminaiy, president of
tbe board of trustees of Edward Waters College,
Jacksonville, Pla., and the foimder of Morris Brown
College, Atlanta, of which he is also trustee and
treasurer. He is likewise president of the financial
board of the African Methodist Episcopal Church,
and has written African Methodism in the South
(Atlanta, 1890).
GALATEO, ga'aa-t^5, GIROLAMO. See Italt,
iHB Reformation in, { 3.
6ALATIA. See Asia Minor, VII
GALATIANS, EPISTLE TO THE. See Paul
m Apostle.
GALBAJfUM. See Incense, I., { 3.
GALE, THEOPHILUS: English non-conformist;
b. at Kingsteignton (12 m. s.s.w. of Exeter),
Devonshire, 1628; d. at Newington, London, Feb.
or Mar., 1678. He studied at Magdalen Hall, Ox-
M (B.A., 1649; M.A., 1652), and in 1650 received
the fellowship of one of the ejected fellows. After hav-
ing distinguished himself as a university preacher,
he accepted an appointment as preacher in Winches-
ter Cathedral in 1657, but retained his fellowship.
At the Restoration he lost his preferments and
beeame a tutor to the children of Lord Wharton.
He traveled abroad with his pupils 1662-65, and on
the termination of his engagement in 1666, he settled
tt Newington, London, as assistant pastor to John
Rowe, whom he succeeded in 1677. On his death
he kft his theological library to Harvard College.
Oale is known by his Court of the Gentiles (parts i.
«d ii., Oxford, 1669-71; parts iii. and iv., London,
1W7; 2d. ed., London, 1682), which is a learned
iittempt to trace all European languages back to
Hebrew and to prove that all ancient philosophy
ttd theolc^y were derived from the Hebrew
Scriptures. Among Gale's other works are: A
True Idea of Jansenism (London, 1669); Anatomy
^llnfidelUy (1672); and Idea Theologias (1673).
BtluooaAPHT: A. k Wood, AAena Oxanieriaet, ii. 451, 750,
778, London* 1602; E. Galamy, HvBtorical Account, pp.
6M5, ib. 1713; S. Palmer, NoruxmformUfa Memorial,
I 239. ib. 1802; DNB, xx. 377-378.
GALERIUS: Roman emperor, 293-^11. See
ftoCLETlAN.
6ALFRID, gdl'frld (GAUFRID, GOTTFRID),
OFCLAIRVAUX: Cistercian abbot; d. after 1188.
8c was bom at Auxerre, and was a pupil of Abelard,
^ obtained Bernard's favor in 1140, and later
i«CMne his secretary (notarius). In 1159 he was
Jiade abbot of the monastery at Igny, in 1162 of
Sairvaux, but had to give up this position in 1167.
fe 1170 he became abbot of Fossanova, near
%ome, in 1176 of Hautecombe in Savoy. The most
important part of Galfrid's activity refers to Ber-
nard of Clairvaux, of whose biography he wrote
books iii.-v. and the third part of book vi., besides
collecting materials. For the proceedings against
Gilbert of Poitiers at Reims in 1149 he collected pa-
tristic quotations against him and published them
afterward (MPL, clxxxv. 595-618). At the request
of the order he also wrote a biography of the arch-
bishop Peter of Tarentaise. Gommentaries on the
Song of Songs, on the Apocalypse, and sermons are
still extant in manuscript. Galf rid nowhere develops
any new thoughts nor does he betray any deep
conception of persons and things, but he shows a
certain ability in the way of presentation. His
unlimited admiration of Bernard and his hostility
to Abelard and Gilbert make it necessary to accept
his statements with caution.
S. M. Deutsch.
Bibuookapht: Mabillon, Introduction to the VUcb Ber-
nardi, in MPL, clxxxv. 221 sqq.; Hiatoire litUraire tU la
France, xiv. 430-451; H. Reut«r, Alexander III., vol. ii.,
Leipflic, 1862; Q. HQffer, Der heilige Bemhard von Clair-
vaux, i. 27 8qq., Manster. 1886; E. Vacandard, Vie de SL
Bernard, PariH, 1895; KL. v. 932-033.
GALFRID OF VENDdllE: Abbot of the clois-
ter at Venddme from 1093; d. at Angers Mar. 26,
1132. When Pope Urban II. (q.v.) fell into sore
straits under the party of the antipope (dement III.,
Galfrid hastened to Rome and rendered such great
service that he was appointed a cardinal-priest, and
received still further tokens of the pope's good-will.
He enjoyed favorable relations with Paschal II.
as well; also with Galixtus II. and Honorius II.
In church history at large, Galfrid is a factor of
some significance on account of his share in the in-
vestitme controversy (see Investiture); he be-
longed to those of the clergy who stoutly demanded
the revocation of the privilege of investiture con-
ferred by Paschal II. on the German king. He
was the author of certain minor teleological
writings. Carl Mirbt.
Biblioorapht: Gottfried's Epietola, libelli and Opueatla
were edited by J. Sirmond, Paris, 1610, and are also in
MPL, dvii. The libelli, ed. E. Saekur. are in MGH, Li-
beUi de lite, ii (1893), 680-700. Consult: Histoire IH-
teraire de la France, xi. 180; L. Compain, £tude eur
Qeoffroi de Vend&me, Paris. 1891; E. Saekur. in NA,
xviii (1893), 66^-673; C. Mirbt. Die PuUizieHk im ZeitalUr
Oregora VIL, Leipeic, 1894.
GALILEE.
I. The Israeli tie Period. Geographical Limits (f 1).
Namesand Boundaries (fl). Earlier History (f 2).
History (§ 2). Galilee the Home of Insur-
Cities (5 3). rection (5 3).
II. The Jewish Period. Cities (f 4).
Galilee (Hebr. GaLil; Aram. Golila, Gelila; Gk.
Hi Galilaia) is the most northern district of Pales-
tine. The form of the name indicates two distinct
periods in the history of the region, the Israelitic
and the Jewish.
L The Israelitic Period: The word Gcdil or
GcdUah (II Kings xv. 29) means a circle, region,
district. It is used nearly in its primary sense in
Isa. ix. 1 (cf. I Mace. v. 15), and suggests in these
passages a region not in the complete possession of
the Hebrews. The passage in Isaiah defines the
region closely enough, mentioning on one side
Zebulim and Naphtali. on the other " beyond
OaUlM
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
OO
Jordan," and also "the way of the sea," which is
the caravan route from Damascus to Acre via
Bahrat al-Hulah, Wadi al-Hammam
1. Names and past Kam Hattin, and also the
and Bound- ''district of the nations" (R. V. mar-
aries. gin). The region through which this
road passes beyond Kam Hattin is the
land of Zebulun; the Jordan region is the stretch on
the west side from Bahrat al-Hulah to Dan. The
** district of the nations " includes the mountain
region to the north of the plain of al Battof (cf .
Josh. XX. 7 and II Kings xv. 29). The last two
expressions in Isa. ix. 1 correspond to the "land
of Naphtali " in the preceding context.
The earliest reports of this region come from
the inscriptions of Sethos I. and Rameses II.
(fourteenth and thirteenth centuries b.c.) in con-
nection with the conquered territory between the
Kishon and Lebanon, in which Asher is mentioned.
By this is not necessarily meant the tribe of Asher,
since the incriptions clearly mean a country.
Gen. XXX. 9-13 makes Asher a son of Jacob and
Zilpah, the bondservant of Leah, that is, a stock of
mixed Hebrew and Canaanitic blood: or, in other
words, Hebrew settlers in the district of
2. History. Asher had assumed the name of the
region, though they had in time become
its masters. A similar explanation applies to the
case of Naphtali as the son of Jacob and Bilhali, the
bondservant of Rachel (Gen. xxx. 1-8). The two
Canaanitic stocks out of which these peoples devel-
oped were the Amorites and the Hivites. The
Amorites came from Lebanon later than 1250 b.c;
the Hivites dwelt at the foot of Hermon (Josli.
xi. 3) or Lebanon (Judges iii. 3). In the Song of
Deborah, Naphtali and Zebulun receive praise,
wliile Asher is charged with indifference and lack
of effort, but in Judges vi. 35, vii. 23, Asher is
reckoned among the fighting tribes. The indica-
tions of history and of Judges i. 31-33 are that the
district of A«her was less under Hebrew control than
that of Naphtali. But it is clear from the reading of
events that the population of the region had little
influence at least upon the rehgion of Israel.
Solomon ceded to Hiram of Tyre twenty cities in
Galilee which belonged to the region of Cabul
(I Kings ix. 10-14) which Hiram gave to Solo-
mon (II Chron. viii. 2), though the history in the
Books of Kin^ does not bear out the Chronicler.
Benhadad I. wasted "all the land of Naphtali"
(I Kings XV. 20); after the victory of Ahab it was
again recovered by Hazael (11 Kings xii. 18, xiii.
22), and Jeroboam was able to restore the control to
Israel, though only for a short time. In 734 b.c.
Tiglath-pileser III. assailed this entire region at the
request of Ahaz (II Kings xvi. 7) and carried the
inhabitants into exile (II Kings xv. 29). The har-
assed condition of the inhabitants is expressed in
Isa. iii. 21, ix. 4. The IsraeHtic period ends with
the assimilation of the region to the Assyrian rule.
The Galilee of Israelitic times possessed no large
cities. It was not easily acceasible, since there
were no good roads, and the caravan route passed
through its southeastern comer only. One road
passed eastward from Tyre to Abel-be th-maacah,
and crossed several leading north and south; there
was a path from Tyre to the Sea of Galilee, and one
from Acre, more traveled, which branched on the
hiUs northward and southward. Judges zviii. 7-10
probably represents the condition of
3. Cities, all the places called cities in (kliiee. .
Josh. xi. 10 names Hazor as the capi-
tal, one of Solomon's border fortresses (I Kings ii.
15), while I Mace. xi. 63-73 locates it south of Efr-
desh. Kedesh was one of the oldest possessions of
Israel; its modem name is Kades, located north of
Bahrat al-Hulah. Its name indicates that it wig
an old sanctuary, and Josh. xx.7,xxi. 32mBkeita
city of refuge and a Levitical city. North of Ke-
desh, on the border of the hill country above the
Jordan valley, lay Abel-beth-maacah, the modem
Abil al-Kamh, the refuge of Sheba (II Sam. xx. 14).
Still farther north lay Ijon, not definitely located.
though there is a Marj Ajun between the Litany and
the Hasbany . Dan was situated eastward from .\hil
al-Kamh, on the west source of the Jordan (Judges
xviii., Josh. xix. 47). Its earlier name was Lais or
Leshem. Jeroboam made it one of the royal 8an^
tuaries, and it stood for the extreme northern
boundary of Israel. Aclishaph (Josh. xi. I) i*
possibly the modem Khirbat Iksaf, southwest of the
bend in the Litany. The village Jarun west of
Bahrat al-Hulah perhaps marks the Iron of JosL
xix. 38, Kana, south of this, may be the Kanah of
Josh. xix. 28, and Ramiya, stiil farther south, the
Ramah of Josh. xix. 29.
n. The Jewish Period: The boundaries of the
Jewish Galilee differed from those under Israel.
Josephus makes it begin on the north of Scytbo-
polis and the Plain of Jezreel, and div-ides it into
Upper and Lower Galilee, with the division at the
plain of al-Ramah, with Beersheba on the line.
While the Sea of Galilee and the Jordan were nor-
mally the eastern boundary, places farther east
were reckoned to it (see Gaulanitis). The
northern and western boundaries are
I. Geo- hard to define, though Josephus makes
graphical Kedesh a Tyrian fortress on the bound-
Limits, ary. The Jewish Galilee included the
territory of Zebulun, which was not in
the earlier district. Dr. Hirsch Hildesheimer {Bei-
trdge zur Geographie Paldstinas, Berlin, 1886) from
indications in the Talmud would place the north-
em line by Tibnin, Marj Ajun and Ciesarea PhUippi
in the time of Alexander Jaimseus. But it is
hardly likely that Kedesh had changed its relations
between his time and that of Josephus.
Despite the exemplary pimishment meted out io
the district by Tiglath-pileser III., the Israelitic
inhabitants continued for the most part to hold
their position, and it did not suffer the same ad-
mixture of foreign population as did Samans.
The narrative in II Chron. xxx. 10-11 supports
the supposition that there were t hose in the country
about 300 B.C. who were allied in religion wth the
Jews ; and that Jews lived in that country is shown
by I Mace. v. 14-23, in that Simon the
2. Earlier Maccabee brought numbers of Je^
History, thence to live in Judea. Under John
Hyrcanus I. Samaria was subjected and
the boundaries thrust farther north to Galilee-
Aristobulus I. seems to have conquered and Judai^d
481
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDU
OftUlee
Galilee (Joeephus, ArU. XIII., xi. 3), and Hyrcanus
II. was confirmed by Pompey as ethnarch of the re-
gion. The later destiny of Galilee was bound up wit h
that of Judea. The proconsul Gabinius divided the
whole Jewish country into five districts, each with its
own synedrium, that for Gahlee sitting in Sepporis.
But this arrangement did not prove satisfactory.
The risings of the years 55 and 53 B.C. were sup-
pressed by the Romans, but Herod first secured
peace in the land 45 b.c. After the rule of Anti-
gonus, 40-37, Galilee was united with Herod's
kingdom (37-4 B.C.), and Augustus gave Herod also
the tetrarchy of Zenodorus. After the death of Herod,
hatred of the Romans and hopes of the Messiah
kindled the fires of insurrection. Judas of Gamala,
son of an Ezechias executed by Herod, rebelled and
was subdued by Varus (see Judas of Galilee).
Meanwhile Augustus had confirmed Herod's will
and Galilee and Pcrsea fell to Antipas, who made
his capital first in Sepporis and then in Tiberias on
the Sc»a of Galilee. While the census of Quirinius
(7 A.D.) did not affect Galilee, it set loose forces of
insurrection. The Zealots arose under
^ Galilee Judas of Gamala and the Pharisee
the Home Zaddok. Judas was killed (Acts v.
of Insurrec- 37), but he had sown seed which pro-
tion. duced fruit. Both John the Baptist
and Jesus found Zealots among their
disciples (John i. 35-42; Mark iii. 18). These
continued movements caused Antipas great anxiety
(Luke xiii. 31, 32). An event of the year 40 showed
how great was the feeling against the Romans.
Caligula had ordered Petronius, the governor of
Syria, to place the emperor's statue in the Temple
at Jerusalem, and thousands of Jews assembled
in Ptolemais and Tiberias, in the latter place con-
tinuously for forty days, beseeching him not to
profane the Temple, and Petronius gave up the
design. From the year 44 the Zealots continued to
gain ground among the people, though treated by
the Romans as common brigands. By a gift of
Nero, part of Galilee came under Agrippa II., viz.,
Tiberias and Tarichsea. At the beginning of the
war in 67, Sepporis yielded to the Romans and the
other cities, Tarichsea, Tiberias, Gamala, and the
fortress on Tabor and at Gischala were subdued.
After 70, Vespasian took the entire district, so
rife with sedition, under his private control, and
Judea was administered by governors probably of
pretorian rank. Agrippa's realm after his death
in 100 was joined to the province of Syria.
A review shows that the population of Galilee was
heterogeneous. Besides the Jews, themselves not
of pure strain, there were Aramcans, Itureans
(perhaps Arabs), to say nothing of Phenicians and
Greeks. On this account the contempt of the
Jews for Galileans is explicable (John i. 46, vii. 52),
and the dialect was distinguishable from that used
in the south (Matt. xxvi. 73; Mark xiv. 70). Never-
theless in the second century Galilee became the
home of Jewish scholarship, the place where the
Masoretic work was done upon the text of the
Old Testament and where the beginning was made
of the collection which became the Jerusalem or
Palestinian Talmud.
The best^known cities belonged to Lower Galilee.
Near the southwestern boundary and south of the
Wadi al-Malak lay Simonias, the Shimron of Josh,
xi. 1, the modem Semuniyah. South of Tabor the
modem Nein locates the Nain of Luke vii. 11. On
the plateau between Tabor and the Sea of Gahlee the
modem village of Sarona locates the Saronas of
Eusebius {Qnonuuiicon, 296). In the time of
Christ the region immediately west of the Sea of
Galilee was densely populated. In the south, not
far from the outlet into the Jordan, lay theTalmudic
fortress Bethirah, to be identified with the Tari-
chsea of Josephus, the modem Khirbet al-Karak.
Four miles north was the celebrated spring of
Tiberias, with Tiberias itself half an
4* Cities, hour farther north, according to the
Talmud the site of the Rakkath of
Josh. xix. 35. After Herod Antipas had built it,
he found it difiicult to get Jews to settle there,
since they regarded it as unclean on accoimt of the
many graves in the vicinity or on the site. An hour
still to the north is located the village al-Majdal,
identified with the home of Mary Magdalene.
From there to Khan Minyah stretches the plain,
the Ciennesaret of Mark vi. 53. On the location of
Gapemaum see Cafbrnaum. The best road from
the shore of the Sea of Galilee westward is through
the Wadi al-Hammam, where Herod's famous
battle with the supporters of the Hasmoneans was
fought (Josephus, War, I., xvi. 2, 4). The basalt
hill of Kam Hattin is identified by the Roman
Catholics as the Mount of Transfigiutition, but
without good reason. To the southwest is situ-
ated Kafr Kanna, often identified with the
Cana of John ii.; others locate Cana at Khirbet
Kana, and a third identification is with Kanat
al-Jahl, at the north of the plain of al-Battof . But
half an hour north of Nazareth (q.v.) is a spring
'still known as Ain Kana, smroimded by masonry,
and near it a basin of masonry. This site better
fulfils the conditions required for the site of Cana.
One and a half hours north of Nazareth is Safuri-
yah, which marks the site of Sepporis, a town by
natiue a fortress, and for that reason influential in
history. Before Tiberias was built, it was the chief
city of the district. In the north of the plain of
al-Battof (plain of Asoclus, Ant, XIII., xii. 4), at
the modem Tell Jafat was the fortress of Jotapata
(Josephus, War, III., vii.-viii.). In Upper Galilee,
near the north shore of the Sea of Gahlee and near
Capernaum, the present Khirbet Karazah is the
site of Chorazin (Matt. xi. 21 ). Upon a high spur,
giving a wide view southward, was Zafed, a city
reckoned with Jerusalem, Hebron, and Tiberias as
one of the holy places. Westward lies Meron,
often mentioned in the Talmud and still a place of
pilgrimage for Jews who honor the doctors of the
law buried there. Gischala lay to the north, the
modem ruins bearing the name al-Jish.
(H. GUTHE.)
Bibuookaprt: G. A. Smith, HiaUnrical Oeography of the
Holy Land, London, 1897; SohOrer, Oetchiehte, i.-ii., Eng.
transl., I., i., II., i.; A. Neubauer, La Oioffraphie du Tal-
mud, Parid, 1868; V. GuMn, DeacripUon de la Palestine,
III.. Oalilie, i.-ii., ib. 1880; C. R. Conder and H. H.
Kitchener, Survey of Weeiem Palestine, Memoir; vol. i.,
London, 1881; 8. Merrill, Oalilee in the Time of Christ,
Boston, 1881; W. M. Thouwon, Land and Book, Central
OtaOilM, Sea of
Qallioan Ckmfesflion
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
4tt
PoXfthfUf. London. 1883; B. Btade. GcKhwkte dt* VoU«t
itrod^ vol, ]., BerUti, 1887; B. Gr»eu, GtKhidvte der Ju-
den^ voL ili., Index. " Oalil&a/' " Gidilierp'^ " Zeloten."
ib. 1888: W. M. MQller, A mm und Europa, Letp^ic. \S93i
J. WftUhauAtsD, ftftieli^Uehe und judiitrhe Geucftidite, B^-
Hn. 18»4: F. BuhJ. Geographic de* oiien F^i>ina. Fr«i-
burg, 1890: W. ^^ndcLy, Saer^ SiUi <tf the Gotp^. pp. 20-
4S, LondoQ. 1903; Robinson. Rt^iarche*, voh iui DB. iL
98-104; EB, iu 1628-36; JE, v. 553-5M.
GALILEEj SEA OF: The body of water into
which the Jordan widens north of the Dead Bea and
south of Lake Huieh, In the Old and the New
Testament several names are appUed to it. In
the Greek of the New Teitament it appears as a,
Hmni ("lake"; Luke v. 1, viii. 22-33), and as a
thai^issa ('* sea '^; John yi. IS, 23). Id one place
(Luke V. 1 ) it m called the Lake of Genneiaret, a
nanae given aldo to the plain along the northwestern
shore and t^ a town in the plain. Bea of Tiberias
IS the terminology in John vi, 1, xxi. I, in the
first passage also Sea of Galilee. The term Sea of
Galilee is the beit known to the New Testament,
occurring Matt. iv. IS, xv, 29; Mark i. 16, vii, 31 ;
John vi, I. In the Old Testament it appears as the
Sea of Chinnereth (Num. xxxiv* U; Josh. xili. 27)
and the Sea of Chinnerotb (Josh. xiL 3), vadant
forms of the same word, the origin of which is
doubtful. 1 Mace. si. 67 speaks of ** the water of
Genneaar/" This body of water is thirteen mUes
long and nearly seven miles wide, less than 200 feet
in depth, approximately an elongated oval in shape,
and Its surface is 700 feet below the Mediterranean,
The northern and southern shones slope gently to the
plain of the Jordan, while the eastern and western
shores are terminated by the hills which rise
abruptly on the east, less so on the west. It is
Bubject to sudden storms of great violence which
make its navigation always a matter of peril. Its
waters swarm with fish, and one town, Bethsaidit
{" Home of Fishermen *'), took it© name from this
fact. The most sacred aiisociations of the lake are
connected with the life of Jesus.
BrBLioafiAPHT: For Literature ix^nault Uit under Galu.ee.
GALILEO, gQ'nt'l^'fl (properly Galileo GalUet):
Italian physicist and astronomer; b. at Pisa Feb,
15, 156^1; d. at Arcetri, near Florence, Jan. 8, 1642.
In 1581 he entered the University of Fl^ to jitudy
medicine and the Aristotelian philoeophy, but soon
abandoned medicine for mathematics and physical
science. In 15S5 he left the university and went
to Florence to study under Otiho Ricei. lie was
professor of mathematics at Pisa 1589-91, and at
Padua 1592-1610, lecturing there to crowds of
enthusiastic puiiils from all over Europe. In 1610
Cosmo 11., grand duke of Tuscany^ appointed him
philosopher and mathematician at the Florentine
court, thus relieving him of all academic routine
and enabling him to devote himself entirely to his
scientific investigations.
Galileo's opposition to the Ptolemaic cosmology
first brought bim under the BUspicion of the In-
quiaition in 1611» though he continued his investi-
gations and publicly defended the Copemican sys-
tem. In a letter to liis friend Father Castelli,
dated Dee, 21, 1613, he maintained that the theolo-
gian, instead of trying to restrict scientific investiga-
tion on Biblical grounds, should make it hlA buaiikeaa
to reconcile ths phraseology of the Bible with tbi
re^Bults of science. In 1615 a copy of this letter
was produced before the inquisition, witJi thi
result that the following year Gaiileo was warned by
the pope to desist from liis heretical teaehiop m
the pain of imprisonment. In 1632 he agaia diefr
the attejition of the Inquiiition by pubUfiiuai a
defense of the Cojjemican system. After j& iaii|
and wearisome trial be was condemned ofi June
22, 1633, solemnly to abjure hL» scientific cited <m
bended knees. This be did under threat« d Us-
ture; but whether he was actually put to ^
tortuie is stiU a mooted question. He wm iba
sentenced to indeterminate imprisonment, bat tUi
was soon commuted to residence at Sienna, md thi
following December he w^aa allowed to return to
his villa at Arcetri, though he remained imder tb
surveillance of the Inquisition, In 1637 he becaiUB
totally blind.
Galileo % chief contributionB to seknce are bii {
formulation of the laws governing falling boding
the invention of the telescope, the discovery of the
isochrontsm of the pendulum^ and numenni
astronomical discoveries, including the pha&m d
Venus, four satellites of Jupiter, and the spot£ m
the sun. His works were stricken from the hida
in 1S35, The most important are Dialog& , , .
sopra i due sisiemi dd rrwndo (Floi?nee» 1632);
and Di^corsi t demmtrazioni matemoHchk mkirm h
du^nuove scienze (Leyden, 1638; both these am id
Eng. transl. by T. Salusbnry, The Sysime af Ht
World, in Four Dialogues t wherein the two gmi
Sfistsmes of Piokmy and Copernicus art , . .Si-
couTied ofj,.. The arwienl and modem Dodnm 4
Holy Fathers . , . oafweming the ra^ Cit^tmoj
the TesHnwny <?/.,, Sacred Scripture in Cmid»-
ei&ns merely natural. Maihemaiical Di^eourm &i
Dmn(m4!trati<ms touching two new Sdejieu perim-
ing to MechanikR and Local Motion . , . wQh ^
Appendix of the CenJre of Gravity of some SoUdi.—
A Discourse concerning the Halation of Bodia upm
. . .the Water, London. 1661 ; by J, West^m, LcduQr
1730). The best editions of his works are thsi by
E. Alberi (16 vols., Florence, 1842^56) aad the net
complete edition now being prepared by A. Favaro
at the expense of the State (Florence, 1890 sqq^h
Bibuocbapbt: A Fsvwo. QaMka QslHeK Ftorcoff, IS^
F. Picavel. Gatilt^. dettntcteur de la *eokutiqvM d ;M«-
ieurd^la phitoaophU »n>nfi/i^u#t Piixifu ISB&: Pfir^ ttf(
of Gftiikf>. Londod. 1869 {b&etpd on hi« conwpoodiwi
witb hi* daughters ^^ H. de L'^pinoin. GoJif^. «w w^^
»a cond'Omnalion, d'aprit let doct£witni» iWcfi^, Fan*. 1^
K. von GablcT* C«iiZftJ aW the Roman Cmn^ Utu^
IftTO; F. R. WeiER-Proflaef, G^likt? and hi* Jvis^ ^
1886 igiveB nummary of the *' Diald«u* '); 0 1^
Pioneer J In Scwrna?, ib. 18S2; D. J^asmith^ Mckrt ^
Modem ThQUffht, 2 vola.. ib. 1892; A. D. White. ^*^
of Science with Theslogjf. 2 voU., New York, im- J *
Fftbie, OalUea, hU Life mnd Work, London, J90S; £t, f-
IB-U {Roman Catbolic. givw good lisi of litfrtwr^
A. Favaro, professor of law in the Uai^^rdtf d Pwi*
baa publi»jied in It^Uan '' Galileo and the liiqiB"t«*,
1007. e;iAHnK the nrlpna-l document* reffmiig tuGiHlwJ
prowcution from the archives of the VaticnQ aiid tb*B*
Offi«5,
GALlTZm, gQ-lit'ein (GALLITZllf, GOUI^
ADELHEID AMALIE, PRTICE^ See ChiTf
BERG, BeHNHARD HeINBICH,
GALL| SAINT. See auNr Qau., Moka&ixkt of.
488
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Oftlilee, Sea of
Oallioan OonfMsion
GALLAGHER, CHARLES WESLEY: Method-
dist Episcopalian; b. at Boston Feb. 3, 1846. He
studied at Wesleyan University (B.A., 1870), and
held pastorates at Guilford, Conn. (1870-72),
Bridgehampton, Long Island (1872), First Church,
Taunton, Mass. (1872-73), East Pearl Street, New
Haven, Conn. (1873-76), North Church, Hartford,
Oonn. (1876), Hazelville, Conn. (1877), Warren
Street, Brooklyn (1877-80), St. Paul's, Fall River,
Mass. (1880-^1), First Church, Taunton, Mass.
(1882-S3), and Hazardville, Conn. (1884-86),
while in 1887-88 he was presiding elder of the New
Bedford district. From 1889 to 1893 he was presi-
dent of Lawrence University, Appleton, Wis., and
president of Maine Wesleyan Seminary and College
from 1893 to 1897. He was then associate principal
of Lasell Seminary, Aubumdalc, Mass., from 1897
to 1901, and since the latter year has been president
of the Lucy Webb Hayes National Training School
for Missionaries and Deaconesses of the Methodist
Episcopal Church, Washington, D. C. He has
written God Revealed^ or NcUure*8 Best Word (New
York, 1899).
GALLANDI, gOl'^On'Mr, ANDREA: Italian
Oratorian and scholar; b. at Venice Dec. 7, 1709;
d. there Jan. 12, 1779. He achieved fame by his
edition of the Bibliotheca veterum pairum antiquorum-
que scriptorum ecclesiasticorum Grceco-Latina (14
vols., Venice, 1765-81). Despite the fact that he
did not include works of the ancient theological au-
thors which were already extant in separate editions,
Gallandi's Bibliotheca is more complete, so far as
minor works and authors are concerned, than any
collection previous to that of Migne. He likewise
edited a nimiber of treatises De vetustia cananum
eoUectiontbus (1778), which included works by
Constant, Petrus de Marca, and the Ballerini
brothers. (A. Hauck.)
Bibuoorapht: Nouvelle bioffruphie gHiiraU, xix. 291, Paris,
1858; G. A. Moschini, Letteratura Veneziana, iii. 138. 4
vols., Venice, 1806-08: H. Hurter. NomencUUor lUerarius,
ill. 98, Innsbruck, 1896.
GALUCAN CONFESSION (Confessio Oallicana,
French Confession of Faith, Confession of La
Rochelle): A confession adopted by the first
national synod of the Reformed Chureh of France in
1559. During the first period of the Protestant
congregations in France, there was no official symbol.
There existed, however, the so-called sommaireSf
short statements of the principal truths
The Ear- of Holy Scripture which are found in
lier " Sum- Protestant Bibles, the two oldest being
maries." one in Latin in Robert Stephens'
Bible (1532) and another in French in
the Bible of Faber Stapulensis (1534). They are
found also in Stephens' Latin New Testament
(1552) and in the French New Testament of J.
Gerard (1553) in a form revised and supplemented
by Calvin. These original symbols of the French
Protestant Church were prompted by apologetic
reasons, being called for to refute the calumnies of
Roman priests. Up to 1559 the Protestant con-
gregations of France were independent, each being
at liberty to set up its own confession, and the " sum-
maries " were sufficient for all purposes.
The first impulse toward a general statement of the
doctrine and discipline of all French Reformed con-
gregations was given by a dispute over the doctrine of
predestination which broke out in the congregation
of Poitiers. As the preachers of that city could not
settle the difficulties, the congregation
Origin of of Paris was called to aid. The as-
the Con- sembled preachers came to the con-
fession, elusion that only a common symbol
The Synod and a common church order could
of 1559. guard against the external and internal
dangers of the Church, and it was re-
solved to convene a general assembly representative
of the Reformed Church in France to provide what
was needed. The congregation of Paris invited the
other congregations to a national synod. Calvin
disapproved of the doings of the Reformed congre-
gations, and at his instigation the church council
of Geneva sent three deputies to Paris, N. des
Gallars, Amauld, and Gilbert, with the draft
of a confession in thirty-five articles and a personal
letter from Calvin to Francois de Morel. In the
mean time, the synod had begun its sessions on May
26, 1559, under the presidency of Morel. There
were present probably about fourteen deputies,
preachers or elders, but the number is variously
given from eleven to seventy-two. During the first
three days forty articles of church discipline were
decided on. On May 28, the envoys from Geneva
arrived. They submitted Calvin's draft and it
was accepted with some slight changes.
The arrangement is the same as in Calvin's
*' Institutes " and the Geneva catechism of 1540.
The symbol contains forty articles and is divided
into four parts, corresponding to the four chief
dogmas — God, (Christ, the Holy Spirit, the Church.
The word of God, as revealed in Holy Scripture,
is declared the only and infallible rule
Contents of of faith. The Bible derives its author-
the Con- ity from the testimony of the Holy
fession. Spirit in the believing soul. The
chief dogmas are as in the aommairea —
Adam's fall, original sin, total depravity of human
nature, redemption through the blood of Christ,
free grace of God, justification by faith. Pre-
destination is taught with emphasis, but without
supralapsarianism. In the doctrine of the Lord's
Supper Calvin's conception of " being nourished
from the substance of the flesh and blood of Christ "
is retained.
The confession was unanimously accepted by the
deputies and, according to Chandieu, was " read
and proposed to the people and signed by all who
could attend according to time and locality." Al-
though it was intended to be kept secret, in the
very same year it was published in Switzerland
and in France, under the title Confea-
Later His- aion de foy faide d'un comtnun accord
tory of the par lea Frangaiagui diairent vivre adon
Confession, la pureti de VEvangile de NSJC (I
Peter iii.). It was then printed at the
beginning of the French Bible, in place of the
summary (cf . the Geneva Bible of 1559). A preface
addressed to the king was added, and with this
addition the confession was handed to him in 1561
by eight deputies from all provinces, chosen at
Galilean ConfbMion
QalUcanlsm
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOO
4M
the second national synod in Poitiers (Mar. 10,
1561), with a petition from all congregations.
The confession was finally laid before the whole
world at the seventh national synod of La Rochelle
(Apr. 2, 1571), which convened under the protection
of a royal patent. All Reformed congregations
of France were represented, and Theodore Beza
had been called from Geneva to preside. There
were also present Queen Jeanne d'Albret, Prince
Henry of Navarre (the later Henry IV.), the Prince
of Cond^, Admiral Coligni, and many other noblemen.
The confession was read and si|2:ned by all. During the
time of the so-called " Churches of the Desert " (^glises
du diaert; 1685-1787; see Camibards; Court, An-
toinb; Huquenotb; Rabaut, Paul), the authority
of the symbol began to wane until its subscription
became optional. In 1848 unsuccessful attempts
were made by H. Gasparin and F. Monod to sub-
stitute a new confession. The deputies assembled
at Paris rejected everything except Christ crucified
as a basis of agreement. Another attempt in 1872
was more successful. A new rule of faith was
declared in which the Reformed Church of France
professed to remain true to the principles of faith
upon which it was founded and to maintain the
authority of Holy Scripting in agreement with the
forefathers and martyrs of the Confession of La
Rochelle. Since that time a gulf has existed be-
tween the orthodox and the liberal party in the
Reformed Church of France.
(G. Bonbt-Maury.)
Bibuookapht: The French text with Eng. tnnsl. is in
Sohaff, Creed*, iii. 356-382. The original text is in T. de
Bexa, HiaL eccUaiaetique dee iglieee rifomUee, ii. 173-190,
Antwerp, 1680, and in ZHT, 1876, pp. 506-644, with
introduction by Hoppe. An early Eng. transl. is in
J. Quick, Synodu^n in Oallia reformata, i.. pp. vi.-xvi.,
London, 1692. Consult: Beza. Hiet., ut sup., 3 vols.;
J. Quick, ut sup., 2 vols.; Calvin, Opera, Strasburg ed.,
ix. 67 sqq.; G. de Felice, Hiet. dee ProUetarUe en France,
Toulouse, 1861, Eng. transl., London, 1861; H. Lut-
teroth. La RSformation en France, Paris, 1869; F. Cha-
ponni^re. La Queetion dee confeeeione de foi au eein du
proteetantieme contemporain, Geneva, 1867; H. Dieterlen,
Le Synode gSn^al de Parte en 1869, Paris, 1873; E. Ber-
ner, Le Synode gfn&al de Parie en 187t, ib. 1873; N.
Weiss and O. Douen, in Bulletin de la eodiU d'hiet. du
proteetantieme frangaie, pp. 37. 449, Paris, 1894; Schaff,
Creede, i. 490-498.
GALLICANISM.
Early Development of Nationalism (§1).
Formulation of the Galilean Principles ($ 2).
Relation of the Pope to the Episcopate ($3).
Relation of the Pope to the State ($ 4).
Gailicanism denotes the attitude, tending toward
national independence, which was more or less
widely prevalent in the Roman Catholic Church of
France especially during the seventeenth and
eighteenth centuries. The Church in Gaul was
early recognized as a separate division; in the
third century a papal vicar was conmiissioned to
oversee its aJBfairs, and by the fourth the bishop of
Aries had succeeded in gaining a definite primacy
and appeared as the representative of the pope (see
Arles, Archbishopric of). Under the Merovin-
gian kings the organization became more firmly
established and enjoyed an increasing independence,
always in close connection with the monarchy.
After the king it was the largest landed proprie-
tor, and the bishops and abbots were the most. \
fiuential magnates of the kingdom. This coEk:^
tion involved the result that scas-^^
I. Early a single point of church life wa^^
Develop- eluded from royal regulation. r
ment of gradual development of the pap^^
Nationalism, premacy from Gregory VII. to I^j^
cent III., aiming as it did at the ^^n^
ation of the Church from all secular control, ^^
into inevitable conflict with the system estabj^ji
in France and expressed in the Codex Dionyt-i^jf
drianus given by Adrian I. to Charlemagne. ^
while in Germany the Church was in the main sue-
cessful in the conflict, the struggles of the popes
with the French kings, such as that of Inooceo^
III. with Philip Augustus and of Boniface VIII.
with Philip the Fair, resulted in the strengthemo;
of the royal power. The voluntary removal of cen-
sures and limitation of the bull Clericis kkos bj
Benedict XI. and the declaration of Clement V. in
1306 that the bull Urtam aanctam did not affect
the rights of the king, completed the victory of the
French conception of a State Church.
In 1594, under the title of Lea Libertia de Vi^m
gaUicane, Pierre Pithou, a famous lawyer and hu-
manist, for a long time procurator-general of Paris
(d. 1596), put forth eighty-three propositions ex-
pressing the Galilean position on the status of the
pope, the king, and the bishops, and on the inter
nal government of the Church. A protest of the
bishops against Pithou's work was suppressed by
the parliament, and his book, supported later by
Pierre Dupuy's anonymous collection
2. Formula- of documents (1639) and commen-
tion of the tary (1652), was reprinted with the
Galilean royal license and became the stand-
Principles, ard in practise. Under Louis XIV.
the questions at issue became acute
in the Regale (q.v.) controversy, and Gallicanifln
in its modem form was officially expressed by the
famous Declaralio cleri Gallicani or " Four Artides
of Gailicanism," drawn up by Bossuet, accepted by
the episcopate on Mar. 19, 1682, and imposed upon
the French clergy. The following is a transla-
tion of the ** Four Articles ":
There are many who labor to subvert the Gallican decwM
and liberties which our ancestors defended with so much ksL
and their foundations which rest upon the sacred canoiu tnd
the tradition of the Fathers. Nor are there wanting tboM
who, under the pretext of these liberties, seek to ^'^^^'^
from the primacy of St. Peter and of the Roman pootiSi
his successors; from the obedience which all Christiaa» (^
to them, and from the majesty of the Apostolic See. ^"^^
the faith is taught and the unity of the faith is presemd
The heretics, on the other hand, omit nothing in order U>
represent that power by which the peace of the Giurcb i»
maintained as intolerable both to kings and their subject':
and by such artifices estrange the souls of the simple from
the conunimion of the Church, and therefore from Qm^
With a view to remedy such evils, we, the archbishops and
bishops assembled at Paris by the king's orders, representinS
together with the other deputies the Gallican Qiurch. hate
judged it advisable, after mature deliberation, to determbtf
and declare as follows:
1. St. Peter and hi.s successors, vicars of Qirist. and Eke
wise the Church itself, have received from God poirer in
things spiritual and pertaining to salvation, but not in things
temporal and civil; inasmuch as the Lord says. My kingdom
is not of this world; and again. Render unto Ceraar the things
which are Cmsar's, and unto God the things which are God's.
The Apostolic precept also holda, Let every soul be nibjeet
425
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDU
Oallioan Oonfeasion
Oallioanitnn
onto the higher powers, for there is no power but of God:
the powers that be are ordained of God; whosoever therefore
resiBteth the power resisteth the ordinance of God. Conse-
quently kings and princes are not by the law of God subject
to any ecclesiastical power, nor to the keys of the Churchi
with respect to their temporal government. Their subjects
can not be released from the duty of obeying them, nor ab-
solved from the oath of allegiance; and this maxim, necessary
to public tranquillity, and not less advantageous to the Church
than to the State, is to be strictly maintained, as conformable
to the word of God, the tradition of the Fathers, and the
example of the Saints.
2. The plenitude of power in things spiritual, which resides
in the Apostolic See and the successors of St. Peter, is such
that at the same time the decrees of the ecumenical Council
of Constance, in its fourth and fifth sessions, approved as
they are by the Holy See and the practise of the whole
Church, remain in full force and perpetual obligation; and
the Gallican Church does not approve the opinion of those
who would depreciate the said decrees as being of doubtful
authority, insufficiently approved, or restricted in their ap-
plication to a time of schism.
3. Hence the exercise of the Apostolic authority must be
regulated by the canons enacted by the Spirit of God and con-
secrated by the reverence of the whole world. The ancient
rules, customs, and institutions received by the realm and
Qiurch of France remain likewise inviolable; and it is for
the honor and glory of the Apostolic See that such enact-
ments, confirmed by the consent of the said see and of the
churches, should be observed without deviation.
4. The pope has the principal place in deciding questions
of faith, and his decrees extend to every church and all
churches; but nevertheless his judgment is not irreversible
until confirmed by the consent of the Church.
Under the system thus formally established^ the
pope was recognized as the successor of Peter and vicar
of Christ, the divinely appointed head of
3. Relation the Church, nith spiritual jurisdiction
of the Pope over the whole body and over national
to the Epis- Churches in particular. But the sta-
copate. tus of the bishops rested equally upon
divine ordinance, and they, with the
pope, represented the Church in general councils,
wUch were of higher authority than the pope,
and could alone issue an irreformable definition in
matters of faith; a definition issued by the pope
when no council was sitting required the consent
of the whole Church before it could be considered
irreformable. From the point of view of his rela-
tions to the French episcopate, the pope was sup-
posed to be bound by the canons, and in France
especially by the recognized ancient customs.
These, it is true, had been substantially altered by
the Concordat of 1516 between Francis I. and Leo
X., which had gone into effect in spite of clerical
protests (see Concordats and Delimiting Bulls,
III., 2, 1 1). I'he king named the bishops, who were
then confirmed by the pope. Papal interference in
the affairs of individual dioceses was only to be
tolerated as far as the law of the Church allowed.
The papal nuncio had no jurisdiction in France,
and the presence of a legate a latere was permissible
only in virtue of a mutual agreement, and then only
during the king's pleasure. The greatest power
was conceded to the pope in regard to the ap-
pointment to benefices; abbots and, in practise,
abbesses were nominated by the king and confirmed
by the pope, who also claimed for his province
dispensations of all kinds, unless the king or the par-
liaments interfered in a specific case.
In theory the Church was an independent power,
but in reality the State ruled. Every papal consti-
tution, whether relating to doctrine or discipline,
required the approval of the king or a government
official before it went into effect in
4. Relation France, and the same thing applied
of the Pope to the decrees of councils. A part of
to the State, the decisions of the Council of Trent
was enforced through the royal or-
donnance de Blois of 1579. Ecclesiastical jurisdic-
tion was strictly limited. The offenses of clerics,
unless purely ecclesiastical, came before secular
tribunals, except in the case of bishops, who were
tried before a provincial council. All mixed causes
(dissolution of marriage, questions of church prop-
erty, benefices, tithes, etc.) were decided by the
higher secular courts. The king claimed the right
to tax the clergy and church property, but this was
vehemently opposed by the clergy and never
wholly conceded before the Revolution. The in-
comes of vacant sees went to the king, who also
claimed the right to appoint to all benefices during
a vacancy in the see.
The State took strong ground against any imme-
diate interference of the curia in the government of
the French Church. A French prelate consecrated
in Rome was not allowed to exercise his functions.
The decrees of the Roman congregations had no
validity in France, nor were Frenchmen allowed to
be summoned to Rome in any process of law. As
a consequence of this conflict between the rival
powers, an institution grew up which seriously
crippled the ecclesiastical jurisdiction, the appd
comme d^abus, by wliich. on the application of one
party to a case, or simply on groimds of public in-
terests, the frocureur-gfn&rdl might cite the case
before the parliament of the province for investi-
gation and decision. This institution, created by
the Pragmatic Sanction of 1438 (see Praomatic
Sanction), was abolished by the Concordat of 1516,
but the parliaments stiU maintained it; it found
a new support in the ordonnance de Villera-Cotereta
in 1539, was limited or modified on complaint of the
clergy by new edicts in 1571, 1580, 1605, and 1695,
and stoutly upheld by the parliaments until prac-
tically there was no more question of an inde-
pendent ecclesiastical jurisdiction or administration.
Thus the power of the papacy was indeed broken,
but at the cpst of serious damage to the rights of
the episcopate and the complete subjection of the
Gallican Church to the State. The downfall of the
old regime, however, allowed the pope to acquire
a degree of power in France which he had never
before possessed, and the nineteenth century
witnessed the gradual decay of the last remnants
of the old Gallican spirit. (J. F. von Schulte.)
Bibuooraphy: P. de Marca. De concordia tacerdotii et im-
pent, Paris. 1641; J. B. Bossuet, Defenno decUtrationia
. . . de poteatale ecdeaia eanxit derua Gallicanue, Luxem-
burg, 1730; C. Fleury, Diecoure eur lee libertie de I'fgliee
gallicane, Parin, 1765; idem, InaHtution au droit eccUair
aatique, ib. 1767; L. E. Dupin, Lea Libertia de I'Hf^iae gal-
licane, ib. 1824; idem, Manuel du droit publiqw eccUai-
aatique francaia, ib. 1847; J. B. Bordap-Demoulin, Lea
Pouvoira conaHtuHfa de Vigliae, ib. 1865; F. Huet, Le Gal-
licaniame, ib. 1865; W. H. JervlB, The Gallican Church,
London, 1872 (from 1616 to the Revolution); idem. The
QaUican Church and the Revolution, ib. 1882; A. Le Roy,
Le Gallicaniame au xviii. aiecle, Paris, 1892; L. Mention,
Documenta relatifa aux rapporta du clergi arec la royautS
1681^1706, PariB. 1893 eqq.; A. Debedour. HxuL d€a rap-
Oallieniu
GaUus
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
4M
porU cfe l'ietis0 ei de Vital . . . J?S9-i3?0, ih. l&ftS;
Keller, Im Fin dfu gt^liaariimmi ei M. Maret 9on fiemi^
rvpr^-wnlant Alen^^m, 1901; A, G<on, CkurrJi and State
in Fronts, 1300-1907* London, 1 80^; Cambridoe Mod-
em HiticTjf^ V. 72egq., Kaw York, IftOS. Dcjcumente per-
il ti^al to the aubject. iacLudinK the biilU Cfrricifl laijtoa tLnd
Unam §anciafn, are in Tlmtrlier and McNeaL DoeumtntB*
pp. 311-314; Robtnsoci, European lliatorjf^ pp. 34€ aqqit
48S ^q.; aad Rddi, IkJcumml^, pp. 193-105, 379-986,
GALLIEHUS, ^"M'nim, PUBLIUS LldNlUSj
Roman emperor 260-368; b. 218 or 219; d. at
lifilan Mar. 4, 268^ In 254 hewais made coregent by
bis father, the Emperor Valerian, and ruled with
Mm until 260, when the elder emperor waa taken
pnsonar by the Persians, GalUenus thenceforth
ieems to have remained sole ruler, for it is not cer-
tain that his stepbrother, the younger Valeriaa, ever
became Augustus. On the revolt of AureoluB in
IllyriaT Gallienus marched against him and laid
siege to MEiin, but fell a vtctim to a conspiracy of
his officers, headed by Aurelian and Heraclian.
Hk reign was marked by inroads of the barbarians
from the north and &mU and by oeaseleaa inaur-
rections and attempts at usurpation. Notwith-
standing that he was unequal to the tasks which
confronted him, Gallienus waa highly lauded by
his elder contemporary DionysiuB, bishop of
Alexandria, who, writing to Hermammon in 262
(EusebiuB, Hut. ecet., vu. 23), compared the em-
peror to the sun which shines again after its tem-
porary obecurity by a cloud (alluding to the usurper
Macrianus, who had taken jKjssession of Egypt),
and even saw in him the fulfilment of the prophecy
in laa. xliii. 19.
The ground of this favorable judgment of Dio-
nysiust i» wliich Eusebius concurs, is evidently the
repeal by the new emperor of the hareh edicts of
Valerian against the Christtans. It has even been
stated (without cogent evidence) that he declared
Cbristianity to be a tolerated religion. The edict is-
sued by GaUienus in 260 is lost, and the one transla-
ted from the In^atin by Euscbius (Hist, ecd., VIL, xiii*
2) is a special edict for Egypt, promulpited in 261 ,
Granting that the edict for the entire empire wais
analogous to this Egyptian decree, it merely pro*
vided that the biahojia should not be sought out
by the authorities, and that the places of worship
should be left unmolested. It therefore simply
restored the conditions which existed before the
reigna of Decius and Valerian, without giving
Cbristianity the «hghtcat officiBl recognition. The
fact that the decree was addressed directly to the
bisbopa was indeed unprecedented, but tliifl was
clearly due to the importance and influence winch
tbey had attained. Eusebius himself, moreover,
merely states that G allien us alleviated the portion
of the Christians, but nowhere aayi that he tolerated
them, wliOe the mass of Christian tradition has
either ignored the edict or paid scant attention to it.
The clearest evidence that the attitude of the Btate
toward Chriatianity was unchanged lies in the fact
that Christian soldiers could stiU suffer martyr-
dom for their faith (cf, Eusebius, HisL ecd., vii. 15).
The moat that can be said is that the repeal of the
edicts of Valerian practically amounted to a declara-
tion of toleration for the Church in view of the
positioa which it then occupied. Deipauring of the
poseibility of crushing Christianity by perseciitioia.
Gallienus determined to leave it alone, tkugh
without changing its legal status. Ne^^eitlidesa,
1 1 is clear, from the executions during his mjm tiid
the rule of his successors, that the State stUl ckiitied
the right to infiiet capital punishment for Mms\
to worship the images of the emperor or ev«i
for the avowal of a belief in Christianity.
(Adolf Baek^clJ
BiBUOoaAPiit: The sources &re: Poiphyiy, VUa Fhk^
xii; Tmbollius Poltio, GmUitm dim; idetq, Clsw^uf, 1 1;
Ammionui MAroelliDiu, xiv. J iqq., £n£. trmaaL in Boho'i
ChiMticol lAbrary^ LoadoD. 1887; Euwhiud, EiiL wd.,
VIL, I. 1, xi. S, Jtiii, 1-2, ett,: GeorgjuB S5mc*Uui,C4ww-
crrapAia, i. 717, Bonn, lfi29. CdiuuJc: L. B. Lv Nub di
TiUecaoiit, RUL dm emjwrrur^, pp. 28^288. DrwH
]7fi4; Gibbon, D&dijtM and F<^, cbrnpa* v., xvj,^ IksQib-
Sny, in Ml'mairet de racadHnie det in*cnpiiom nx-
S4&-3;50, actJdi. 266-267; Neander, CkriMtiam Ckmdi,
h, pmetajDi, ii. 15, 167; and the lit«rAttiz« ucuief fwoMts^
GALLIO. See Greece, L, | 1,
GAILITZUT, DEMETRIUS AnGUSTIIfE: lb>
man Catholic missionary; b. at The Hague DeC'
22, 1770- d. at Loretto, Cambria County, ft^
May 3, 1840. His mother was a famous adbereDt
of Pietism, Adelheid Amalie von Sebmettau, wile
of the Russian Prince Dmitri Alexeievitch Galitiiii
(t$ee O VERB ERG, Bernhard Heikrich; the name
is variously spelled; GalUtjin, GolitEine, Goliiyn,
preferably Galitzin or Galizin; tliat of the subject
of this sketch, however, almost invariably app^rs
in the form GaUit^in). After serving in the .Aus-
trian army in the first campaign a^nst France,
he sailed for America with Father Brad us, his tutor,
in 1792, He joined the Roman Catholic Church in
1787 1 surrendered his commission in the Rusdan
army, entered the seminary of St. Sulpice in Balti-
more^ and was ordained priest Mar. 18, 1795, being
the second priest ordained in tliis counity. After
serving for a time in the missions of Port Tobacco,
Md., and Conewago, Fa., in 1799 he became pastor
of the Roman Catholics of Maguire's Settlement
in the wildest part of the Alleghany Mountains,
now Cambria County, Pa, Here he bought more
than 20,000 acr&s of land and began to furnish
homes to settlers on easy terms. On his own prop-
erty he founded in 1803 the town of Loretto.
Other settlements were tnade at Ebensburg, CarroU-
towTi, St. Augustine, Wilmore, and SummitviUe.
As '* Father Smith,** by which name be had been
naturalised In 1302, Gallitsin became famous for
his charity, self-sacrifice, and seal in Christian work,
in 1809 he was allowed by special act of tlie legis-
lature to resume his family name. He was hdd in
high esteem by all sects, and high episcopal honors
were frequently urged upon bim. His writing are
still prised by Roman Catholics, particularly his
Defence ofCaihalk Principles (Pittsbm^. 1816); Lrf-
terst^} a Protmtafd Friend on Urn Bmpturta (1818);
Appeal to the Froi^iani Public (1818); and Six Let-
ters a/ Advi^ie (IBM).
BiBUOQiupffT: T, Heyden, Mmmoir an the lAft awi Char-
ader of P. D. A. de aallUtin. Baltimpre, lEm: B, M.
Browujton. Life of Oemftriua Auffu^ne GaUitxiK, Prinet
and PfiiMt, New York, 1873: P&uline Htlficl, A Aoyaf Son
and M&thtr, Note* Dmat, lad., 1903.
427
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Gkbllienufl
GaUufl
GALLOWAY, CHARLES BETTS: Methodist
Hpiscopal bishop; b. at Kosciusko, Miss., Sept. 1,
1S49; d. at Jackson, Mis.s., May 12, 1909. He
studied at the University of Mississippi (B.A., 1868)
&nd lield pastorates at Port Gibson (1871), Yazoo
Oity (1872-73). Jackson (1874-78), and Vicksburg,
MifB. (1878-84). P'rom 1882 to 1886 he was editor
of the New Orleans Christmn Advocate, and in 1886
'was elected bishop of the Methodist Episcopal
Church, South. He was a fraternal messenger to
the Methodist Church of Canada in 1886 and to the
Wesleyan Methodist Conference in England in 1892,
while in 1901 he preached the opening sermon of
the Ecumenical Conference at Loudon. He was
also a member of the Ecumenical Conference at
Washington in 1891, and visited the Methodist
Episcopal missions in China, Japan, Korea, and
those in Brazil and Mexico. lie was president
of the board of education of the Methodist
Episcopal Church, South. In theology he was an
orthodox member of his denomination. He wrote
Methodism, Its Providential Origin and Progress
(Nashville, Tenn., 1880); Life of Bishop Linus
Parker (1886); Hand-Book of ProhibUion (1886);
A Circuit of the Globe (1895); Modem Missions,
their Evidential Value (Cole Lectures at Vanderbilt
University; 1896); Christianity and the \ alien
(Quillian lectures at Emory College; 1898); The
South and the Negro (1904); Methodism's To-
morrow (1904); and Bishop John Christian Keener
(1906).
GALLUS, CAIUS VXBIUS TREBONIANUS: Ro-
man emperor 251-253; b. at Perusia (the modem
Perugia, 85 m. n. of Rome), probably in 207; d.
at Forum Flaminii (probably the modem San
Giovanni pro Fiammo, 2 m. n. of Foligno) or at
Interanma (the modem Temi, 59 m. s. e. of Pemgia)
late in the summer of 253. He was a general of
Decius in the war against the Goths, and after the
death of this emperor was declared Augustus by the
Senate in 251, together with Hostilianus, the son of
Decius. Hostilianus died in the following year,
and Volusianus, the son of Gallus, was appointed his
successor. The reign was one of disaster, marked
by a shameful peace with the Goths and their
renewed inroads, the loss of Syria and Armenia to
the Persians, and a terrible pestilence. On the
Danube the Pannonian legions proclaimed iEmil-
ianus emperor, whereupon Gallus and his son
marched against him, only to fall at the hands of
their mutinous troops on the way. In the early
rN)rtion of the reign of Gallus the Christians had a
brief respite from the horrors of the persecution of
Oecius, but before long the new emperor reenforced
measures of repression, either at his own initiative
or under the compulsion of the people, who were
maddened by pestilence and poverty. As early
as May, 252, it was feared at Carthage that
the new laws would be enforced, and in the
summer of the following year Cyprian wrote to
the Roman bishop Cornelius of an imperial edict by
. which " the people were conunanded to offer
sacrifices." The actual persecutions, however,
seem to have been mild, banishment being the
penalty rather than death, so that all recollection
of a persecution during the reign of Gallus soon
vanished from the Church.
(Adolf Harnack.)
Bibliography: Sources are: J. C. Orelli, Irucriptionum
LaHnarum . . . CoUectio, no8. 281. 9Q7, 998. 1000, 3
vok., Zurich, 1828, 1856; Eusebiua, Hiat. ecd., VII. i., x.
1; idem, Chronicon, 2269-72; Jerome, Chronicon, 2268-
2270. CoQHult: L. 8. Le Nain de Tillemont, IlUt. dea effi-
pereura, x. 245-246, Dretiden. 1754; Gibbon. Decline and
Fall, i. 250-252; Milman. Latin Chriatianity, i. 85; Nean-
der. Chriatian Church, i. 136, 258, 711; and the literature
under Peraecutionb, Chribtian, in the Roman Em-
pire, and Cyprian.
GALLUS (HAHN), NICOLAUS: Leader of the
Reformation in Regensburg; b. at Kothen (19 m.
n. of Halle), Anhalt, 1516; d. at Zellerbad, near
Liebenzell (20 m. w. of Stuttgart), Wurttemberg,
June, 1570. At Wittenberg, where he became a
student in 1 530 and received the master's degree in
1537, he won the conmfiendation of Melanchthon.
In 1543 Luther sent Hieronymus Nopus as preacher
to Regensburg at the request of the city council and
with him went Gallus, who was ordained by Bugen-
hagen in Ai)ril. In 1548 trouble arose in Regens-
burg over the acceptance of the Interim. Gallus
wrote a treatise against it, and had to leave the
city; services in the only Evangelical church there
were discontinued. For a time GaUus preached for
Cruciger (who was ill) at Wittenberg, then in 1549,
through the influence of his brother-in-law, Hein-
rich Merkel, city secretary at Magdeburg, he went
to the Ulrich Church in that city. He joined Flacius
in opposition to the adiaphorism of the Wittenberg
circle and published a DisptUation von MiUeldingen
in 1 550. He remained in Magdeburg after its capit-
ulation in 1551, and kept up the dispute against
Osiander and Major. In June, 1553, Prince Wolf-
gang of Anhalt called him to his native city to as-
sist in the settlement of the administration of the
church property. In August, 1553, Gallus was
called back to Regensburg as leader of the Evangel-
ical cause. He worked there for almost seventeen
years, and the effects of his activity were felt far
beyond the borders of the town. In the disputes
of the following years he fought faithfully on the
side of Flacius. Like him he tried to influence
Melanchthon by letters, but the latter treated Gallus
rather haughtily. It probably angered him that
Gallus had republished (1554) his Sententice veterum
de ccena Domini, which was directed against (Ecolam-
padius. In 1561 Gallus warned the princes con-
vene<l at Naumburg of the spreading Calvinistic
doctrine of the Lord's Supper. He also got into a
dispute with Brenz, whom he suspected of leanings
toward Melanchthonism. From 1562 to 1566 he
furnished a refuge to Flacius, who had been expelled
from Jena. Melanchthon reproached Gallus for
fighting continually against the Evangelicals,
instead of combating Romanism. But the re-
proach was not ];>ertinent; during the diet in 1556
he preached against the Roman Catholics, and there
are still extant manuscripts containing theses of dis-
putation against the Ingolstadt Catholics. In this
connection may be mentioned Gallus' writing di-
rected against Corpus Christi day: Vom abgdUi-
schen Fest, FrohrUeichnams-Tag genannt (1561).
His congregation esteemed him highly for his seal
OaniAliel
Gardens
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOQ
4M
in the maintenance of pure doctrine and moral
discipline, and his personal life was blameless.
(G. Kawerau.)
Biblioobapht: Sources: Some of his letters are printed
in CR, viii., ix., and in J. Fecbt, HUt. eccl. actadi xvt.,
supplement vol., pp. 27 sqq.; part of his writings are in
W. Preger, M. Flaciua, ii. 540 sqq., Erlangen, 1861 (where
other biographical material is found). Consult: L. Wid-
mann, in Ckroniken der deuUchen Stddte, xv. 187 sqq.;
W. Germann, J. FotbUt, pp. 371 sqq., Meiningen, 18»4;
E. B6hl, Beitr&ffe nor Oeachichte der Reformation in Oes-
terreich, Jena, 1902; ADB, viii. 351 sqq.
GAMALIEL ("God is my rewarder"): A cele-
brated rabbi of the first century. There were at
least two noted leaders of this name, the one men-
tioned Acts V. 34 being generally called the Elder or
Gamaliel I. to distinguish him from his grandson.
According to Acts xxii. 3 he was the teacher of
Paul. In Jewish literature he is known as the
ancestor of the later Jewish patriarchs (ethnarchs)
of Palestine. The family claimed descent from
Benjamin and even from David. That Hillel the
Great was Gamaliel's grandfather is claimed, but
is not certain. Jewish tradition speaks of Gamaliel
as president of the Sanhedrin, but these statements
refer generally to Gamaliel II. A few practical
enactments are ascribed to him. Thus he decided
(Mishnah, GiUin iv. 2) that in the letter of divorce
the formula " and every name which he (she) has "
be added to the name of the husband and the wife,
thus precluding the possibility of invalidating a
letter of divorce in case one liad different names.
In the interest of orphans he introduced the custom
that the widow state under oath that she had thus
far received nothing, before taking her dowry from
the estate {Gittin iv. 6). He considered the evi-
dence of one witness of the death of a husband as
sufiicient to allow the widow to marry again ( Yebamot
xvi. 7). That he became a Christian as the Clem-
entine Recognitions (i. 65) state is an invention.
He died probably before the year 70, for lus son Sim-
eon played an important part during the rebellion,
whereas Gamaliel is mentioned no more.
(G. Dalman.)
Biblioorapht: C. D. Ginsburg, in Kitto, Cyclopaedia of Bibli-
cal Literature, ii. 60-61, Edinburgh, 1864 (gives rabbini-
cal referenceH); J. Derenbourg, L'Hist. et la giographie de
la PaUsHne, i. 239-246, Paris, 1867; H. Gr&tz, GeachichU
der Juden, iii. 373 Mqq.. Leipsic, 1878; F. W. Farrar, Paul,
vol. i., excursus v., London, 1879: J. Hamburger. Real-
Encyklopddie fQr Bif>el und Talmud, ii. 236-237, Strelitz,
1883; M. Blooh. Inatitulionen dca Judentuma, II., i. 118-
202, BrQnn, 1884; M. Braunschweiger. Die Lehrer der
Miachnah, pp. 60 sqq.. Frankfort, 1890; Schttrer, Oe-
achichte and Eng. trausj., consult Indexes; DB, ii. 106;
EB, ii. 1638-39; JE, v. 658-560.
GAMES: A means of securing entertainment
and relaxation, as ia indicated by the most general
Hebrew term " to play," zthl^ak ( = " to laugh long
and heartily "). The Old Testament gives no
detailed information about the games of children,
but it may be assumed that Hebrew young people
employed their mental, muscular, and nervous
energy in the same way as the children of all other
peoples. Even the positive prohibition of images
by Islam has not prevented the children from
delighting in models of horses, sheep, and the like.
Since in spite of Ex. xx. 4 there were varied prod-
ucts of the arts in animal and other forms in the
Temple, the Hebrew children doubtless had tUr
playthings made after similar models. A hint ol a
mode of entertainment may be given in Job xli. h—
** Wilt thou play with him [leviathan] as with a biirff
or wilt thou bind him for thy maidens? " (cf. Barudi
iii. 17). The excavations in Taanach have reveaJedl
bone implements such as the Arabs still employ ia
pkiying dice. The Talmud (Rosh horShanah I B)
pronoimoes those who train doves for speed tiialsor
to lure other doves into their dove-cotes and thon
who use dice incompetent to bear witness. Then
is mention of a game of drafts in Sanhedrin 25b.
Eariy rabbis condemned card-playing. To win
money from a Jew by a game is robbery, to win it
from a Gentile is not robbery though a breach of
the law. ** Odd and even " was a game of the
Egyptians; Assyrian dice of bronze with spoU '■
of gold have been found; a similar game, played by
the drawing of arrows, was used by the ancient
Arabs ; thej Homeric Greeks had both drafts and
dice; and Tacitus reports that the Germans played
with dice. Doubtless the early Hebrews in their
moments of leisure, as they sat at their doon or
met in public gathering-places (Gen. xix. 1; Lam. I
V. 14) or on festal occasions (Judges xiv. 10 sqq.),
amused themselves in similar manner, and it ii
known that they sharpened their wits in the pro-
pounding and answering of riddles (Judges xir.
14 sqq.; I Kings x. 1; Prov. xxx. 21 sqq.). The
drama does not seem to have been congenial to the
Hebrew character, and for this reason the interpreta-
tion of Canticles as a drama seems less reasonable,
though in later times the Jews are reported to have
gone upon the stage and written dramas (Josephus,
Z/i/e, iii.; Clement of Alexandria, Strom., i. 155).
There were also what may be classed as sensooui
games in distinction from those already mentkned
which exercise primarily the mental faculties. In
these song and music occupy prominent parte
(Ex. XV. 20-21; I Sam. xvi. 16 sqq.; Isa. v. 12;
Jer. xxx. 19; Amos vi. 5; see Music, Hebrew).
Games which exercised the powers of body and wiD
were numerous; among these dances take first place
(Job xxi. 11; Jer. xxxi. 4), in which the course of
the seasons or national success or personal prowess
was celebrated in joyous and concerted movement
(Judges xxi. 21; I Sam. xviii. 6; see Danhng).
With such dancing to the accompaniment of music
and song Samson was probably expected to enter-
tain his enemies (Judges xvi. 25). The foot-race is
. implied in Ps. xix. 5, and by the references to the
speed of Saul, Jonathan, and Asahel (II Sam. i. 23,
ii. 18). Skill of hand and arm were employed in*
game of ball (Isa. xxii. 18), which game is recognized
among Assyrian sports, is mentioned by the rabt»&,
and was known to the Egyptians. The shooting ot
arrows at a mark was likewise a means of entert^n-
ment (I Sam. xx. 20; Job xvi. 12; Lam. iii. 12).
Throwing the stone is suggested by Zech. xii. 3 (d.
C. von Orelli, Durchs heilige Land, Basel, 1890, p.
291). The Jews raised energetic protest against
the adoption of Greek sports (I Mace. i. 14; II
Mace. iv. 9-15); but the Herodian faction hac
theaters and amphitheaters near Jerusalem anc
Joppa, and Herod's interest in such matters is re
ported by Josephus (Ant. XV., viii. 1, ix. 6, XVI., \
fta9
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
OamallaX
Gardens
1 ). Gladiatorial shows were most strongly con-
lemned by the Jews. In the New Testament Paul
uakes frequent reference to the foot-race and its
■ewards (I Cor. ix. 24-27; PhU. in. 12; II Tim. ii.
i; cf. James i. 12; Rev. ii. 10). (E. K6nio.)
3iituocBAPHT: H. J. Van Lennep, Bible Landt, . . . Cit9-
foou and Manners lUuatrative of Scripture, pp. 573-574,
New York, 1S75; J. G. Wilkinson, Mannera and Ciutome
of the Ancient Effyptiane, London, 1878; E. BuchhoU,
Die homeriachen Realien^ ii. 1. pp. 280-209, Leipaic, 1881;
J. S. Howflon. Metaphora of St. Paul, chap, iv., London,
1883; A. Huber. Veber daa " A/emr "... Spiel der
heidniachen Araber, pp. 9 sqq., Lcipsic, 1883; A. Wflnsche,
Die R6taeltpeiaheit hei den Hebraern, ib. 1883; M. Lazarus,
Die Reize dea Spielea, Berlin, 1883; T. Mommsen. Riimi-
eche Altertamer, ii. 517 nqq., Leipsic, 1887; Q. Dabnan,
Palaetiniadur Ditoan, 1901, pp. 95 sqq., 182 sqq., 254
aqq.; DB, ii. 106-108.
GAMS, gOms, PIUS BONIFATIUS: German
Eloman Catholic; b. at Mittelbuch (a village of
WUrttemberg) Jan. 23, 1816; d. at Munich May
11, 1892. He studied at Tubingen, and became
vicar at Achstettin and Gmilnd in 1838 and teacher
it Herb in 1841. He made a scientific journey at
the expense of the State in 1842-43, and in the fol-
loAving year was appointed acting pastor at Wurm-
lingen and professor at Rottweil. After serving as
teacher at Gmilnd, he became professor of theology
and philosophy at the episcopal seminary of Hildes-
heim in 1847, but in 1855 entered the Benedictine
monastery of St. Boniface at Munich. Gams was
a prolific wTiter, his principal works being: Aus-
gang und Ziel der Geschichte (Tubingen, 1850); I>ie
Gcschichte der Kirche Jesu Christi im neumehnten
Jahrfiunderi (3 vols., Innsbnick, 1854-58; sup-
plementary volume, 1860); Margott^ die Siege der
Kirche im ersten Jahrzehnt dea Pantifikais Pius IX.
(1860); Katechetische Reden gehcdlen in der Basilika
2U Munchen (2 vols., Regensburg, 1862); Kirchen-
gejschichte von Spanien (3 vols., 1862-79); Das
Jahr des Martyrtodes der heiligen Apostel Petrus
und Paultis (1867); Ziar Geschichie der spanischen
Staatsinquisition (1878); and Der Bonijaci^isverein
in Deutschland 1860-1880 (Paderbom, 1880). He
wrote also a biography of J. A. M6liler (Regensburg,
1866) and edited his KirchengeachidUe (3 vols.,
1867-68), as well as the Series episcoporum ecclesice
catkolicce quotquot innotuerunt a beato Petro apostolo
(1872; supplements 1879 and 1886).
GANGRA, SYWOD OF (circa 340). See Eu-
8TATIIIU8 OF SeBASTE.
GANNON, THOMAS JOSEPH: Roman Catho-
lic; b. at Cambridge, Mass., July 14, 1853. He
studied at Boston College, which he left in 1872 to
enter the Society of Jesua. He studied the usual
courses of the Society at Frederic, Md. (1872-75,
1889-90), and Woodstock College, Woodstock, Md.
(1875-78, 1883-87), and was professor of Latin,
Greek, and mathematics at Holy Cross College,
Worcester, Mass., 1878-83. He taught philosophy
at Boston College (1887-88) and at Woodstock
College (1888-89), and after being assistant to his
provincial in 1890-91 was president of St. John's
College, Fordham, N. Y., until 1896. He was then
again assistant to two provincials for five yonrs;
in 1901-06 provincial of the Maryland-New York
province, and in 1907 became instructor of tei^
tiaries in the Novitiate of St. Andrew-on-Hudson,
Poughkeepsie, N. Y. He has been a member of
the Missionary Band since 1906.
GARASSE, ga"ras', FRANffOIS: French Jesuit;
b. at Angoul^me (66 m. n.e. of Bordeaux), France,
1584; d. at Poitiers (60 m. s.s.w. of Tours), France,
June 14, 1631. He joined the Jesuit order in 1600,
and soon became known as a powerful pulpit orator.
As a ^vriter he devoted himself chiefly to polemics,
sparing no opponents of liis order, and attacking
even the dead. In 1622 he published a pamphlet
against Etienne Pasquier, a Roman Catholic, who
had died several years before, because the latter
had defended the university against the Jesuits in
1565. Under the pseudonjon " Andreas Schiop-
pius " he wrote a polemical pamphlet entitled
Elixir calvinisticum ((3harenton, 1615) aimed at the
French Reformed Protestants, and in 1619 he pub-
lished at Brussels his Rabelais r^form^, which was
more of a satire than a polemic. He was especially
antagonistic toward Pierre du Moulin, a prominent
and scholarly Reformed polemic author. Garasse's
writings are characterized by a lack of earnestness,
scientific spirit, and thorough knowledge of his
subject, as well as by a want of dignity and truth-
fulness. He died of the plague at Poitiers, whither
he had been sent at his own request to care for the
sick.
Bibliographt: H. Hurter, Nomendalor literariu8f i. 289,
Innsbruck. 1892; De Backer. Bibliothique de la compaonie
de Jiaua, ed. C. Sommenrogel, iii. 1184 8qq., Paris, 1892.
GARDENS, HEBREW: In gardening the Israel-
ites were pupils of the Canaanites. The Hebrew
gan meant either a vegetable-garden (I Kings xxi.
2) or an orchard (Jer. xxix. 5; Amos iv. 9; Eccles.
ii. 5). In the firat-mentioned were raised onions,
garlic, cucumbers, and melons (which, eaten with
bread, were leading articles of diet), and aromatic
herbs, such as mint and caraway. Such gardens
required careful and bountiful watering (Isa. Iviii.
11; Jer. xxxi. 12). Vegetables were often planted
in the fields after the harvest of the winter crop (see
Agriculture, Hebrew).
Of greater importance were the orchards (sec
Fruit-Trees in the Old Testament), which
formed the gardens characteristic of the Old Testa-
ment. The kings of Jerusalem had such gardens
in the valley southeast of the city (II Kings xxv.
4; Jer. xxxix. 4; cf. II Kings xxi. 18, 26), wliich
served as pleasure-grounds, particularly when
provided with water. To " sit under one's vine and
fig-tree " was characteristic of a happy period
(I Kings iv. 25; Micah iv. 4). The old Hebrew,
like other dw^ellers in the scantily watered East
(cf . the descriptions of paradise, in the Koran and
the general Mohammedan conception), thought of
paradise as an Eden with trees of all kinds, where,
at evening, cool breezes blow (Gen. iii. 8). It was
customary to place the family vault in a ** garden '*
(II Kings xxi. 18, 26; Matt, xxvii. 60). In Baby-
lon such pleasure-grounds were popular (cf. B.
Meissner and P. Rost, Bauinschriften Sanheribs, v.
14 sqq., Leipsic, 1893), and the kings and noblemen
of Persia delighted in beautiful parks (Xenophon,
Cyropeedia, I.,iii. 12; Anabasis, I., ii.71; cf. Esther
i. 5, vii. 7). Indeed, the word pardeSf the later
(Hirdlner
Oamot
THE NEW 8CHAFF-HERZ0G
480
Hebrew designation for such a garden, meaning
" paradise " and also " forest " (Neh. ii. 8), was
borrowed from the Persian. I. Benzinqer.
BiBLioaRAPiir: Beniinger, Archdologie, pp 35-36; E. Day,
Social Life amona the Ileftreira. New York, 1901; DB, ii
108-110; EB, ii. 1640-44 (both of these are especially ex-
cellent); JE, vi. 470-472.
GARDINER, FREDERIC: Protestant Episco-
palian; b. at Gardiner, Me., Sept. 11, 1822; d. at
Middletown, Conn., July 18, 1899. He studied at
Hobart College, Bowdoin College (B.A., 1842),
and the General Theological Seminary, New York
City, from which he was graduated in 1845. Or-
dered deacon in 1845, he was advanced to the
priesthoo<i in 1846. He was minister and rector of
Trinity Church, Saco, Me., 1845-47, curate at St.
Luke's, Philadelphia, 1848, and rector of Christ
Church, Bath, Me., 1848-54. He spent the years
1854-56 in Europe, then Ixjcame rector of Trinity
Churcli, Le wist on. Me., for a year. From 1857 to
1865 he was in charge of his father's estate at Gar-
diner, and at the same time rector of St. Matthew's,
Hallowell, Me., besides assisting Bishop George
Burgess in his tentative theological school at Gar-
diner. In 1865 he accepted a call to the professor-
ship of the literature and interpretation of the
New Testament at the Protestant Episcopal Theo-
logical Seminary at Gambier, O., but resigned two
years later, and after being a general missionary in
the diocese of Massachusetts for a year, was assist-
ant rector of Trinity Church, Middletown, Conn.,
1867-68. From 1869 to 1882 he was professor of
Old Testament and Christian evidences in Berkeley
Divinity Scliool. .Middletown, Conn., and from the
latter year until liis death was professor of the
literature and interpretation of the New Testament
in the same institution, also serving as librarian
throughout this period. He wrote The Island of
Life, an Allegory (Boston, 1S.')1); Commentary on
the Epistle of St. Jude (1856); Harmony of the
Gospels in Greek (Andover, 1871); Harmony of
the Gospels in English (1871); Diatessaron, The
Life of Our Lord in the Words of the Gospels (1871);
The Principles of Textiml Criticism (1S76); The Old
and New Testaments in their Mutual Relations (New
York, 1885); Was the Religion cf Isrofl a Revelation
or merely a Development? (1889): and the posthu-
mous Aids to Scriptvre Study (1890). He wrote
also the commentary on Ix'viticus for the Ameri-
can edition of Tinge's commentary (New York,
1876), and on II Samuel and Ezekicl for Bishop
C. J. EUicott's Old Testament Commentary for Eng-
lish Readers (London, 1883-84), besides editing
Chrv'sostom's " Homilies on Hebrews " for The
Nicene ami Post-Nicene Library of the Fathers, xiv.
(New York. 1890).
GARDINER, JAMES: A colonel of Scottish
dragoons famous for his remarkable religious ex-
perience; b. at Carriden (17 ni. w. of luiinburgh),
Linlithgowsliirc, Jan. 11. 1688: killed at the battle
of Prcstonpans Sept. 21, 1745. .\t fourteen he
became an ensign in a Scottish regiment in the
service of Holland. In 1702 ho exchanged to the
English army and distinguished himself in the
campai'jcns of Marlborough. Until July. 1719, he led
a Ciircer of notorious licentiousness. Then while
waiting for an appointment wiUi a dissolute woman,
he picked up a Christian book (Wataon's Chritiim
Soldier according to Doddridge; Giimall's Ckristim
Armour according to Carlyle); suddenly a Uaie
of light illuminated the paper, and, looking up.
Gardiner saw what he took for a vision of (Jurist on
the cross and thought be heard him speak. He
now forsook liis old ways, and thereafter led an
exemplary Christian life. ]
Bibliography: P. Doddridge, Some Remarkable Pamgain
the Life of . . . Col. J. Gardiner, London, 1747 my
often reprinted, e.g., Edinburgh. 1848^: idem, ^mm «•
the Death of Col. Gardiner, ib. 1747; DSB, xx. 414-416.
GARDINER^ STEPHEN: Bishop of Winchester
and Lord Chancellor of England; b. at Bury St.
Edmunds (60 m. n.e. of London), Suffdk, between
1483 and 1490; d. at Whitehall, London, Nov. 12,
1555. He was educated at Trinity Hall, Cam-
bridge, where he later became fellow (Doctor of
Civil Law, 1520; Doctor of Canon Law, 1521). and
in 1524 was made a lecturer in the univeisity.
shortly before his appointment as tutor to a son of
the Duke of Norfolk. He now became secretary to
Wolsey, and from 1525 to 1549 was master of
Trinity Hall. He visited France with Wolsey in
1527, and in 1528 he and Edward Fox were sent as
ambassadors to the pope in the interests of the
divorce from Catherine of Aragon desired by the
king. It was Gardiner's tact and determination
which induced Clement \^II. to assent to a com-
mission to try the case in Eln^and. Gardiner was
made archdeacon of Norfolk on Mar. 1, 1529. and
early in the following year again went to Italy in
an unsuccessful endeavor to secure the king's di-
vorce. He was appointed secretary to the king,
and in Feb., 1530, visited Cambridge in a vain
effort to induce the university to decide in favor
of the divorce. In 1531 he was collated to the
archdeaconry of Leicester, and on Nov. 27, 1S31,
he was consecrated bishop of Winchester. From
December to March he was once more in France as
an ambassador, in Apr., 1532, he was appointed
custodian of John Fisher (q.v.), and in May was
one of the assessors of the court which annulled
Henry's marriage to Catherine, while at the corona-
tion of Anne Boleyn on June 8 he and the bishop
of London bore her train. He was again in France
on business connected with the divorce in Septem-
ber, but his resistance to Henry's claim of spiritual
supremacy led him to resign his secretaryship and
retire to his diocese. He was soon summoned to
court, but on Feb. 10, 1535, formally renounced
the jurisdiction of the pope and published his
De vera obedientia (London, 1535). Thus regain-
ing the favor of the king, Gardiner was again ap>-
pointed ambassador to France, and during this
time dissuaded Henry from making a league with
the Continental Protestants. The suspicions en-
tertained concerning him, however, caused him
to be superseded as ambassador at Paris by Bonner,
but in the following year he was sent as ambassador
to Germany.
With the downfall of his rival Cromwell in 1510.
Gardiner became supreme, and was even elected
chancellor of Cambridge as successor to Cromwell.
In 1541 he was once more in Germany as royal
431
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Churdin«
Garnet
ambassador, and in 1542 he was one of those who
conducted the negotiations with the imperial am-
bassador in London. He enjoyed the favor of
Henry to the last, but with the accession of Edward
VL he was removed from the Council of State and
from the chancellorship of the university. In con-
sequence of his opposition to the religious innova-
tions of the new council, Gardiner was committed
to the Fleet on Sept. 25, 1547, but was aUowed to
return to his diocese the following December. Sum-
moned to London in May, 1548, he still refused to
acknowledge the supremacy of the council and
maintained the doctrine of the real presence, for
which he was imprisoned in the Tower for a year.
In Dec., 1550, he was tried before Cranmer, and on
Feb. 15, 1 551, was deprived of his bishopric and con-
fined to the Tower until the death of Edward in
1553.
With the accession of Mary, Gardiner was re-
leased and restored to office. As lord high chan-
cellor he crooned the queen Oct. 1, 1553, and
presided at the opening of ParUament four days
later, in addition to being reelected chancellor of
Cambridge and master of Trinity Hall. He ad-
vocated rigorous measures against those who re-
fused obedience to the Roman Catholic Church,
but the severity popularly ascribed to him is doubt-
less exaggerated. He also strove to restore Elng-
land to the papal aUegiance, and even sought to
have Henry's marriage to Catherine of Aragon
declared valid, thus implying the illegitimacy of
Elizabeth. He was likewise obliged to work in
favor of Mary's marriage to Philip II., although in
reality he was opposed to it. He sought to restore
the ecclesiastical courts and the episcopal juris-
diction, and one of his last official acts was the re-
enforcement of the statute De hceretico comburendo.
The chief works of Gardiner were. De vera obedien-
tia (London, 1535 ; Eng. transl. by M. Wood,
Geneva [?], 1553); Conqueaiio ad M. Bucerum de
ejusdem pseudologia (Lou vain, 1544); A Detection
of the DeviVs Sophistry (London, 1546); An Ex-
planation and Assertion of the True Catholic Faith.
Touching the Most Blessed Sacrament of the Altar
(Rouen, 1551); Palinodia libri de vera obedientia
(Paris, 1552); and Epistoke ad J. Checum de pro-
nuntiatione lingua Graxce (Basel, 1555). A few
minor works also exist in manuscript.
Bibliographt: Sotiroes are: Catendarg of Letten and
Paper$, Foreign and Domestic, of the Reign of Henry VIII.
ed. Brewer and Gairdner, 2 vols.. London, 1884. Ck>n-
Bult: C. H. and T. Cooper, Athenm Cantabrigienaee, i. 139-
140. ib 1858; J. B. Mullinger. Hiat. of Univerntv of Cam-
bridge, ii. 68-63. ib. 1888; S. R. Maitland. E—aye on Sub-
jeeU Connected with the Reformation, ib. 1899; DNB, xx.
419-425 (careful and authoritative).
GARISSOLES, ga"rt"86l', ANTOINE: French
Protestant; b. at Montauban (110 m. s.e. of Bor-
deaux) June, 1587; d. there Mar., 1651. He was
pastor at Puylaurens from 1610 to 1620, when he
was called to Montauban. He was professor of
theology at the Academy of Montauban from Oct.,
1527, till his death, and with the exception of Gha-
mier and Cameron, he is the best-known lecturer of
this ancient institution. In 1645 he presided at the
Synod of Charenton and distinguished himself by
his successful resistance to royal demands that
menaced Protestant liberties. At this synod he
also attacked the doctrine of mediate imputation
of Placseus. His works include: La vote du salul
expos^e en huit sermons (Montauban, 1637); Decreti
synodici Carentoniensis (1648); Theses theologica
(1648); Disputaiiones elenchticce (1650); and Cate-
chesios ecdesiarum in Gallia (Geneva, 1656).
Bibuooraphy: Bulletin de la eocietf. du proteetanOeme
franfait, 1874; Lichtenberger. ESR, v. 408-409.
GARLAIVDS: Garlands and flowers played an
important part in the private and public life of the
ancient Egyptians. The court used a hundred
garlands daily for the adornment of wine-vessels,
and at festal repasts the guests decked themselves
with wreaths. Flowers were offered to the gods and
the sarcophagus of the dead was entwined with
them. The use of wreaths and flowers by Greeks
and Romans is well known. The Israelites had
no especial fondness for flowers, although it may
be mere accident that there is no mention of flower-
gardens. The use of green sprays and flowers for
personal adornment at banquets, marriage feasts,
and on other festival occasions was, however, not
foreign to the Israelites (Isa. xxviii. 1; cf. Ezek.
xxiii. 42; Cant. iii. 11; III Mace. iv. 8). Later,
under the influence of Hellenism, this custom be-
came general; fragrant flowers were regarded as
elements of a cheerful and joyous life (Wisd. of Sol.
ii. 8); joy and mirth found expression in the adorn-
ment of the person and house with garlands (III
I Mace. vii. 16; Ecclus. vi. 31, xv. 6). Garland
and crown are used as metaphors for ornament and
honor of every kind (Job xix. 9; Prov. xii. 4, xiv.
24). It does not appear, however, that garlands
were used in religious observances; at least there
is no mention of the adornment of the Temple with
natural flowers. To place wreaths upon sacrificial
animals was a pagan custom (Acts xiv. 13). Only
at the Feast of Tabernacles, according to later
usage, those who took part in the procession car-
ried branches of citron and palm.
I. Benzinger.
Bibuoobapht: TertuUian, De corona; B. Ugolini. The-
eaurue aniiquitatum eacrarum, vol xxx.. 34 vols . Venice.
1744-69: L. LOW. in Ben Chananja, 1867. noe. 11. 12:
DB, i. 529-531; EB, i. 723, 963; JE, iv. 369-370: and
vT^ay(K in the lexioona
GARNET, HENRY HIGHLAND: Colored Pres-
byterian, United States minister and consul-gen-
eral to Liberia; b. at New Market, Md., Dec. 23,
1815; d. in Monrovia, Liberia, Feb. 13, 1882. He
was bom in slavery, but escaped with his father to
the North and settled in New York City in 1826.
He was educated at the Canaan Academy (N. H.)
and at the Oneida Institute, near Utica, N. Y.,
where he was graduated in 1840. He was licensed
to preach in 1842 and was thereupon pastor in
Troy for nearly ten years. In 1850 he went to
Europe in the interest of the free-labor movement
and for three years lectured in Great Britain on
slavery. In 1851 he was a delegate to the peace
conference at Frankfort, and in 1853 he went to
Jamaica as a missionary for the United Presbyterian
Church of Scotland. He was pastor of the Shiloh
Presbyterian Church, New York, 1855-65, and of a
church in Washington, D. C, 1865-69. He then
OasQnet
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOO
become presddent of Avery College, but boob re-
signed this position and returned to Bhiloh Church.
He was appointed minister and consul-geneml to
Liberia in JunD, 1881.
GAKETIER, gflr^'nyfi', JEAlf: French Jesuit; b.
at Paris Nov, 11, 1612; d. at Bologna Oct. 26, 16SL
He joined the order of the Jesuits at the age of
sixteen, and soon demonstrated his theological
talent and his apln&ss for study and teaching. For
forty years he held professorsliipa of ancient lan-
guages, rhetonc. theology, and philoeophy, and pub-
hahed numerous work;^, the value of which could
not be denied even by enemies of the order. Of
lasting importance are his Pelagian studies, compri-
sing a work on the Pelagian Bie^hop Julian of Eclanum
{Juliani EcUmensu epi^capi Hbellus fidei primum
ediiUB Gum notis H disseriatwnibtia trihust Paris,
1648), as well as hie edition of the writings of Mariua
Mepcator (1673) wHh a commentary and tieatise^
on Pelagianism- Such was the excellence of this
latter work that when Cardinal Nona saw it, he
declared that his own book on the tiistory of the
Pelagian heresy would have remained unwritten
if he had seen the Mcmu^ M^eat&r at an earUer
date. In 1675 Gamier edited the Breviarivm
cau^tz NestoriaTwrum Bi Ei^yehianorum of the
Carthiige archdeacon Liberatus, appending learned
not^s and excursus of his own. He also dis-
cussed other problems of church history in the
three dissertationB which he appended to his Liber
diurmtM RorrmTwrum jxinlifimm (1680). After the
death of Gamier his supplement to the works of
Theodore t was edited by Hardouin, a brother of
the same order, with a preface containing a biogra-
phy of the aullior (Paris, 1 684), His earUest
works, Organi phihHophi^ rudimmUa (Paris, 1651)
and BegultE fulei catholicw de graiia Dei per Jesum
Christum (Bourges, 1656), are less noteworthy. He
wrote also Tracltitus de offi^ivt confesstwu erga
singula pfrnUentium genera (Paris, IftSft), and
Syatema biblwtheciE coilegii PariaiensiB S. J. (1678).
§31, Inmbruck, 18^3; De Backer, BiUwthhiUO de to.
compoffnie de Jeau*^ od, U, SoiximcjrVQ^tilf Hi. I22S eqq.,
Pftrid, 1892; KU V. 104-105.
GAKNIER, jnLIEH: French Benedictine of
the Congregation of St. Maur; b. at Connerr^ (J6
m. e. of 1^ Manrt) c. 1670; d. at Charenton (5 m.
s.e. of Paris) June 3, 172,^. In 1609 he joined the
Maurist order, and became the coUabomtor of the
famourt Dorn Mabillon. His thorough knowledge
of the Greek languai^e and literature led his order to
entrust him with the preparation of a new edition
of the workft of Ba«il, and after 1701 he devoted
all his time and energy to this tremendous under-
taking. The first volume appeared after twenty
yearn of uninterrupted toil (Paris, 1721), and in
the f nil owing year he publiwlied the second. His
laborH had worn him out, however, and lie ilied Ije*
ion- the publication of the third volume, which
Wiii! prt'pared by Dom Pmdent Maraa (I7;it)),
BiBLio<^mAvnv; H. Hurter, N trrwrnclatdr Hieranm. IL 1106,
Innsbruck. ]^f)3.
GARRETT, ALEXAPTDER CHARLES: Protes-
tant Epiiacopid bishop of Dallas, Tex.; b. at Bally-
mote (13 m. s.w. of Sligo), County Shgo, In ^
Nov. 4, 1832, He was educated at Trinity CnlL ^
Dublin (B..\., 1855), waa ordered deacon (1S36) ^
ordained priest (1857). After being curate of t^
Worldham, Hampshire {1856-^9), he wasa mi«
ary in British Columbia for ten yeftra, being
ning lecturer at the cathedral in Victoria, mi^q
to the Indians^ navaJ chaplain at Esquimalt
tor of St. Paul's^ Nanaims, and missionary i
miners at Cariboo.- He was rector of St. Js
8an Francisco (1870-72), and d^n of XS^.
Cathedml, Omaha, Neb. (1ST2-74). In 1^?/^
was consecrated missionary bishop of ^^rtjig~.
Texas, and on the creation of the dioceeeof D^^^
1S95 became bishop of that see. He wna (^
founder of St. Mary's Institute for prls at Dslki,
and also secured the erection of St. 51attbew'aCktii»-
dral ID the same city. He has written Baiofied
Continuity (Hew York, 1875) and The PhUmpkjf
of Om Incamaiion (Baldwin lectures; 1891).
Bi^LioaiLAPHTr W. S. Perry* The Episeopate tn AmtnA, p,
226, New York. imB.
GARRIGAN, PHILIP JOSEPH: Roman Catho-
lic bishop of Sioux City, la.; b- at Cavaa t2fim,
B.s.e. of Enniskillen), County Cavan, Ireland, S^.
8, 1840. He was educated at St. Charles' Cdl^,
ElUcott City, Md. (1862-66), and St. Joe^ph'i
Provincial Seminary, Troy, N. Y., from which be
was graduated m 1870. .^.ftcr being curate of St.
John's^ Worcester, Mass. 1870-73, he wum wt^
president of St. Joseph ^s Provincial Seminary IS73-
1875, and rector of St. Bernard's Church, Fitei-
hurg, Mass., 1875-88, He was then vice-rector rf
the Catholic Univeraity of Ameriea. Washm^twi,
1888^1902, and in 1902 was consecrated bishop of
the newly created diocese of Sioux City.
GARRirCCI, gOi-rfl'chi, RAFFAELE: ItaHifl
Jesuit and archeologist; b, at Naples Jan. 23, 1§12;
d. at Rome May 5, 1885. He entered tbe Sockty
of Jesu» at the age of fourteen, and after ISW
published numerous monographs and books M
ChriBtian archeology, including numismatic, epig-
raphy, painting, sculpture, and the art of the cata-
combs in all its ramifications. His principal «^<srki
are : AntichM del Bebuini (Naples, 18451; LaStoHfl
di Isermta (1848); Tre sepolehri del eimUma i[
Prettstaio in R^^ma (1832); QufMioni pomjxftai
(1853); Inscriptions gravieB sur ks mmt de PrnpH
(Brussels, 1854); H Croeifiaso grafj^ in twa d«i
Ce^ari (Home, 1857); Fdri omuH di figurt in m
trmmti nei cimileri dei Crisliani primUiri {185S);
Afonumenii d€l Museo iMieraTiCTise (2 vols., 1862);
Cimitrrio degli antitM Ebrti se&perto in Tign&
Ramianini (1862); Storia deW arte crtstinna mi
primi otto secoH della chiesa (6 vols., Prato, 1872-Sl);
and Le Afonete d^lT liQlm aniim (Rome, IS^).
He also prepared the firat edition of the Hagio-
glypt^ mtv piduTw el Hculj^urm sacra mdiqvitjfim
prtejieriim quw Romw rcperiuniur^ which had been
written by Jean THeupeiLx (Macarius) as eaiiy ai
1605 (Paris, 1856).
B)ST4oaA4PBri De Baclcpi-, BH^iothiqut dx la txtrnptj^nit 4i
Jitm. ed. C. SetmmervoiEQt, vdL iij.. Pui*. I8d2; SUM'
men siu Aforia-LaacA, t^ 158-130; KU w, 1CUH1D&
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
0«nil«r
J^RLBERlfHARD: German Moravian
I hymn-writer; b. at Jeinsen (s. of Han-
14, 1763; d. at Hermhut (42 m. e. of
ae 21, 1841. His father's house was a
« for the Moravian brethren of that part
and a candidate from Hermhut was a
r in his father's family. At the age of
B sent to the institution of the Brethren
n to Neuwied-on-the-Rhine . His edu-
ompleted in the Psdagogium in Niesky
leological seminary in Barby. In 1784
lis first position as teacher at the Pseda-
1789 he became docent of historical
)hical sciences in the theological semi -
ing from the criticism of Kant and fol-
ly Jacobi and Reinhold, he endeavored
3undation for the Moravian conception
ity. But liis lectures on philosophy
i an aversion to theology and practical
e Congregation of Brethren so that the
iTere compelled to dismiss Garvein 1797,
ng, however, their kindly feelings to-
From 1799 to 1816 he was successively
the Moravian congregations at Amster-
lorf, Norden, Berlin, and from 1816 to
isalz-on-t he-Oder. In 1837 he retired
[Gar\'e was one of the most noted of
m hymn- writers; his best hymn is
in WcfTt, O Herr, ist milder Thau, trans-
» Winkworth as " Thy Word, O Lord,
lews."] He wrote: Christliche Gesdnge
25); BrUdergesdnge (Gnadau, 1827);
• Versbau (BerUn, 1827); Die Themis
nst (1828); Die Schide der Weuheit
JO); and Der VoVcsvertreter (Carlsruhe,
Joseph MCller.
: A notice by his Bon Leopold appeared in
g tier DeuUchen, xix. 1. pp. 609-610. Con-
ian, Hymnology, PP. 404-405.
ALFRED ERNEST: English (Uongre-
b. at Zyrardow, Russian Poland, Aug.
ie studied at George Watson's College,
and the universities of Glasgow (M..\.,
Oxford (B.A., 1892). After being lec-
msfield College in 1892, he held pas-
[acduff Congregational Church 1893-95
.rose Congregational Church 1895-1903.
he was professor of the philosophy of
iparative religion, and Christian ethics
and New Colleges, London, of which
I principal since 1907. He was exam-
ical languages and literatures in Edin-
regational Hall 1895-1902, and presi-
Hampstead Free Church Council 1906-
heology he is moderately progressive
and is a Lutheran rather than a Cal-
has written The Ethics of Temperance
895); The Ritschliun Theology (Edin-
); Commentary on Romans in The Cen-
London, 1901); The Gospel for To-Day
le Christian Personality (1904); My
eeper (1905); and Religious Education
N, g(ls"pa"ran', AGENOR ETIENNE:
>te8tant, statesman and author; b.
(18 m. n. of Avignon) July 12, 1810;
—28
d. at Geneva May 8, 1871. He studied law in Paris
and entered politics. After having held various
pohtical appointments he was elected to the
Chamber of Deputies from Bastia, Corsica, in 1842.
On being defeated for reelection in 1846 he aban-
doned politics and devoted himself thenceforth to
writing and lecturing, chiefly on social and religious
subjects. He worked for the abolition of slavery,
the suppression of war, the establishment of relig-
ious liberty, and the separation of Church and State.
In 1849 he settled at Geneva, where he lived till
liis death. His principal works are: Esclavage et
traiU (Paris, 1838); Les IntirHs gHiiravjc du proteB-
taniisme fran^ais (1843); Christianisme et paganisme
(2 vols., 1846); Des tables toumanies, du sumaturel
en g&n^al, et des esprits (2 vols., 1854; Eng. transl.,
Science vs. Modem Spiritualism, 2 vols., New York,
1857); Les icoles du doute et I'dcole de la foi (Ge-
neva, 1854; Eng. transl.. The Schools of Doubt and
the School of Faith, Edmburgh, 1854); Un Grand
Peuple qui se relh?e (Paris, 1861 ; Eng. transl., The
Uprising of a Great People , New York, 1861, and
London, 1862); L'Amdrique devant V Europe (1862;
Eng. transl., America before Europe , New York
and London, 1862); La FamiUe (2 vols., 1865;
Eng. transl.. The Family, London, 1867); La
Liberti morale (2 vols., 1868); U^aliti (1869);
La Conscience (1872); and Ufglise selon V^vangile
(2 vols., 1878). Other translations from Gasparin
are: The Doctrine of Plenary Inspiration (Eldin-
burgh, 1852), from five articles in the Archives du
Christianisme; and The Concessions of the ApostU
Paul and the Claims of Truth (1854), translated
from an unpublished manuscript.
Biblioqrapht: Acoounta of his life are by T. Borel, Paris,
1878; L. RufiFet. ib. 1884; and C. Barbey-BoiBuer. 2 vols..
Paris, 1902.
GASQUET, FRANCIS AID AN: English Bene-
dictine; b. in London Oct. 5, 1846. He was gradu-
ated at St. Gregory's College, Downside, Bath,
in 1864, and entered the Benedictine order in 1865,
being a postulant at Belmont Priory, near Hereford,
1865-70 and at Downside Priory 1870-74. In
1874 he was ordained priest, and from 1878 to 1885
was prior of the community, but was compelled
to resign on account of ill health. On his recovery
he was appointed by Pope Leo XIII. to engage in
historical research, and accordingly removed to Lon-
don. In 1896 he was appointed a member of the
commission of AngUcan orders, and during a visit in
Rome discovered important documents bearing
on the controversy. Four years later he was ap-
pointed abbot president of the English Benedic-
tines, and in this capacity controls four mon-
asteries and over 300 monks. He has written
Henry VIIL and the English Monasteries (2 vols.,
London, 1888); Edward VI. and the Book of Com-
mon Prayer (in collaboration with Edmund Bishop;
1890); The Great Pestilence (1893); The Last Abbot
of Glastonbury (1895); A Sketch of Monastic Con-
stitvtional History (1896); The Old English Bible,
and Other Essays (1897); The Eve of the Reforma-
tion (1900); A Short History of the Catholic Church
in England (1903); English Monastic Life (1903);
Henry the Third and the Church (1905); Lord
Acton and his Circle (1906); Parish Life in Media-
GtakBS
Oanden
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
484
val England (i906)i and The Black Death of JS4S
and ! 349 {19m), He h^ abo edited Montalembert 's
Monks of ilie WeM (6 vols., London, 1895); William
Cobbctt's HiMojy of the Protestant Reformation in
England and Ireland (IS96}; Vita Anti4iuusima
Beati Gregorii Magni (1903); and Anakcta Angh-
Prefmin^irotcnHh (1904).
GASS, (FRIEDRICH) WUHELM (JOACHIM
HEINEICH): German Protestant; b. at BresLm
Nov. 2% 1813: d. at HeiddbeFg Feb, 21, 1S89.
As & mer^ child he learned Greek, before undertaking
the stydy of Latin, from Franz PaaaoWp professor
at BrcdaUj and thus laid the foundation for his
later researches in Greek Chriatianity* After at-
tending the gymna,aia at Breslati and Schweidnitz
he entered the Umversity of Breslau in 1&32 lo
study tljoologj", but was at first interested chiefly in
pliiJoaophy, pluJology, and bc^lles4ettrcs« In 1834-
1835 he studied at Halje, being influenced especially
by Geseniu^, Wegacheider, and Thilo, later at Ber-
lin, where Neander exerted a deep influence upon
him. In 1836 he returned to Brefllau (Ph.D., ia36;
ThXie., 1839) and estJibUshed himself as pri vat-do-
cent of theology there in 1S39. In 1846 he became
professor ex traortlinary at Breslau, and in lli47 at
Greifswald, whore he was made fvdl prt>f elisor in
1855 > in 1862 he became professor of systematic
theology at Giesaeo, whence he went to Heidelberg
in 1868 as the succe^^or of R, Rot he » Hcpb he
ta^ught, beside.i systematic theology* New Testa-
ment exegesis and hynuiology. As nepret^ent-
ative of the faculty of HeicJelberg, he took part in
the general synods of 1871, 1876, and 1881. ad*
vocating a modem to liberahsm. In 1S85 he was ap-
pointed church councilor.
Gass was a strong advocate of the Evangelieal
union, and was one of the most learned among the
mostjers of German Evangeheal theology. His
works are distinguished by dihgent researcli and
rest upon a conscienliouii and intciligi^nt uae of the
sources. He first directed his attention to the
history of the Greek Glmrch in the Middle Ages,
a field almost entirely neglected until Ivis time.
His first work. Gennwh'm und Pieiho (Breslau,
1S44), treats of the fitmggle of ^Vristoteliaiii^m and
Platonism during this (lerioiL In Die Myntik d&t
Nikolaus KabaaitoF, mm Lenten in Christo (Greifs-
wald, 1849) he edited for the first time the " Life
in Christ " of Kalta^ila^, metropolitan of Thesaa-
hmica about 1350, and gave an interesting sketch
of the histoiy of Greek mysticism. He wTOte also
Geiickich^e fkr AthosklSater (Giesaen, 1865) and
collected his smaller eontributions to the history of
dogma in the Greek Church in S]fmbolik der grie-
chischen Kirche (Berlin, 1872), the first compre-
hensive work on this theme since Heineccius*
Abbildung der aUen und miim griecki^chm Kirche
(Leipsic, 1711). Gass tried to present a critical
description of the character of the Greek Churchy
by considering not only itj* dogmatic tradition,
but also it#? rites, liturgy, and woi^liip^ and the
spiritual, national, and moral conditions in gen*
eral. He also rendered vabiablc service to the
history of Protestant dogmatics by liis Geschkhte
der ptotssiantischen Dogmaiik (4 vols., Berlin, 18M-
1867), which presenta the dogmatic development
from Melanchthon to Schleiennacber. In tjs
later years Gasa devoted himself to the attidj of
Christian ethics. His most important worb m thu
field are: Die Lekre i?om GewiemFn (Bedin, IS^),
Optimismus und Pe^mismns (I87§)j and Gsgdikki
der Ethik (2 vols, in 3, 1881 '87). Of other worb
may be mentioned : Georg Co/irf und dfir Synkt-
fismus (Brealau, 1846) and Das Rrchtder Unim^eiae
St:h uizrede (Giessen , 1 867 ) , He also edited Schlrieh
macher's Brkfu>e€ks€l mil J. €. Gass (hia fatJier,
Beriin, 1^52), and with A. ViaJ, E. L. T.Henb'a
posthumous Neuere Kirchengmehirhk (3 vob,
Halle, 1 874-80) . With H. Renter and T, M^ be
edited, after 1876, the Zeliachrift fftr Kifdtoft^
achichte (Got ha, 1876 sqq.), G. GrI'tisuceie,
B11ILIOGR.IPIIT1 B'^t*fr^ BJv>graphi4Bfn, i-d, V, vm Wildl,
iv. 527-536. C&rlflrube, iB&i. Tlie funpro] ontioQ^bj
it. BH«M?riEkan, in to FrotestarUUdi* KirchmwiUtai, W
pp. 251 sqq^
GASS, g^, JOACHIM CHRISTIAJT: (ktmR
theologian; b. at Leopoldshagen (a suburb d
Anklam, 47 m. n,w, of Stettio) May :^. 1766^
d, at Breslau Feb, 19, 1831. He began liisedtK^
tioD at the monastic school at Bergea, ^udled
theolo^ and philosophy at Halle 1785-89, andia
1795 was appointed field ehaplaiii in Bortk^'s
regiment, and preacher at t!ie garrmin at S^fttio.
/\s a theologian he early departed from orthodwty.
although he endeavored to restore the beatrtifsil
" individuality *' of Christianity, his Btitragf m
Verbreitnng einea r^ligioaen Sinnes in Predi^m
(Stettin, ISOl ) giving evidence of this desire. In
1S06 the Napoleonic war took Gass to Halle, urbeft
he met SchJciermacber, who had been hii dwe
friend for three years, and Steffens, Gass soon •
returned to Stettin, but the disbanding of M»
regiment in the latter half of 18t)7, together with
domestic troubles, led him bo settle in BerfiHt
where he was appointed preacher at the Mariea-
kirehe* In 1810 he was called to Breslau. wbert
he remained until his death, officiating aa Kooas'
torialmt and as a member of the church and sebool
committees of the government of Sile^a. When
the ITnivensity of Frankfort-on-^the-Oder was tra^
ferred to Breslau in 1811, Gaaa was pvtn the
chair of systematic theology. As a thedogisn.
he was a follower of Schleiermacher, althou^ he did
not absorb the latter^s doctrinal idiospmsa-
In the beginning of liis career as a member of tie
Sile^'an consistory, Gass was in accord «ith the
highest functionaries, but later he sided with ti«
opposition. His attitude during the controTerao
regarding union, organiEation, and ritual mav be
gathered partly from his letters to SehJeienoa^ttef
and partly from the Jahrbuch des protestoniuihffi
Kirchen- und Schulttmsens van ufid ffir Schh^
i2voU,,Bred'du. 1818^20), which he edited. Airwinl
his other works the most important are the f oUowisf^
Ueber den christliehen Cuku» (Brcsku, 1S15); A«
mein^ eiyangelischen MiitQrger (1823); U^ter Am
Reli^ionRunierricht m den oberen KloAsen dif 0^
nasien (1828); and t^efrer dm Eeich^og iu Spef'
von IBiB (1827), (W, G.-^t )
BTHi.tooRAt'Jtr: F. Schknermftcher. Eriei\Pfdiml mil J. C
Ga»». Berlin. 1S32; ,4taj SrAfewrffwjrA**-^* Lebn^ iji Briilw*,
Berlin. 1858. Eng. trAn»l., The Life <d SdUritrmadkgr »
Unfddtd in Ms Autobiography and LetUrw, Loodoo. iSQOi
485
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Gmmi
G«uden
6ASSENDI, gas-een'di, PIERRE: French Ro-
man Catholic pliilosopher and mathematician; b.
at Champtercicr, near Digne (55 m. n.c. of Aix),
Jan. 22, 1592; d. at Paris Oct. 24, 1655. He
was educated at Digne and Aix. At sixteen he was
offered an instructorship in rhetoric at Digne, and
in 1613 he became professor of theology at Aix.
In 1617 he took orders, and was then professor of
philosophy at Aix till 1623, when he resigned his
position for a canonry at Grenoble. In 1633 he be-
came provost of the cathedral at Digne, and in
1645 professor of mathematics at the College
Royal in Paris. Gassendi is known chiefly as an
opponent of Descartes, and as the reviver of Epicu-
reanism, which he endeavored to harmonize with
Christianity. He adopted Epicurus's atomistic
physics, his empirical theory of knowledge, his hed-
onistic ethics, and also his \new of the freedom
of the will. He held that God created the atoms
and endowed them with certain properties, but
that he also exercises a supervision over them.
Gassendi prepared the way for the empiricism of
Condillac and Locke and occupies an important
place in the history of atomistic philosophy.
Aside from a number of polemical writings against
Descartes, his principal works are, Exercatatumes
paradoxice versus Ariatoteles (bk. i., Grenoble, 1624;
bk. ii. The Hague, 1659); De vita moribus et doctrina
Epicuri (Lyons, 1647); InstitiUio astronomica
(Paris, 1647); and Syntagma philosophuB Epicuri
(Lyons, 1849).
Bibuographt: De Camburat, Abrio^ de la vie et du eye-
Ihne de Gaeaendi, Bouillon, 1770; C. Jeannel, Oaeeendi
epiritualiaU^ Montpcllier, 1859. Works on his philosopliy
are by: L. Mandon, ib. 1861; P. F. Thomas. Paris. 1889.
GAST, gflst, FREDERICK AUGUSTUS: Ger-
man Reformed; b. at Lancaster, Pa., Oct. 17,
1835. He studied at Franklin and Marshall
College, Lancaster, Pa. (B.A., 1856), and the
Mercersburg Theological Seminary (1856-57). In
1859 he was ordained, and was pastor at New Hol-
land, Pa., 1859-65 and at Loudon and St. Thomas,
Pa., 1865-67, in addition to being chaplain of the
Forty-fifth Pennsylvania Volunteers from March
to July, 1865. He was principal of the academy
of Franklin and Marshall College 1867-71, as-
sistant professor in the college 1871-72, and tutor
in the theological seminary at Lancaster 1872-74.
Since 1874 he has been professor of Hebrew and
Old Testament theology in the same institution.
GATAKERfgat'a-ker, THOMAS: English Puritan;
b. in London Sept. 4, 1574; d. at Rotherhithe (2 m.
e.e.of St. Paul's) July 27, 1654. He studied at St.
John's College, Cambridge, and was appointed to a
fellowship in the newly founded Sidney Sussex
College in 1596. After preaching for a few months
at Everton, near Cambridge, he went to London
in 1600, where he preached occasionally at St. Mar-
tin Vin-the-Fields and served as tutor in the family
of Sir William Cooke. In 1601 he received the lec-
tureship at Lincoln's Inn, and in 1611 the rectory of
Rotherhithe, which he held till his death. In 1643
he was nominated a member of the Westminster
Aasembly of Divines, and in 1644 he was put upon
the committee for examining miniBters. He had
previously declined the mastership of Trinity College,
Cambridge. In 1645 he was a member of a com-
mittee to select persons to translate the directory of
worship into Welsh, and also of the committee of
seven charged with the preparation of the first draft
of a confession of faith . On Jan. 18, 1649, he signed
the first address against the trial and execution of
the king. In the matter of church government he
advocated a modified episcopacy. Gataker was a
man of minute scholarship, and his best^known
works are his valuable annotated edition of Marcus
Aurelius (London, 1652), and his commentaries on
Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Lamentations, published in
the Assembly's Annotationa (1645, 1651). Other
works are : Of the Nature and Use of Lots (London,
1619); A Discussion of the Popish Doctrine of Tran-
substantiation (1624); A Short Catechism (1624);
and Sermons (2 parts, 1637). H. Witsius edited
his Opera critica (2 vols., Utrecht, 1697-98).
Biblioobapht: Sources are his own Diecoura ApoloffeOcalt
London, 1654; his autobiography in the posthumous
Adveraaria MiecelUmea, ib. 1669; and Oray Hayree
Crowned vnth Grace, a Funeral Sermon tvUh Memoir, 1665.
Consult: A. h Wood, Athena Oxonieneee, ed. P. Bliss, iii.
1257. 4 vols., ib. 1813-20; B. Brook. Livee of Uie Puri-
tana, iii. 200. ib. 1813; D. Neal. Hiat. of the Puritana, iii.
451. ib. 1822; A. F. Mitchell, Weatminater Aaaembly and
Standarda, passim, ib. 1883; DNB, xxi. 60-62.
GAUDEN, gd'den, JOHN: Bishop of Worces-
ter; b. at Mayland (35 m. e.n.e. of London) 1605;
d. at Worcester Sept. 20, 1662. He was educated
at St. John's College, Cambridge (B.A., 1623; M.A.,
1626), and at Wadham College, Oxford (B.D., 1635;
D.D., 1641). In 1640 he became vicar of Chippen-
ham and chaplain to the earl of Warwick, through
whose influence he was nominated to the deanery
of Bocking in 1641 . On Nov. 29, 1640, he preached
before the House of Ck)mmons. He was a member
of the Westminster Assembly in 1643, but on
account of his conservative views on episcopacy
was soon removed from that body. Although he
opposed the policy of Cromwell and published a
number of books in behalf of the Church of England,
he conformed to Presbyterianism and continued
to hold his preferments throughout the Protector-
ate. At the Restoration in 1660 he was made
chaplain to the king and bishop of Exeter, and in
1662 he was translated to the see of Worcester.
He was a member of the Savoy Conference (q.v.);
and according to Baxter, if all had possessed his
moderation the Episcopalians and Presbyterians
would have been quickly reconciled. Gauden
was probably the author of EikOn Basiliki; the
Portraiture of his Sacred Majesty in his Solitudes
and Sufferings (1648), an ostensible work of diaries
I. that quickly passed through twenty-seven edi-
tions. The book was translated into Latin and was
attacked by Milton in his Eikonoclastes (1649). It
is a defense of the king's conduct and an account
of his misfortunes from 1640 to 1648, interpolated
with prayers and meditations.
Biblioobapht: On the authorship of Eik6n BaaUiki con-
sult C. Wordsworth, Wfio Wrote Eucmv p^uriktmif Cam-
bridge, 1824; idem. King Charlea /., Author of Icon Baai-
Uke, ib. 1828; H. J. Todd, A Letter . . . ooneeming the
Authorahip, 1825. On Oauden consult: A. k Wood,
Athena Oxonienaea, ed. P. Bliss, iii. 612-618. 4 vols..
London. 1813>20; T. Baker. Hiat, of CoOege of ML John,
CNkudentlTia
Oanaaen
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
486
ed. J. £. B. Mayor, pp. 266. 678. Cambridge. I860: G.
Oliver, Livea of the Bi^topB of Exeter, pp. 150-151, Lon-
don. 1861; DAB, xxi. 60-72.
GAUDENTinS: Bishop of Brixia (the present
Brescia); b. probably at Brixia c. 360; d. probably
soon after 410. He was a pupil of Philastrius
(q.v.) and may have been consecrated by him. He
was absent on a journey to Jerusalem and Cappado-
cia when Pliilastrius died, and clergy and people
unanimously chose him bishop and asked for his
return. Gaudentius accepted the position reluc-
tantly, entering on his duties about 387. Little is
known of his further activity. With two other
deputies of the Elmperor Honorius and of the Ro-
man Bishop Innocent I. he went to Greece to inter-
cede for Chrysostom (q.v.) before the Emperor
Arcadius; the mission was imsucccssful, but Gau-
dentius won Chrysostom 's gratitude by his act of
love. Gaudentius must have been still alive in
410, in which year Rufinus dedicated to him his
translation of the Recognitianea of (dement.
Gaudentius wrote a number of small treatises,
among them ten sermons on Easter (c. 390), which
are dedicated to a certain Benevolus who was
prevented by sickness from attending service in the
church. The first sermon is addressed to candi-
dates for baptism and treats of the celebration of
E^ter on the basis of Ex. xii.; the others were
dehvered before baptized persons. Six of them
treat of Christ, the true paschal lamb, and the Lord's
Supper; the eighth and ninth, of the wedding-feast
at Cana and virginity; the tenth, of Easter in par-
ticular and of Sunday in general. With these ten
sermons go eleven addresses on miscellaneous sub-
jects, and two letters. The addresses are plain and
simple and by no means deficient in beautiful
thoughts. Like his contemporaries he shows an in-
clination to allegorical interpretation of Scripture.
(K. LEIMBACHf.)
Bibliography: An excellent edition of the nermons is by
P. Gagliardi. Padua. 1720. repro<luoed essentially in MPL,
XX. 827-1002. On the life of Gaudentius consult: ASB,
Oct.. xi. 587-604; A/PL, xx. 791-826; G. Brunati. Leg-
gendario o vUe di Kinti Bretciani, pp. 73-104. Brescia,
1834; J. Nirechl. Lehrbuch der Patrolooie und Pairietik,
ii. 488-493. Mains. 1883.
GAULANITIS, g5"la-ni'tis: A district to the
east of the Sea of Galilee and of the upper Jordan.
According to Eusebius (Onomasticon, 242), the
name is derived from Gaulon, the name of a large
town, the Golan in Bashan of the Old Testament
and the Gaulanaof Josephus (Ant. lV.,vii. 4). The
name is used in Josephus with varying signification.
Sometimes it is the equivalent of Bashan, though
again he sets off from it the regions of Trachonitis
and Batanea, thus restricting it to the district im-
mediately bordering the Sea of Galilee and the
Jordan. The last is the better usage. There is a
division of the district into Tapper and Lower
Gaulanitis. The boundaries are only in part dis-
tinguishable. The deep bed and abrupt banks of
the Yarmuk are the fixed natural
Names and southern limits. Equally certain is the
Extent. western boundary on the Sea of Galilee
and the Jordan, except that Hippo and
Paneas are not always reckoned as belonging to it.
The northem and eastern limits are uncertain,
except as marked on the north by the foot of fle^
mon. On the southeast the tributaries of the W
muk make a sharp demarcation in the plain, yet
neither the Nahr al-Rukkad nor the Nahr al-AIlu
is recognized as the boundary. From the fact
that Saham al-Jaulan was once reckoned to tliis
district, the boundaries must once have extended
beyond the Nahr al- Allan, eastward, therefore, at
far as the upper course of the Yarmuk. In Joe^u
(Lifef 37) the modem Sulam (Seleima in the in-
scriptions; cf. Le Bas and Waddington, /rump-
lions, iii. 543) at the foot of Jabal Hauran, andao
t he southern part of Batanea or Hauran, belonged to
Gaulanitis, extending the district as far as the
Lejjah, at least as a governmental province.
Herod the Great drew 3,(XX) Idumeans and 600
Jews from Trachonitis and Batanea to check the
Arab marauders.
The name enters history in the account by Jose-
phus of the campaigns of Alexander Jannacus (102-
76 B.C.), who conquered Golan, Seleucia, and
Gamala from a certain Demetrius. Pompey (63
B.C.) assigned Golan to the province of Syria and
left Hippo free (Ant. XIV., iv. 4; War, I., \Ti. 7).
Under Augustus the district belonged to Herod
the Great, and after his death it went
History, to the tetrarchy of his son Philip,
while Hippo was a part of the province
of Syria. It belonged to the province of Syria
during the period 34-37 a.d., and was then granted
by Caligula to Agrippa I. (Ant. XVIII., \i 10),
after whose death (44 a.d.) it w^as included in the
general control of Palestine until in the year 53 it wis
granted by CJlaudius to Agrippa II., whose death
caused it to return to the government of Syria.
Hippo lay at an elevation of 1,500 feet above
the Sea of Galilee. The Talmud gives the .\nunaic
name as Susita, the Susiyah of the .\rabic geogra-
phers, where are extensive ruins half an hour west
of Fik in the lower Jaulan, Fik being the old .\phek,
not far from Hippo (Eusebius, Onomasticon, 219,
91 ). The site of Hippo, however, lies one hour
west of Fik. The inhabitants were largely Greeks.
According to Josephus (Life, 9), the district belong-
ing to the city was so extensive that it bordered upon .
the districts belonging to Gadara, Scythopdis. and
Tiberias. About four miles to the north, on the
bank of the Wadi al-Samak are some ruins, inclu-
ding the remains of a wall and a tower, called by the
Arabs al-Sur (connected with kursx, " a seat ").
recognized by many scholars as the site of the city
of the Gerasenes, Gergesenes, or Gadarenes of Matt,
viii. 28 sqq., Mark v. 1 sqq., and Luke viii. 26flqq-
(see Gerasenes). The investigations of W. A.
Neumann in the region lead him to see in Jabal
Kurein Jaradi, the name of a hill to the north, the
traces of the old place-name, which he would read
Gerada, not Gadara. Not far from the entrance ol
the Jordan into the sea lay the fishing
Principal village Bethsaida, built by Herod
Cities. Philip into a city and named Julias in
honor of Julia, daughter of Augustus.
Pliny (Hist, not., V., xv. 71) locates it on the east
coast. The fishing village is best placed at al-Araj,
immediately on the sea, where the fishermen still
land and dry their nets. Possibly the city '\b tc
487
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Oavdentlns
Oanssen
he located at al-Tell, where the Arabs liave their
^winter huts. lieading New Testament references
to the place are Mark vi. 30-44; cf. Luke ix. 10 sqq.;
Mark viii. 22; John i. 44, xii. 21. The question of a
second Bethjsaida in Galilee is to be decided in the
negative, since that province was often regarded as
extending eastward of the Sea of Galilee. The
residents of Bethsaida were Jews. According to
Mark viii. 27, Jesus led his disciples from Bethsaida
to the villages of Csesarea Philippi, on which journey
Peter made his celebrated confession (verse 29).
Ceesarea Philippi lay in the district of Paneas (Ba-
niajB), named from Pan and the celebrated grotto of
the source of the Jordan (Eusebius, Hist, eccl.^
vii. 17). Near this grotto Herod the Great erected
a splendid temple, about which his son Philip built
a city which he named Csesarea after the emperor
(Joeephus, Ant, XVIII., ii. 1). Agrippa II. ex-
tended it and renamed it Neronias after Nero, a
name which did not adhere, since Caesarca Philippi,
or Csesarea Paneas, or Paneas is the usual designa-
tion. It was a favorite resort of Vespasian and Titus
for pest from the exertions of war. The population
was prevailingly heathen. Of the places inland
from the sea little is known. The ruins now called
Sdukiyah doubtless mark Selcucia. The situation
of the strong fortress of Gamala can not be certainly
identified. Since Kalat al-Hozn has been given up,
the village Jamli is regarded as a probable site,
located by Schumacher on the east bank of the
gorge of the Nahr al-Rukkad. Furrer and Van
Kastcren place it on the Tell al-Ahdeib or Ras al-Hal,
betw^een Jamli and the Rukkad. The conjunction
of the ruins and the present name (Jamli) makes
this identification probable. The place was con-
quered by Alexander Jannajus (Josephus, Ant. XII 1.,
XV. 3), and by the Romans under Vespasian after
a siege of a month (Josephus, Wars^ IV., i. 1 sqq.).
Gamala was the center of a toparchy. Another
Gamala mentioned in An/. XVIII., v. 1 is perhaps the
Jamli discovered by Schumacher in Ajlun. The
Bathyra built by Herod the Great is probably the
modem Bait Ari, south from Jamli. Sec Tracho-
NinS. (H. GUTHE.)
Biblioobapht: [G. A. Smith, Uialorieal Geography of the Holy
Land, London, 1807; U. J. Seetzen, Reisen, vols. i.. iv.,
Berlin. 1854-59; J. G. Wetzstein, Reiaeberichi uber Hau-
ron, Berlin, 1860; idem, Daa bataniiieche Gi^)elo^nroe,
Ldpsic. 1884: A. Neubauer, La Giographie du Tcdmud,
Paris. 1868, P. Le Bas and W. H. Waddington. InBcrip-
tion9 grecq[uea tt latinea, vol. iii., Pann. 1870; C. R. Conder
and H. H. Kitchener, Survey ot Western Palestine, Afentr
oire, vol. i.. London, 1881. S. Merrill. East of the Jordan,
ib. 1881; W. M. Thomson. Land and Book, Central Palea-
Une, ib. 1883; G. Schumacher. Acrosa the Jordan, ib. 1886;
idem. The Jaulan, ib. 1888; P. de Lagarde, Onomaatica
aacro. Gottingen. 1887; W. A. Neumann. Qum Dacheradi,
Freiburg, 1894; F. Buhl. Geographle dee alien PalHetina,
Freiburg, 1896; SchOrer. Geechichte, i. 427. ii. 4, 12-13,
Eng. tranal.. I. ii. 12, H. i. 2-4.
GAUSSEN, gC'sdn', ETTENNE: French Protes-
tant; b. at Nimes at the beginning of the seven-
teenth century; d. at Saumur (100 m. s.w. of Or-
leans) 1675. He became professor of philosophy
in the academy at Saumur in 1651 and in 1665
professor of theology. He was rector of the acad-
emy in 1667. The school of Saumur represented
at that time a more liberal conception of French
Ptutestantism than did the schools of S^dan and
Montauban; and Gaussen contributed much to
propagate this conception. His works were highly
rat^ by his contemporaries, and up to the middle
of the eighteenth century they were frequently
reprinted, both in Holland and Germany. To be
mentioned particidarly are : De consensu gratia}
cum natura (Saumur, 1659); De verba dei (1665); and
Quatluor dissertationes theologiccB (1670), including
De ratiane studii theologicif De natura theologicBf
de ratione concionandit and De utilitate philasophias
ad theologiam, forming, according to Bayle, the best
manual of the time for the study of theology.
Biblioobapht: E. and ]6. Haag, La France proteetanie, ed.
H. L. Bordier, vol. v., Paris, 1886; BtUleHn du proteetan^
ttatne franpaia, i. 311, ii. 158, 327; Lichtenberger, E3R,
V. 441-442.
GAUSSEN, FRANCOIS SAMUEL ROBERT
LOUIS: Swiss clergyman; b. at Geneva Aug. 25,
1790; d. there June 18, 1863. Two years after
completing his studies at the university of his
native city (1814), he was appointed minister at
Satigny, near Geneva, where ho succeeded Cellerier,
one of the few members of the Swiss clergy who
climg to orthodoxy, and who exercised a profound
influence on the formation of Gaussen 's theological
convictions. The period was almost contempo-
raneous with the dawn of the religious revival in
French Switzerland. This awakening resulted in
the issuance of an order (May 7, 1817) by the
Vin&rable compagnte des pasteurs, practically pro-
hibiting the preaching of certain important
doctrines of divinity. Gaussen and Cellerier pro-
tested against this ruling in 1819, chiefly by re-
publishing the new French edition of the Helvetic
O)nfession, to which they added a preface in which
they declared that a Church must have a declaration
of faith, and that the Second Helvetic Confession
correctly voiced their personal convictions. In the
meantime Gaussen pursued his clerical duties in
Satigny, besides holding religious meetings in his
own home, as well as in his mother's house in
Geneva, striving to revivify the national church,
but not advocating separation from it. At Geneva,
which gradually became the center of his activity,
Gaussen founded a missionary society, which held
meetings, first in private houses and later in the
church. In 1828, through the intervention of the
V/rn^able compagniej certain new members were
elected to its committee whom Gaussen considered
heterodox in their views, and he therefore with-
drew from the society. Tliis conflict with the clergy
of Geneva was the precursor of frequent storms
which influenced his future career. (Calvin's cate-
chism had long been used as a basis for the in-
struction of the young, but the V^frable compagnte
now substituted another in its stead, and ordered
Gaussen to use it. He tried to do so, but found it
unsatisfactory and laid it aside. The clergy of Ge-
neva lodged a complaint against him, and after a
lengthy dispute he was finally censured by the
compagnte, and deprived of his right to take part in
its meetings for a period of one year (cf . Letlres de
Mr. le Pasteur Gaussen d, la v^nlrable compagnie des
pasteurs de Gentve, 1831; and Expos6 historique des
discussions dev^ enire la compagnte des pasteurs de
Genhve et Mr. Gauaam, 1831) With his fxiends*
Omussen
Oebhard II
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
481
Merle d'Aubign^ and Galland, Gaussen now founded
an ** Evangelical Society " to distribute Bibles and
tracts, and to interest the public in missionary
work among the heathen. Shortly afterward the
Evangelical Society decided to found a school for
the dissemination of Evangelical teachings, and this
resolve was imparted to the state councilor of Ge-
neva, as well as to the churches, in circular letters
signed by Galland, Merle d'Aubignd, and Gaussen.
Gaussen was accordingly deposed by the consistory
on Sept. 30, 1831, while his two colleagues were
suspended. For a long time he traveled through
Italy and England, awakening strong sympathy
for his cause in the latter country, but viewing the
Roman Catholic Church with extreme disfavor.
In 1834 he returned to Geneva, and accepted the
chair of dogmatics at the newly established theo-
logical school. He inclined strictly toward Re-
formed Orthodoxy, and deviated from its doctrines
only with regard to his theory of predestination, ac-
cepting the teaching of election by grace but deny-
ing supralapsarianism. Three points of Evangelical
theology were especially treated by Gaussen: the
divinity of Christ, the prophecies, and the divine au-
thority of Holy Scripture. In his Thdopneustie (Ge-
neva, 1840; Eng. transl., Theopneuatia ; the plenary
Inspiration of the Holy ScriptwreSy London, 1841) he
maintained that all passages in the Old and New
Testaments were verbally inspired, but his theory
of inspiration was attacked by members of his own
theological school, and later also by Edmund
Scherer, and he accordingly wrote, in vindication,
Le Canon des Saintea Ventures au double point de vue
de la science etdelafoi (Lausanne, 1860; Eng transl.,
Canon of the Holy Scriptures as Viewed Through
Science and Faith , London, 1862). He was also
the author of numerous other works, including
Legons sur Daniel (3 vols., uncompleted, 1861; Eng.
transl.. The Prophet Daniel Explained, 1873-74),
consisting of several of his catechetical lectures on
Daniel; and of Lea premiers chapUres de VExode, and
Le prophHe Jonas (the latter two published pos-
thumously). His works enjoyed a wide circulation
both in England and in France. (E. BARDEf.)
Biblioorapht: H. von der Golti, Die Ttformierte Kinhe
GenU im 19. Jahrhundert, pp. 103. 280. 467. Basel. 1862;
Lichtenberger. ESR, v. 442--443.
GAUTAMA. See Buddhism.
GAUTIER, g6"ty6', CHARLES LUCIEN: Swiss
Reformed; b. at Cologny (2 m. n.e. of Geneva),
Switzerland, Aug. 17, 1850. He studied in Geneva
(B.Lit., 1867; B. Th6ol., 1874), Tubingen, and Leip-
sic (Ph.D., 1877), and was professor of Old Testa-
ment exegesis and theology at Lausanne (Free
Church of the Canton of Vaud) from 1877 to 1898,
when he retired as honorary professor. He was
president of the synod of the Free Church of the
Canton of Vaud in 1885, 1886, 1891, and 1892.
In theology he is Evangelical in his sympathies,
although not an enemy of the critical school.
He has wntten Le Sacerdoce dans VAnden TestOr
meat (Geneva, 1874); Ad-Dourra al^Fdkhira, la
perle pr^cieuse de Ghazali : traitd d*eschaiologie
musulmane (1878); La Mission du prophHe Ez^chid
(Lausanne, 1891); Au delddu Jourdain (Geneva,
1895); Souvenirs de Terre-Sainte (Lausanne, 1898)
Vocations des prophetes (1901); Ardour de la Me
Morte (Geneva, 1901); and Introduction d VAneia
Testament (2 vols., Lausanne, 1906).
GAVAZZI, ga-vdt'si, ALESSANDRO: One o
the founders of the " Free Church of Italy " (sei
Itaxy); b. at Bologna Mar. 21, 1809; d. at Room
Jan. 9, 1889. He entered the Order of Bamabita
in 1825, and four years later became professor o(
rhetoric at Naples. His radical views soon at-
tracted unfavorable notice, and in 1840 he was tnuia.
ferred to a subordinate position in the States of tl^
Church. He welcomed the election of Pius IX. ai^
enthusiastically supported the liberal movemet^
which marked the beginning of the new r^giit^
Appointed chaplain of the Roman troops sent |^
Lombardy, he assisted in inciting resistance i^
Austria, but was arrested at Vicenza and confined at
Cometo until released by the inhabitants of V'iterin).
The change in the papal policy, however, fiDed him
with hatred of the pope, and on the capture rf
Rome and the reinstatement of Pius in 1849. he
fled to England and renounced his faith. He then
became pastor of a Protestant Italian congregatioo
in London, and lectured in England, Scotland, and
Ireland against his former religion. In 1860 he
joined the army of Garibaldi as a chaplain, and
after the establishment of the kingdom of Italy re-
sided in Rome, where in 1877 he started a theologi-
cal seminary for the " Free Church," of whidihc
was the principal founder (see Italy), and
officiated as professor of dogmatics, apologetics, and
polemics. Among his numerous works special
mention may be made of the foUoi^ing: Mmm
(London, 1851); Orations (1851); Lectures in Se9
York (New York, 1853); Recollections of the lad
Four Popes (London, 1858); Records of TwoYtati
Christian Work in Italy (1865); La Bibbia regok
di fede degli evangelici (Florence, 1868); Jki Con-
cilt ecumenici (1869); No Union vnth Rom
(London, 1871); and The Priest in Absolutm
(1877).
Bibliooraphy: G. M. Campanella and G. B. Nioolioi. ^
offraphy of Father Oavazzi, New York, 1853 (prp6xed to
the Lectures); J. W. King, Alejandro Guvazti: a Bi/V"
raphy, London, 1860.
GEBAL (" Mountain "): 1. A Phenician city d
seamen and merchants engaged in the Mediterranean
trade, mentioned Ezek. xxvii. 9 and perhaps re-
ferred to in Josh. xiii. 5; I Kings v. 18. The name
is preserved in the modem Jibeil, about 20 m. n. «
Beirut. Its Assyrian name was G ubal or Gubla: the
Greeks called it Byblos. The Egyptians knew it
before 1500 B.C. as a center of religious life andlite^
ature, it figures in the Amama Tablets (q.v.), impo^*
tant inscriptions have been found there, and it wtf
the home of Philo Herenius, who transmitted the
fragments of Sanchuniathon's ** Histoiy." T^
modem place is near the shore; probaWy theoidef
city was on a spur of the mountains, farther in-
land.
2. A district named in the Bible only in tlicUte
Ps. Ixxxiii. 7 in connection with Edom, the Ishmiel-
ites, Moab, Anunon, and the Amalekites, whoee
home was toward the south or southeast d the
480
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
G^ussen
Gebhard II
Dead Sea, therefore to be located in that ropirjn.
Jt is doubtless the modern Jibal of the Arabs, l!ie
diiftrict located by Josephus {Ant, II., i. 2, IX., ix. 1 )
as near Petra, and by Arabian geograpliens as tho
northern part of the region east of theWadial-
Arabah (the depression south of the Dead Sea).
(H. GUTHE.)
BiBUOOBiLPHT: DB, ii. 117; EB, ii. 1653-56. On 1, con-
sult: W. M. Mtiller, Aaien und Europa, pp. 185 sqq.,
Leipaic. 1803; E. Ilenan, MiMum de Phinicie, pp. 174
sqq., Paris, 1864: II. Winckler, in KeiUehrifUiche Bib-
lioth^, vol. v., Berlin, 1896. On 2, consult: Robinson,
ReaearcheM, ii. 154; Guy le Strange, PaletHne under the
ModetM, London, 1890; F. Buhl, Geachichte der Edomi-
ter, Leipsic, 1893.
GEBHARD D. AIO) THE COUNTERREFORMA-
TlOlf IN THE LOWER RHINE
LANDS.
Protestants in the Lower Rhine Lands (fi 1).
Bavarian Intrifoies in Lower Germany (fi 2).
Gebhard II (S 3).
Gebhard's Downfall (fi 4).
Pi ogress of the Counterreformation (fi 5).
The Reformation nowhere completely permeated
the Lower Rhenish districts. Small congregations.
It is true, struggled here and there for a mo<lest
existence, and a part of the nobility appeared to
incline toward the new doctrines; but the new
movement was not supported by the towns. In
both of the most powerful imperial
I. Prote»- cities of these regions, Cologne and
tants in Aachen, the Roman preponderance
the Loiter in councils and civic life remained un-
Rhine impaired. But from 1570 onward, the
Lands, disturbances in the Netherlands hav-
ing driven countless refugees into the
neighboring districts of the Lower Rhine, quite a
number of Reformed congregations became estab-
lished in the duchy of JuHers and Cleves, and in the
electorate and city of Cologne. Wesel came to be
a center for the new propaganda. At Aachen the
Protestants began to contend, after 1574, for the rule
of the city. Indeed as early as 1571 there came into
effect a firm organization of all these '* Netherland-
ish " congregations, which drew to themselves many
of the native Protestants. In spite of sporadic action
on the part of the authorities, the congregations
were tacitly tolerated, in the main, a contributory
factor to this end in the city of Cologne being re-
gard for mercantile relations with the Netherlands;
while at the court of Juliers a Protestant party
even endeavored to gain a legislative influence over
the infirm and vacillating Duke William IV.
If therefore the Reformation had nowhere gained
the supremacy in these districts, and had not even
attained to a position of security, nevertheless,
toward the close of the decade 1 570-80, Protestants
were everywhere to be found, and no Counterref-
ormation tendency was then active. The Jesuits
had begun their activity in Cologne soon after their
society was founded, and made that point a center
of their missionary and literary enterprises in the
pest of Germany; but their efforts in Cologne it-
self never accomplished anything assured and
fruitful. They were thwarted by lack of support
from the political authorities; the electors showed
no interest in the society, and the city council, the
clergy, and the imivcrsity put obstacles in its course.
The victory that was eventually nchieved at this
place by the (.-ounterreformation was owing to the
})rcssurc of alien dynastic interests, and the chief
part in tliis result for the Roman cause was played
by Bavarian statecraft.
Duke Albert V. of Bavaria had destined his third
son, Ernest (b. 1554), for the clerical vocation; in
1565 he became a canon at Salzburg, and soon after-
ward at Cologne, Treves, and Wiirzburg as well;
in the autumn of 1565 he likewi-se became bishop of
Freising. Albert's wislics no doubt centered upon
the neighboring archdiocese of Salz-
2. Bavarian burg; but in 1569, when Elector
Intrigues Salentin of Cologne incurred difficul-
in Lower ties with the curia for non-recognition
Germany, of the Council of Trent and was con-
templating resignation. Ernest was pro-
posed by his father, who had the support of the
Spanish government at Bnissels, as Sulcntin's suc-
cessor. At the imperial diet at Sj^cyer, in 1570,
the negotiations with Salentin were so far advanced
tliat Ernest went to Cologne in November, and served
his first residence there as canon till May, 1571,
such being the prehniinary condition in the line
of election. Salentin's resignation, however, was
deferred, and in 157ii he actually submitted to the
(Council of Trent, and was thereupon confirmed by
the curia as archbishop, foregoing the priestly con-
secration. In 1577, after the Bavarian court had
failed in an attempt to secure MOnster for Ernest,
efforts looking to Cologne were resumed and
prasecuted more zealously than before. Moreover,
the support of the curia now heightened the hope
of some practical result. Duke Ernest, who for a
time, in 1572, had well-nigh thwarted all his father's
plans by a suddenly outcropping disinclination to-
ward the spiritual vocation, was sent to Rome in
the spring of 1574, for a sojourn of nearly two years,
by way of reward for submitting to his father's
will. At Rome he won the particular good-will of
the pojje, so that Gregory XIII. resolved to support,
with all his might, Ernest's installation as coadjutor
to Salentin: in fact, the advancement of Bavarian
family interests appeared to be the only possible
way of recovering a more secure standing for the
Roman Catholic Church in Lower Germany. The
status which had been gained in 1573 by the elec-
tion of Ernest as bishop of the small see of Hildes-
heim could not as yet, by itself alone, afford a very
trustworthy base of support.
But against the conmion plans of Salentin, the
curia, and the Bavarian court, opposition manifested
itself on the side of the chapter at Cologne; when,
in 1577. Salentin resigned, Ernest was defeated^
at the new election, by Gebhard Truclisess, who was
elected by the Protestants and the lukewarm
Catholics of the chapter. Duke Albert, as well as
the papal nuncio Portia, protested against the
election; but as both the emperor and the electors
espoused Gehbard's cause, and as he passed for a
good Catholic, receiving priestly consecration in
Mar., 1578, and swearing to the Council of Trent,
the curia disregarded the Bavarian protest and in
Mar., 1580, confirmed the election. By that time
Duke Albert had died« and his successor, William
O^bhard]
Gedallah
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
440
v., was ready to oome to terms. Emest received
some oompensatioD, in 1581, by obtaining the rich
diocese of Li^.
Gebhard (b. at the Waldburg, 5 m. e.s.e. of
Ravensburg, in Swabia, Nov. 10, 1547; d. at Stras-
burg May 21, 1601) descended from the old Swa-
bian family of the Truchsesses of Waldburg; his
father was Imperial Councilor Wilhelm Truchsess;
his imcle, Cardinal Otto of Augsburg. A careful
education had fallen to his portion, as even at an
early age he was destined for the spir-
3. Geb- itual vocation. He attended, so the
hard IL accepted report has it, the universities
of Dillingen, Ingolstadt, and (longest)
Lou vain; then terminated his studies with a sojourn
in Italy, 1567. His spiritual career began in 1560
with the acquisition of a prebendary position at
Augsburg; in 1561 he became canon at Cologne;
capitular at Strasburg in 1567; and capitular at
Cologne in 1568, in place of the newly elected
elector Salentin. From data of the year 1569 it is
known that Gebhard led a scandalous life at Augs-
burg, and by request of Cardinal Otto, Duke Albert
V. interposed with exhortations which appear to
have occasioned some improvement. In 1574
Gebhard became dean of the cathedral at Stras-
burg; in 1576, by papal nomination, provost of the
cathedral at Augsburg. At all events, his ecclesi-
astical behavior must have been clear of suspicious
imputations, and the curia was ready to confirm
his election as elector of Cologne.
A personal matter drew the elector, some years
after his election, into the ecclesiastical strife, and
gave new life to the Bavarian hopes. Gebhard,
about 1580, had formed a liaison with Countess
Agnes of Mansfeld, a canoness of the cloister at
Gerresheim. Under the insistencies of the dishon-
ored woman's relatives, Gebhard resolved on
marriage. Originally, no doubt, he meant to re-
sign his office and renoimce the spiritual career;
but the same friends who had been active in secur-
ing his election now induced him to retain the
archiepiscopal position des[)ite his marriage. After
somewhat prolonged, though not, indeed, by any
means satisfactory preliminaries, and after formal
conclusion thereof in the city of Bonn, which, for
that matter, was anything but unanimously in
accord with him, the elector publicly announced,
in Dec, 1582, and in Jan., 1583, that he licensed
the exercise of both confessions in the archdiocese,
the old as well as the new; and that he himself
intended to adopt the Augsburg Confession, to
remain archbishop, and to marry. Gebhard *s
short-sightedness betrays itself in the fact that on
publicly declaring his purpose he still had no assur-
ance that he had sufficient support in the arch-
diocese, or that he would receive encouragement
from the German Protestants or from Orange
and the States-General. Up to that time, only the
counts of Wetterau and Palgrave John Casimir
had showed themselves ready to help. In case a
general Protestant support were lacking — ^and this
was just what happened, thanks to the mistaken
policy of Elector Augustus of Saxony — the unsuc-
cessful issue of this attempt toward religious free-
dom was inevitable from the outaet.
Even before Gebhard had publicly announced his
purposes, his adversaries were stirring (from the
autumn of 1582); the cathedral chapter at Cologne,
opposing on both ecclesiastical and personal grouoda
the secularization of the archdiocese, devised meas-
ures of resistance, and formed an alliance with the
governor-general of the Netherlands,
4. Geb- Alexander of Parma; moreover the ter-
hard's ritorial estates of the diocese dedared
DownfalL themselves against Gebhard's project
The most influential member of the
chapter, the suffragan bishop, Duke Frederick of
Saxe-Lauenburg, even began, on his oiKii respons-
bility, open war against the innovation. The dty
of Cologne arrayed itself against the elector; the
Emperor charged him to desist; and the curia
instituted canonical procedure against all apostates.
In Apr. 1583, Gebhard was exconmiunicated and
deposed from his rank. Bavarian statecraft now
began to stir anew, and the curia, no less than
Gebhard 's antagonists in the chapter at Cologne,
accepted Duke Emest as their sole possible can-
didate. He had appeared in Cologne at the be-
ginning of March, and at the new election, duly
appointed under date of May 23, he was unani-
mously elected archbishop. Emest and Gebhard
now confronted each other as champions of differ-
ent principles no less than as exponents of personal
interests; nor was Gebhard disposed to recede.
Promptly after his election, Emest, supported by
his brother Duke William V., by the SpanL<i
Govemment at Brussels, and by the curia, collected
an army; his elder brother, Duke Ferdinand of
Bavaria, was appointed commander-in-chief, in the
summer of 1583; and Spanish regiments were
furthermore in readiness to cooperate, since it would
be a new menace to the shattered Spanish dominion
in the Netherlands if the electorate of Cologne
fell into Protestant hands. Gebhard 's niilitaiy
forces were quite unequal to this opposition.
Among the archdiocesan subjects, only the estates
of the duchy of Westphalia had declared in hii
favor; in the Rhenish districts of the electorate,
Gebhard, at the beginning of the war, had only
a few secure points in his hand (Bonn, Bedbur,
Berk, and Uerdingen) ; in the southem portion of the
diocese, his brother Karl Truchsess fought on his
side and in the north his most capable partizan,
Count Adolphus of Neuenar, but both with meager
commands. Palgrave John Casimir, to be sure, the
sole Protestant prince who attempted to furnish
real assistance, marched up to his support with
seven thousand men in the summer of 1583; but
his army, unfit to begin with, and by no means well
handled under his own leadership, was wcU-nigh
ready to disband after two months of fruitless
maneuvering on the right bank of the Rhine, and
in consequence of a shortage of pay. In October
John Casimir was recalled from the seat of war to
Heidelberg, to assume the regency on occasion of
the death of his brother. Elector Louis. The ban
of the Empire, threatened by the emperor, con-
tributed to the collapse of this auxiliary 8er\ice.
Negotiations with the States-General leading to no
result, Gebhard was left to his own resources for
facing the much stronger advenaiy. In ^iie of
441
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Oebhard U
Gedaliah
tim, half a year elapsed before the new elector's
prepoodenirtiQg power achieved its purpoeo; ^t
m the archdiocese^ tbea also in We^tplmha, one
cttj and one eastle after another slowly succumbed.
Gehhafd sought refuge in the Netherlands, and finally
died at Strasbtirg in 1601. The battle over tlie
elpctonU dignity and religioUH freedom was decided
from 15S4; by admission to the electoral college
cariy in 1585^ Ernest won for himself the legal
rectignitioo of the Empire.
Oebhard was impelled by no great idea, nor could
he claim through viiile activity the title to high
striving ambition. He meant wellf both at the
outset aa lioman Catholic and later as Protectant,
but was wanting in depth and tenacity. His victori-
ous! ad versary t personaJly , was not at all his superion
Ernes! t had pretty nearly tlie same gooti and evil
traits, and hved a spiritual life just a*, little as his
predei^efifior; " he is a great sinner, but you must
cut your cloth to the figure/' was the papal nuncio's
remark of htm. Again, Ernest's personality was
almost indiifeient as regards the result^ be waa
carried to his position by the rising tide of the
Cnunterreformation. Over Gebhard. who stooil
tdone, the victory was the curia's, Bavaria's, and
Spain's*
Now that the political task was accomplished,
the ecclesiastical forces of the CountemBformatton
began to exert themselves; the Jesuita and the
papal nuncios proceeded to invest their field.
In the Rhenish districts of the diocese and in West-
phalia, Protestantism was combated energetically;
by the acquisition of MQnster, where Erae«t was
elected in lo83, and by the induction,
S Progress under Bavarian influence, of trust-
of the worthy Roman Cathohcs into the cpis-
Counter- copd s^^es of Osnabrtick, Paderbom,
reformation, and Minden, the pofiaibihty of a consoU-
dated Roman Catholic Northwestern
Germany appeared to be once again in the course of
realisation. However, the Protestant congrega-
tions everywhere struggled obstinately for their
existence; in spite of aU repression, they continu-
ally increased in Cologne tow*ard the close of the
sixteenth century; while the greatest obstacles to a
complete reaction in the electorate at largp inhered
in the elector's peraonaiity. His worldly inclina-
tions were so Uttle amenable to the desires of the
curia that even by 15S8 the papal nuncio agitated
the plan of a coadjutors hip. When the adminis^
tration and the finances fell into worse and worse
decline, and the elector by his ardor for the chase
and his worldly dress, hts evasion of the command-
ments of the Church, and his frivoloim life caused
sharper and slmrper vexation, the installation of a
coadjutor was prosecuted with earnestness. In
Apr., 1593, with the elector *s consent, his nephew
Duke Ferdinand of Bavaria was elected to that
office. The Hquidation of accumulated debts was
ijow undertaken, and a visitation, with ecclesias-
tical reforms, of the entire archdiocese was ac-
complished.
But even though the electorate of Cologne and the
neighbonng episcopal provinces were securely
annexed on«e more t^ the Roman Church, the at^
tempt spin to subject to the Hom^ Church the
entire Northwest of Germany did not succeed i
for not only did the Netherland provinces, vic-
torious in their battle with Spain, form a strong
Protestant counterpoise, but also in the Juhers^
ClevcH districts, the Protestant congregations main-
tained themselves notwitlistanding limitations;
indeed, they continually increased^ insomuch that
in Cleves and in the Mark they actually held tha
preponderance, and in 1609, when Brandenburg
and Pfatz-Neuburg assumed possession of the
territories of the houjse of Juliers, the time of com-
plete liberty was at hand for them.
Walter Goete.
BiBLioonAPttT: L. Enaeii, Ggwehieht^ der Stadl Kidn, vd,
v., CoLoflue, ISSQ\ U. Lossen. Dm- ki^tnUch* KHtf^. Qoths,
lBB2i M, PidUppaoiQ, Im Conit*~RHfaliUion r^liffimse aiii
xvi, ti^e^ jlnigiselii, le!l84; L. Kellm-. Bie Geffmreforfjm-
Han in Wettfiil^n^ vdU ii., Leipdc, 185T» Uukel, in HiM-
i&rUchet Jahrbueh. vtiin. riii., x., Munich. tSS7. l^S^; J,
H&iutiD, N untiaturb^richte our DfuiMckUtnd, vol. iii.* parU
1-2, Ootha, ]S9^-$4; idetn, Rh^nitthf Aktett zur G*-
Mchidiie dra Jetuitmnerdens, tS4^-S$, ib. 1590^ G. Wolf,
Au* KarkMn im 19. Jnhrhvnd^^ BofUei, 1905.
GEBHARDT, OSKAR LEOPOLD VON: Ger-
man Lutheran; b. at Weseaberg (150 m. s,e. of St,
Petereburg) Juno 22, 1844; d. at Leipsic May
10, 1906. He studied at Dorpat, Tubingen, G6tt-
ingen, and Leipaic and was assistant in tha
Ubmry of Lcipeie University 1875- 76 , custodian and
sublibrarian of the University of Halle 1876-80,
librarian of the Umverftity of Gottingen 1880-44,
librarian of the Royal Library, Berlin, 1884-91, and
di%imonal director of the same institution 1S91-93.
From 1S93 until his death he was director of the
libraiy of the University of Leipsic. He wrote or
edited Grmcus Venetm (Leipsic, 187S); Palrum
AposiolicoTutn opera (3 vols., 1875-77, in collab-
oration with A. Hamaek and T, Zabn; editio
minor, 1S77); Evan^liontm codex Gtmcmi jmr^
pureus RQ$%an&\sU (1880; in collaboration with A.
Harnack)? Dom Neue TestomejU griechisch nach
Tischend&rfs ktzer Recension und deut^ch nach dem
revidierten Ltdhertexl (ISSl); Nov^um Testament
turn Grmce^ reecTiawniB Tischcndorfiana tdiima
toxins cum TreQelk^iano el WesconiaTio-HoHumo
eoU^us (1S81); The MinialitTcs of the A&hhumam
Pmt^Uuch (London, 1883); and Acta martyrum
aekcta (Berlin, 1902)- He was likewise the editor
of the eleventh to the sixteenth edition of W.
Tbeile'a Novum Tesiamentum Gnsce (Leipsic, 1875-
1900), while vnth A. Hamaek lie established and
edited the valuable Tej^le und Uniermchungen
£UT Geschichte dcr ^tchrUilichen Liiert^ur (18S2
sqqj, to which he himself contributed a number of
monographs,
BmuCKitiAFtiT: A memorial aketeh is- found in the Ztnimi'
blaU far Bibliothsknee^n, June, 1906.
GEDALIAH, ged'^o-lci'tt; Son of Ahikam and
grandson of Shaphan, and protector of Jeremiah
from the people who sought to kill him because of
his predctlons against Jerusalem (Jer, si. 5-8, xliii,
6). He was appointed by Nebuchadrcz^^ar governor
of Judoa after tht? full of JenBalem, in accordance
mth the custom of Eastern monarch h to leave the
government of subjected lands in charge of did-
tinguiahed individuals of the conquered race^.
The selection of Gedaliah for thig poaitign may have
Qedallah
Oelbel
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
448
been determined by his attitude toward the rebel-
lion, which made him appear trustworthy to the
Babylonian overlord. It may have been through
Gedaliah that Nebuchadrezzar gave directions for
the protection of the prophet (Jer. xxxix. 11 sqq.),
and that he was released from bonds and given his
full liberty by Nebuzaradan, the Babylonian gen-
eral (Jer. xl. 1-6). Gedaliah fixed his residence at
Mizpah, whither Jeremiah came, and also the
representatives of the Jewish insurgents in order to
get advice of Gedaliah. His counsel was to live
quietly, since then tliey would be unmolested by
the Babylonians. The result was that the Jews
who had been fugitives among the neighboring
peoples returned and placed themselves under
Gedaliah *8 protection, and the nucleus of a new
Jewish nation was gathered. But there was an
element in the population which regarded sub-
jection and even a peaceful life under the Chaldeans
as disgraceful, and these were led by Ishmael, one of
the princes royal. He was prompted by Baalis,
king of Ammon, to kill Gedaliah. The governor
was warned of the plot by a certain Johanan, who
offered to forestall its execution by the assassina-
tion of Ishmael. Gedaliah regarded the informa-
tion as a slander and rejected the offer. Three
months after the fall of the city, Ishmael with ten
companions visited Gedaliah, was entertained by
him, and then slew liim and the Jews and Chaldeans
who were of his company (Jer. xH. 1-3). Ishmael
slew also on the second day after a number of men
from Shechem, Shiloh, and Samaria who were
bringing gifts for the Temple, carried off as prisoners
the residents of Mizpah, and started on his journey
to Ammon. He was confronted on the way by
Johanan with a strong force, and was compelled
to abandon his prisoners and escape with a small
band to the Ammonites. (W. Lotz.)
Bibliography: The works on the history of the period
mentioned under Ahah; and Israel, Hihtory or. espe-
cially Stade, i. 696-700. Kittel, p. 33, and Kent, The Din-
ded Kingdom.
GEDDES, ged'oz, ALEXAITOER: Scottish Ro-
man CathoUc; b. near Rathven (50 m. n.w. of
Aberdeen), Banff sliire, Sept. 14, 1737; d. in Ix)n-
don Feb. 26, 1802. He studied at the Roman
Catholic seminary at Scalan (1751-58) and at the
Scoteh College in Paris (1758-04). On his re-
turn to Scotland he officiated as priest in the region
of Angus. In 1765 he became chaplain to the earl
of Traquair, and in 1769 pastor of the Roman
Cathohc congregation at Auchinhalrig, but was
deprived of his charge in 1779 for attending a
Presbjrterian service. In 1780 he settled in London,
where he devoted himself almast entirely to author-
ship, preaching only occasionally. He published
several volumes of verse, including a translation of
the first book of Homer's Iliad (London, 1792),
but his chief works arc his translation of the Old
Testament (2 vols., London. 1792-97), complete
through Chronicles; and his Critical Remarks on
the Hebrew Scriptures (1800). He adopted the
German method of rationalizing the Biblical narra-
tive, thereby incurring the displeasure of both
Protest ant.s and Roman Catholics. In 1800 he
was suspended from all ecclesiastical functions, and
his translation of the Bible was prohibited to tbe
faithful. His unfinished translation of the Pg&lnu
was edited by John Disney and Charles Butkr
and completed from Geddes* corrections in Bishop
Wilson's Bible (London, 1807). When Geddes
died, mass was proliibitcd over his remains. Ii was
his misfortune to be in advance of his time, and
he lacked tact in presenting his views; in sonie
points he anticipated modem scholarship, and many
of his critical remarks are excellent.
Bibuoorapht: J. M. Good. Memain of kit Life and Wn-
tinoB, London. 1803: T. K. Chesme. Faundert of Old Tn-
iamtrU Criticimn, pp. 4-11. New York, 1803; C. A. Brigsk.
Study of Holy Scnpture, p. 282, New York, 1S99, DSB,
xxi. 98-101 (where scattered notices are iodicated}.
GEDDES, JEHNY: According to the popular
story, a Scottish " herb- woman ** who ia^itigated a
riot in St. Giles's Church, Edinburgh, on Sunday,
July 23, 1637. Archbishop Laud was trying to
introduce the English liturgy into Scotland, and the
attempt raised a storm of indignation. The dean of
Eklinburgh, however, made the experiment in the
Cathedral Church of St. Giles, on the Sunday
named, in the presence of the privy council and ik
city magistrates. According to the usual story,
Jeimy Geddes, hearing the archbishop direct the
dean in finding the collect for the day, exclaimed
in indignation, " Villain, dost thou say mass at my
lug? " (ear), and hurled the stool upon which she
had been sitting at the dean's head. This wa^ the
signal for a riot in and about the cathedral. The
people shouted through the streets, " A pope,
a pope I Antichrist I the sword of the Lord and of
Gideon! " and the ultimate result was the with-
drawal of the liturgy, since the outburst of popular
feeling was by no means confined to Edinburgh.
According to other accounts it was a woman
named either Mein or Hamilton who threw the
stool. The maiden name of Mrs. Mein or Mrs. Ham-
ilton may have been Geddes. although the popular
account represents Jemiy Geddes as an old woman.
Both Mrs. Mein and Mrs. Hamilton, moreover, are
described as women of a social status far above
that of Jenny Geddes. A herb- woman of the same
name is said to have given her stall to be burned
in a bonfire at the rejoicings in honor of the corona-
tion of Charles IL Other accoimts of the riot of
1637 state that the name of the woman who threw
the stool was not known. A folding stool, the
very one used by Jenny Geddes, it is said, is ex-
hibited in the National Museum of Antiquities in
Edinburgh.
Bibliography: J. H. Burton, Hist, of Scotland, vi. 150-152.
8 vols., London, 1873; SchafT, Creeds, i. 88; DSB, xxi.
102.
GEHENNA ("Valley of Hinnom"): Originally
the name of the deep valley south of Jerusalem,
later a name given to the place of torment. Tlie
full form of the name (" valley of the son of Hin-
nom ") appears in II Kings xxiii. 10. Hinnom
is otherwise unknown. From Old Testament ref-
erences and from the accurate description of it5
position in Enoch xxvi. 1-5. it is identified with the
present Wadi al-Rababah. At the end of the pre-
exilic period Moloch-worship was carried on there,
and Josiah desecrated the place (II Kings xxiii. 10)
OeUw
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
4M
erable influeiice outside the Refonned congregation.
With several prominent men of Lilbeck he founded
a Bible Society and a Missionary Association; and in
his own house he held Bible lectures and discussions.
In the interest of his congregation he published
various catechetical works, but only a few of his
sermons appeared in print. With the Hessian
philosopher Suabedissen, Geibel established a
school for his congregation which existed for six
years. He also served his community by arran-
ging (1824) the system of worship still in existence,
and by the introduction (1832) of the first satisfac-
tory hymn-book of modem times. Of his published
works may be mentioned PrUfet AUes und behaliet
daa (ivte (Hamburg. 1818), five sermons " in behalf
of EvangeUcal liberty and truth"; and Wieder-
heratellung der ersten chrisUichen Gemeindej von
Philalethes (ISiO).
6EI6ER, goi'ger, ABRAHAM: German Jewish
scholar and theologian; b. at Frankfort May 24,
1810; d. at Berlin Oct. 23, 1874. He studied phi-
losophy and Oriental languages at Heidelberg and
Bonn and in 1832 became rabbi at Wiesbaden. In
the interest of the reform movement in Judaism
with other scholars, he established the Zettschrift
fur jijdische Thcologie in 1835. In 1838 he accepted
a call to Brcslau as associate rabbi, though he had
to defend himself against the opposition of the
orthodox party. Here he founded in 1862 the Ju-
dische Zeitachrift fiir Wissenschaft und I^ben (11
vols., Breslau, 1862-74), which was written almost
entirely by himself. He was rabbi at Frankfort
from 1863 to 1870, when he became rabbi at Berlin
and professor in the newly established " Lehranstalt
fur die Wissenschaft des Judentums." Geiger was
one of the pioneers of the reform of Judaism, in-
sisting upon a liberal inteq^retation in the construc-
tion and observance of the traditional Jewish law.
Of liis numerous writings the most important are:
Was hat Mohammed aus dem Judcntum aufgenom-
men f (Bonn, 1833; new ed., Leipsic, 1902), a prize
essay on the Jewish sources of the Koran; Urschrift
und Uebersetzungcn der Bibel in ihrer Ahhdngigkeit
von der innern Entwickelung des Jitdentums (Bres-
lau, 1857); Die Sadduciier und Pharisaer (1863);
and Das Judentum und seine Ceschichtc (3 vols.,
1864-71; Eng. transl., Judaism and its History, vol.
i., New York and London, 1860). His son Ludwig
Geiger edited his Nachgelassene Schriften (5 vols.,
Berlin, 1875-78).
BiBLioc.RAPnr: A memoir by his son Ludwig, A. Geiger,
Ltben unci Briefr, is in the NachgeloBsene Schriften, vol.
v., ut sup.; K, Schreibcr, A. Geigrr al» Reformator des
Judfnthums, Lobau. 1880; JE, v. 584-5S7.
GEIGER, FRANZ TIBURTIUS: Roman Catho-
lic; b. at Harting, near Regenaburg, May 16, 1755;
d. at Lucerne May 8. 1843. He studied under the
Jesuits in Kegensburg and the Benedictines at St.
Emmcran. In 1772 he became a novice in the
Franciscan order ut Lucerne. The next year
he returned to Regeasburg and he studied theology
in Wiirzburg. He was successively teacher of
Hebrew in Regensburg, privat-docent of poetry
and rhetoric in Offenburg, professor of philasophy
at Freiburg in Switzerland, and cathedral preacher
and professor of theology in the school of his order
at Solothum. In 1792 he was appointed professor
of theology at Lucerne, the seat of tlie papal
nuncio, and the center of Roman Catholic Switzer-
land. He was opposed here on account of lus
original method, which was not in sympathy with
scholasticism, and because in the doctrine of grace
he did not follow the Jesuits. He was even accused
in Rome, but the papal court took care to keep so
efficient a worker.
As Theologua nuniiatura he rendered important
services to the Roman Catholic Church. He di-
rected far-reaching ultramontanist plans and stood
in connection with the most important leaders
of the party. In his doctrines, sermons, negotia-
tions, and treatises he concentrated all his enerdes
to enliven the Roman consciousness, to make
Switzerland the bulwark of ultramontanism, and
to frustrate the efforts of political and religious
liberahsm. *' Without pope, no Church " was for
him as much an axiom as " Without revelation, no
religion." He attacked freemasonry especially, and
in 1819 his opponents succeeded in removing him
from his chair, thereby making him a mart}T and Iq
creasing his influence. His numerous polemical! rea-
tises, notwithstanding the effect they produced, have
no scholarly value. (£mil Ecu.)
Bibuoorapht: The works of Geiser were collected and
published by Prof. Widmer. 8 vols.. Lucerne. 1824-»
who published also Fran* Geioer, . . . Laute au$ mnm
Leben, ib. 1843. Consult also A'L. v. 186-1S8.
GEIKIE, gi'Od', JOHN CUNNINGHAM: Church
of England; b. at Edinburgh Oct. 26. 1S24; d. at
Bournemouth (25 m. s.w. of Southampton), Hamp-
shire, Apr. 1, 1906. He studied at Queen's College,
Toronto, and was ordained to the Presbyterian
ministry in 1848. He was pastor of the .\rgyie
Street Presbyterian Church, Halifax, N. S., ISol-
1854, of the Argyle Street Cha|^l, Sunderland,
England, 1860-67. and of Islington Cliapel. Lon-
don, 1867-73. He then entered the Church of
England and was ordered deacon in 1876 and
ordained priest in 1877. He was curate of St.
Peter's, Dulwich, 1876-79, rector of Christ's
Church, Neuilly, Paris, 1879-81, vicar of St. Mary's,
Barnstaple, 1882-85, and vicar of St. Martin-ftt-
Palace, Norwich, 1885-90. In 1890 he retired from
the active service of the Church. In theology he
adhered to the EvangeUcal school of the Church of
England, but maintained the right to full investi-
gation of all religious problems. He wrote Gtorg'
Stanley : or, Life in the Woods (London, 1861V,
Life: A Book for a Quiet Hour (1868); Light from
Beyond to Cheer the Christian Pilgrim (1872); The
Life and Words of Christ (1877); Old Testament
Portraits (1878); The English Reformation (1879);
Entering on Life (1879); Hours uyith the Bible (12
vols., 1880-1897); The Holy Land and the BibU
(1887); Short Life of Christ for Old and Young
(1888); Landmarks of Old Testament History (1895).
and The Vicar and his Friends (1901 )
GEIL, WILLIAM EDGAR: Baptist layman; b.
near Doylestown, Pa.. Oct. 1, 1865. He u^
graduated at Lafayette College in 1890 and in 1896
spent six months in an archeological tour of Asia
446
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
8»
^finor. Between 1901 and 1905 be traveled ex-
tensively for a comparative ethnographical and
missionary study of native races, and penetrated
deeply into China and Africa. He has lectured
in many lands on religious, historical, and scientific
topics. He has written Pocket Sword (London,
1895); Laodicea (1898); The hie Thai Is Called
Patmos (Philadelphia, 1898); Ocean and Isle (Mel-
bourne, 1902); A Yankee on the Yangtze (New York,
1904); The Man of Galilee (London, 1904); A
Yankee in Pigmyland (New York, 1905); The Men
on the Mount (London, 1905); and The Automatic
Calf (1905).
GEILER, gai'ler, JOHANN, OF KAISERSBER6:
Roman Catholic preacher; b. at Schaffhausen
Mar. 16, 1445; d. at Strasburg Mar. 10, 1510.
He was educated in the elementary branches at
Anmiersweier, a small town in the neighborhood
of Kaisersberg in lTpj)er Alsace, where his father
was town secretary. At the age of fifteen he
entered the University of Freiburg. In 1462 he
was made bachelor and two yearfe
His Life, later master of arts. As such he
lectured on Aristotle and Latin gram-
mar, and for a short time was dean of the philosoph-
ical facidty. In 1471 he went to Basel to study
theology. After promotion he lectured on exegesis
and Peter Lombard and, in 1475, was made doc-
tor of theology. At the request of students the
toi^Ti coimcil of Freiburg induced him to return to
the university there, and according to custom he
became first rector of the university for the win-
ter term of 1476-77. But his talents inclined him
toward the office of preacher, and Peter Schott,
Anmieister of Strasburg, prevailed upon him to
settle there, where there was a lack of good preach-
ers. With the firm determination to reform the
depraved morals of the city, he entered upon his
calling (1478; and remained at Strasburg until
the end of his life.
He preached fearlessly and without regard of
persons. At the opening of a synod convoked by
Bishop Albert he censured the assembled officers
for their selfishness and worldliness and demanded
a reform of morals among the clergy. In the in-
terest of the Church he fell into several disputes
with the magistrates on account of
His Preach- their refusal to grant the Holy Com-
ing and munion and a Christian funeral to
Reforma- persons condemned to death; he also
tory Efforts, made war against the tendency of civil
legislators to encroach upon the
liberty of citizens who intended to bequeath their
property to the Chimjh, His vehement attacks
were, however, often powerless and without effect.
In the same way he denoimced the abuses of church
life, as, for instance, the carousals and debauches
at church festivals, the masquerades at the begin-
ning of Lent, the pursuit of worldly busine*^ during
church hours, and the sales in the vestibules of the
churches. In these battles he found an almost
insuperable obstacle in the tenacity with which the
people held to tradition and the lenient ways followed
hitherto by the clergy. Sometimes his invectives
against the city council in the pulpit were so vio-
lent that he was called to account; as an answer
he published twenty-one articles which contained
his demands of reform. With the same relentless
vigor he reproved abuses among the ecclesiastical
classes. Many, he knew, chose the clerical pro-
fession only because of their laziness. He deplored
the accumulation of benefices and the preference
given to noblemen irrespective of their merits.
Not less fiercely he attacked the abuses in monas-
teries, the sins of the rich, the degeneration in army
circles, luxury in dress, fads, and immorality.
It is a mistake, however, to look upon Geiler as a
precursor of the Reformation. His view of life
centered in Catholicism and medievalism. In
spite of his high esteem for the Bible he considered
its explanation subject to the consensus of the
theologians. Over against the awakening of human •
ism he remained a scholastic of the old school. He
commended indulgences and good works for the
achievement of salvation and regarded the saints
as intercessors before God.
When Count Frederick of ZoUem, a devoted
pupil and friend of Creiler, was chosen bishop of
Augsburg, he invited his Strasburg friends, among
them Geiler, to prepare him for his office. The
eminent preacher accepted and preached in Augs-
burg several months until he was called back by
his anxious congregation. Now he devoted himself
entirely to the affairs of his own town. Together
with his friend Jacob Wimpfeling he tried to reform
the school system; but their efforts were not success-
ful and Geiler, in spite of his appreciation as
preacher, came at the end of his life to the conclu-
sion that a general reform of Christianity was
impossible. The only achievements possible, ac-
cording to him, were isolated reforms on a small
scale.
Most of the literature which is considered to-day
as Geiler's production did not proceed directly
from his j)en. His sermons were either copied, and
prepared for print, or sometimes he simply handed
over his Latin notes, from which his sermons were
reconstructed in German or these notes were used
after his death. It will therefore always be
a question how far his publications
His Ser- are authentic. Some of his editors
mens. are unknown; of those known may
be mentioned Jacob Otther of Speyer;
the physician Johann Adelphus Milling; Johann
Pauli, the well-known author of the humorous
collection Schimpf und Ernst; Heinrich Wessmer;
and Peter Wickram. Geiler's sermons lasted
usually one hour. He gave free range in the pulpit
to his talents of popular oratory in the vernacular,
and his spontaneous invention of anecdotes, com-
parisons, word plays, and proverbs give his sermons
their charm. They are cither sermons on the
Gospel arranged in the form of homilies or consist
of series which arc grouped around one common
picture. To the scholastics he owes his fondness
for analyzing his material into divisions and sub-
divisions and his tendency to quote recognized
authorities. His interest centers chiefly in the daily
happenings of public and private life. Satire and
humor are his principal weapons. He makes his
sermons interesting by striking similes which some-
Oelftidi
Qalmer
ilftsins
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
440
times form the central point of a long series of ser-
mons. But even when they border on the bur-
lesque lie is always in earnest. It is true he some-
times goes too far in his similes and allegories, but
allegorizing was the fashion of his time and the taste
of his hearers was not refined. He rendered a great
service to the German language by using exclusively
the vernacular in his sermons and not a mixture of
Latin and German, as was the custom of his time.
(G. Kawerau.)
Bibliography: Geiler's AuBgevoiihlte Schriften, ed. P. de
Lorenzi (with omiriflion of " offensive " passages), ap-
peare<l in four volumes at Treves, 1881-83. The two
early works on Geiler by J. Wimpfeling (1510) and B.
Rhenanus (1513) are in J. A. von Riegger, AnuxnUatet
lUerariae Friburgenses, Vim, 1755. Consult: L. Dacheux
(Roman Catholic). Un Rfformateur catholique h la fin du
xve. aiecU, Paris, 1876; C. Schmidt (Protestant), Hittoire
litUraire de VAlaace, i. 335-461, Paris, 1879; ADB, viii.
509.
GELASIUS, je-16'shi-us or gft'lfl-si'as: The
name of two popes.
Gelasius I. : Pope 492-496. He was a Roman
by birth, and entered upon his administration as
successor to Felix III. on Mar. 1, 492. The schism
with Byzantium which had begun under Felix in
484, on occasion of the excommunication of the
Patriarch Acacius of Constantinople for his encour-
agement of the Monophysite doctrine (see Felix
III.; MoNOPHYSiTEs), Continued under Gelasius.
Nor was Gelasius on good terms with Odoacer, the
eastern emperor's *' governor," but he got on better
with the Ostrogothic king Theodoric, who from
493 resided at Ravenna as king of Italy, and as
yet refrained from encroachments upon tlie province
of the Church. Tliis rcser\'e of the Arian was of
the utmost moment for Gelasius, who set his heart
on extending the riglita of the Roman primacy.
In his letters he claimed the right to receive appeals
from all parti? of the world, and he contested the
admissibility of ap}x»al to any other tribunal from
a deliverance by the bishop of Rome. The pre-
eminence of the see of Rome is guaranteed for him
by Matt. xvi. 18; l)eside it, the churches of .Alexan-
dria and /Vntioch occupy second and third rank.
He s])umed with indignation tlie equahty with the
Roman bishop dcsiix'd by the bishop of Constan-
tinople, and he upliehl with great energy against
the Emperor Anasfasius the independence of the
spiritual power. Concerning the genuineness of the
so-called Decrctum de libri^ recipiendis et non
recipiendis ascribed to Gelasius I. there has been
much disputation, but the matter is to be decided
affirmatively. It may be that a part derives from
Pope Damasus, maybe the entire matter was re-
cast by Homiisdas in the sixth century; but the
main portion was probably proclaimed under Gela-
sius at a Roman synod in 496. The decree com-
prises: (1) a table of the writings of the Biblical
Canon; (2) a discussion of the primacy of the Ro-
man Church; (3) a h'st of (he sjiiods to be accepted
as valid; (4) and (o) a catalogue of the writings ac-
cepted and rejected by the Roman Church. Gela-
sius furthermore composed sundry dogmatic and
polemical treatises ; the origin of the so-called
Sacramentarium Gelasianum (ed. II. A. Wilson,
Oxford, 1894) is debat^ible (see Lituroics). Gela-
sius died Nov. 19, 496, and is accounted a "saint"
by the Roman Catholic Church.
CarlMirbt.
Biblioorapht: The EpUlolct are in MPL, Ux. 13-140, tad
one of them in AfGH, EpisL, iii (1S9I). 32-33. Sooroes
are in Jaff^, Regeata, i. 83-95. 619-743; Liber ponkU^
ed. Duchesne, i. 255, Paris, 1886. ed. Mommwn in JfGff,
Geat. poni. Ram., i (1898), 116-118. Consult: A. Rou.
Le Pape S. Gfkue /.. Paris, 1880 (on the life and writii«>V,
J. Lan^en, Geadiiehte der r&miKhen Kirckey ii. 15^2li
Bonn, 1885; Zahn. Kanon, II.. i. 259 sqq.; Hefek. Con-
cxliengeechidite, ii. 616 sqq.; Bower. Popes, i. 282-291;
Milman. Latin Ckriatianity, i. 348-349.
Gelasius IL (Giovanni da Gaeta); Pope 1118-
1119. He was bom at Gaeta, and, after receiving
his education in the monastery of Monte Cassino,
was drawn to the curia by Urban II., appointed
chancellor, and also promoted to the rank of cardi-
nal deacon. He loyally supported Paschal II. (q.v.)
when this pope was taken captive by Henry V. of
Germany in 1111, and was sharply attacked by a
portion of the college of Cardinals on account of
the treaty he had concluded with the emperor in
relation to investiture. After the death of Paschal
II. Cardinal Giovanni was unanimously elected as
his successor (Jan. 24, 1118), and he adopted the
name of Gelasius II. The conclave was scarcely
ended when he was taken captive by the Frangi-
pani party, but was soon released. However, the
news then reached him that Henry V., upon word
that the papal election had occurred without his
cooperation, was approa<:hing in rapid marches.
In the fear that a treaty similar to the one exacted
of his predecessor might be forced upon him,
Gelasius fled hurriedly to Gaeta, where, on Mar.
9 and 10, he was consecrated priest and bishop.
Upon liis decUning the demands of Henry in re-
gard to investiture, and when thereupon the latter
induced the Romans to elect Mauritius Burdinus,
archbishop of Braga, as antipope (Gregory VIIL,
q.v.), (jelasius decreed from Capua on Apr. 7
the ban of excommunication against the emperor
and the schismatic pope. After Henry's departure
from Rome, he returned thither liimsclf, but was
very soon comixilled to leave the city anew
to escape the Frangipani plots; he now turned to
France. The contest ^ith Henry V. was prosecuted
uith great energy in Germany by the pope's legate,
Kuno of Praeneste. Gelasius died at Cluny Jan.
18, 1119. Carl Mirbt.
Bibliography: The Epiatola are in Bouquet. Recueil, xr.
223-228, the EpUtolce et pHvUegia, in MPL, cbdii. 487-
514. The eArly VUa by Pandulfus Aletrinus is in ASB,
May, 9-13, and MPL, clxiii. 475-484. Consult: J. Un-
gen, Geschichte der rdmiecKen Kirche, iv. 271-277. Bonn.
1893; Jaflf^, Regesta, i. 775 sqq.; G. Richter, AnnaUndtr
deutachen Geschichte im MiUelalter, III., ii. 603-607. Halle,
1898: Neander, Christian Church, iv. 141, 245; Milman.
Latin Christianity, iv. 125-129; Bower, Popes, ii. 453-455.
GELASIUS OF CYZICUS: Greek church his-
torian of the fifth century. He was the son of
a i)resbyter at Cyzicus, and is known through his
history of the First Council of Nicaea, which he
composed in Bithynia about 475 for the purpow of
combating Monophysite appeals to the Xicanum.
The work, in three books, is largelj'' a compila-
tion from Eusebius, Socrates, Sozomen, and Theo-
dore t. The data not derived from these sources
came from an original documentary collection,
4*7
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Gelza:
ilasins
a sort of protocol covering the transactions at
Nicsea. which had formerly been in the possession
of Bishop Dalmatius of Cyzicus (c. 410). These
original documents seem to liave possessed real
historic value. The work was first edited, in Greek
and I^atin, by the Scotchman Robert Balfour (Paris,
1599), and since then it has been reprinted in all
the large collections of councils (e.g., Mansi, Con-
eUia, ii. 753-946; also AfPG, Ixxxv. 1179-1360).
G. KrCger.
Bibuographt: C. H. Turner, in JTS, 1900, pp. 125-126;
G. Loemhcke, Da» Syntagma dea Oelanus Cyticenua,
Bonn, 1906; DCB, ii. 621-623.
GELLERT, gel'lert, CHRISTIAN FUERCHTE-
GOTT: German poet and writer; b. at Haynichen,
in the Erzgebirge, Saxony, July 4, 1715; d. in
Leipsic Dec. 13, 1769. lie was the son of a clergy-
man. After obtaining his first instruction in the
school of his native city and attending, from 1729,
the Fiirstenschule in Meissen, he went, in 1734, to
Leipsic to study theology. Since a congenital
timidity and bashfulness as well as pulmonary
weakness did not permit him to become a preacher,
after four years of study and two of private tutor-
ship, he returned in 1741 to Leipsic. He gave les-
sons for his support and made his d^but as an author
by the publication of his earliest fables and tales
in the Bdustigungen des Verstaruies und Witzea
for 1741. In 1744 he joined the faculty of the
university as privat-docent and lectured on poetry
and oratory. Nearly all his secular works belong
to this period. Of his comedies the Band appeared
in the BeluMigungen in 1744, and Sylvia in 1745;
the Betschwester and Los in der L<Aterie in the
Bremer Beilrage in 1745-46. In 1746 also appeared
his novel Lehen der schwediachen Gnifin von G .
In 1746 and 1748 appeared the first two books of
his celebrated fables, which, with the addition of a
third book, have been often reprinted and trans-
late<i. In 1751, Gellert became professor extraor-
dinary; the students flocked to hear his lectures
on literature and morals, and his influence over
them was great. Even a tendency to hypochon-
dria, the result of physical suffering, did not in any
way lessen his popularity. In spite of the recog-
nition awarded him, he remained singularly modest;
he declined the position of professor ordinarius as
well as calls to Hamburg and Halle, preferring to
remain in Leipsic.
Gellert 's GeisUiche Oden und Lieder met with
general approval on their first appearance in 1757,
and several were immediately introduced into new
h3nmnals; they even found a warm reception with
Roman Catholics. The secret of their influence
lies decidedly in their strong religious tone in union
with great ease and naturalness of expression. It
is true that much may be said against them from
an esthetic and dogmatic point of view; many are
not suitable for hymns and some were called by
Gellert himself " Biblical contemplations "; others,
however, have a truly religious quality and a lyric
strain, as, for example, the Christmas hymn, Dies
ist der Tag den Gottgemacht ( " This is the day which
God has made " ), and the Easter hjmin, Jesus lebty
tnit ihm auch ich ("Jesus lives ami I live with
him"). The pious subjectivity of the poet, which
comes out in all his hymns, has found an echo in a
thousand hearts and in this way has become truly
objective. Gellert's hymns have been often repub-
lished and translated into foreign languages. His
prose writings also, especially his lectures on morals
and his shorter essays of an apologetic and parenetic
character exerted a happy influence upon the re-
ligious thought of his time. They lack, however,
the sharply defined ethical and dogmatic concep-
tions which are required to-day.
Gellert*s works first appeared in ten parts, Leip-
sic, 1769-74; they have often been reprinted, the
last time in Leipsic and Berlin, 1867. In the later
editions are found a collection of letters from and
to Gellert, but this does not include his letters to
Fraulein Erdmuth von SchOnfeld (issued as the
first part of the Dahlener Antiqiiarius, leipsic, 1861)
or his diary of the y^r 1761 (ed. T. O. Weigel, 2d
ed., leipsic, 1863). Carl Bertheau.
Bibliography: J. A. Cramer, OeUerVa Leben, Leipsic, 1774;
C. H. Schmid, Nekrolog . . . der Deutachen, ii. 481-
532. Berlin. 1785; C. H. Jdrdens. I^xikon deuttcher
Dichtfr und ProtaUten, ii. 54-88, vi. 140 sqq.. I^ipsio
1806-11; H. D6rin«. Christian Fiirchtegott GelUrt'a Ld»en,
Greiz. 183.3; G. E. Leo. Daa fromme Leben Oellerta, Dres-
den, 1846; H. Gelxer, Die neuere deutache National-Litera-
iur, i. 37-61, Leiprac, 1847; K. R. Hagenbach. Die Kir-
chengeachichte dea t8. und 19. Jahrhunderta, i. 330 sqq..
Leipsic. 1848. Eng. transl.. Hist, of the Churdi in the
18th and 19th Centuries. New York. 1860; Daa Gellert-
buch, ed. F. Naumann. Dresden. 1854; K. J. Nitssoh.
Ueber Lavater und Gellert, Berlin. 1857: E. Koch, Ge-
achichU dfM Kirchenliedea, vi. 263 sqq., StuttRart, 1870;
S. W. Diiffield, Engliah Hymna, p. 285, New York. 1886;
A. SchulleruA. GeUerVa Leben und Werke, Leipsic, 1804;
Julian, Hymnology, pp. 406-408.
GELPKE, ERNST FRIEDRICH: German theo-
logian; b. at Breitenfeld (4 m. n. of Leipsic) Apr.
8, 1807; d. at Bern Sept. 1, 1871. He studied at
Grimma, leipsic, and Berlin, in the latter univer-
sity coming under the influence of Schleiermacher
and Neander. His Evangelische Dogmatik (Bonn,
1834), written while he was a privat-docent at
Bonn, gained him a call, in the year of its publica-
tion, to the newly founded university of Bern.
There he lectured at first on New Testament exe-
gesis, and later on dogmatics and moral theology,
in addition to teaching in the gymnasia of the city.
His chief work was his Kirchengeschichte der Schweiz
(2 vols., Bern, 1856-61), which, however, extends
only to the eleventh century. In his theology
Gelpke belonged to the mediating school, although
his Jiigendgeschichte des Herm (1841) betrayed so
strongly the influence of Strauss that it created a
sensation at Bern. Humanistic idealism led him
to join the freemasons, and he became grand mas-
ter. Several of his poems were published, includ-
ing his trilogy Napoleon (1854).
(E. BLOSCHf.)
Bibliography: Frau M. Bach-Gelpke, in Sammlung bemt-
acher Biographien, i. 26 sqq.. Bern, 1885; ADB, viii. 552.
GELZER, gelt'zer, HEINRICH: 1. German his-
torian; b. at Schaflhausen Oct. 17, 1813; d. at his
(\state •' Witwakl " in the Jura Mountains, canton
of Basel, Aug. lo. 1889. He was the son of an
artisan, began the study of theology at Zurich, but
oil the advice of his physician, who considered his
health not strong enough for the office of a preacher,
Gelzer
Gheneva
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
441
turned to history. He continued both theological
and historical studies in Jena, Halle, and Gftttingen
where he was influenced especially by Hase, Tho-
luck, Otfried Miiller, and Ewald. Returning to
Switzerland, he became private tutor in Bern, and
formed here an intimate friendship with K. J. von
Bunsen, the Pnissian ambassador. In 1839 he
established himself as privat-docent at Basel. In
1843 he became professor extraordinary of the
history of Switzerland and universal history: in
1844 he was called to Berlin as professor of history.
Besides his activity as teacher, he was frequently
consulted in political and educational problems.
A severe illness compelled him to go to southern
France and Italy, and after a time he settled at
Basel and founded and edited the Proteatantische
M onatsbUitier fiir innere ZeUgeschichte (1853-70),
a periodical wliich attempted '* to win the educated
circles for the great moral-religious mission belong-
ing to them, from the universal standpoint of
genuine German Protestantism." At the same
time, Gelzer was active in the spheres of secular
and ecclesiastical politics. From the beginning of
the sixties he was an intimate adviser of Grand
duke Frederick of Baden. His theological stand-
point was on the whole that of Rothe and Hundes-
hagcn. -<\s early as 1839, before the appearance
of Rothe 's "Ethics," Gelzer expressed the opinion
that *' perfect religion must be moral throughout
and that perfect morality must be religious through-
out." He demanded a theology that should go
back to the leading ideas of a Herder, Fichte and
Schleiermacher, without giving up the spiritual
acquisition of romanticism and pietism, and in
that way renew its conception of Christianity and
Christian redemption.
Gelzer published among other works Die drei
letzten Jahrhunderte dcr Schweizergeschichte (2 vols.,
Aarau, 1838-39), in which he treats in detail the
religious conditions and history of morals beside
political events; Die Religion im Ijebcn (Zurich,
1839); Die zinei erslen Jahrhunderte der Schweizer-
geschichte (Basel, 1840); Die neuere devlsche National-
Litter atur nach ihren ethuschen und religiosen Ge-
sichtapunkten (2 vols., Leipsic, 1847), his most
popular work; Proteslanlische Briefe aus Siid frank-
reich und Italien (Zurich, 1852), the residt of a
journey to Italy. His Dr. Martin Luther . . . in
geschichtlichcn Umrissen (Hamburg, 1847-51) ap-
peared in several English translations. The Life of
Martin Luther . . . in Fifty Pictures (hondoiiflSb^]
Philadelphia, 1855; London, 1858).
(Karl Gelzer.)
Bibliography: F. Curtius, Heinrich GeUer, Gotha. 1892;
R. 8t&helin, in Kirchenblatt fiir dis reformirte Schweiz,
1892.
2. German historian, so.i of the preceding; b.
at Beriin July 1, 1847; d. at Jena in 1906. He
studied in Basel and Gottingen, taught in a
gymnasium in Basel 1869-73, and was appointed
associate professor of ancient history in Heidelberg.
After 1S78 he was professor of classical philology
and ancient history at Jena. Among his works
those of special theological interest are Patrum
Niccenorum nomina Latine^ Greece, Coptice, Syriace,
AraMcCf Armenice in collaboration with A. Hilgen-
feld and O. Cuntz (Leipsic, 1898); Geisdiches wu
Weltliches aus dem tiirkisch-griechischen Oriem
(1900); Ungedmckte und ungenHgend veroffeni-
lichte Texts der rwtituB episcopatnm (Mimich, 1901);
and Vom heiligen Bcrge und aus Makedonien
(1905). He was also the editor of the series Scrip-
tores sacri ct pro/ani (5 parts, Leipsic, 1897-1903),
GEMARA. See Talmud.
GEMISTOS PLETHON, ge-mis'^us pl^tho^
GEORGIOS: Byzantine philosopher; b. at Co^^
stantinople c. 1355; d. in the Peloponnesus 14^
His early years were spent at the court of Sul^^
Murad I. at Adrianople and Brescia. There
was a pupil of the rationalistic Jew Elisssus, ^^
inspired him with anti-Christian views, so tha-^ i
later assimied the name of Pletho, in an att^^j^
to approximate his ideal Plato. From the Tuj-^^gj^
court Gemistos went to Sparta, where, wth ^ f^^
interruptions, he spent the remainder of his life aa
teacher, author, and statesman. He was on intf-
mate terms with the despots of the PeloponDevus;
one of whom, Theodore the Younger, bestowed
certain estates upon him. As a member of the
imperial council he attended the Council of Tlot-
ence (see Ferrara-Florence, CJouncil of) in the
interests of a union of the Greek and Roman
Catholic Churehes, and there advocated the cauae
of orthodoxy for political reasons. There too he
strengthened the bond with the philosophical rep-
resentatives of the Italian Renaissance.
Gemistos can scarcely be regarded as a theolo-
gian. He was a modem pagan, deeply influenced
by Neoplatonism and devoid of sympatliy with
Christianity. He was one of the protagonists of
Platonism in its struggle with Aristotelianism, and
at his suggestion O)fflno de' Medici drew up the
scheme of a Platonic academy in Florence. The
decline of the Greek Church and the conquest of
the Roman Catholic Church by the Renaissance
led him to see no hope for the future save in a
return to classic paganism with the Neoplatonistic
coloring which liis ideals postulated. In his \Tew,
the summum bonum lay in the knowledge of the aD.
to which reason and the sages of antiquity, such as
Zoroaster, Plato, and the Neoplatonists, were the
guides. The supreme god, the author of the all
bore the name of Zeus, and was absolute existence
and absolute goodness. From liim proceeded, in
a manner not altogether clear, the gods of the second
rank, the world of ideas, comprised under the name
of Poseidon. Tliis differentiation of concepts con-
tinues in an analogous manner, always under a
mythological terminology, until the phenomenal
world is reached. Man shares in ideas and matter,
and his soul is eternal, preexistent, and inunortal,
and is perfected by transmigration through various
human bodies. Final blessedness is gained through
the virtues of which Gemistos gives a detailed
scheme, of which the chief are thought and the
contemplation of deity. The religion of his ideal
state was to be conducted by priests, who were to
be required on certain days to hold services con-
sisting of the recitation oi prayers and the singing
of hymns with symbolic ceremonies, all of which
were detailed by Gemistos in fuU.
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
0«Uwr
The concepts of Plethon are contained chiefly in
hiB " Laws/' which were first edited by C. Alexandre
(Paris, 1858). His theological worics are of minor
importance, although they include a treatise on
the procession of the Holy Ghost.
(Philipp Meyer.)
Bibuoorapht: Most of the works of Qemiston are in MPO,
rxxT, Consult: W. Oaas. Otnnadioa und Pletho, Bres-
lau. 1844; F. Schultie. OtBehichte der Philotophis der
Renaiuanet, toI. i.. Oeorgio9 Oemittoa Plethon, Jena, 1874;
H. F. Toier, in Journal of Hellenic Studiee, vii (1886),
353-380; J. Drfteeke. in ZKO, xix (1898). 206-202;
Knimbaeher, Oeechiehte, pp. 121, 420 et paseim.
GENERAL CONFESSION: The name given to
a public and general confession of sins made by
the clergyman for the congregation, to distinguish
it from auricular and private confession. It is of
South German origin and goes back probably to
the time of Charlemagne. It was spoken in Ger-
man after the sermon (also in German) and was
followed by the absolution and confession of faith
and the Lord's Prayer. The earliest testimony to
the usage dates from the ninth centiuy; then there
are a number of confessional prayers of this sort
of the eleventh and twelfth centuries (cf. Hauck,
KD, ii. 255, 729). The priest or deacon pronounced
the confession, the people repeated it silently kneel-
ing, and then the priest gave the absolution. The
forms vary, but in time a certain formula seems to
have developed. The first person singular was
used, thus corresponding to private confession.
The Reformation found the general confession
in common use, and the question wliether it should
be retained occasioned some controversy. It was
solved differently in different places. In South
and West Germany under influence of the Re-
formed Churehes it was put at the beginning of the
service, — a custom which had medieval precedent.
Zwing^ retained it in Zurich after the sermon.
Calvin adopted for Geneva a custom already estab-
lished in Strasburg of beginning service with a
general confession repeated kneeling and using it
at the daily " morning prayer. '' At present it is
little used. [The Anglican service has a general
confession said by the minister and congregation
at morning and evening prayer and the communion
service.] See Gonfbsbion of Sins. (P. Drews.)
In Roman Catholic theology and practise the term
'' general confession *' is used to designate a confession
in which the penitent makes a review, confessing
the sins of his entire life even though they have
already been declared in previous confessions. This
is obligatory whenever the foregoing confessions
either through insincerity or for any other reason
have been invalid ; otherwise it is a matter of coun-
sel or spiritual direction. The name is also applied,
though less strictly, to confessions which cover a
given period, say a few years, by way of recapitu-
lation, as distinguished from the ordinary weekly
or monthly confession in which sins previously
declared are not repeated. (J. F. Driscoll.)
niBUOORAPHT: R. Cruel, Oeeehiehte der deuUehen Prediot,
pp. 220-221, Detmar. 1870: Q. Rietschel. in Monateechrift
far OoUeedienet und kireMiehe Kunet, i (1806-07). 306
nqq.; idem, Gloeeen tu der Ordnung dee HauptgoUeadien-
»le$, pp. 31 sqq., I^ipeio, 1808; idem, Lehrbueh der Litur-
Oik, I. 360 sqq., 420 sqq., Berlin, 1808; E C. Achelis,
IV.-29
Lehrbueh der praktiechen Theologie, i. 380 sqq., Leipric.
1808; and literature under Common PRATsa, Book or.
GENESIS. See Hexateuch.
GENESIS, LITTLE (Leptogenesis): Another
name for the Book of Jubilees; see Pseudepig-
RAPHA, Old Testament, IV. 33.
GENEVA: A city of Switzerland, of considei^
able importance in ecclesiastical history, with a
population (1900) of 105,710. It was founded by
the Allobroges, and employed by Oesar as head-
quarters in his campaign against the Ilelvetii. At
the beginning of the fifth century it came under
Burgundian rule and was the residence of King
Chilperic; but before tliis Christianity had taken
firm root in the district. The establishment of the
bishopric, which Leo the Great in 450 declared sub-
ject to the metropolitan of Vienne, is usually placed
in the middle of the fourth centuiy. When the
death of the last Burgundian king, Rudolf III.,
in 1032 transferred Geneva to the Empire, the
bishops acquired princely rights which led to fre-
quent contests with the counts of Geneva during
the eleventh, twelfth and thirteenth centuries.
Bishop William of Confians (1287-95) sought aid
from Amadeus V. of Savoy, which was the begin-
ning of gradual encroachments on the part of the
latter power, and ultimately, through the necessity
of forming an alliance in 1478 with Bern and Frei-
burg, of the Bernese influence which made the
Reformation successful in Geneva. In 1534 its
adherents, augmented by fugitives from France,
were estimated to be equally numerous with those
of the old religion. The bishop, Pierre de la Baume
(1523-44), left the city, transferring his see first to
Gex (1534) and then to Annecy (1535). In the
latter year the senate abolished the bishopric; but
the bishops, of whom the most distinguished was
St. Francis of Sales (q.v.), continued to rule from
Annecy those of their former subjects who still
acknowledged their allegiance until 1802, when the
French Revolution put an end to the see. The
Gongress of Vienna, restoring the canton to Swit-
zerland, decreed religious equality; and in 1819
Pius VII. placed the Roman Catholics of Geneva
(who formed a third of the population) under the
bishop of Lausanne, allowing him two years later
to add to his title that of the ancient see. When,
at the beginning of the nineteenth century, for
the first time in three hundred years, mass was
celebrated in the city, there were not more than
300 Roman Catholics there; at present they num-
ber over 30,000 in spite of the repressive measures
undertaken by the cantonal government after the
Vatican Council of 1870, which included the repu-
diation and banishment of the vicar apostolic
named by the pope and the requirement of an oath
of allegiance to the government incompatible with
Roman Catholic belief (law of Mar. 23, 1873). An
Old Catholic congregation was established by the
French ex-Carmelite Hyacinthe Loyson; the
churches were one by one handed over to this
organization, which in 1904 had ten congregations
in Geneva.
The first seeds of the Reformation were sown here
as early as 1524 with the importation of the French
Genera
GhenevieT*
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
460
tmnalatton of the Blbla by Lefdvre d'Etaplee; and
in Dec, 1526, tb© Duke of Savoy aaked for assist-
ance from Rome tn repreeBUig the movemeotj
wbile in 1528 he executed twelve gentlemen guilty
" of posaefii^ing the accursed book and spreading
the hereay of Luther." Hb offort-s, however, ^^re
frustrated by the support which the Protestant
cause received from BeiHc In 1532 Farel arrived
m Geneva and made a deep impression. Eiota
and combats followed ^ in spite of the efforts of the
Coundl of Two Himdtied to reestablish peace by a
eompfomise ordinance (Mar. 30, 1533). In July
the bishop fled» never to return, but gained miHtary
su|vt>ort and from the middle of 1534 to the end of
1535 thn^t^ned tlie city. It succeeded in beating
off these attacks at last» and on Apr, 2, 1536, the
ma£fi was finally abolished^ In May a genetal
aa^mbly of the whole people swore to be at one in
the sacred law^ of the Gospel. There were now ten
postoi^, who found their hands full and appealed
for assiatance. In July Calvin took up his residence
there, and Geneva became a city governed by
Ih^tcj^tant laws and a tcfu|pe for Reformers from
France, Italy, Spain, and England {mc Calvin,
John). The city was the hea<lquarters for Evan-
gelical miHsionary effort; between 1555 and 1564
not less tlian 150 preachers left Geneva for France,
In 15S9 the party of the Guises in France allied
itself with the Duke of Bavoy in an attempt to
rceover the city by force. The war tasted until
1501, costing the republic 400,000 erow^ns and 1,500
lives, and was tertnLoated by the Treaty of Lyons.
The position of Geneva was made still stronger the
next year by the victory of the Eaealadc, when on
Dec. 11-12, 1602, an army of 8,000 men was de-
spatehed by Charles Emmanuel of Savoy to seiie
the city and had fixed their soUing-ladders to
the walls before the alarm was given. The
GencA-eee repelled the enemy antl completed their
success by turning the defeat into a rout. In
the earlier part of the t^eventeenth century Geneva
still continued to furnish pastors and teachers for
France, and at ita close became once more an asy-
lum for Huguenot fugrtivci* after the revocation of
the Edict of Nantes; between 16S2 and 1720 3.600
refugees were received and maintained at the cost
of the cUiaens. Clow relations w^re al^ kept up
with the Protestant churches of the North, Eng-
land, Holland, and parts of Germany. In the
eighteenth century, after two hundred years of
constant combat with the papacy, Geneva was
active in d(*ferise of the Christian faith against the
attacks of Voltaire an^! the pfisition of tlie Encyclo-
pedist iachoo! in general: but the deiam of Rousseau
tnade aknning inroads on the Protestant Church
niembeDihip. Between 1S41 and 187S there were
con/^tant conflicts between the Calvinist majority
and the growing Roman Catholic minority, which
resulted in the separation of Omrch and StJite.
The organization nf the Church of Geneva re-
mained unaltered (or a long time, or underwent
only minor modification>i, until, in 1S46, a mdical
change was effected, amounting almost to a revolu-
tion. Up to 1846 the pastors were chosen by tlie
Vdnfirable C<3mpagnie den Pajsteure, one of the in-
stitutions of Calvin, which a bo had in hand the
administration of aU religious affaire of i\m Chintk,
and exercised great influence on the acadeiDy iisd
the schools. Byt from that year the autbontx ol
the Compagnie was confined to questioos of wcdbip
proper; while the other branches of the adMiis-
tration of the Church were placed under the eoo-
sLstoire, composed of twenty-five lay membefs tod
mx pasters, and electa by the people; aad tb
pastors were choeen by the congregations. .\t tie
same time that doctrinal difference began tedevdop
which finally led to the formation of ths Evta-
gelicol Society, and the foundation of a new theo-
logical school; for which aeeOAUSSKN; Merle d'Ad-
Btof^B; andEvAKGisLJCALSoo^nroFGENBTJL. Tie
radicals, who gained control in 1&46, held it for fif-
teen years, aboliihed the Protestant Churct of
Geneva, and established a church almoBt creedlea.
This was reversed in 1862, when the con^enitii'es
came into power. In 1873 the grand co^nidl
ousted all Roman Catholic priests who refused the
oath of allegianoe to the State; in 1876 the eatk-
dral was given to the Old Catholics. In 1878 the
expelled cur^ were permitted to return, and the
separation of Church and 8tate was accepted* In
1900 a monument to John Calvin was erected by
general mib^ription,
fiiBLiooBjiFHT; ImpciTtaBt are the Mimudrta tt doevnaU
pu^i/t pur Jd mciiU d'kitiom €l d'ankhflosn* de (knive,
Oatieva, tS40 9qi|. Ooiuull; B&mtXt M^mofirei p^uf mrir
h VhiHoirt ttdM^tHqm * . , dt GtnH?*, N&ncy. t7^> '•
Osb^rel Nwt, 4t ViQlim dt GffiJw, 3 toIml, Gamvm. 1SS3-
i$62: ReffemtM Of nn^oii deM doeum^mU impt'tmim niiltfi k
VhUliyirf dt ia vill* «l du dioc^m dt Gtnirt srawi F^ak
tStf, G«^neiTw l»&6: J. B. C. itaJiffe, G^nk^ ^^J0mt(t» d
CkrUiianivmM h €m^ ib. 1872^ id«^, ^M» «ir (k-
nir*. 2 voK, ib, 1872-74; idetst, in Mimo^m ti dotummit
d'hiMtoin if d'oNkSoitiau da Qmnkm, vii, 20: EL Cboby,
La ThfocT^U* ^ Genivt ou tempt d€ CaiHfK ib, ISW; L
DoumtrxtiB, ha Oen^# coIrimMtt, Latisaiiiic, 1905-
GEITEVA BmLE« See Bible Versions, B, F.,
I 4; BtBUES, Annotated, II., § 1.
GENEVA CATECHISM, See Calvik, John;
Catechisms.
GENEVA, COHSENSUS OF (C<mj^enmm Genmn-
sia): A document drawn up by Calvin for the pmpsee
of imiting the Swi^a Reformed ehvuch^ with regwd
to the doctrine of predestination. It appeared at
Geneva in 1 552, ha^dng received the eipmturei of
all the paatOT* (k that eity. But beyond Geneva it
acquired no eymbolical authority, and attempts
to ealist the ci\Tl government in its favor created
dissatisfaction and opposition in Bern, Basel, and
Zurich.
BiRUooaAFKY: The t<<3ct ia in Cal?ii>Tii Ojmr», riii US70),
24&-36fi. imd in H, A. Niemeyer, CoUtictw emf€fnmam,
pp. 2ia-3l0, LeIpMC. 1B4Q. For history and full refer-
eticen Co titcFftture ooii»ult 3ctutff, Cr«ee£t, i, 474r-477. and
tKe Iitemturer on CiUHViitf,
GENEVIEVE, /en'Vv^v': The name of two
sainta of the Roman Catholic Church.
1. Genevieve, Patron Saint of Paria: b., aecord-
ing tx> tradition, at Nanterre (7 m. n.w. of P^«),
perhaps in 422; d, at Paris Jan^ 3, 512. She i«
mentioned by Gregory of Tours (Hkt. Frtmcorum,
iv. 1 ) as one of the sainta venerated at Paris, and as
buried in tlie basUiea of the apostles Peter and Piiul,
built by Clovia L and his queen. The Latin life of
REUGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
evlev*
levieve, said to date in its eariiest form from
tates that her parents were the Christians
B and Gerontia, and describes the extraor-
piety of her childhood, together with her
of prophecy and her ability to work miracles.
Bishop Germanus of Auxerre (q.v.) is said
e dedicated her to the Ix>rd when he visited
Te on his way to E^ngland to combat Pela-
1. When about fifteen, after the death of
rents, St. Genevieve went to Paris, where
ik the veil. During the invasion of the Huns
she is said to have prophesied their speedy
and to have averted the famine in Paris and
rounding cities by miraculous gifts of bread,
ler death her relics brought the basilica of
ind Paul such fame by their miraculous
that the name was chaQged to that of Ste.
&ve. Before the destruction of this church
Norman occupation of 857, her relics were
to Athis, but, after their retiun to Paris, a
church was erected to her by Abbot Stephen
may (1177-80), where her magnificent reli-
of gold and jewels, borne by four gigantic
figures, was preserved until it was destroyed
the French Revolution. It is generally
id that at least the kernel of the tradition
ling St. Genevieve is authentic, the argu-
of Krusch, the chief opponent of the his-
' ci the accoimt, being refuted by Duchesne,
, and others.
enevieve, Palgravine of Brabant: This saint
irently the product of a legend of the late
Ages. According to tradition, she was the
the Rhenish Palgrave Siegfried, who was
id to have flourished in the eighth century;
uccessfully resisting the advances of one
tiring her husband's absence, she is said to
een committed by her would-be seducer to
irge of a servant, together with her new-
lild, to be drowned. The servant, however,
conducted her to a lonely spot, where she
raculously sustained and later discovered by
sband while hunting. This form of the
preserved in Eymich's account, was ampli-
the Jesuit De Cerisiers, who also wrote a
' on the theme. The tradition originally
d about the chapel of Frauenkirohe near
jaach (20 m. w.n.w. of Coblenz), which was
1 to have been founded by the palgrave and
T Siegfried (d. 1113). His wife, originally
ie, a countess of Nordheim with estates in
t, was transformed by legend into a Gene-
and, as a Brabantine counterpart to Ste.
ive of Paris, seems to have been approxi-
to her in time, so that she was supposed to
red in the days of Charles Martel. Numerous
ts have been made to maintain the historic-
he tradition, either in part, as by Kupp and
3m, or in whole, as by Brower, who iden-
ic mythical Bishop Hidulf mentioned in the
with the historical Archbishop Hillin of
(1152-69), and thus places the beginning of
•ry in the twelfth century. On the other
Baronius and the ASB deny the existence
•rabantine St. Genevieve, while Zacher has
unsuccessfully to interpret the legend myth-
ologically by identifying Siegfried with Odin, Golo
with UUr, and the like. (O. ZOcKLERf.)
Bxbuoorapht: 1. The literature, mostly deTotional, ie
voluminous. A well-eeleoted list is given in Potthest,
Wegweiaer, pp. 1331-32. The earliest (anonymous) Vita
is best edited by B. Knisch in MOH, Script rer. Merov.,
iu (1896), 204-238, cf. Krusch in NA, xviii (1803), 11-
fiO, xix (1804). 444^450. This VUa, with two others, also
anonjmtious, and Miraeula and Rwelaiio, is in ASB, Jan.,
i. 143-153. C. Kohler has edited a fourth in £tud4 cri-
tique 9ur U texie <U la Vie latine de S. OeneviHe, Paris,
1881, while the first is edited by C. Narbey, Quel eet Ie
texle atUherUique de la Vie de S. Oenevihfe, ib. 1884. Con-
sult: L. S. Le Nain de Tillemont, Vie de 8. OenevOve
. . . precede d*une notice eur UnUee lee viee . . . , Paris,
1825; M. B. Saintyves, Vie de S, Oenevih>e . . . . ib.
1846; C. Lefeuve. Hiet, de 8. OeneviHe, ib. 1861; Z.
BMouet, Le POerin de 8, OeneviHe, ib. 1868; P. F^iet.
VAbbaye de S, Oeneviive el la congrtoatum de France, pre-
cedie de la vie . . , , 2 vols., ib. 1883; Vidieu, Sainte
CfeneviHe, ib. 1883; DCB, ii. 632-630.
2. The early life is by Ren^ de Cerisiers, L'Innocenee
reconnue, ou vie de 8. OeneviHe de Brabant, Paris, 1647.
Consult: H. Sauerbom, Qeechichie der FfaUgrAfin Oeno-
vefa, Regensburg, 1856; J. Zacher, Die Hietorie von der
PfaUerrdfin Oenovefa, KOnigsberg, 1860; B. Seuffert, Die
Legende von der FfaUffrAfin Oenovefa, WOrsburg, 187i;
B. Ools, FfaUgrAfin Oenovefa in der deuiethen DiAtung,
Leipeic 1807; KL, v. 207-301.
GENEVIEVE, SAINT, ORDERS OF: 1. The
Canons of St Geneyieve (or of the Congregation of
France, Canonici regiUares congregationis Gallicance):
A Roman Catholic congregation established in
1058 by the transfer of canons of St. Victor to the
church of Ste. Genevidve in Paris. Among its
earliest members was Peter Lombard, but it first
received permanent fame and influence through its
reformer and second founder Charles Faure, after
1614. By the time of his death thirty years later
the congregation had gained fifteen monasteries,
and such was its reputation for scholarship that the
chancellor of the Sorbonne always belonged to it.
The members were employed in educational and
hospital work. In 1646 the canons of St. Genevieve
were united with the older congregation of Val des
^coliers, and in the first half of the eighteenth
century they had seventy-seven abbeys and twenty-
eight priories. They were dissolved by the Revo-
lution. Their library, which has been national
property since 1790 and in 1850 was transferred
from the old abbey to a new building (Btbliothbque
Ste, Genevih)e)t formed the nucleus of one of the most
important public libraries of Paris.
8. The Daughters of St Genevieve (Miramiones,
Daughters of the Holy Family): A congregation
established for the care of the poor and the educa-
tion of girls in 1636 by Francisque de Blosset (d.
1642), one of the most zealous coworkers with St.
Vincent de Paul. Its rule was confirmed by the
archbishop of Paris in 1658, and seven years later
the congregation was united with an order estab-
lished in 1660 by Marie Bonneau de Rubelle Beau-
haraois de Miramion, since which time the name
Miramiones has been used. The congregation
spread and prospered until the Revolution. At
the Restoration it was revived as the Scnira de la
Sainte Famillef with a mother house at Besan^on.
There are also houses in Amiens, Lyons, Pezanas,
Toulouse, and Villefranche. The sisters pass a
novitiate of two years after which they are bound
by simple vows. Their rule enjoins upon them
Q«ntile
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
469
works of mercy, particularly the care of the sick
and poor of their own sex and the gratuitous in-
struction of girls. (O. ZftCKLERf.)
Biblioobapht: 1. La Vie du , , . Charlet Faure, Paris,
1608: ConatihUionet canonieorum reotUarium conortoor-
iionia OaUioana, ib. 1676; Helyot, Ordrf monaatiquea,
i.. p. xlvii., ii. 378 sqq.; Heimbucher, Orden und Kongr^
gationen, i. 413-414; Currier, ReligumM Ordera, pp. 171-
172.
2. The ConBUtutiont were published at Paris, 1683.
Consult: Abb^ Choisi. Vie de Madame de Miramion^ ib.
1706; Helyot, ut sup., viii. 222 sqq.; Heimbucher, ut
sup., ii. 438-439; /CL, v. 301-302.
GENNADIUS, jen"^di'u8 or gen"a-d!'Q8: The
name of two patriarchs of Constantinople.
Gennadius L : Patriarch 458-471 ; died at Con-
stantinople Aug. 25, 471. About the middle of the
century he was presbyter and abbot of a monas-
tery at Constantinople, wrote in opposition to the
anathemas of Cyril of Alexandria, and was raised
to the patriarchate by Leo the Thracian after the
death of Anatolius. In the following year a synod
held by him led him to issue an encyclical in which
he sought to heal the schism caused by the decrees
of the Council of Chalcedon, and also endeavored to
reform certain ecclesiastical abuses. He likewise
entered into negotiations with Pope Leo I. con-
cerning the deposition of the Monophjrsite Patriarch
Timotheus iElurus of Alexandria in 460. Accord-
ing to Gennadius of Marseilles, he was famed for
his learning and was the author of a conunentary
on the prophet Daniel as well as of numerous
homilies, all of which are apparently lost.
Biblioorapht: The writings are in MPO, Ixxxv. Consult:
ASB, Aug., V. 148-155; O. Bardenhewer, Pairoiogie, p.
502. Freiburg. 1894; Ceillier, Auteura aacrie, x. 343-346,
710-711; Z)CB. ii. 629-631.
Gennadius IL (Georgios Scholarios): Patriarch
in the fifteenth century, was bom at Constanti-
nople about the beginning of the fifteenth century;
d. at Seres (47 m. n.e. of Salonica), probably in
1468. He was one of the last representatives of
Byzantine learning and one of the last pillars of
the Greek Church in the period of its negotiations
for union with the Roman Catholic Church and its
subjection to Mohammedan rule. Of his life few
details are known. After receiving a thorough
education in philosophy, theology, and law in
Constantinople, he was apparently a teacher of
philosophy for a time, but was later appointed im-
perial judge by the Emperor John VII., who es-
teemed him highly. In this capacity he accom-
panied the Emperor and Joseph, patriarch of
Constantinople, to Ferrara and Florence in 1438-
1439, where he thrice spoke as an earnest advocate
of the union of the two Churches (see Ferrara-
Florence, Council of). After his return, how-
ever, the oppasition of the Greek people and clergy
to the union made him a determined opponent of
the movement, and from that time he ranked as
the real head of the antiunion party in Constanti-
nople, issuing a scries of polemics against the Roman
Catholic Church and the advocates of union. His
attitude seems to have resulted in a break with the
Byzantine court, so that, following an idea long
cherished, he retired to the monastery of Panto-
orator, became a monk, and exchanged his secular
name for the monastic appellation GennadiuB.
After the capture of Constantinople, however, the
Sultan Mohfljnmed II. planned to restore the pa-
triarchate, and the choice of the synod fell upoa
Gennadius, although he had never taken ordm,
and sought to decline the proffered honor. In the
spring of 1454 he was consecrated by the metro-
politan of Heraclea, but, since both the Church of
St. Sophia and the palace of the patriarch were
now in the hands of the Turks, h^ took up his
residence successively in two monasteries of the
city. In the latter he received a visit from the
sultan, at whose request he wrote an outline of the
most important truths of Christianity in tDFehe
chapters, which he presented to Mohammed both
in the Greek original and in a Turkish translation
(Eng. transl., The Confession of GtfmadiuM . . .
Exhibited to Mahumet II., London [ISSSTp, A few
years later, however, he found his position so dif-
ficult that he was forced to resign and again retired
to a monastic life.
Geimadius was a most prolific writer. The num-
ber of his works has been estimated at over a hun-
dred, but a complete list is impossible, since the
majority exist only in manuscript, others have
been printed only in part, and others still are of
doubtful authenticity. They may be classified, so
far as known, into philosophical (interpretations of
Aristotle, Porphyry, and others, tnuislations of
Petrus Hispanus and Thomas Aquinas, and de-
fenses of Aristotelianism against the recmdeeoenoe
of Neoplatonism) and theological and ecclesiastical
(partly concerning the union and partly defending
Christianity against Mohammedans, Jews, and pa-
ganizing philosophers), in addition to numerous
homilies, hymns, and letters. The majority, so far
as they have been edited, are reprinted in MPG,
Ixxxv., clx. (Philipp Meter.)
Bibliographt: Among the soTiroes are the Hiatona of
Dukas. pp. 142, 148, and of Georgios Phrantses, pp. 30&-
308. in the CSHB; Fabridus-Harles. BiUiotheea Grtca,
vol. xi., containing the De Georgiia of Leo AUatius. Con-
sult: E. Renaudot, De Oennadii vHa ei aeriptU, ?uik
1709, reprinted in MPO, clx. 249 sqq.; W. Gaaa, Gennet-
diua und Pletho, Breslau, 1844; idem, iSym6o/iib der grit-
chiaehen Kirche, pp. 34-39. Berlin. 1872; Stdtx. ia
JahrbUcKer fUr deutache The<ilogie, xiii (1868), 672-€77;
Krumbacher. Geachichte, pp. 11^121.
GENNADIUS OF IfASSILIA: A pTCskyter of
Massilia (Marseilles), contemporary of Pope GeU-
sius I. (492-496; cf. Gennadius, De vir. ill., xdx.
[c.]), who, under the same title, continued Jerome's
De viris tUtistribiis, thus furnishing, in spite of many
blunders, a very important source and in part the
only source of oiu: acquaintance with the ninety-
one (ninety-three) authors treated therein. Gen-
nadius knew Greek well and was well read in
Eastern and Western, orthodox and hereticail
literature. He was a diligent compiler and a com-
petent critic. His Semi-Pelagian attitude is evi-
dent in his eulogies of Cassian, Faustus of Riez,
and others, as well as in his derogatory verdicts on
the opposing side — Augustine, Prosper of Aqui-
taine, and even popes. The date of composition is
uncertain. The present form of the text indicates
a repeated revision of the entire work. It was
edited by J. Andreas (Rome, 1468), by C. A. Ber-
noulli (Freibiug, 1895), by E. C. Richardson in
458
REUGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
GhennadiUB
OentUe
^iJ, xiv. (LeipsiCy 1896), and is reprinted from
I. A. FabriciujB, Bibliotkeca eccUsiastica (Hamburg,
•718), in MPL, Iviii. 1059-1120. There is an Eng.
•MsL in NPNF, 2d ser., iii. 386-402. Genna-
liuB also composed Advemu omnes hcereses libri
ffUL; five books against Nestorius; ten books
Bi^iunst Eutycbes; three books against Pelagius;
a Trodatus de mUlemo et de apocalypsi beaii Johan-
«u; and an EpUtola de fide^ which he sent to
OJasius. There is also attributed to Gennadius
tklAter ecdesiasticorum dogmatum (Hamburg, 1614;
leprinted in AfPL, Iviii. 979-1064), an abstract of
catholic doctrine with a polemical bent. Its com-
pofition by Gennadius would appear to confirm his
kaoing toward Semi-Pelagianism. G. KrCoer.
Bduoosapht: C. H. Turner, in 77*5, vii (1906). 78-99;
£. Jungmann. Qucuiione9 Oennadianof, Leipsic, 1881;
A. Ebert. Allo«fneine Oetdiidite der LUeratur des MitUl-
aUm, i. 447-449, ib. 1889; B. Csapla, Ominadiua aU
LUkrarhutoriker, MOnster. 1898; F. Diekamp, in R^-
mmkt QtucrtaUehrift, xii (1898). 411>420; DCS, ii. 631-
8S2; H. Hurter. Nomendator lUerariua, i. 409. Innsbruck.
1903; H. Koch. Vincenz vcn Lerin und Oennadxtu, in TU,
tzxL 2 (1907): CeilUer, Auteura Bocris, x, 600-606.
GENFARIy jen-na'ri, CASIMIRO: Roman Cath-
olie cardinal; b. at Maratea (96 m. s.e. of Naples),
Italy, Dec. 29, 1839. He was educated at the
Jesuit college in Salerno and the theological semi-
oaiy at Naples. He then returned to his native
2ity as a priest, and there founded the Monitore
^edesiastieo, a theological journal. In 1881 he was
MDsecrated bishop of Conversano and in 1897 be-
sune assessor of the Holy Office at Rome with the
;itle of archbishop of Lepanto. He was created
sardinal priest of San Marcello al Corso in 1901,
lod is a member of the Congregations of the Con-
nstory, Bishops and Regulars, the Council, Rites,
Index, Indulgences, Apostolic Visitation, Provin-
aal CoimdlB, and Propaganda for the Oriental
Etite, as well as a conmiissioner for the apostolic
nsitation of the dioceses of Italy and the Opera
Trnervatumis fidei.
6ENHESARET, gen-nes'a-ret. See Galilee, § 4;
lAT.n.wF., Sea of.
GENOA, ARCHBISHOPRIC OF: An ancient
netropolitan see of North Italy. The first bishop
uuned by tradition is Salomo or Salonius (c. 269);
iie first historically known is Valentinus (295;
leeording to some authorities, c. 313). Under
Jyrus II. (1130-63), the see of Genoa, formerly
luffragan to Milan, was raised to metropolitan rank
ly Innocent II. in 1133. As suffragan bishoprics
t had at first only Bobbio and Brugnato, to which
rere added before long Ventimiglia, Noli, and
dbenga, and then three of the six Corsican sees,
Loeia, Mariana, and Nebbio, the other three re-
fiaining under the jurisdiction of Pisa until the end
f the thirteenth century. During the French
tevohition some of these bishoprics were suppressed.
\y a bull of 1817 the province was reconstituted
rith the sees of Albenga, Bobbio, Brugnato, Noli-
avona, Tortona, and Nice; and it has the same
[>-day with the exception of Ventimiglia in place
f Nice. The actual diocese of Genoa contains
bout 400,000 inhabitants. Amonp the early arch-
iahops one of the most distinguished wa-: Jacobus
de Varagine (q.v.), 1292-98. From the fifteenth
century the see was frequently occupied by car-
dinals.
Bxbuoorapht: F. Ughelli, Italia Baera, iv. 830-907. 10
vob.. Venice, 1717-22; G. Cappelletti. Le Chieta d'ltalia,
xiii. 269 sqq., 21 vols., Venice, 1844-70; M. Rosi. Storia
della rtlatione fra la republica di Oenova e la diieaa Romana
in rapporto alia riforma reliffioBa^ Rome, 1899; iCL, v.
304-308.
GENOUDE, zhd"nQd', ANTOINE EUGENE DE:
French priest and publicist; b. at Mont^limar (135
m. s. of Lyons) 1792; d. at Hy^res (12 m. e. of
Toulon) Apr. 19, 1849. After teaching for a while
at the Lyc^ Bonaparte, Paris, he entered the
seminary of St. Sulpice. At the restoration of the
Bourbons he became secretary and adjutant to
Prince de Polignac. Entering journalism he col-
laborated in 1818 on the Canservateur, which was
directed against the ministry of Decazes, and in
1820 joined Lemennais in foimding the Dtfenaeur,
In 1821 he bought the Stoile, which became the
official journal of the government. For his serv-
ices to the government he was ennobled in 1822.
In 1827 he revived the Gazette de France. After the
July Revolution of 1830 his violent defense of the
fallen dynasty involved him in troubles with the
pope and the French bishops. In 1835 he entered
the priesthood but soon returned to journalism.
In 1846 he was elected a member of the Chamber
of Deputies from Toulouse. Besides political wri-
tings, a translation of the Bible, and a translation
of the " Imitation of Christ," by Thomas k Kempis,
his publications include. La Raieon du christianisme
(12 vols., Paris, 1834-35), a compilation from many
sources; La Vie de Jeaua Christ et dee apdtres (2
vols., 1836); Lemons et modtlea de litt^rature eacr^e
(1837); Exposition du dogme catholique (1840);
Sermons et conferences (1844); and Uhistoire d*une
Ame (1844), an autobiography.
Biblioorapht: Besides the autobiography, consult: Bio-
graphis deM.de Oenoude, Paris, 1844; Lichtenberger,
E8R, V. 627-629.
GENTILE, jen-tta6, GIOVANNI VALENTINO:
Antitrinitarian; d. at Bern Sept. 10, 1567. He was
a native of Cosenza in Calabria, and was one of
those Italians who about the middle of the sixteenth
century left Italy to live freely according to iheir
religious convictions. In 1556 or 1557 he came to
Geneva. When in 1558 all members of the Italian
colony were required to subscribe an orthodox con-
fession which especially emphasized the Trinity, he
preferred to leave the city for a time together with
Alciati and Matteo Gribaldi (q.v.). Their country-
men brought them back and induced them to sub-
scribe. Nevertheless the council proceeded (1558)
against Gentile, and forced him to a humiliating
submission and penance. He fled to Lyons, op-
posed Calvin's doctrine of the Trinity in the Anli-
dola, dedicated to King Sigismund of Poland,
whither he went in 1563. His name occurs from
time to time during the next three years in letters
from Poland. Then he returned to Switzerland
and settled at Gex, which was under the jurisdic-
tion of Bern. Fresh proceedings were instituted
against him, on a charge of blaspheming the Holy
Trinity and reviling the Reformed Church, and
aentill«t
Oeorffe, Bishop
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
464
ended in Iiis azecoUon. His theological position
may be seeti from the Aniidota and from the con*
fession which he presented to the Bern clergy
(printed in Trechsol), Gentile opposed the tradi-
tional doctrine of the Trinity and ita " fantastical
and sopbijstical " terminology, but he professed to
be attempting to vindicate the position of the Per-
sons in the Trinity a® something more than mere
constituent parts of the divine substance* He
hoped to escape the difUcolties of the doctrine of
the two natures by conceding the incarnation of
the Logos in Mary as a person at once divine and
human ; though he thus obscured the doctrine of
the perfect humanity of Christ, K. Ben rath.
Bxblickihapbt: The Geii«rva •pto&^ of 1558 wsa pubUKhm)
by F&iy in Mimmre* de VlnttittAt (^i«tM>M, voL xiv..*
1878-79; on the Bern pTQtxm catiBult F. Tfechsel, Die
proUatantiKhen AntitHnitaritr. vol. ii.. He^idelbcrg, 1844.
wherQ sgmQ dtjiedls cQDceroins G«titi]a ttjre ^iven. Go&auU
also J, H, AUao* HiaL «f the Uniianarut p. 52, New York,
1804.
GEIITILLET, zhah"ti"ly^', UHfOCENT: French
Reformed jurist; b. at Vienne; d. at Geneva, the
dates of hh birth and death being unkno^^n. After
the massacre of St, Bartholomew he fled to Geneva,
but after the peace of 1576 was made head of the
council of Die, and became president of the Parlia-
ment of Grenoble a short time later. He was de-
prived of his posit LoUf however, by an edict of
1585, whereupon he seems to have again sought
refuge in Geneva. Owe of hia two poUtii^ w^orks,
the Disc&ur8 sitr lea mayens de bien gouveTmer ei
mairUen^ en bonne pais: un royQume ou autre pnn-
cipatdS . . . cotUre Nicolas Machiavel Floreniin
(Geneva^ 1576), was translated into English by
S. Patericke^ A Discourse upon the Means of Wei
Governing . . . a Kingdom , , , agaimt N. Mack-
iavell (London, 1002). His Apologia pro ChristianiM
GoJUm religionis evangdicm aeu reformatcs (1578)
ranka aa one of the besfl defenses for the Reforma-
tion, while his Le Bureau du concUe de Trenle (1586)
forms one of the ablest attacks upon the Council of
Trent. (C. ScHMiDTf.)
GEITTILLY, «han"tf''yt' (GEKTIUACUM), SYH-
OD OF, 767: An asfiembly mentioned in the
Prankish annals, at which, in the presence of Greek
and Roman emisaarieS; the doctrine of the Trinity,
especially the procession of the Holy Spirit, and
image- worship were discussed. It took place at
Gent illy, a southern suburb of Paris, and was octm-
sioned by a Byisantine embassy which had prob-
ably come for the purpose of winning the Prankish
Church to the standpoint of Coi^tantine V, on the
question of image- worship. The proceedings and
resolutions of the synod are not known. The ques-
tion ooncerning the procession of the Holy Spirit
was only secondary and was probably stirred up by
the papal nuncios for the purpose of sowing dis-
cord between the Pranks and Greeks. There seems
to have been no agreement, and this is only nat-
ural in consideration of the political conditions of
Italy and the resolutions of the synod at Constan-
tinople in 754 against image^ worship.
(A. Hatjck.)
Bxblioorapht: Hcfekt Cojuitixnoe^chicMt, lii. 431-433.
Enff. tmnsl.. v. 330-331, cl. Mmtm, ConcUia, zii. 013 aqq.
GEOFFREY OF KONHOUTH {Galfridu^ or
Gau/ridua AriuruBf Gulf vidua M onemuiensia; Welsh
Galffrai or Gruffyd ap Arthur): English chfom'cler;
b., probably at Monmouth^ c. 1100; d. at Liandaff
1154. He is thought to have been a monk of the
Benedictine abbey at Monmouth, and about 1140
was made archdeacon of Llandalf, He was con-
secrated bishop of St. Asaph Feb. 24, 1152, but
seems to have died before he actually entered on
his duties there. Geoffrey is famous for his Hu-^
toria regum BritannitF., which was highly popular
in all lands during the Middle Ages, furnished Sir
Thomas Malory the material for his Mart d'Arthur^
and has been drawn upon by poeta from Shake-
speare to Tennyson. It is a skilful mucture of bi»-
tory, legend, and pure romance, beginning with the
fail of Troy and the story of Brutus, a descendant
of i^neas, who is made the ancestor of the Britons,
and ending with Cadwalader and the downfall of
the Geltio power in Britain, The main source,
Geoffrey states, was a " very old book " given him
by Walter, archdearCoo of Oxford, but he also us^
Gildas, Nennius, and Bcde, The seventh of the
twelve books appears to have been originalty an
independent work of Geoffrey's (De propheiiis Mer^
lini). The text has been published by J. A. Giles
(London, 1S44) and in GoU/ried^a von Monmauik
Hiatoria regum Btitannift und Bnd Tyfylio . , ,
herausgeg^ten wn San Marts [A, Schub] (HaUe,
1854); transl. by Aaron Thompson, The BriiM
Hisiory (London, 1718), revised and corrected by
J. A. Giles, Gmffrey 0/ Monmrndh-a British Hiaiotj
(1842).
Bibliographt: ASB. Oct. Jx04H»&; T. Wright. If Hvrapli^
Briiannim, ATLgto-Narm^n PerUtd^ pp. j43-t£0^ Londoo.
1S4€; klam, Esxtyt on Arfkaolo^iml SuttftctM, L 202-
226, ib, IMl; R P&ria. Mimmn «ir . . , VkiA 4<9
Brehna dts Monmouth, P&ris, 1B35; T, Gib«y» in DuMi^
UnittertUy Magiuine^ ApdU 1876; A. de Uk Borderi«^
MtudM hi$lor%gti^ Br4t&nne», Parii, IBS^I Uulclaii ftod
atuhbH. CounciU. i. 360-361: BNB, 3cd. 133-lM.
GEORGE m. OF AlfHAlT: Prinoe of Anhalt-
Dessau; b. at Dessjiu Aug. 13 or 15, 1507; d. tberc
Oct. 17, 1553. He was brought up with his brotberi
mainly by his devout mother Mar^ret, Duchess of
Munatcrberg. At the instance of his kinsman^
Bishop .^dolphus of Merseburg, he was elevated to
the rank oF canon in that see in 1518, and attended
the University of Leipsic, where Georg Held of
Forchheim was hia " highly beloved master/' In
1524 Adolphus conj^erated him as priest. Thai
he might be able the better to refute the Lutheran
KOcL, he made a thorough study of the Bible, the
Church Fathers, and church histoiy. The ejctreme
tension of mind and the quahns of conscience into
which hia investigations brought him induced a
violent illness, which left ita mark upon him for the
rest of his life.
It was only after his mother^s death (June, 1530)
that he could see hia way to entire clearness of
faith; but from the time of the Diet of Augsburg
(1530) both George and his brothers are found allied
with the Reformers. After the first EvangeUcd
celebration of the Loral's Supper at Dessau, on
Maundy Thursday^ 15\U, George %Tsit<*d the dis-
trict churchesi making the feweat possible changes
«66
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
G«ntillet
Oeorve, Bishop
tD the chureh pr&eti£efi, in accordaDce with hk
tutuml diapoftition and with Luther'e acxjuieeoenoe.
Xjovih^ pe&oe, he sought to det^rLutherp in 1538^
from publishing the tract Wider den Bischqf zu
Magdeburg; and persuaded him^ in 1542, not to
circulate his sharply w^orded tract on the feud of
Wurzen. In 1544 the protector of Heraeburg
GatbedraJf Mauiioe of Baxony, appointed his
brother p Duke Augujitus, admlnistratori but be-
cause the latter was not a ckric, deaigi>ated George
of Anh< as his " coadjutor in spiritual affairs/^
In ibis capacity he forthwith proceeded, in com-
pany with Antooius Musa, juat then appointed
cathedral preacher at Merseburg, upon a visitation
of all the cathedra! parishes, exhibiting great
patience, tactful discretion, and forbearance. He
next conferred with Maurice in the matter of a
prospective liturgy, which, m accordance with his
BpggeBtlons and in virtue of the deliberations of the
eoDaifitories of Merseburg and Meissen, was ofS-
daUy completed at Altcozelle in 1545. Thence-
forth twice a year George convened the cathedral
clergy to a synod in Merseburg Cathedral, and on
such oocasions discoursed upon the questions and
evila of the time, and upon proper official conduct.
He based th^e coneumM ^ynodiccB upon outlines
furaiabed him by Melanchthon. Of the sermons
which he delivered in the cathedral before many
bearers, only a few have been prcfiervcd. They are
distinguished by temperate and lucid exposition.
When, in spite of his efforts to the contrary, the
Schmalkakl War broke out^ George receiver! under
his roof the fugitive Camerarius and his family;
interceded for Jonas, who had incurred Maurice's
angers and sought to restrain the clergy from " sus-
picious and frivolous words that might serve to
<^use discord," Although he '* hated ^* the Augs-
burg Interim, he felt that he ought to lend a hand
in the preparation of the Leipsic Interim, in order
to predude still worse results (see Interim). In
1549 the emperor's candidate Michael Helclingk
(Sidonius) was postulated by the chapter as bishop
of Merseburg, Until his arrival, George was to
continue administering the diocese. To strengthen
the Evangelical confession as firmly as possible be-»
fore the threatening storm, he now delivered his
powerful sermons *' On the False Prophets," and
" On the Right Worthy Sacrament of the Body
and Blood of Christ," which are directed both
against Home and against the fanatics- Afterward
be retired to his Anhalt estates. Sojourning mostly
in Warmsdorf he continued to preach there, and
when occasion offered sought to adjust tlie Osian-
drian dispute. He died unmarried after lingering
sickness. His unfeigned piety, his gentleness and
love of peace, his benevolence and freedom of serv-
ice, gained him the honorable title of the ^* devout "
or " pious/' His theology was that of Luther.
WiLHELM WaLTHER,
BrHiroaKAFwr: Hii writiDss in Q«nxiiiD wer* «iit*d by
Melanctithon. Wittenbfftf. IMS. 7th edL. 1741, fjitin #dj-
Utm coQtAJatne the CmtcumeM wj^iodicm, 1570; the Can-
Oimm were edited by G, Stier in Germ, trannL. ISSS.
For IiIb life couhuH; Ltben d& Al^tter der luthenMdisn
Kvehv, iv, 63 sqii., Leipwc 1S64 (contains Ij»ts of the
older Literature)- M, BteGFenhaceap Qforg vcn AfiHati,
Merwbuni, tad3; A. EQme1ia« Dit B^&maiiim in DeM-
«ui, H*ll0. ISSfi.
GEORGK, BISHOP OF THE ARABIA1T5: Que
of the most important writers of the Syrbn Church;
was bom about 340 in the Juina, the dii^tHct of the
lower Mrin valley, belonging to the
Life. diooGse of Ant inch, and died in 724.
As a youth he attached himself to
his famous count rymao Jacob of Edessa (q.v.)]
whose Hexa^meron he completed after Jacob's
death. In Nov., 686, in conformity with the dying
wiih of the Patriarch Athanasius IL of Balad, he
was cormec rated bishop by the Jacobite Maphrian
f!)crgius Zakunaja, archbishop of Kartamin near
Mardin. His jurisdietioo was not a local one, but
included the Arab tribes on the eastern bottler of
the northern half of the Arabian de^rt. Doctri-
neJly he was attached to the Jacobite church of
Syria, as is shown by his dogmatic and contro-
versial writings.
He had an extensive knowledge of both Chris*
tian and classical literature. Besides the Bible,
he knew the principal church his-
Mental torians, Eusebius, Socrates, and Theo*
Equipment doret* In Bwiil's works he was
specially at home, and was well ac-
quainted with Athana^ius, Gregory of Nye^a, and
Gregory Nazianzen, as well as with the Mooophysite
authorities to whom the Jacobites appealed, espe-
cially the patriarch Sevenis of Antioch; he knew
both Cynl of Alexandria and Sabellius and Julian
of Halicamassus, and was very familiar with the
worka of the Pseud o-Dionysius. He was not le^ss
weU-read in the older Syriac literature, Bardesanes,
Aphraatefi, and Ephraem. Even of works still
fiu-ther removed, like those of Joeephus and the
Clementines, he displays niore than a superficial
knowledge - His extendi ve correspondence, of whi ch
the letters from 714 to 718 stiJI exist, shows that
he was the intellectua! leader of his countryraen.
The greater part of hb works is still extant, and
shows his roany*sidftdneBs, not only covering the
most various theological branch^, but includiiig
a valuable translation of a part of
Prose the Orgamm of Aristotle, with the full-
Works, est commentary on that author exist-
ing in Syriac, With this Aristotelian
work may be classed, as to both plan and pur-
pose, a collection of scholia on the homilies of
Gregory Nazianxen (pre^rved in a tenth or eleventh
century manuscript in the Bntisb Museum), though
neither the translation of the homilies nor the
writing of the scholia was done by George, who only
compiled them.
Of his poetical works, the Chrmtwon, written in
twelve-syllable verse, was formerly preser\'ed in a
single manuscript in the Vatican, which has now
totally disappyeared. This dealt in
Poetical twenty-four chapters with the epacts,
Works* with rules for finding the movable
feasts, with tlie cycles of the sun and
moon, with the months and weeks, and other things
pertaining to the ecclesiastical reckoning. The
table for finding the time of the new moon which
originally formed part of this has been preserved
sefiarately in two copies, one In the Vatican and
one in the British Museum. The author's com-
petence in these astronomical questions is shown
Qeoxve, Bishop
Qeorffe of Brandenburg
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
466
by two letters to John, a priest in the monastery
of Litharb (Al-Atharib, near Aleppo), in which he
takes a standpoint far in advance of the astro-
logical superstitions of his age. Of the three poems
still extant, one (British Museum and Bodleian)
treats of the monastic life, and gives eloquent ex-
pression to the mystical enthusiasm of the Mono-
physite tradition in his portrayal of the blessedness
of the monk's condition. The others have refer-
ence to the consecration of the sacred chrism, which,
after the symbolist manner of the Pseudo-Dionysh
ius, is mystically connected with the Anointed One;
in both a large part is played by the Old Testament
and its ceremonies, as types of the more perfect
dispensation and its mysteries and festivals. The
longer poem (Vatican, Paris) closely follows the
ritual of the consecration of the oil; the shorter
(Brit. Mus.) covers the same ground more concisely.
In connection with these may be mentioned a prose
explanation of the sacraments (Brit. Mus.), which
treats only of baptism, the Eucharist, and the bless-
ing of the chrism, George apparently recognizing
(like the Pseudo-Dionysius, whom he follows) none
but these as sacraments. The above-mentioned
conclusion to the Hexaemer&n of Jacob of Edessa
takes it up at the resurrection, and deals with the
Last Judgment and the recompense of good and
evil deeds. Like Origen and other Greek fathers,
especially Gregory of Nyssa and the theologians
of the school of Antioch, as well as the Monophy-
site Stephen bar Sudaili, George teaches the doc-
trine of the final restoration of all things.
For the study, however, of George's doctrinal
position, his letters (contained in a manuscript of
the eighth or early ninth century.
Letters. Brit. Mus.) are of the greatest im-
portance; they show what scientific
questions chiefly occupied the clergy and monks
of his time, what dogmatic questions were most
frequently discussed, and how ecclesiastical legis-
lation was carried out in the daily life of the Church.
An idea of their contents may best be given by
taking them according to their subjects without
regard to their chronological order. Under the
head of church history may be placed the first
three chapters of the longest of all, addressed to the
presbjrter Joshua the Recluse under date of July,
714. These chapters deal with the life and times
of the " Persian sage," i.e., Aphraates, and discuss
the theory that the end of the world will come after
six thousand years, the doctrine of the sleep of the
soul after death and its awakening, and the question
why Noah did not warn his contemporaries of the
flood — a question which was not, indeed, treated in
the homilies of Aphraates, but had occurred to
Joshua while reading them. In the fifth chapter
George gives the life and teaching of Gregory the
Illuminator, the apostle of the Armenians, finally
discussing the question whether Gregory was justi-
fied in forbidding his Armenian converts to mix
water with the wine of the Lord's Supper, as was
the Syrian custom. In this chapter especially
notable are the keen critical insight and the strict
historical judgment, cleverly avoiding the miracu-
loiLs, with which he handles the material before
him. A second division of the letters is composed
of those of an exegetical nature. Aasemani is
wrong in attributing to Geoi^ the compositioD of
a commentary on the Bible and especially on Mat-
thew: what he did, after the fasUon of his time,
was to discuss particular questions which inter-
ested him or were put to him by others. With
these points of Biblical exegesis may be daased
the exfK)6itions of passages in Greek and Sjrriac
writers, such as Gregory Nazianzen, Ephraem Syrus,
and Jacob of Edessa. A third class, those of doc-
trinal interest, are partly didactic and partly polem-
ical. Of the former nature are the eighth chap-
ter of the long letter to Joshua, in which he holds
fast (like the other Greek and Syrian theologians)
to the freedom of the will, and a letter to the John
already mentioned, on the part which the priest
plays in the forgiveness of sins, which George re-
duces to very moderate proportions. The poleot-
ical letters are principally concerned with Christo-
logical questions, and are particularly interesting
as showing that Monophysite opposition was then
directed not against the Nestorians but against the
adherents of the Council of Chaloedon — a fact which
would be hard to explain historically if knowledge
did not exist of the difference in belief already
existing between Cyril of Alexandria and Severus,
George's main authority. A fourth division deals
with questions of church law and ritual, and includes
the fourth and seventh chapters of the letter to
Joshua, as well as another to him of 718, in which
he answers three questions relative to the proper
celebration of the Eucharist. Finally, a fifth di-
vision of ascetical bearing may be made of the
ninth chapter of the letter to Joshua, in which he
deals with nocturnal temptation and the means to
be employed in combating it.
The value of the works of Geoi^ lies in the
manner in which they increase the knowledge of
the history of the Syrian Church and
Impor- literature, giving a picture which is
tance. all the richer for the many-sidedness
of his activity, and all the more in-
structive for his standing precisely midway between
the authors who open and close Syriac literature,
Ephraem (d. 373) and Gregory bar Hebrseus (d.
1286). Although he far surpasses the imperfect be-
ginnings of strictly Syrian learning in Aphraates,
the practically edifying character of his poetical work
especially reminds of the attitude of primitive
Christianity, which was preserved longer in Syria
than elsewhere. But when we look at the height
reached by his scientific thought, trained not only
by Aristotle's logic but by Aristotle's knowledge of
nature and of the world, we recognize at once the
mighty influence which Greek learning had upon
the mind of the Church, even in the far East.
George not only made his own all that Greek litera-
ture and philosophy could give him, but he stands
out above the other scholars of his race by his
thoughtful use of this abimdant material, by his ex-
cellent judgment and keen insight, and by the
freedom and wide range of his outlook.
(Victor RYSSELf.)
Bibliography: Parts of his works have been published as
follows: his letter to the presbyter Joshua is in P. de La-
Sarde, AnaUcta Syriaca, p. 106, Ldpaic, 1868; the first
Q«ox«« of Braadcalnuv
<toorv« of Pol«ntB
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
468
troduction in his territories in Franconia and
Nuremberg, it entered also his dominions in Upper
Silesia.
Margrave Geoige's influence manifested itself
also in the development of the German Reformation
as a whole. When a union of the
Hit Influ- Evangelicals in Upper and Lower
ence and Germany was contemplated for the
Activity more successful defense against the
Beyond his dangers accruing to the new Gospel
Territories, from the Roman Church, George had
a meeting with the elector of Saxony
at Schleitz in 1529, where they agreed on certain
articles of faith and confession to be drawn up by
Luther; the commission was executed in the seven-
teen articles of Schwabach on the basis of the fif-
teen theses of the Marburg Colloquy. But neither
at the Convention of Schwabach nor at that of
Schmalkalden did Geoige approve armed resist-
ance against the emperor and his party even in self-
defense. The more eneigetically, however, did he
oppose the emperor at the Diet of Augsburg in
1530, when the emperor demanded the prohibition
of Evangelical preaching. King Ferdinand made
George the most alluring offers of Silesian posses-
sions if he would take the part of the emperor, but
he decidedly rejected them. Next to the elector
of Saxony, he stands foremost among the faithful
and brave princes who defended the Evangelical
faith. After the death of his cousin, Joachim I. of
Brandenburg, who was a strict Romanist, he as-
sisted his sons in the introduction of the Reformar
tion in the territories of Brandenburg. He took
part in the Religious Colloquy of Regensburg (1541)
where Elector Joachim II. made a last attempt to
bridge over the differences between the Romanists
and Evangelicals and with his nephew requested
Luther's cooperation. The Diet of Regensburg
was the last religious meeting which he attended.
(David ERDMANNf.)
Biblioorapht: W. Ldhe, Erinnerunoen au9 der Reforma-
tiona^eachiehte von Franken, Nuremberg. 1847; L.
Neufltadt, Markgraf Georg aU Ertieher am ungarUdien
Hole, Brefllau, 1883; T. Kolde. A nalecta Luiherana, Gotha,
1883; idem, in ZKG, xiii (1892). parts 2-3; J. Meyer,
Die Einfiihrung der Reformaiion in Franken, Ansbach.
1893; H. Westermayer, Die brandenburgiech-nUmber-
giMchs KirchenvieitaHon IStS-SS, Erlangen. 1894; F.
Vogthem. Die Verfaeeung der evangdiach-luiheriachen
Kirche in den FUrttentUmem Anri>ach und Bayreuth^ ii.
209, 269, ErlangiRn, 1896.
GEORGE, DUKE OF SAXONY (George the
Bearded): Violent opponent of Luther; b. at
Dresden Aug., 1471; d. there Apr. 17, 1539. He
was the oldest surviving son of Albert the CJoura-
geous, ancestor of the Albertine line of sovereigns in
Saxony. Although heir to the throne, he was des-
tined for the priesthood, probably under the influ-
ence of his mother. One of his teachers in theology
was Andreas Proles, the predecessor of Staupitz in
the German Augustinian congregation, and widely
known as a courageous fighter against the abuses in
the order, and as a pious preacher. This education
influenced the whole life of George; he became not
only a sincerely pious and well-educated man, but
also enough of a theologian to have an independent
judgment in ecclesiastical matters. As early as his
seventeenth year he was entrusted with the govern-
ment of his country while his father foug;ht in dis-
tant lands, and in 1500 he succeeded his father is
actual ruler.
Geoige welcomed with sincere joy the Befonna-
tion at Wittenberg and the theses of Luther. In
the spring of 1517 he declared himself very deci-
dedly against Tetzel, the dealer in indulgences, and
branded his practise as fraud. But his very fint
meeting with Luther, in July, 1518, when Luther,
especially reconunended by Staupitz, preadied in
the castle church of Dresden, aroused oppositioD.
By this sermon the duke became aware of the bet
that Luther aimed not only at certain reforms of
the Church, but, in opposition to ruling CatholictaQB,
announced a new Gospel which was bound to result
in a complete rupture with the traditions of the
past. Such a revolutionist George decidedly op-
posed. He was confirmed in his opinion of Luther
by the ideas which the latter expressed at the
Leipsic Disputation (1519). He had no objection
to Luther's bold attacks on the abuses in the Qiurch
and found many a truth in his address " To the
nobility of the German nation "; but the continual
desertion of monks and nuns, the violation of the
vow of celibacy, and the disturbances among the
peasants fully convinced him that Luther's Gospel
was an un-Christian affair, since the Bible teaches
that the tree shall be known by its fruits. The
fruits of Luther's activity were, in George's opinion,
renunciation of all discipline and order, disobedience,
violence, and the violation of the most sacred vows;
the world can not exist without authority, and only
the Church has power to bring about refonns.
Landgrave Philip of Hesse, his son-in-law, tried
in vain to win him over, especially by the Bible.
In spite of his independent character, George seems
to have been influenced not a little in his unfavo^
able attitude toward the new Gospel by his ^ea^
tionary secretaries, Hieronymus Emser and Johan-
nes Cochlseus. By the manner of his polemics
Emser excited Luther in such a way that his cut-
ting replies against him and the duke can not alwajps
be justified. Emser's last work, an emended trans-
lation of the New Testament, was intended to com-
pete with Luther's great work, but differed so little
from it that it only helped the cause of the Refor-
mation. After having awaited in vain the prom-
ised council, Duke George ordered visitations and
the reform of monasteries on his own responsibility
and tried to abolish abuses, but his efforts were not
successful. He made his life-work a vain struggle
to stem the tide of the Reformation, and his failure
was the more tragical as it isolated him from his
people and even from his own family. The end of
his life was saddened by the prospect that after his
death the new Gospel would enter his country
freely and openly, since his brother Henry, the heir
to the throne, had adopted the Lutheran cause.
George's last attempt to save his country for Ro-
manism by ceding it to Ferdinand, the Roman king.
was frustrated by the opposition of the estates of
Meissen and by his sudden death.
(F. W. DlBEUTJS.)
Bibuographt: H. Welck. Oeorg der BOrtige, Braasmicl,
1000; F. Qess, Kloaterviniationen dee Henog Oearft,
Leipiie, 1888; idem, in ZKO, 1888; idem. Akkn u^d
469
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Qeorffe of Brand«nbiuv
Q60XV6 of PolentB
Bngf§ aw Kvth^HpoHiik Htnog Omro% van Saehten, vol.
L 1517-24. Leipne. 1006: articles io the Neum Arehiv
tkr addbMcAe OttMehU by Friedeiwbuis. Briahothtl
tmtKken Hertog Otorg und PhiUpp von U—mn^ 1886: by
Geas, Leiptig und Wittenberg, 1806. and by E. Branden-
burg. Hertog Heinrieh der Fromme, 1806; K. Henainff,
BiUer au9 der edekeieehen Oeeehiehie, DreMlen, 1002;
Sehaff. Chrietian Chvrek, vi. 178. 181. 202. 667; Cam-
hridge Modem Hielory, vol. ii.. The Reformation, pp. 136.
148. 163-262.
GEORGE OP LAODICEA: Bishop of Laodioea
m Syria, one of the leaders of the homoiousian party;
b. in Alexandria; d. between 360 and 363. Alex-
aoder of Alexandria made him presbyter, and before
the Council of Nicea, during a stay at Antioch,
George tried to mediate in the controversy between
Alexander and the Arians. The opponents of the
Arians treated him as Arian, and Alexander deposed
him. George then joined the ** Eusebians/' and
before 335 they procured him the bishopric of
Laodioea; he took part in the Synod of Antioch in
339 and for doing so was anathematized by the
Occidentals. Geoige regarded the Nioene doctrine
as Sabellianism and was an especial enemy of
Athanasius; but he did not altogether agree with
Eusebius of Nicomedia since he opposed Arianism
sharply, and, with Bishop Basil of Ancyra, became
founder of the homoiousian party. The new atti-
tude of George after 358 can hardly be called a
diange of conviction since the homoiousian formu-
las may be traced back to the Christology of Alex-
ander of Alexandria who influenced his youth.
After the Synod of Seleucia Geoige disappears. It
is said that he took part in the homoian synod at
Constantinople in 360, having submitted at that
time; like many other homoiousians, to the power
of the court; this is possible, but George of Laodioea
seems to have been confounded with George of
Doara, the Arian. Of his writings there have been
preserved a few sentences of a letter found in
Athanasius, De tynodis, xvii. (MPG, xxvi. 712,
CD), a letter in Sozomen (IV., xiii. 2-3) and a
aiemorial in Epiphanius (Hcer,, Ixxiii. 22, end),
[t is said that he wrote also an '' Encomium of
Ehiaebius of Emesa," and a treatise against the
Ifanichcans. (F. Loofb).
BiBUoaaAPBT: Sources are the histories by Socrates, Soso-
men and Theodoret. and the " History of the Arians " by
Athanasius. all available in Eng. transl. in NPNF, 2
aer. Consult: Leo Allatius in Oeorgii Acropolxta . . .
hiaioria, p. 306-306, Paris. 1651; Tillemont, MHnoirea,
vi. 250 of Venice ed.; M. Le Quien, Oriena chriatiantu,
*ii. 702-703, Paris. 1740; Fabridus-Harien, Bibliotheca
Oraea, vii. 327. ix. 203. Hamburg. 1801. 1804; J. H.
Newman, The Ariane of the 4ih Century, p. 284, London.
1871; J. Driseke, Oeaammelte pairietieche Uniereuchun-
gen, Altona. 1889; DCB, ii. 637-638; KL, v. 336-336;
and the literature under Arianibm.
GEORGE THE PISIDIAN: Byzantine poet and
historian; flourished in the first half of the seventh
century. He was a deacon in the church of St.
Sophia, Constantinople, and enjoyed the favor of
the Patriarch Sergius, and of the Emperor Heraclius,
whom he accompanied on lus first campaign against
the Persians. He wrote a number of long poems
of historical, philosophical, and religious content,
which were highly praised by the latter Byzantine
writers, though modem criticism has condemned
^hem as artificial and tedious. The Hexaemeron
mi mundx officium, and his De vanUaU vitcB were
printed, with a Latin translation, by F. Morel (Paris,
1584), and his complete works, with Latin trans-
lation and a critical introduction, were edited by
G. M. Querci (Rome, 1777). This edition was re-
printed in CSHBf vol. xiv., and also in 3/PG, xdi.
BiBUoaBAPHT: Leo Allatius. De Oeorgiie, in Fabridua-
Harles. Bibliotheca Grceca, x. 661-660, Hamburg, 1807;
1. Hilberg. in Wiener Studien, viii (1886). 202-304. ix
(1887). 207-222 (on the Hexaemeron); L. Stembach. De
Oeorgio Pieida Nonni aedatore, Cracow. 1803; Krum-
bacher, Oeachichte, pp. 700-712 et passim; KL, v. 337-
338; DCB, ii. 648-640.
GEORGE OF POLENTZ: Bishop of Samland m
Prussia, the first bishop who avowed the Evan-
gelical faith; b. in Saxony 1478; d. in Balga (24
m. s.w. of KOnigsberg, on the Frische Haflf) Oct. 1,
1649. He descended from one of the most promi-
nent and ancient families of the Saxon nobility,
studied law in Italy, was for some time private
secretary of Pope Julius II., then entered the serv-
ice of Emperor Maximilian I. He became ac-
quainted with Margrave Albert of Brandenburg
(see Albert of Prussia), a later grand master
of the Teutonic Order, and subsequently joined the
Order. By the faithful and able execution of sev-
eral important commissions in the affairs of the
Order he won the confidence of Albert, through
whose influence he became bishop of Samland
(1519). When he assumed in 1522 the regency of
the Order in the absence of the grand master, his
mind had already been turned toward the Evan-
gelical cause by the writings of Luther. In 1523
he tolerated the preaching of the pure Gospel in
the cathedral church of KOnigsberg and put no
obstacle in the way of the Reformatory movement.
After 1524 he advocated the nullifiation of the
papal constitution and the secularization of the
Order. On the reconunendation of Luther, Johan-
nes Briessmann became cathedral preacher at
KOnigsberg, and introduced the bishop to a deeper
knowledge of the Evangelical doctrine of salvation.
In the sunmier of 1523 the bishop publicly avowed
the cause of the Reformation. In a mandate of
1524 he admonished lus subjects to accept the new
doctrine, and, instigated by the ignorance of his
people, advocated in another mandate the preach-
ing of the Gospel in the vernacular. As early as
1524 he sent Evangelical preachers from place to
place, as many as he could gather. While he him-
self received instruction from Briessmann in Greek
and Hebrew to study the Bible in the original text,
he inculcated upon his preachers the diligent use of
the Bible and of Luther's translation and his most
important writings. After the transformation of the
Order into a secular duchy (see Teutonic Order),
Albert on his return to KOnigsberg in 1525 imme-
diately entrusted George of Polentz and his second
bishop, Erhard von Queiss in Pomerania, with the
organization of Evangelical church life. The first
church orders and visitations were prepared by
Bishop Polentz in connection with Briessmann and
Paulus Speratus, the new preacher of KOnigsberg.
The first Prussian church order was issued in 1525
under the title, Artikd der Ceremonien und anderer
Kirchenordnung, and thus the Prussian State Church
was organized before that of electoral Saxony.
Bishop Polentz considered it an essential part of
Oeorffe, Saint
Oerberon
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
460
his oUtetal activity to hold church visitations^ being
convirtced of the greftt iaiportaoae of tha personal
influcnoe of the bifihop upon the preachers and
their coiiKregalions. Tlie chief interest of Ms ae-
tivity lay in the organisation of the Church, on the
basis of the Goapol and the confessional doctrine.
He was also prominently active in the foundation
and de\'etopment of the University of Konigsber^
(1344). Hia marriage in 1525 was of the most fai^
reaching influenee, as he gave by tt a practical tes-
timony for the Evangelical truth and an example
for the foundation of the Evangelicat parsonage.
(David EanMANNfO
BiSMOOiupEiT^ P. Tsohackcrt* <?*ofTJ won Piyienh, Lispfltc.
1S8B; idem^ Urkundrnbudt dtr RefonrmtionM-G^tchichte
in /VnUKfi. vol. i.. ib. 1800; VOa G^arffii a F^XrwiiiJ.
Kfiiiietpberg, 1 829; A. R. Gflbacf ftniJ E, Haj^o, Dw Dtrm
fti Ki^i^tberg. pp. 242-243, ib. 1835; J< Voi^t. O^tchicAte
Pnustr^, l3t. 685-68fl. ih. 1S39; Geon? i'«*« Poiet^^. rf*r
etsts evan&diaehc BiMchaf^ Ha)1«, 1963^ i- KostJin, Martin
Lnther, ed. O, Kaw«mi, i. 622, 720, Berlin, 1903; €am^
hridoe Modern History ^ vol. Jl, Th^ Referm/oHofih pp* 130-
102, New YtiTk, 1904; B^h^W^ Ckrittian Chtmk, vi. £G3
GEORGE, SAEfT: Christian martyr, the patron
iaint of EtiisUind; b, of a noble Cappadociitn family
in tho third eentui^; d. about 303, That the
Boman army possessed an oflScer of high rank by
the nanie of George (Lat, Gtargius), who suffered
martyrdom in the Dioeletian perseeiition after re-
peatedly professing Ms faith, can scarcely be
doubted r although the year of his death is unoet^
tain. Churches were erected in his honor at a
very ea.rly periofl, as at Thcsaalonica in the fifth
csenturyt while Gregory of Tours is witness to the
wide eictenaion of hb etilt in tlie Occident. Gregory
the GreM is said, on somewhat doubtful authority,
to have restored a church of St. George in Rome,
identified with Santo Gior|?io in Vebbro.
According to the act^ of his martjTflom^ which
are late and hist-orically valueless?*, 8l* George re-
signed his commission shortly after the outbre?ak
of the Diocletian pereccution, and bore zealous
testimony against tlie informers and persecutors.
After the emperor liad sought in vain to induce him
to apostatize, the saint was condemned to die by
the swor^i, whereupon he distributed all his prop-
erty among the poor anrl prayed fer\'ently for the
constancy of his fellow Christians. According to
some sotirces, he was martyred at Lydda in Pales-
tine, and according to others at Nicomedia in
Bithpiia, The only point of agreement cbnceming
the date of his death is in the statement that the
day was Apr. 23.
The chief points in the development of the cult
of St. George in the Eastern Church were the erec-
tion of a number of churches in his honor in Con-
stantinople and of a monastery near the Hellea-
pont, whence tlw latter was called 8t. Geor:ge's
Arm; the building of many churches to him in
Armenia, and the name of Georgia applied to the
country to the north; and the tribute paid to him
in Russia j where the Czara bear his effi^ iJi the
center of their coat of arms. In the West St.
George became one of the fourteen ** Helpers in
Need " (q.v*) and the patron saint of the Repubhc
of Genoa, as well as of the English Order of the
Garter and of many miUtary orders, The English
crusaders of Richard Cceur de Lion were midet bk
special protection, and a decree of a national ro^cil
held at Oicford in 1222 made \m day (Apr. 23] %
holiday for all England. Since the later Middle
Ages the Western universities have r^arded thd
saint as the patron of artlsta. St. Georp first &^
pears as the slayer of a dra^oti and the liberator {]{
a maiden from her chains in the late iMdirvil
period, and in this aspect is a legendary Chnstbo
recrudescence of Peraeus, iniluenced by the Go^
manic Siegfried. (0. ZdcEJ^Rf.^
BifiuooK^^ar: Tbe vuioua le^pends. Under tb# titb* d
Acta, evKmniiiin^ mir^cvla, pamu>^ mnA tFamdAivm, >re tjol-
Ifhoted in ASB^ ApiiL iii. 117-103 uid sppendix^ p^.jx-
xlv.; pf. Analgia BoUaadmna, i USS2), 615-017. Coo-
oult P. Heylini Huti^rig «f that FamovM S^ii c^d BmI-
rfiff , . . Sainl Qtarif^ of CappadoHa* LoodoDi, 1833;
T. Lowifk, HimL &f tkt Lift and MttHyrd^m &t ^^
Ge'^rffe, ib. 1A64; J. MiJiaer, Hittorimi and CriMeal Et^mry
inio the EriatefiBB and Charttc^- of St, Grnrg^ . , , « ib.
]?d5£ P^ Heber. Di€ vorkarotin^pM^ktn thxia^idan £k%-
bemhi^den am Rksin. pp. 273- 2S3, Frmfibfort. ISSS: F.
Ckinw, in ZWT, 1887, pp. 54-70; E. A, W. Bwltt Tk
Mt^iyrdom. and MMiracleB cf SL G&ff^ of Cmpfodot»,
Coptic Tcrt* tPitk Bnff. Tran^i., LoDdon. 1S8S; St Gt^fe,
Champion of Chfiitendtom and Patron Baint o/ fdfiauf,
London. 1^7.
GEORGE SYlf CELLOS ; Byxantine historian qf
tlie eighth centmy, who wrote a Chftmogmphia
(ed. J. Goar, Pari*, 1652; W. Dindorf, 2 vols,,
Bonn, 1829). wliieh ii valuable for it^ e^tracta frooa
other writers^ J. J. ScaJiger-s te^rt of the first book
of the Chroniam of Eusebitis is composed entixdj
of fragments preserved in the work of Synocllus.
He receiv^ed his surname from the fact that be tbs
*;yneel!iis, or pri\^ councilor, to Tarmsius, patriutli
of Constantinople (see Stnceu^us).
Biauo^^RAPHT: Hii wDrka in 2 vgk,. vL G. EWndod. m? in
CSHB, Bddii, 1BS9. Cqasult^ Knimbuslier, Githid^,
pp. lia-120: DCB. ii. 650i H. Hurter, ^offlffiafator
titerwium^ L 7:14-735, Iim.itbrtick, I&03; CeillieT. Aukrn
aacri*, adj. 15&-I5tl
GEORGE OF TREBIZOITD: Greek scholar asd
himianist in Italy; b. in Crete 1396; d, at Rome
1486. Hb ancestors bad come from the city oi
Trebizond, hence his c^^B:nomen. He set eld in
Venice in 1420 as a teacher of Greek, philosophy,
and rhetoric^ taught for a number of years in
Vicensa, and in 1442 removed to Rome, wh^re be
enjoye<i the patronage of Eugenius IV, and par-
ticularly tliat of Mcholais V, He wm a pronouared
Aristotelian and made a great reputation aa a tranB-
lator and expounder of Aristotle. Through bis
bitter and unfair attacks on Bessanon, Gem^tos
Plethon, and the Platonic school he lost the favor
of NichohLs; and so great was the general indigna-
tion against him that he would have been compelled
to leave Italy had not King Alphonso V. given biin
protection at Naples. Later he was mfde papal
abbre viator by his pupil Paul II. Besides trans-
lations from Plato and Aristotle, his writings in-
clude Latin translations from the Greek Ctiurch
Fathers (e.g., the commentaries of Cyril and the
Frcpparaiio rvangdicn of EusebitiE)^ and two ess&ys
against the Greek Church to be found in Alktius.
Grmcm orfhodoxu (Rome, 1652).
BffiUOORJipnr: Scattered ticitifiefi are to be found in T»^
brieiu^-Hftrles, BiNu*thfca Grvca. vols. ui*. vii.-iiL, xi.,
xii.. Hmmbiinr. 1793-1809; KL, v. 347; Liefcleobrtfer,
ESR, V. 634-535. F^i* 1S7S.
461
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Qeorffe, Saint
G«rberon
GEORGIOS SCHOLARIOS. See Gekkadiub IL
GER- See PRO&ULma; Stranqer.
GERARD, jerard' (Fr. G&ard, rhe-rOr'; Germ.
Gerfmrd): The name of sixty or seventy worthies
in the hagiolqgieal tmdition of tbe Roman ChurDh,
■ome clas^^ed as saints, eome as blessed. Among
ihe more noteworthy are:
I. Saint Germrd of firo^e: Abbot of Brogue
(flromwm, Braine-le-Comte, 13 m. n.n.e. of Mons),
feformcr of BenecHctine monasteries in Lorraine
and Flanders; b. at Staves (Stablscetldp) in the
diooeee of Namur, between BSO and 8i>0: d. in the
monastery of Brogne, presumably Ckt, 3, 959. He
descended from a noble family and in his youth
served under Count Berengar of Namur. Whiie on
a hunting trip with the count, he retircKl to a chapel
to pray and beheld a ybion of the apostles; Peter
asked him to build a larger church in place of the
chapel in honor of Peter and the martyr Eugene,
and to bring thither the bones of the latter. Ge^
rard obeyed, built a church and a canon ry (913), and
devote himself to an ascetic life. He went to
Paris and studied in the monastery of St. Denb.
After having been consecrated presbyter, he re-
turned to Brogne, about 923, aa an independent
abbot < From St. Denis he brought the relics of
Ei^gene and many other saints* The rumor of
miracles effected by these mlics in the church of
Brp^e spread far and wide, and people came in
such crowds that Gerard shut himself up in a small
oell to conclude his days in quietness and prayer;
but he wui* repeatedly called from hLs hiding-place
as a reformer. In 931 Duke Gbelbert of Lorraine
asked him to introduce the Benedictine order in the
deinoraltxed monastery of St. Ghblain in the dio-
cese of Cambrai. Six years later Count Amulph
of Flanders called him to restore the destroyed
monastery of St. Bavo in Ghent and to introduce
the Benedictine rule in the neighboring canonry of
Blaadinium. Several other monasteries were sub-
sequently reformed by Gerard after ftrictly Bene-
dictine principles, especially St, Bertin of Flanders,
in the diocese of Therouanne about 944 and St,
Amand in the diocese of Toumal 952. Apparently
in this later period of his life, he made a pilgrimage
to Rome to aak the blessing of the pope for his
institutions and a privilege for his monastery of
Bro^e. After his return . he undertook a general
visitation of his monasteries. Various miracles, it
is said, were wrought by his dead body, in conse-
quence of which Innocent IL oinoniasetl him. The
monastery was united to the bishopric of Namur
by Paid IV. in 1556.
BtBLtooiiAFHr: An iiTi<>nyixiou}i Viia «'ith commbfitafy ]■
in ASB, Oct.. ii. 200-320; the Viin it^ kImo in MGM.
Stripi,, 3tv (18SS), 6fi4-€7:i, ef. Et mrtuHbuu S. Eug^ii,
ib, pfp. 646-^2, and Sermtt He adventu S. Evovnii tn Ana-
iKfii BoUandwna. t. S»6 iqq, Cotiiulti U. Birli^rf .
M^m^Uon Belge^ i. ^ iqq-, Bnie]eii, ]§90 (contains vpry
a3tnplet« list of Htenturc): P. Guntber, Bo* l.ft>m da
htiiiffm Gerhard. Ha]le. J 877: W. f^ciiultie, Qefhard mti
SrtifnMund die KhMterrefarm. in Fortchumtn d^ dmiMrhtn
Omekidkie, xxv. 22^271. Gottiniren. 1885; A. Servmin.
Mtmi tur la vie de S, G&^rd. Numur, iSgfi; K. Sackur,
Die Clunmrentur, L 121-Ul. Halle. 1802; Hauck, KD,
lii. ^4S-M9,
2. Gerard Sagredo ; Bishop of C^nad (44 m. n.
of Tcmesvar), eastern Hungary; b. at Venice c
900; d, at Caanad Sept. 24, 1046. Before he went
as missionary to the Magyars he lived as a monk in
San Oioi^io Maggiore, Venice. In recognition of
his succeasful missionary work Steplien 1. of Hun-
gary gave him the honorary title Apostle of Hun-
gary and made him bishop of Csanad in 1036. He
retained his bishopric under the two leas Christian
Bucceasors of Stephen^ until his death as a martyr.
He is said to have been the firet to teach the
Hungarians to address the Virgin Mary as ** Our
Lady/'
HtnuootiAritv: An anony^mous Vita and an Ehoiu-m with
e«)mment are printed in ASM, Bept.^ vi. 713-725, din*
ffUlt: H* M^i-nMii, Ungami O^Mchidtie, pp. 24-S3. BtrrUo,
1882; WattflnbAcli. DGQ. ii (I8S@), 185. ii U8Q4), 209.
3* Gerard of La Sauve: French Benedictine
reformer^ founder of the congregation of Sanve-
Majour in (juienne; d. 1098. Under his Jeaderehipj
which lasted till h'ia death, this reform congregation
won con8iderable fame and attained a strength of
seventy cloisters.
BiBi.iooHAPffT; 3. Cirot de la VIIISt Hut. de la t&n^^^gaiiofi
de , . . in Of&Tule Sauve, 2 vnli.^ Bordtianuc, 1844; Mom->
quct, S, (jirarfl de i'tmir€ de m^^ B^rwU, Farip. 1S05.
4. Gerard of Toul: Bishop of Toul (14 m. w,
of Nancy); b. at Cologne c. 935; d. at Toul 994.
He wan made bii?hop of Toul by Archbishop Bruno,
and deserves mention here as the restorer of the
cathedral at Toul^ and as the self-sacrificing shei^
herd of his diocese during the famine and pest of
S8i. (O. Z5ckle:r t)
BmuooRAFnT: Tlbe early Vila and the Mtracuhi by Widrie
an in ASB. April ili^ 20a^213> and, ed. Waiti. in MOH,
Scrijd.. iv (lail), 4Sfi-509. Cbniull Watt^nbaeh, DGQ,
ii (1886). U5. i (I8B3J, 337, ii. 127-138.
GERASENES, ger"a-an5!': According to the best
readings of Mark v. 1 and Luke viti, 26, the name
of the people in whose region Jesus healed a demo-
niac, permitting the " legion of demons " to enter
into a herd of swine. In Matt. viii. 3 '* Gada-
renes '' is the preferable reading^ and " Gerge-
senes ** is also found, Gadara, the capital of
Penca, has been thought too far from the Sea of
Galilee to satisfy the narrative, but its territory
reached to the shores of the sea, A hill west of the
E$ea, Jabal Kuran Jaradi, has been thought to retain
the old name, changing Gadarenes into Garadenes,
Gerasa can not be the modem Jcraah, but may be
Kersah, a ruined village on the left bank of the
Wadi a^Samak about half-way between the north-
em and southern extremities of the Sea of Galilee,
or as-Sur (connected with kiw^, *' seat "} farther
up thp same wadi^ See Gauimnitis; Peilea.
GERBERON, 2h&r"l>e"r0n', GABRIEL: One of
the nioBt famous disciplej! of »St. Augustine and one
of the most profilic writers of his time; b. at St^
Calaia (95 m. a.w. of Paris), in Maine, Aug. 12, 1528;
d. at the abbey of St. Denis, Paris, Mar. 29, 17 IL
He received an ex«*llent education from the fatheri
of the Congregation of St. Maur, of w^hich be be-
came a member In IMS. He taught rhetoric, phi-
losophy, and theology in different abbeyi; but,
developing loo great a zeal for the doctrine of the
*' disciples of grace " and being suspected as a
Janseniat, his superiors finally ient him to the flbl>py
of St. Germain de« Prfes at Paris, under f!ijpcr\ision.
After 1675 he was active in the abbey of Corbie
Oerhardt
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
469
near Amiens. In 1676 his Miroir de la pi^ chrS-
Henne appeared at Brussels, a work which several
archbishops and writers criticized as a renewal of
the five condemned sentences of Jansen; Qerberon
defended his work in Le Miroir sans tache (Paris,
1680). The Jesuits and their partisans in his con-
gregation denounced him in Paris for taking the
part of the pope against the king in the disputes
concerning the royal prerogative. Gerberon was
threatened with arrest, but fled with the consent
of his superior to the Spanish Netherlands. The
Jansenist clergy called him to Holland, but owing
to his attacks on the Protestants he was compelled
to return to Brussels in 1690. In 1703 he was ai>
rested, forced to sign the condenmation of the five
sentences of Jansen, and delivered to his superiors
for punishment; until 1707 he was kept a prisoner
in Amiens. After he had given his signature, the
pope allowed him to read mass. In Vincennes he
was treated with greater severity; being stricken
with paralysis, Cardinal Archbishop Noailles threat-
ened to let him die " like a dog," without the Eu-
charist, if he did not sign .certain further proposi-
tions expressing the cardinal's opinion. In 1710 he
was handed over to his congregation. As soon as
he learned that his signature was interpreted as a
recantation of his doctrine, he wrote Le Vain Trin
omphe des JftsuiUs^ but his superiors prevented its
publication. On his death-bed he recalled all dec-
larations, " wrested from his weakness by cimning
and force," except the condemnation of the five
sentences. Besides the works mentioned, he wrote
Apologia pro Ruperto abbate Tiutense (Paris, 1669)
against the Calvinistic doctrine of the Lord's Sup-
per, Defense de V6glise romaine conbre les calomnies
des proiestants (Cologne, 1688, 1691), and many
other works, said to number 111 in all.
(C. Pfender.)
Biblioorapht: SuppUmerU au nierolooe de Vabbaye ... de
PorURoyalrdee-Champe, i. 408 sqq., Amsterdam, 1736;
R. P. Tasain, GeUhrtenffcaehicfUe der Congregation von St,
Mawr, i. 506 sqq., Frankfort, 1773; KL, v. 360-353;
Lichtenberger, ESR, v. 639-640.
GERBERT, g&rl)&rt, MARTIN: Abbot of St.
Blasien (St. Blaise) in the southern part of the
Black Forest (20 m. s.e. of Freiburg), and one of
the most learned ecclesiastics of the eighteenth cen-
tury; b. at Horb-on-the-Neckar (31 m. s.w. of
Stuttgart) Aug. 13, 1720; d. at his monastery May
3, 1793. He was educated at the Jesuit college of
Freiburg, at Klingnau in Switzerland, and at the
abbey of St. Blasien, where he was ordained priest
in 1744, and chosen abbot in 1764. From 1759 to
17^V2 he traveled in Germany, Italy, and France,
an I published a Latin account of his travels (St.
Blasien, 1765; Germ, transl., Ulm. 1767). He was
a zealous investigator of the history of monasteries,
especially in the Black Forest, and his Historia
niqrce sylvce ordinis S. Benedicti (3 vols., Cologne,
178'i-88) contains much valuable information on
this subject. He published also a Codex episto-
laris Rudolphi I. (St. Blasien, 1772), and completed
the Taphographia principiim Austrice, begim by
Rustenus Heer, a former member of the chapter of
St. Blasien (vol. iv. of Herrgott's Monumenta domus
Austriaca, Vienna, 1752). His favorite study, how-
ever, was the theory and history of music, and he
enriched this field of literature with many valuable
works: De cantu et musioa sacra (2 voli., St. Blasien,
1774); Monumenta veteris liturgies Alemanmea (2
vols., 1777-79); and Scriptares ecdetiastiei de
musica sacra (3 vols., 1784). He wrote also sevnal
theological and asoetical treatises, one of which
was directed against Jansenism.
(K. KhtPFELt)
Biblioorapht: J. Bader, FflrttaM MarUn Oerhert von St
Blaeien, Freiburg. 1876; KL, t. 353>356; ADB, riii. 72S.
6ERDES, gftr^des, DANIEL: Professor of dog-
matics and church history at the University of
Groningen; b. at Bremen Apr. 16, 1698; d. at
Groningen Feb. 11, 1765. He was the son of a
respected merchant, studied theology in his native
city and then in Utrecht under F. A. Lampe. In
1724 he became preacher at Wageningen in Hol-
land, in 1726 professor of theology in Duisbuig.
From 1736 until his death he was professor at
Groningen. His extensive scholarship and his
piety made him the most distinguished personal-
ity of the imiversity. In his Doclrina gratia sive
compendium theologian dogmaticas (Duisbuig, 1734;
Groningen, 1744) he shows himself a very moderate
disciple of Cocceius. His real importance lay in
the sphere of church history. He presented the
growth of the Evangelical faith, especially of the
Reformed faith, in his Iniroductio in kisUniam
Evangdii seculo XVI. passim per Europam renovati
dodrinceque reformaicB (4 vols., Groningen, 1744-
1752) and Scrinium antiquarium sive miscellanea
Groningana nova ad historiam reformationis ecdesi-
(usticam prcedpue spedantia (8 vols., Groningen and
Bremen, 1761-65), and wrote also about the Refor-
mation in Italy, in the diocese of Salzburg, and in
Bremen. Many important documents are given in
these works. (E. F. Karl MCller.)
Bibuographt: A short autobiography exista in his Mi»-
cellanea DuUhergeneia, i. 126 sqq., 1732 sqq. E. Hol^
beek treated of his life in the Prefaoe to Gerdes' Speci$nen
Italia reformats, Leyden, 1765: A. J. Van der Aa. Bio-
graphiech Woordenboek van der Nederlanden, vii. 123 sqq.;
ADB, viii. 730-731.
GEREON, SAHn. See Theban Legion.
GERGESENES. See Gerasenes.
GERHARD, gfir^hOrt, JOHANN: Lutheran dog-
matician; b. at Quedlinburg (34 m. n.w. of Magde-
burg), of distinguished family, Oct. 17, 1582; d. at
Jena Aug. 17, 1637. At the age of fiifteen he was
afflicted with a serious illness and vowed to devote
his life to the ministry if he should recover. Johann
Amdt (q.v.), who preached at this time in Quedlin-
burg, took kindly to him and assisted
Life. him with his counsel. In 1599 he went
to the University of Wittenberg and
devoted himself to the study of philosophy and
theology. Complying with the wish of a relative
and contrary to his vow, he took up the study of
medicine, but after the death of the relative re-
sumed theology. He removed to Jena, but prof-
ited less from the lectures of the professors there
than from private study of the Bible and the Church
Fathers. In 1603 he became master of arts. At this
time the fame of the theological faculty at Marburg
463
REUGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
G«rb6rt
Oerhardt
attracted him thither, and Winckehnann and Ment-
xer especially influenced him. When He8se>Ca£>8el,
under Landgrave Maurice, accepted the Reformed
doctrine he left Marbui^g and went back to Jena
hoping to become professor. But Duke Casimir
of Coburg, to whom he was highly recommended,
entrusted him with the superintendency at Held-
burg and made him doctor of theology. He was
only twenty-four years old at this time. In 1615
the duke made him general superintendent at
Coburg, and in this position he was commissioned
to draw up a church order. His nature and talents,
however, made him long for a professor's chair, and
he received calls from different universities, but
Duke Casimir considered a theologian of Gerhard's
importance indispensable for his realm. At last,
however, the opposition of the duke was overcome,
and in 1616 Gerhard became professor at Jena.
All the different phases of the academic teacher
seemed to find their full development in Gerhard,
and his lectures attracted crowds of students. He
loved his students, in case of sickness
ffis Char- went to their residence, and assisted
acter and them in all their troubles. His con-
Activities, temporaries considered him the great-
est theologian of his time. He re-
ceived no less than twenty-four calls from different
universities while at Jena, but he had no reason to
leave. Although his salary was not large, he
amassed a not inconsiderable fortune from emolu-
ments accruing from his connection with princes and
noblemen, and moreover, he lived in peace with
all his colleagues. His usefulness showed itself
also in the domain of practical church work and
even of politics. The theologians of Saxony had
brought about conventions from which they hoped
to develop gradually a supreme tribunal of the
Lutheran Church at the birthplace of the Refor-
mation. Important conventions were held in 1621,
1624, 1628, and 1630, and in all of them Gerhard
held a leading position. To many princes he was
an oracle in questions of all kinds, such as the
reconmiendations of church or school officers,
princely match-makings or sponsorships, arbitrar
tion in disputes, and mediation in {pecuniary affairs.
Indeed, he himself sometimes gave financial aid
to princes. His health was rather delicate and
considerably affected by his numerous journeys on
business.
In the sphere of dogmatics two works especially
made Gerhard's name famous. One of them was
the Comftssio caiholica, in qua dodrina caiholxca et
evangtlica, quam ecclesice Augustantx confesmoni
addicUB profitentur^ ex Roinano-catholicorum scrip-
torum suffragiia confirmatur (4 parts, Frankfort
and Leipsic, 1634-37), based upon the Catalogus
testium verUatis of Flacius. It is more compre-
hensive than its title denotes, being at the same time
an extensive apology and polemic of the Evan-
gelical creed. The first part is general
Writings, and treats the prindpia et medm nos-
trcB et pontificioB religumia. The other
three volumes treat the disputed articles of faith
in the order of Bellarmine. the controversialist par
excellence. But the chief work which established
Gerhard's theological reputation is his Loci theo-
logici; he began this at the age of twenty-seven and
wrote the last and ninth volume in 1622. In 1667
his son, Johann Ernst, prepared a new edition, and
another (22 vols.) was issued by J. F. Cotta, pro-
fessor of dogmatics in Tubingen in 1762-89 (later
eds. by E. Preuss, 33 vols., Berlin, 1863-75; 9
vols., Leipsic, 1885), Gerhard's work is distin-
guished from that of his predecessors like Chenmitz
and Hut ten by a certain progress in method. He
made a more logical arrangement of the loci and
distinguished different groups. He puts the doc-
trine concerning Scripture before his system proper,
because the dogma of the canon is not really an
article of faith, but the basis of the articles of faith.
Over against the infallibility of the pope he sets
the infaUibility of Scripture. But here it becomes
evident that the strongest side of the orthodox
faith is also its weakest side, for in order to save
the authority of Scripture Gerhard had to maintain
a theory of inspiration that included even the He-
brew vowel points. This weak point was cleverly
detected by the Jesuits. Nevertheless the work
may be justly characterized as the consummation
of Lutheran dogmatic theology as initiated by
Melanchthon. Besides these two principal works
may be mentioned an exegetical writing entitled
Harmonia evangelistarum Chemnitio-Lyseriana a
Jo. Gerhardo continuata et iusto commentario iUus-
trata (3 parts, Jena, 1626-27). Another produc-
tion contributing to his fame was the Meditationes
sacrce, which he wrote as a student in 1606. It
consists of fifty-one devotional meditations, has
passed through innumerable editions, and even re-
cently several translations have appeared (Fourteen
Meditations, London, 1846). A work of a similar
nature and similar success was his Exercitium pietatis
quotidianum quadripartitum (Coburg, 1612-15). His
Schola pietatis (1622-23) was less successful. His
Enchiridion consolatorium was translated into Ger-
man and edited in 1877 by C. J. Bottcher (Leipsic,
1877). There appeared recently (Leipsic, 1898) D.
Joannia GerhardihomilicB XXXVI , sen meditationes
breves diebus dominicis atque Jesiis accommodaia
e maniLScriptis Gerhardinis ah illtistrissima bibliotheca
Gothana asservatis; primum edidit Dr. G. Berbig.
In his Meihodus studii theologici (1620) he touched
the sphere of isagogics, and emphasized especially
the study of Holy Scripture.
(Johannes Kunzb.)
Bibliography: A highly satisfactory biography of Gerhard,
based upon sources, some of which are no longer acces-
sible, was prepared by E. R. Fischer, Leipsic, 1723, 1727.
Consult: W. Gaas. GeBchichU der protestarUiaehen Doomaiik,
i. 246 sqq.. Berlin. 1864; G. Frank, Ofchichte der prolM-
tantischen Th^ologie, i. 371 sqq.. Leipsic, 1862; E. Troeltsch,
Vemunft und Offenbarung bei J. Oerhard und MetanchtKon,
G^ttingen. 1801.
GERHARD TONQUE. See John, Saint, Order
OF Hospitalers of.
GERHARDT, gar'hOrt, PAULUS: The foremost
of German hymn-writers; b. at Grftfenhainichen
(10 m. s. w.of Wittenberg), Electoral Saxony,
Mar. 12, 1607; d. at Lubben (40 m. s.w. of Frank-
fort-on-t he-Oder) Juno 7, 1676. He studied at
Wittenberg from 1628, but, probably owing to the
disorders of war, it was not until 1651 that he
a«rhardt
Q«rlAoh
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
464
obtained his first charge as provost in Mittenwalde.
In 1657 he was called to the church of St. Nicholas
in Berlin. When the great elector of Branden-
burg required that all the clei^ should pledge
themselves by a declaration to follow his edicts of
1662 and 1664, Gerhardt refused to sign the deo*
laration (Feb., 1666) and was dismissed from Ms
office. So far as the content of the declaration
was concerned, Gerhardt could have signed it with-
out hesitation. His was not a disputatious nature
and he had never used contumelious expressions in
his sermons, at which the declaration was specially
aimed. The reason for his refusal clearly lay in the
fact that he regarded the declaration as an infringe-
ment upon his right to uphold his Lutheran convio-
tions, his scrupulous conscience making him feel
that all yielding in matters relating to the doctrines
of the Reformation was wrong. For this reason he
could not decide to resume Ms office, although his
dismissal was recalled and the elector agreed that
he should not sign the declaration (1667). In 1668
he was called to LUbben as archdeacon, where he
spent the last seven years of a life consecrated to
good works.
Gerhardt is the most gifted author of religious
songs whom the German Church has ever known.
In him, more than in any other, all the requisites
for this style of poetry are united. He possessed
a firm conviction of the objective truth of the
Christian doctrine of salvation and
Gerhardt's also a genuine sentiment for all that
Hymns, is purely human; deep Christian feel-
ing coupled with sterling good sense;
and a fresh and healthy appreciation of life in
nature and in mind. In addition to all this, his
hjrmns possess a beauty of form in which the influ-
ence of the progress in technique initiated by Opitz
can be traced. In the history of religious poetry
Gerhardt marks the beginning of a new era; with
him sacred poetry assumes a strongly personal
character. This was later corrupted by mystical
and rationalistic tendencies, but with Gerhardt it
always remained in full accord with the objective
realities of religious faith. It is characteristic that
out of his 120 hynms not less than sixteen begin
with " I," and of the rest more than sixty concern
only his own heart and God. In the hynms of the
Reformation period the Church is the exclusive
subject and object of religious song and the per-
sonal note is only rarely sounded. This quality of
Gerhardt's hymns Ls, however, merely the concrete
individual form in which Christian faith and Chris-
tian life, a common possession of Christ's Church,
find expression. As another characteristic of Ger-
hardt's hymns may be noted the purely human sen-
timent that animates them. He sings of summer
and harvest, of travel and marriage, indeed of the
whole of life in nature (cf. his hymn to summer,
" Go forth, my heart, and seek for joy "). His
whole view of nature, and especially of nature's
accord with religious life, is absolutely unaffected
and therefore liarmonious. In spite of his delicacy
of feeling, however, Gerhardt did not altogether
escape the influence of the taste of his time; there
are parts of his hymns which must to-day be con-
sidered harsh and even tasteless. Not satisfied.
however, with removing these real blemishes, the
critics of a later time, in their emendaticms, ruth-
lessly trod imder foot all that was most beautiful in
the garden of Gerhardt's poesy and transplanted
thither their own thistles. This age has given proof
of a better historical sense by turning back lovingly
to the " unadulterated " Gerhardt.
Gerhardt did not himaelf collect or publish hie hymm.
Most of them appeared for the first time in Johann CrOger's
Praxit pietaHa mdica (Ist and 2d eds. not known; 3d ed..
Berlin, 1648). The first complete collection was the work of
Johann Qeorg Ebeling, in ten parts, each containing twelvB
hymns with tunes (Frankfort-on-the-Oder and Berlin, 1666
and 1667). Among later editions that of J. H. Feustking
(Zerbst, 1707) deserves attention because the editor daims
that he has corrected the text " according to a copy rerised
by the author's very hand." Of the more recent critical
editions mention may be made of that by J. F. Baehmaaa
(Berlin. 1866). and that of Kari Goedeke (DeuiscAe DidOtt
dea HebzehnUn Jahrhunderta, vol. xii.. Leipsic, 1877). The
best is the latest edition by August Ebeling (Hanover and
Leipsic. 1808). in which for the first time the fifth edition of
the Praxit piatatU melica could be used for the restoration
of the text (cf. Ebeling's essay. Wo i»t der Ori4/inaliext dm'
Paul Oerhardt*»chen Lieder eu findenf in O. Lyon's ZeU-
•chnft far den deuUchen Unierricht, xi.. 1897. pp. 74&-783).
Carl Bestheau.
Many of Gerhardt's hsnnns have been incorporated in
English collections of hymns or of devotional poetry, and one
of them, " O sacred Head now wounded." an adaptation of
a hjrmn attributed to Bernard of Clairvaux (q.v.), is widely
known and frequently sung. Other familiar ones begin," OhI
how shall I receive thee; " ** Commit thou all thy griefs,"
and •* Give to the winds thy fears." More than thirty of
his hynms are classical. His English translators include
John Wesley. Miss C. Winkworth. James W. Alexander, and
John Kelly, who has furnished a complete translatioo.
Paid Oerhardt't Spiritual Songt (London. 1867).
Biblioorapht: The editions of the poems and hymns by
J. F. Bachmann. K. Goedeke. and A. Elberling contain
discussions of the life of Gerhardt. For his life consult
also: E. G. Roth. Paul Oerhardt, Leipsic. 1829; F. W.
Krummacher. in Piper's Evanifeliaehier Kalender, pp. 2XH
sqq., Berlin, 1866; E. Koch. Oudiickte df Kirekentiedm,
iii. 297-327, Stuttgart. 1867; K Goedeke. Zur GeatkiehiB
der deuiechen Dichhing, iii. 182. Dresden, 1887; ADB,
viii. 774-783; E. Achelis. in the BldUer far HymnoloQie,
1884, pp. 51 sqq., 71 sqq. More popular lives are those
by C. £. Wildenhahn, Leipsic, 1845, and A. Stein. Halle,
1897. Consult also S. W. Duffield. EnQliah Humna, pp.
21 et passim. New York. 1886; Julian, Hymnoloffy, pp.
409-412. The celebration in (jermany in 1907 of the
300th anniversary of Gerhardt's birth educed a number
of monographs of great merit, including: P. Wemle's
Paulua Gerhardt, Tfibingen. 1907; G. Kawerau's address.
Halle, 1907; and H. Petrich, Paul OerhardU eeine Lieder
und aeine Zeit, GQtersloh. 1907; R. Hupfeld. Die Btkik
Johann Gerhardt. Bin Beitrag turn Verstandnia der LuAer-
iachen Ethik, Berlin. 1908.
GERHART, EMAlfUEL VOGEL: German Re-
formed; b. at Freeburg, Pa., June 13, 1817; d. at
Lancaster, Pa., May 6, 1904. He was graduated
from Marshall College, Mercersburg, Pa. (A.B..
1838), and Mercersburg Theological Seminary
(1841). After being pastor at Gettysburg. Pa.
(1843-49), and missionary to the German immi-
grants at Cincinnati, O. (1849-51), he was professor
of theology and president of Heidelbei^g College,
Tiffin, O. (1851-55); and president of Franklin and
Marshall College, Lancaster, Pa. (1855-66), but on
the reconstruction of the faculty of that institution
in 1866 became vice-president and professor of
moral philosophy. In 1868 he was appointed pro-
fessor of systematic and practical theology in the
Reformed Church Seminary at Lancaster, Pa., and
480
RELiaiOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
8S&^*
rlaoh
i^ that position until his death. He wrote Phv-
lotopky and Logic (Philadelphia, 1858) and InaH^
HtUa of the Christian Religion (New York, 1801).
Ele likewise edited the Mercertbwrg Review for sev-
eral years, as well as F. A. Rauch's Inner Life of
he Chrietian (Philadelphia, 1856).
6ERH0H, g&rOiO (Oerokue)^ OF REICHERS-
3ER6: Writer on church discipline; b. at Pol-
ing (30 m. S.W. of Munich), Bavaria, 1003; d. at
Reichersbeig (on the Inn, 40 m. s.w. of Linz), Up-
)er Austria, June 27, 1160. He was educated in
ifoosburg, Freising, and Hildesheim and became
sanon and teacher at the cathedral school in Augs-
jurg. Offended by the n^lect of church discipline
uid canonical rules he retired into the monastery
3f Raitenbuch, but was recalled to Augsbuig by
Bishop Hennann. Again, however, he was offended
by the worldliness in the bishop's surroundings and
reentered Raitenbuch. Bishop Conrad of Salzburg
Dommissioned him twice to go to Rome and discuss
irith Honorius II. the discipline of the cleigy. In
bis own monastery (Raitenbuch) his discipline was
opposed, and so Cuno, the new bishop of Regens-
burg, called him into his district. In 1132 after
Cuno's death Ck>nrad of Salzburg appointed him
prior of the monastery of Reichersberg on the Inn,
ftnd here Gerhoh was active imtil the end of his life.
This activity was twofold, pertaining to both
ecclesiastical polity and dogmatics. His work and
attitude toward the former was conditioned by the
circumstances of the time. The disputes concern-
ing Investiture (q.v.) had not yet been settled; the
lystem of Hildebrand made progress, attacking
[narried priests and simony in every form. Pope
jiregory VII., the promoter of strict discipline, be-
aime Gerhoh's ideal. It was necessary to put an
md to the abuses practised in the disposal of church
property and to form the life of the cleigy according
to fixed rules, and Gerhoh fought with angry zeal
for these ideals. He initiated his warfare about
1130 with his De cedificio Dei; then followed a
treatise on the difference between secular and regu-
lar clergy. But his most important work is his
fnveetigatio (1162). The first book of this work is
lustorical, then follow discussions on theology and
lisdpline. Gerhoh oensiu'es fearlessly the barter of
scclesiastical offices and the avarice of Rome, the.
ibuse of exemptions, the self-enrichment of nuncios
md legates and the papal schism. Against the
UTQgance of the popes in usurping worldly govem-
nent he maintained that popedom and empire, the
;wo great lights, the pillars of the temple, should
itand side by side without any confusion of their
lespective powers. This position led him to the
deal demand that the Church should be satisfied
irith tithes and free gifts and renounce all worldly
md princely power. With growing age Gerhoh's
deals were somewhat subdued. Although he stood
iltogether alone in his ideals at his time, they may
3e regarded as a significant prophecy pointing to
later times in which the separation of spiritual and
nrorldly power has become a necessity.
Gerhoh's dogmatic activity was carried on at the
time of the reaction against the French dialecticians
nich as Roeoellin, Abelard and Gilbert of Poitiers,
IV.— 30
who in Christological questions were not only nomi-
nalists, but often almost Nestorians by separating
the natures of Christ and approaching very closely
adoptionism. Representatives of this view were
also in Germany, among them Bishop Eberhard of
Bamberg and Provost Fohnar of Triefenstein. In
1158 a conference took place in Bamberg at which
Gerhoh was accused of heresy. In the first chapter
of his book De gloria el honorefilii dei he defends his
Christological position against the attacks of Fol-
mar. He caUs the man Jesus also the natural and
only son of God since he entered the glory of the
Father. In his eternal birth he has no mother, in
his temporal no father. It is on account of the
danger of Nestorianism that Gerhoh clings so firmly
to the glorification of the human nature in Christ.
Then he refutes the objections against the unity of
the divine and human nature in Christ, appealing
to the Fathers, especially Hilary, Ambrose, Jerome,
and Augustine. In his Contra duos hareees he
combated the view that heretical priests could
successfully bring about the transformation of the
body of Christ in the mass. He held that Christ
is not locally circumscribed, that he is everywhere.
The body of Christ has grown in such a way that it
fills the whole universe. The bishop of Bamberg
accused Gerhoh of heresy because he taught that in
the Eucharist the divinity is at the same time the
whole humanity. The bishop held that Christ after
ascension is still a creature as man, and his reproach
of Gerhoh was not without justice.
Gerhoh's path of life was troubled. At synods
and diets he was an authority on ecclesiastical law
and polity and well known at the courts of popes
and emperors; but as a dogma tician he clung so
tenaciously to his position that his opponents,
Abelard, Gilbert of Poitiers, and Peter Lombard,
had to quit the field. In later years he had to en-
counter another storm. When the emperor tried
to put an end to the schism by enforcing the ac-
knowledgment of Alexander's opponent as pope,
Archbishop Conrad did not yield and war broke out
at Salzburg. Gerhoh's monastery was burned and
pillaged. (R. RocHOLLt-)
Bibuoorapht: His works are in MPL, oxdii.-oxdv.;
SeUcti libelli, ed. E. Sackur, are in AfGH, Lib. de lite, ii
(1807), 131-625. For his Ufe consult H. F. A. Nobbe.
Oerhoh von Reicherri)ero, Leipsic, 1881; W. Ribbeck, in
Forechungen zur deuUchen Geechichte, xxiii (1883), 3 sqq..
XXV (1885), 666 sqq.; /CL. v. 378-391; Neander, Chris-
tian Chiurch, vol. iv. passim (uses much of Gerhoh's
material); Moeller, Chrietian Church, pp. 296, 307, 318-
319, 379.
6ERIZIM. See Palestine; Samaritans.
OERLACH, gfiraOH, OTTO VON: German theo-
logian; b. in Berlin Apr. 12, 1801; d. there Oct. 24,
1849. Ck>ming from a noble and influential family,
he was at first intended for a political career, and
took up the study of jurisprudence at Heidelberg
and GOttingen. In 1820 he returned to Berlin,
where he devoted himself to theology, and he studied
also at the Seminary at Wittenberg, 1825-26. In
1834 he was appointed pastor of the church of St.
Elizabeth, near Berlin, and in 1847, court preacher.
Before his appointment to a pastorate, he had been
active in foreign missionary work, having estab-
lished (1824) the Berliner Oesellaehaft zur Ver-
G«rlAoh
Oerman Oatholioiam
THE NEW 8CHAFF-HERZ0Q
W
breitung des Evangdiuma unter den Heiden, and
(1828) a seminary for the instruction of missionaries.
After his appointment he took an equally lively
interest in home missions, and founded various
societies for Christian work as well as many chari-
table institutions. His zeal earned him the name
*' the Wesley of Berlin," bestowed upon him by
Tholuck. The translation of a sermon of Wesley's
was his first literary work; he also translated The
Saints* Rest and others of Baxter's works. As a
result of a journey to England, undertaken by order
of King Frederick William IV., he published Amt-
liche Bericht iiber den Zustand der anglikanischen
Kirche in ihren verschiedenen Gliederungen im Jahre
I842 (Berlin, 1845), a work which, although ex-
pressive of admiration for the power and activity of
the Church of England, nevertheless recognizes the
twofold danger of ecclesiastical partizanship and
the leaven of Puseyism. Gerlach was the author
also of a commentary on the Bible (6 vols., 1847-
1853), which was long a very popular work.
(R. KOOELt)
Bibuooraphy: A notioe of his life is prefixed to his Fredio-
ten, ed. O. Seegemund, vol. iv., part i., Berlin, 1850.
GERLACH (Gerlacus), PETERS (PETRI, PE-
TERSZ): Ascetic writer belonging to the Breth-
ren of the Common Life (q.v.); b. at Deventer
(8 m. n. of Zutphen), Holland, 1378; d. at Windes-
heim (14 m. n. of Deventer) Nov. 18, 1411. His
mother was a woman of wealth who spent much
money on the enlargement of the monastery of Win-
desheim, and through her he met Geert Groote (q.v.)
and was kindly received as a scholar by Florentius
Radewyns. While the pupils were presenting a
mystery-play in the church, Gerlach was persuaded
by Florentius to enter the monastery of the Breth-
ren. How long he remained there is uncertain, but
he felt more at home at Windesheim, and Florentius
made the necessary arrangements for his entrance
there. In his new home the youth was universally
popular, and was an esp)ecial prot^g^ of the director,
Vos von Heusden. The trend of Gerlach's mind
was contemplative rather than mystical, and he
recorded his thoughts on slips of paper, generally
writing in the vernacular. Shortly before his death
he begged that his meditations be destroyed, but
his prior declined to accede to his request, and they
were accordingly preserved. His writings, accord-
ing to Johann Busch (Chronicon Windeshemense,
ed. Grube, Halle, 1886, 157 sqq.), were collected by
Johann Schutken at the instance of Vos, and were
as follows: Breviloquium, composed before 1403,
and containing edifying thoughts by himself and
others to a member of the brotherhood (ed. W.
Moll, in Kerkhistorisch Archieff ii., Amsterdam,
1859, 179 sqq., on the basis of a Brussels manu-
script; an excellent text was discovered by Hirsche
at Wolfenbiittel) ; Epistola Teutonicalis, addressed
to his sister Lubbe, and containing translations
from the Breviloquium (ed. W. Moll, ut sup., 202
sqq.) and Soliloquium (also called ExercUia)^ his
most important work and the one which gained him
the name of alter Thomas. It is a soliloquy of the
soul with God, lifting the soul out of the diversions
of worldly life. It was collected by John Schutken,
and was highly esteemed in Port Royal, in addition
to winning the praise of Poiret and Tersteegen
(Cologne, 1616; new ed., Amsterdam, 1711, ed.
J. Strange, Cologne, 1849; Germ, transl. by G. T«^
steegen, 1734, 1845, and by N. Casseder, in his
Mystisch-asketische Biidiothek, i., Frankfort. 1829,
1849; Dutch transl. by J. van Gorcum, 1621; aQ
the editions contain many variants). Together
with the Breviloquium noted above, Hincbe dis-
covered at WolfenbQttel a SolHoqtnum which pre-
sents many deviations, but is very old, dating from
1424. The Ignitum cum Deo colloquium aod De
libertate spiritus cum exerciHis eo speetantQna men-
tioned by Valerius Andreas were unknown to Busdi
Moll and Aoquoy regard them as independent works,
but Hirsche more correctly considers them recen-
sions of the works already mentioned. Since Ge^
lach wrote much in the vernacular, he belongs, like
Hendrik Mande, to the first and best proee-writen
of the fifteenth century. L. Schuue.
Bibliographt: The chief source is J. Bosch. CkrmmM
Windethemenae, ed. K. Grube, Halle, 1886. The fabjeet
was first scientifically treated by W. MoU id N. C. Kuk
and W. Moll. Kerkhiatoriack Archief, ii. 145-146. Amstcr^
dam. 1859, where three of Gerlach 's five writiocs in
reproduced, cf. W. Moll, KerkQaachiedtnu van Nedtrkai,
ii., part 2, pp. 208-236, 363 sqq.. part 3. pp. 27 iqq., 41,
Utrecht, 1865-71; J. G. R. Aoquoy, Hel KhoaterteWiMdm-
heim. Amsterdam, 1875: A. Auger, itwie avr <ct myafifMt
dea Paya-Baa . . .in Mimoiraa . . . par Vaeadamk
royale . . . de Belgique, xlvi. 300 sqq., Bmasda. 1882;
R. A. Vaughan, Houra with Wte Myatiea, i. 367. London,
1879.
GERLACHER (GERNOLT), THEOBALD. See
BiLLiCAN, Theobald.
6ERLE,zh&rl,CHRIST0PHEA]IT0INE: French
religious enthusiast; b. at Riom (85 m. w. of Lyons)
Oct. 25, 1736; d. in Paris Nov. 17, 1801. He en-
tered the order of Carthusians, became prior of the
convent of Port-Sainte-Marie, and represented the
clergy of Riom in the States-General in 1789. In
the famous Tennis Court session he exhibited »
much patriotic fervor that David gave him a promi-
nent place in his painting, Le Serment du Jeu de
Paume. He was a member of the Constitutional
Assembly, and on Apr. 12, 1790, vainly urged that
body to proclaim Roman Catholicism as the only
religion recognized by the French nation. He
became a follower of Catherine Th^t, a fanatical
old woman who called herself the mother of God.
As a supporter of Robespierre with other Th^
tists, he was imprisoned May 16, 1794, but was
released on the advent of the Directory. He was
afterward employed in the Ministry of the Interior
and contributed some articles to the Messager du
Soir.
Bibuooraphy: J. Michelet. HiaL de la revotuHon franfom,
vol. vii., Paris. 1863; Lichtenberser. ESR, v. 548-549.
GERMAN BAPTISTS, GERMAN BAPTIST
BRETHREN. See Dunkers.
GERMAN CATHOLICISM.
Origin. Johannes Ronge ({ 1).
Johann Cxerski ({ 2).
Growth and Organization ({ 3).
Absorption by the Free Protestant Congregaticnra (t 4).
Reasons for Failure ({ 5).
By " German Catholicism " (DeuischkatholiciB-
mus) ia meant a reform movement which arose
within the Roman Catholic Church in Germany in
German Oatholieism
Oermanna
THE NEW 8CHAFF-HERZ0Q
468
German Catholic council and the third synod of the
free Protestant congregations met in Leipsic for
negotiations with each other. There
4. Abiorp- were here represented about 100 Ger-
tion by the man Catholic congregations and about
Free Prot- thirty free Protestant ones. The re-
estant Con- suit was the formation of the *' Re-
gregations. ligious Society of Free Congregations "
(ReligioTugeBelUchaftJreier Gemeinden),
which means that the German Catholic congrega-
tions gave up their Roman Catholic character and
their creed and melted away in the Protestant free
religious movement. This union was the end of
German Catholicism as an independent party build-
ing upon Catholic foundations; the confessional
element, which had hitherto still persisted in it
though in a weakened form, was sacrified in the
interests of the more highly valued element of
freedom.
This union was not adopted without objections
in the meeting, and not all the congregations ac-
cepted it. There still exist to-day in the Kingdom
of Saxony several German Catholic congregations
comprising more than three thousand persons;
that at Leipsic shows a vigorous increase (1866, 407
persons, 1903 almost 1,400). It can not be deter-
mined how many of the free congregations outside
Saxony may still be counted as German Catholic;
their names are too indefinite. In general it may
be said that the title of *^ German Catholic " is used
at present by the congregations of Western and
Southern Germany belonging to the League of Free
Religious Congregations. In isolated instances
there occur titles like '^ Christian Catholic " (Christ^
katholisch), " Free Christian " {FreUhrMtch), and
even the name " Free Evangelical Catholic " (Frei
evangdiach-kaiholisch) is found in Kdnigsberg, as
an attempt to express absolute superiority to con-
fessionalism. According to a list of the League of
Free Religious Congregations (Bund freireligioser
Gemeinden) of 1896, fifty-nine congr^ations belonged
at that time, fourteen of them mentioning in their
self-chosen title their relationship to Catholicism.
Within German Catholicism Czerski tried at the
start to maintain connection with churchly Chris-
tianity, but he was not able to make his influence
felt alongside that of Ronge. From objecting to
compulsory dogmas they went on
5. Reasons apace to thrusting all dogmas aside,
for and so to a breach with the Christian
Failure, faith, both Roman Catholic and Prot-
estant. Many who had joined the
movement at the start because they hoped from it
a purification and reformation of the Roman Church,
now withdrew; such were Anton Theiner, professor
of Catholic theology, and M. E. Regenbrecht, pro-
fessor of canon law, both in Breslau. Very soon
it became evident that Ronge merely had the
ability to summon to the first attack on the Roman
Church and to stir up the masses as an agitator,
but that he did not have the power of founding a
new Church. His lack of capacity was soon recog-
nized even by those of his own party; he died in
Vienna Oct. 26, 1887, a forgotten man. Czerski
had long been of no public significance when death
reached him Dec. 22, 1893.
At the start German Catholidam was not with-
out certain prospects, for it voiced demands and
represented ideas which corresponded to the mood
of the times and contained much that was pxxL
But that which Ronge and Czerski lacked was that
wherein the entire movement was deficient, m, the
power to proceed from negative criticism d the
faults of the Ronum Church to the formation of a
purer Catholic Church. This impotence was rooted
in the lack of religious productivity. The Gennan
Catholic movement brought forth not a single pe^
sonality able to lead others as a pr^het. Thoqgh
it may also be granted that persecution by the eirfl
power was not without influence on the decline d
the movement, nevertheless in the last analyai the
decisive reasons for failure lie in its own nudce-up.
For but a few years it was a danger to the Roman
Chiut;h; after it had amalgamated with the free
Protestant congregations, it needed no longer to be
feared. Carl Misbt.
Bibuographt: F. Kampe, Oe9ekiehlB der rdioUmi Btm- {
ffuno der neuem Zeit, 4 vols.. Leipae, 1852-60; idn,
Daa Wmen dm DeutadAaOudieinnuB, Tatnosen, 1880:
H. Schmid, GeMMdUe dtr kaOutUtehen Kirdu DedtA- .
landa wm der MiUg dm 18. JahrhunderU, Mumeb. 1S74;
H. BrQek. QmdiuhU der kalkoliaehtn Kirdu m IB. JOr-
hunderi, ii. 625 sqq., MOnitter. 1003; G. Taduni. Iv
eO-idkrioen OmdiiehU der freirHigiUmn Bewegumg, Boh
berir, 1904. For review of literature eonmiH Jemmk
aUoemeine LitUraitiraeituno, 1846-47; T. Brans in C. Hil-
ner. Nevm Reperiorium fUr die iheologiMckt Litkratm fad
kirehlidiM Slaiiatik, yoL v., 1846.
GERMAH EVANGELICAL CHURCH DIET. See
Church Diet, German Ev angelical.
GERMAN EVANGELICAL PROTESTABT
CHURCH: A name given collectively to a number
of independent Gennan churches, mostly west of
the Alleghany Momitains, holding the general poa-
tion of the Protestant Union, German (q.v.), repre-
sented by two associations named respectively
" Union of Ministers of the German Evangelical
Protestant Church of North America " and '* Evao-
gelical Protestant Preachers' Conference of North
America." The first, formed in 1885, succeeded
the defunct " Protestant Union/' and aimed to
furnish a representation of the churches interested,
to preserve their independence and mutual inte^
ests, and to increase the efficiency of the ministen.
It has three districts, Pittsburg, Cincinnati, aixi
Western, with a central executive board of three
members, and reports thirty-four churches and sb
many ministers. The second association, holding
essentiaUy the same position, was fonned in 1896,
and has twelve ministers and fourteen congrega-
tions. Besides the chim^hes represented in the
associations named, there are a number of inde-
pendent congregations, the ministers of which are
unaffiliated, the number and membership of which
is not known, but the latter may reach 20.000. The
fundamental principles are practically those of the
United Evangelical Church of Prussia of 1817. Its
religious foundation is the Gospel of Jesus Christ,
the interpretation of which is left to the judgment
of the believer, guided by the Christian idea. The
associations maintain an orphan's home and a
home for the aged near Pittsburg, Pa., have a min-
isters' seminary, aid in the support c^ the Protes-
469
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Oerman Oatholiidsm
G«rmanas
tent Orphan's Home in Cincinnati and St. Louis,
iDd give occasional assistance to other benevolent
mstitutions. The publications consist chiefly of
aids to church services and devotion. Its period-
Jeals are: the Kirchemeitungy monthly at Cincinnati
and weekly at Pittsburg; the ChrisUiche Jugend-
/reund, a weekly and semimonthly paper for Sun-
ciay-schools; and the ProUstantische Volks-KalendeTf
an annual. H. K. Carroll.
Bibuoorapht: H. K. Oarroll, in American Chnrch Hiatory
S^Hm, i. 155. New York. 1806.
GERMAN EVANGELICAL SYNOD OF NORTH
AMERICA: An organization founded at Gravois
Settlement, near St. Louis, Mo., Oct. 15, 1840, by
BIX German ministers. The name Der deutsche
evangelische Kirchenverein des Westens was then
chosen. Owing to the expansion of the Synod this
was changed in 1866 to S3mod of the West and again
in 1877 to its present name. It represents in the
United States the State Church of Prussia, which is
a union of Lutheran and Reformed elements (see
Prussia). Its creed and mission are stated in §§ 2
and 3 of its constitution: " The German Evan-
gelical Synod of North America, as a part of the
Evangelical Church, understands by ' Evangelical
Church ' that ecclesiastical body, which acknowl-
edges the Holy Scriptures of the Old and New Tes-
taments as the Word of God and as the only and
infallible criterion of faith and life and accepts the
interpretation given in the symbolic books of the
Lutheran and Reformed Churches, the most im-
portant of which are: the Augsburg Confession,
Luther's Catechism and the Heidelbeig Catechism
in so far as these agree; but in their points of dif-
ference the German Evangelical Synod adheres
strictly to the passages of Holy Scripture pertaining
thereimto and avails itself of that liberty of con-
acienoe prevailing in the Evangelical Church. '^
** The object and purpose of the German Evan-
gelical Synod in general is the advancement and
extension of the Kingdom of God, but especially
the establishment and expansion of the Evangelical
Church among the German population of the United
States of America."
The Synod is divided into eighteen districts,
which hold annual conferences. The general con-
ference of the body convenes every four years, to
which each district sends delegates, one for every
twelve ministers and one lay delegate for every
twelve congregations. A president, vice-president,
secretary and treasurer are the officers of the Synod.
The various branches of synodical work are con-
trolled by separate boards of directors elected by
the General Synod. Its agencies include a Home
Mission Board which ministers to 102 congr^ations
and expends upward of $25,000 annually; a Church
Extension Fund which assists in the erection of
churches by loaning money at low rates of interest;
a Relief Fund for the aid of invalid and superannu-
ated pastors, teachers and their widows and or-
phans; a foreign mission board which conducts work
at fouir principal stations and forty-one outlying
stations in India and reports 3,088 members; an
immigrant mission operated at Baltimore, Md.,
since 1886; deaconesses' homes and hospitals at
St. Louis, Mo., Indianapolis, and Evansville, Ind.,
Cincinnati, O., and Lincoln, 111.; homes for epilep-
tics at Marthasville and St. Charles, Mo.; orphan-
ages at St. Louis, Mo., Hoyleton and Chicago, 111.
— also at Detroit, Mich., and Bensenville, 111., with
homes for old peopi^ at the last two places; and
the Ekien Publishing House (and book-store) at St.
Louis, with a branch at Chicago, the whole valued
at $143,775, with net proceeds of $37,000 annu-
ally, devoted to carrying on the work of the Synod
in its various branches. There are 650 parochial
schools with 25,777 scholars, instructed by 110
professional teachers and 571 pastors, also 1,044
Sunday-schools with 10,752 teachers and 110,385
scholars. The theological seminary, Eden College,
is located near Wellston, St. Louis County, Mo. It
was founded in 1850 near Marthasville, Mo., and
removed in 1883 to its present location. It has a
three years' course, four professors and sixty-seven
students. At Elmhurst, 111., a suburb of Chicago,
is located a proseminary, having a five-year course,
with 105 students and seven professors. While
German is predominantly the language used in the
churches and schools, English is also employed in
church service and religious instruction and a few
English churches have been organized in the last
few years. The official organ is Der Friedenahoie, a
weekly with circulation of 27,334 copies. Other
publications are: Messenger of Peace^ Theologiache
Zeitachriftf Jugend/reund, Kinderzeitungf and Evan-
geluxU Companion. The Church began with six
ministers, twelve churches, and 353 communicants.
The statistics of 1907 give 974 ministers, 1,262 con-
gregations, 1,095 churches, 654 school buildings,
237,321 communicants, value of church property
$8,214,391.38, contributions for general purposes,
in 1905, $119,233.21. Paul Irion.
Bibliography: A. Shory, Oeachichte der deuUchen evano^
liachen Si/node von Nord Ameruxi, St. Louis, 1889; Evan-
oelical Cateehiem, ib. 1892; Emnoeliacher Kalender
(annual).
GERMAN REFORMED CHURCH. See Re-
FORBiED (German) Church in the United States.
GERMAN SEVENTH-DAY BAPTISTS. See
Communism, II., 5.
GERMANUS, jer-md'nns, SAINT, OF AUXERRE
(St Germain d'Auzerre): Bishop of Auxerre; b.,
according to a life claiming to be by his scholar,
Constantius of Lyons, but thought by some to be
later, at Auxerre c. 380; d. at Ravenna July 31,
448. He was of good family, received an excellent
education in Gaul and Rome, married, and entered
upon a prosperous and honorable career as lawyer
and public official. Amator, bishop of Auxerre,
chose him as his successor, forced ordination upon
him, and when the former died (c. 418) Germanus
accepted the position. He put away his wife and
adopted a life of rigorous asceticism. In 429 he
visited Britain and successfully opposed Pelagian-
ism there. Prosper of Aquitaine says (ChronicoUf
annus 429) he was sent by Pope Celestine I. The
life by Constantius says he was sent by a Galilean
synod with Lupus, bishop of Troyes, and that seven-
teen or eighteen years later he went again with
Severus, bishop of Treves. The later accounts
Q«nnAnui
QmrmmxLy
THE NEW 8CHAFF-HERZ0G
470
I
contain much that is cleftHj legeDdary and are
decked out with raimclep, including the st^ry of »
bloodlusa victoiy o\'er the Pietd and Baxotus ^ned
by the British imder the lead of GemymuB aod
Lupus by ah outing '* hallelujah '* — the tio-caUcd
** hallelujah victory/' At the time of his death
GermaniiA had gone to Ravenna to intercede at the
imperial court for tlie Armoncans, who had n;-
vcdti^. Churches are dedicated to him and lti»
name is preserved in legend in Walea and ComwalL
Bt&UoaiiAraT: Thft Vila attributwl to CoiuCJUitjiu i;uBed
by Bede. HitL iccL. i. 17-21). tkud doiu» into meter with
otbirr mfttdri^l by ihje inook HetrieuB or Hericu* of Auxerre
{d, B76)p ii with legends, mvafula, ftnd eottuniitit iti ASB^
July. ¥11. 184-287, and tlw mc^tricml vemicizi ii in MPL.
cxiiv; 1131-1:272. On the Vita consult L. M. Duru,
B^iothkqve hiMiariQv^ de I'Yonnt^ i, 48-89, Auxerre, 1S50;
C^ Nftrbey, Btvd^ ff^tifpit aur £a tn*' da S* Germain d'Au-
xwre, Pbrla> 1S84. Duru. ut tup., i. fN>-O0, ii, 110-114,
18S-189, 247-24B, eofitftim blbUocmphicftl mat^rrjal.
HAddaa Kad Btuhhi,'Couneilt. i, 16^21. KivA eifoerpts frnta
CArly aouroehji. CoD»uLt: TillemoDt, Mhn^int. xv. 1-34};
Hittairt Uit^r^ire di ta France, ij, 25^-261, Fttriip I7SA:
W. Bright, Early Englith Church HiMtarv. pp. 37-23,
Oifofd, 18»7; DNB, x»i, 23^238; D€B, ii. 657-658.
GERMAimS^SAUrr, OF PARIS: Biabop of Paris;
b. in ttie dlfitrici of Autuo (230 m. s.e. of Paris)
about 406; d, at Paris May 28, 576. He was of
good family^ and became head of the abbey of St.
Symphorien at Autun about 540; about ten years
later he became bishop of Paris, and as such took
part in synods at Toure in 567 and Paris in 556 and
573 {MGH, Leg.f uHio iii., CoricitiaJ., 18&3, pp. 135,
145, 148). He did not ihnnk from excommuni-
cating King Charibert I. for an amour with two
siiters, wmning by such faithfulness and courage
the respect of the nnbleB, though his efforts to keep
peace among them were of little avail. The people
admired his rigidly ascetic life and bis benevolence,
and ascribed to him the gift of prophecy and
miracles. He was buried in the Church of St. Vin-
cent built by Childebert I. and cons^ec rated by hini-
eelf In 559; later it was named after Germanus and
is now St. Germain dm Prta. (A. Hauck.)
EicucHinjLFaT: Sourtss: a Icrtter to Queen Brunhilci? in in
MFL, UxiL 77 And ia MOH, EpUl, iti (1891). pp. 122-
124; and matter rein ting tn him l* in MGH^ IHpf,. i
(1872), a, no. 3. Th^Vita by hifl eont4>mporari* Fortu-
natufl Vennntiuji is in MQH, AucL cinr, iv. 2 (1885). U-
27, and. with ccitnmentary, epiiaphium, miracuja, aiid
tfAwstatio^ in A SB, May, vi. 774r-80S. Conpujlr Hi§L
naif aire dt la France, iii. 310. iv. I4t Pwis. 1735-38;
A. Ebrrt* AlloemHng Gachiehtt dtr Littmluf deM Mittet-
alt^rs, iL 356-357, LeitHiic, iSBOs O. Holdar-E^er, in
AT^^iinii (1893). 274^281.
GERMAlfY.
I, G*nerml Survey.
The Modem German Empii« ({1).
Thm FmtMitant Cburcb (f 2).
The Etiman CatboUc Chiu^h {§ 3).
Education (j 4).
II. Sectarianinm io Gcrmaiiy.
Me&ning^ of " Becl " (ftl ).
Different Cla.iHfl of Non-e^tabliihed Churchea (| 2).
Attitude nf the State toward SacU (* 3).
Ueanj of Coin bating 3eeta (£4).
Slatii^tica (Mi
L Genera] Survey: Germany in the broad^t
aense h the country of an important branch of tlie
Teutonic race* which fir^t appearn in history divided
into numerous trilx^d occupying, roughly, the hmrla
between the Ehinej the Dani^, the Vistula, and
the sea. The Romans included all the tribes in the
general designation Germani and called their &nm-
try G€rm&niM. Since about the twelfth tmimf
the Germans have called themselves dk Jkutxdm,
In the time of the migration)?, and later, Gdnaa
peoples have become incorporated in aeigkbcriiig
and more distant lands* and their territories kfe
been invaded and permanently occupied by dieoi;
nevertheless the bounds of Genxiany ai s politiiil
designation have ne^er materially ehanged, Tbc
conversion of the more important Gennan tribet to
Christianity is treated in separate articles (ne
ALEitANKi, Bavabxans, etc., and notices of dub-
iionaries like Boniface). For the religious Mi-
tory of the older Gennan Empire (more correct^
the German-Roman or Holy Roman Empirt) iko,
see articles like Charlemagne and other birjgr^^
ical sketches of important personages, aAaiei of
places, events, perioc^, seets^ and the Itke (Aiceeh;
AuoanuEG, Eeuoioub Pf:ACi: of; AKAaAFniffs;
etc.).
The modern German Empire* eonstituted in IS71,
has an area of 208^830 square miles and a popula-
tion (1908) of 60.641,278. It occupies a Lirge part
of Central Europe, conaisting of twienty-fi\-e mv-
ereign states and the *^ imperial tem-
I, The tory " of Alsace-Lorraine. Tlie long
Modem of Prussia is hei^editary head of tlie
German federation^ bearing the title German
Empire. Emperor (not Emperor of Germaay).
It has colonial possessions aggreptiag
l,03Sj000 square miles in area, with a population of
about 13,000.000 (12,500 Europeans), in Mnc^ and
Oceanica besides Kiau-Chau in China, which was
ceded to Germany in 1S98 on & lease for aineiy-
nine yBars (see .\rRicA, H.j Pacific Islanus). Ac-
cording to the latest figiuea acoeasible {thoie of
Kirchiiches JahHnich, 1908) the people of tk em-
pire are divided religiously as follows:
PinotMtAnt*. , , . _ , 37.(H6,S52
Roman Calholi w. ..,,...,.., ........ 22.094492
RuA^ian Ortbodus 1,991
Greek CJfttbolica 13,161
Dtioenteri fHaplists, Methodiflta, «tc.; ne be-
tow, ID. _ 359J17
Jews,. , _ _ (MW,862
Noa-Qiri^tian relisioiu (HobaamnJana, B^d-
dhiata. etc). 909
Otb«r ooaf«B» o(u { Fantbeiita^ f roetbinlEen, etc. ) . 12.024
Confessors of no reliint>&> . ^ -.»*.......... 4.270
60,^1.278
The Protestants thus embrat?e about two-thirds of
the population (62.5 per cent, not counting the dis-
senters) and the Roman C-at holies a little more than
one-third (36.1 per cent). This is substantially the
proportion that existed at the close of tlie Thirty
Years* War in 1648, and the geo^uphical distribu-
tion of Protestants and Roman Catholics is still
nearly the same as it was two centuries ago. The
Roman Church predomLnatcs in the South, the
Protestant in the North. Roman Catholics form
60.6 per cent of the people in Baden, 70.7 per cent
in Bavaria* 72.2 per cent in Alsace-Lorraine. In
Saxony, on the other hand, 94.5 per cent ate Prot-
estant, in Sleswick-Holstein 97.2 per cent, in
Mecklenburg-Schwerin 98.3 per cent. Other Korth-
German states show ft atmikriy b^ proportion of
471
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
G^rmanus
G«rxDJUiy
IVotestants. The Jews constitute about 1 per
cent of the population.
Perhaps the most noteworthy feature of the
Protestant Church of Germany is that it is not
divided into numerous rival denominations. This
church has been liberal and found room in its fold
for men of divergent views. The dis-
2. The tinction between Lutherans and Re-
Protestant formed has existed since the Refor-
Church. mation; and attempts to unite the
two confessions by acts of government
(as in Prussia in 1817; see Prussia) have produced
the " United Evangelical Church " and bodies of
" Separated Lutherans " who objected to the Union
(see Lutherans, II.). But Lutherans, Reformed,
and the Separatists arc all reckoned to the " Evangel-
ical Church " (for " Sectarianism in Germany " and
the connotation of the word " sect," see below, II.).
Liberty of conscience is secured by the several state
constitutions and by imperial law. The Evangelical
Church docs not concern the empire as such, but is the
affair of the individual states, each of which has its
own church or churches which it supports. For
organization, church government, and more de-
tailed information, see the articles on the individual
states; see also the denominational articles, particu-
larly LxTTHERANS. Information concemingChristian
work and the religious life in Germany will be
found in the articles on special organized agencies,
such as Bund, evangelischer; Conference, Free
Ecclesiastical-Social; Deacon ; Deaconess; Ei-
senach Conference; Gusta v- Adolf- Verein; In-
nere I^Iission; etc., and certain peculiarly German
problems in church government and the relation be-
tween Church and State are discussed from the Ger-
man standpoint in Church and State; Church
Government; Collegialibm; and Territorialism.
In 1900 the Evangelical Church in Germany had
17,454 clerical charges, 14,213 parishes, 10,037
stations, and 1,014 dioceses. Candidates for the
ministry must complete a prescribed course of
theological study at a university and pass certain
examinations. The average yearly salary for a
clergyman at the start is 2,260 marks; the average
maximum salary is 3,564 marks. Hamburg pays
the highest salaries, that of a beginner being 4,000
marks, the maximum 6,000 marks. Pensions vary
from about 1,000 to 4,000 marks, according to
length of service. Pensions for widows amount to
20 to 25 per cent of the highest salary drawn by the
husband, and usually an extra allowance is made for
the children.
The Roman Catholic Church in Germany is
organized into five archbishoprics and twenty bish-
oprics, as follows: the archbishopric of
3. The Cologne, with bishoprics of MUnster,
Roman Paderbom. and Treves; the archbish-
Catholic opric of Gnesen-Posen, with the bish-
ChurclL opric of Chilm; the archbishopric of
Munich-Freising, ^ith bishoprics of
Augsburg, Passau, and Regensburg; .the arch-
bishopric of Bamberg, with bishoprics of Eichst&tt,
Wflrzburg, and Speyer; the archbishopric of Frei-
burg, with bishoprics of Fulda, Limburg, Mainz,
and Rottenburg; and the six exempt bishoprics of
Breslau, Ermland, Hildesheim, OsnabrUck, Stras-
burg, and Metz. There are three apostolic vicari-
ates, one for Saxony, one for Anhalt, and one for
the northern missions; also two apostolic prefec-
tures, one for Sleswick-Holsteinandone for Lusatia.
The Roman Church is subsidized by the various
states just as is the Evangelical Church, and, in
some cases, the Jewish Church. The Old Catholics
have a bishop at Bonn.
In 1872 began in Germany the so-called KuUur-
kampff during the course of which numerous strin-
gent laws were passed against the Roman Catholics
(see Ultramontanism). These measures, with the
exception of the law expelling the Jesuits, were
later repealed; and in 1904, through their powerful
political party, the Centrum, the Catholics secured
the repeal of the clause of this law giving full power
to expel individual members of the Society of Jesus
and kindred orders. Other clauses of the law ex-
cluding from the empire such orders in their cor-
porate capacity remain in force. This is practically
the only restriction now placed on the Roman
Catholics in Germany. See German Catholicism.
Education is compulsory throughout the empire
for children from about the sixth to the fourteenth
year, though the school-age varies
4. Edu- somewhat in the different states.
cation. The percentage of illiteracy is only
about one-half of one per cent. De-
spite increasing agitation for secular education,
public elementary schools are usually confessional,
being either Protestant or Roman Catholic; and
local supervision of schools is still largely in the
hands of the clergy (see Church and School). In
the curriculum religion has its place with other
subjects. The system of secondary and technical
education is admirable, and there are twenty-one
universities in the empire, each having, as a rule,
distinct faculties of theology, law, medicine, and
philosophy. The theological faculties are Roman
Catholic in the universities of Freiburg, MUnster,
and WQrzburg. At Bonn, Breslau, Strasburg, and
Tubingen there are both Evangelical and Roman
Catholic theological faculties. All the universities
arc maintained and administered by the states in
which they are located.]
XL Sectarianism in Germany : The word ** sect "
is derived from the Latin segiior, " to follow," or
from seco in the sense of sequor. In classical Latin
secta meant a mode of thinking, acting, or living, then
specificaUy a political party or philosophical school
or tendency. The Vulgate used the word to trans-
late the Greek hairesis in Acts xxiv. 5, xxvi. 5,
and in other passages where it means simply the
religious tendency which one has chosen. In the
Epistles of the New Testament the
X. Meaning term has reference to the formation
of " Sect" of factions within the Christian con-
gregation (cf. Gal. V. 20; II Pet. ii. 1).
This usage was continued by the Church, and Luther
employed Sekie in his translation of the Bible in the
same sense. Under present conditions in Germany,
distinction must be made between the political and
the church use of language. The State regards as
sects all religious communities that are not ac-
knowledged by it. But it is conceivable that the
relation of the State to the Evangelical state
Oarmany
Oemler
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
479
churches might be dissolved, or that the State might
amiul the distinction between the acknowledged
churches and the sects, and yet there might be com-
munities which would have to be considered sects
from the standpoint of the Church. The Evangel-
ical Church of Gennany claims privileges against
the sects not so much by reason of its acknowl-
edgment by the State as by being the national
Church which for centuries has fostered and developed
the religious and ethical ideals of the people. A
church community might perhaps be designated
most aptly by the name of sect where the exclusive
or Donatistic conception of the Church forms the
leading idea; where the demand to represent the
communion of saints puts into the background the
catholicity of the Church; where the national
Church is considered more or less as a Babel from
which one must separate himself; and where the
historical development of the Church is treated with
little consideration.
The commimities which exist in Germany beside
the Evangelical state churches or have existed
there temporarily fall into very different groups.
First must be mentioned those which were received
into Germany because of persecution in other
countries and subsequently were al-
2. Different lowed to establish their own forms of
Classes of worship. To this category belong,
H on-estab- among others, the Walloons and French
lished from the territory of Calvinism, the Bo-
Churches, hemian Brethren, the Waldenses, and
especially the Mennonites. Communi-
ties of this kind have been gradually brought into
friendly relations with the state chiurches. From the
standpoint of church feeling and sentiment even the
Mennonites, who remained isolated, can hardly be
considered sects, because their communities are not
separations from the German Evangelical Churches
and they have never attempted to proselyte from
those Churches. In like manner the congregations
of foreigners, such as English and Americans in
Berlin and other cities, can not be considered sects.
Separations from a state church constitute a
second group. Such separations have originated
because a minority did not approve of changes in
the constitution and rites of a particular State
Church (e.g., the Old Lutherans or Separated
Lutherans in Prussia; see Lutherans; Prussia).
Such separations concern an entire church body.
But there are also separations of a local and ephem-
eral character, as when a clergyman falls into
conflict with his church authorities and carries a
part of his congregation with him in the organiza-
tion of a new church. It is a disputable question
in how far such separations come under the con-
ception of " sect." It is to be considered whether
the separatists were justified in their opposition,
wliich may have been against progress in the Church ;
whether their conception of the Church has ex-
perienced a change in the direction of Donatism;
whether after separation they are still able to take
part in the spiritual development of Evangelical
theology or isolate themselves theologically and
thus become sectarian.
A third group of separate congregations, which
are undoubtedly ** sects,'' has originated in Ger-
many by the invasion of Anglo-American Chris-
tianity. Here we have to do not with separatioDs
based on the internal history of the churches of
the German Reformation, but with xepresentatiyeB
of another conception of churchdom, ol other views
concerning the way of salvation, and other ideals
of piety. They have come over to Gennany wm-
sidering the German churches as a missionary fidd.
Herein lies the real danger of sectarianism for the
German churches — a danger of a twofold kind,
because, in the first place, the German churches are
deprived of zealous and active members; in the
second place, the invasion of foreign ideas produces
a foreign spirit in the national churches and exer-
cises a disintegrating effect upon them.
The reasons for the estrangement of Germans
from their mother chiurch must not be sought pri-
marily in sectarian teachings themselves. The
attraction of sectarianism lies deeper. There is a
wide variance between the religious ideal of the
chiurch and the actual condition of the congrega-
tions. The sect allures above all the active, woiidng
members by proposing to them a community of
none but living Christians. Herein, in the compact
spiritual community which it offers, lies the chief
power of attraction exercised by a sect. Other
reasons for separation are the craze for religious
fads; spiritual haughtiness, which feeb itself ele-
vated above the duly appointed authorities; am-
bition; impatience and dislike of the dependeoioe of
the Chiurch upon the State or of the " scientific the-
ology " tau^t to the clergy by the universitieB.
The constitutional law of the State in regard to
sects has undergone various changes since the
Religious Peace of Augsburg and the
3. Attitude Peace of Westphalia. By tibe former
of the State only Roman Catholics and adherents
Toward of the Augsburg Confession received
Sects. recognition by the State; in 1648 the
Reformed were also recognized. These
three churches still enjoy special privileges. The
State supports them, considers their spiritual
offices as public offices, and provides theological
faculties for the education of their clergy. Of
other communities only the Jews were to be tol-
erated, but exceptions have been made. The
Bohemian Brethren were received in Brandenburg,
Prussia, in 1548, and the Mennonites in 1722.
The French Reformed were granted privileges in
1630, 1685, and 1694. Frederick II. tolerated Mo-
ravians, Schwenkfelders, and even Socinians. In
1847 a law was passed empowering local courts to
attest births, marriages, and deaths of " tolerated "
communities that previously had been required to
report them to the preachers of the parishes in which
they lived for entry in the parish registers. A con-
stitutional document of 1848 (revised 1850) made the
enjoyment of civil and political rights independent
of religious confession, but with the proviso that
religious communities without corporative rights
could obtain them only by special laws. Such
rights were obtained by the Mennonites in 1874,
and by the Baptists in 1875. The legal status of
sects has been further alleviated by the introduction
of civil register-offices and obligatory civil marriage
(1874 for Prussia, 1875 for the empire).
478
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Oarmany
Qemler
The church authorities agree that, in combating
sects, appeab to the secular powers are to be re-
jected. An effective opposition must recognize that
the religious needs which attract mem-
4. Means of bers of the state churches to the sects
Combating must be satisfied within the Church.
Sects. Every appearance of a sect is a warn-
ing to the Church of defects and abuses,
and to remove such faults is the way to preserve
members for the Church, and meet the accusations
of sectarians. It is an open question what measures
of discipline should be followed against members
who have associated themselves with sects without
severing their connection with the State Church.
It is maintained by some that occasional partici-
pation in the services of sectarians or even in their
celebration of the Lord's Supper does not exclude
a person from the State Church. Others would
refuse the sacrament of the State Church to apos-
tatizing members. There seems to be agreement
on the following points: (1) clergymen of the
state chiurches can not remain in office if they
stand in any connection with a sect; (2) school au-
thorities must tolerate no teacher of religion who
has joined a sect; (3) adherents of a sect must not
be admitted to honorary positions in the Church,
such as that of elder and the like; (4) the receiving
of a second baptism is to be treated as an actual
separation from the State Church.
Accurate statistics of sects in Germany are not
available. According to Pieper's Kirchliche Staiia"
Hk DeiUachlands (TObingcn, 1899),
5. Statistics, which is based on the census of 1895,
Prussia has besides 20,351,448 mem-
bers of the Evangelical State Church, 119,245 mem-
bers of " other Protestant church communities,''
i.e., almost 6 per cent of Evangelicals who do not
belong to the State Church. According to the
statistics of Prussia in 1900 there were 45,594 Old
Lutherans, 14,543 Old Reformed, 4,031 Moravians,
13,876 Mennonites, 38,143 Baptists, 5,226 Meth-
odists and Quakers, 32,215 Irvingites, 2,557 be-
longing to English churches, 272 members of the
Salvation Army, 8,400 belonging to " Free Con-
gregations," 27,679 " dissidents," and 5,635 " other
Christians." The statistics of the German Empire
for 1890 showed besides 31,000,000 of Prot-
estants belonging to the State Churches, 145,-
000 adherents of smaller communities. Such
figures are inaccurate, since many adherents of
sects have not formally separated from their respect-
ive State Chiurches, and many who simply call
themselves " Evangelical " are not counted.
Later statistics show that the niunber of sec-
tarians is increasing. (G. Kawerau.)
Bibuoobapht: For souroea there is nothing comparable to
the MOH. Consult also P. Jaff^. Bibliotheca rerum Qer-
manioaTum^ 6 vols., Berlin. 1864-73: J. von Hartzheim,
Concilia Oermanict, Cologne, 1759-63; and for a general
history the work of J. Janssen. Oetchichte de» deuUchen
VolkM, 8 vols., Freiburg, 1903. Eng. transl., 10 vols.,
London, 1907. A satisfactory review is given in E. F.
Henderson, Short Hitt. of Oennany, 2 vols.. New York,
1902. On the early religion consult P. D. Chantepie de
la Saussaye, Religion of the Teuton; Boston, 1902; and
for origins eompare F. B. Giunmere, Germanic Origine,
New York, 1892. The early period of church history
is treated in the works on the history of the Church in
Germany by Friedberg. Rettberg. and Hauck, and in
W. Stubbs, Germany in the Early Middle Agee, 476-
1260, ed. A. Hassall, 1908. For German Protestant-
ism consult: C. F. A. Kahnis. Internal Hiet. of Ger-
man Proteatantiem, Edinburgh. 1856; J. I. Good, Ori-
gin of the Reformed Church in Germany, Reading. Pa.,
1887: S. B. Gould. 7%e Church in Germany, London,
1891; R. Rocholl, Geechiehle der' evangeliachen Kirche in
Deutachland, Leipsic, 1897; C. Tischhauaer, Geechichte der
evangeliechen Kirche Deuiechlande in der ereten Holfte dee
19. Jahrhunderta, Basel, 1900; G. Ecke. Die evangeliechen
Landeakirchen Deutechlande im 19. Jahrhunderte, Berlin,
1903; R. Seeberg, Die Kirche Deutechlande im 19. Jahr-
hunderte, Leipsic, 1903; E. Foerster, Die Entatehung der
preuaaiechen Landeakirche unter . . . Fricdrich WilheUn
III., vol. ii., TQbingen, 1907. For the Catholic Church
consult: H. BrQck, Geechichte der katholiacJien Kirche im
19. Jahrhunderte in Deutachland, 4 vols., Mains, 1887-
1901; G. Goyau, L'AUemagne religieuae. Le Catholir
dame, 1800-1848, 2 vols., Paris. 1897-1906; A. Wer-
minghoff, Geachichte der Kirchenfaaaung Deutachlanda im
Mittelalier, Hanover, 1905. For the relations between
Protestants and Catholics read: J. A. Moehler, Neue
Unterauchungen der LehrgegenafUae awiachen den Katholiken
und den Proteatanten, Regensburg, 1900; P. Majunke,
Geachichte dea KuUurkampfea in Deutachland, Paderbom,
1902. For a general view of religious life consult: E. F.
Williams, Chriatian Life in Germany aa Seen in the State
and the Church, New York, 1897. For statistics consult:
P. Pieper, Kirchliche Statiatik Deutachlanda, TQbingen.
1899; H. A. Krose, Konfeaaionaataiiatik Deutachlanda,
Freiburg, 1904; Von Hirschfeld, in Zeilachrift dea kdnig-
lichen preuaaiachen atatiatiai^ien Bureaua, iii ( 1 863 ), i v ( 1 864 ) ;
J. Schneider, KirtMichea Jahrbuch (an annual: 35th is-
sue, 1908). On sectarianism in Germany consult: Allge-
meine Kirchenblatt, 1853, 1855. 1884. 1885 (gives reports
of discussions in the Eisenach Ckinference on the question
of sects); H. Schmidt, Die Kirche. Ihre bibliache Idee und
die Formen ihrer . . . Eracheinung, pp. 189 sqq., Leipsic,
1884; H. F. Jacobson, in ZKR, i (1861), 392 sqq.;
idem, Evangeliachea Kirchenrecht, i. 124-125, Halle, 1864;
C. Palmer, Die Gemeinachaften und Sekten WHurtiemberga,
TQbingen, 1877; L. von R6nne. Staatarecht der preua-
aiachen Monarchic, ii. 2, pp. 151 sqq., Leipsic,1882; Richter.
Kirchenrecht, pp. 318 sqq.; E. Dresbach. Die proteatan-
tiachen Sekten der Gegenvpart, Dilsaeldorf. 1887; W. Rohnert.
Kirche, Kirchen und Sekten, Leipsic, 1900; E. Kalb,
Kirchen und Sekten der Gegenwart, Stuttgart, 1905; J.
JQngst. Der Methodiamua in Deutacfiland, Giessen, 1906.
GERNLER, gam'ler, LUKAS: Swiss Reformer;
b. at Basel Aug. 19, 1625; d. there Feb. 9, 1675.
After completing his theological studies at the age
of twenty, he visited Geneva, and then made a tour
of France, England, Holland, and Germany. On
his return to Basel in 1649, he was appointed deacon
in general for all the churches of the city, and in
1653 was made archdeacon (assistant pastor) at
the cathedral, becoming president and first pastor
three years later. At the same time he was ap-
pointed professor of polemics and the encyclopedia
of theology, a position which he exchanged for a
professorship of the Old Testament in 1665. His
opposition to the overtures of John Durie (q.v.)
for union resulted in their rejection in 1662 and
1666, and his hostility toward the theology of Sau-
mur was equally marked. He was the chief author
of the Syllabus controversiarum, which appeared at
Basel in 1662, and prepared the way for the Helvetic
Consensus Formula. His theological writings are
of minor importance, though several collections of
his sermons have been published. He induced the
council to erect an orphan asylum in Basel, and
in 1666 edited the Agenda in a form which remained
unchanged for the Church of Basel until 1826.
Under the title of ArUiquUates Gemleriance he pub-
lished a collection of documents which are one of
Oerok
0«rson
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
474
the chief souroea for a knowledge of the Reforma-
tion in Basel. (R. SrAiiBLiNt.)
BiBUOOKAPirr: Al/mnct Rauriect, pp. 48-60. Basel, 1778; K.
R. Hacenbaoh, OMefticAto . . . der er§Un BaaUr Confeation,
pp. 167 aqq.. Baael. 1827; idem. Die theoloffitehe SchuU
BomU ufid ihr§ Uhrer, iv. 31-32. ib. 1860; ADB, ix. 37.
OEROK, g^rOk', KARL: German preacher and
poet; b. at Vaihingen-on-the-Ens (15 m. n.w. of
Stuttgart), WOrttemberg, Jan. 30, 1815; d. at Stutt-
gart Jan. 14, 1890. His father removed to Stutt-
gart a few weeks after the birth of his son, and
there Kaii Gerok spent most of his life. As his
father and both grandfathers were clergymen, the
ministry was his natural vocation. He was edu-
cated at the gymnasium of Stuttgart and in 1832
entered the University of Tdbingen, where he
studied diligently Hegel's philosophy and Schleier-
macher's theology. In 1837 he became his father's
vicar in Stuttgart. From 1840 till 1843 he was
tutor in Tubingen. In 1844 he became deacon in
Boblingen (about 0 miles from Stuttgart), where
he had leisure to write numerous treatises and
essays for periodicals. In 1849 he became deacon
in the Spitalkirche of Stuttgart, in 1851 in the
Stiftskirche. In 1852 he was appointed arch-
deacon in the same church and dean of the country
diocese. In 1862 he became preacher of the Spital-
kirche and dean of the town diocese. From 1868
until his death he was court preacher and member
of the consistory with the title and rank of prelate.
Apart from his activity as pastor and preacher, he
held offices as president or member in numerous
committees and societies.
Gerok was a man in whom the culture of his time
and Christian truth stood in living connection.
To the harmony of his nature corresponded the
mildness of his judgment in regard to others; even
in the fall he was able to discover the weak germs
of goodness. His sermons were built upon the
moral basis of diligence and faithfulness. Although
he carefully elaborated and memorised them, they
were plain and simple, yet full of life and color.
They had always a practical relation to life, and
their form and contents were aided by a solenm and
edifying delivery that inspired esteem for Chris-
tianity even in worldly people. As a poet, (Serok
educated his taste by studying the great classics.
He kept his productions secret until his mature
age, and it was only in his fortieth year that his first
poem was published. His poetry had its root in
the word of the Bible, and all subjects which he
treated — history, the fatherland, and nature — are
transfigured by the light of a Christian view of the
world. He was essentially a lyric poet. His collec-
tions of poems appeared under the titles Palmbldtter
(Stuttgart, 1857; Eng. transl., Palm Leaves^ London,
1885); Pfingstrosen (GQtersloh, 1864); Blumen und
Sterne (Stuttgart, 1868); Deutsche Ostem (1871); Auf
einsamen Gdngen (1878); Der Ictzte Strauss (1884);
Unier dem Abendstem (1886); Christkind (1887).
He published also several volumes of sermons, and
Von Jerusalem nach Rom (Stuttgart, 1868), Bible
studies on the Acts of the Apostles. His " Homilet-
ical Suggestions " to G. V. Lechler's Acts of the
Apostles in Lange's Commentary (Bielefeld, 1861)
may also be mentioned. (H. Mosapp.)
Bibliogeapht: Id the firal plaoe as a aonroe itands Gcrak's
Juo^mUrinntrunoen, Leipsic. 1898. Consult: H. Moapp.
Karl Otrok, ein Bild aeinu Ltbtna umd Wirkeiu. Stnttpn.
1890; idem, Karl Qtrck in aeiner Wirkmmkeit fir dn
Qwdav- Adolf 'Verein, Barmen. 1890: F. Bmm, £hs-
neninoen an Karl Oerok, Leipsic, 1891; G. Gerok. £ari
Oerok, ein Lthentbild aua eeinen Briefen vmd iv/ineJk-
nunoen, Stuttsart, 1892.
GERRHENIAIVS, ger-ri'ni-onx: The nszoe of a
peoi^ or of the inhabitants of a district in the ex-
treme south of Palestine, mentioned II Mace, xiii.24
as marking the southern boundary (on the coast) of
the Syrian province. The description there given
tallies with the passage I Mace. xi. 59. Identifi-
cation is not to be made with the militaiy and im-
post station named Gerrhon or Gerrha, fifty stadia
east of Pelusium, since this place was in Egyptian
territory, and the passage in Maccabees does not
imply a military station. Stark and Ewald connect
it with the Gerar of Gen. xx. 1, xxvi. 1; II CSiron.
xiv. 13. The regio Gerarilica is well known from
the Onomasiicon of Eusebius and of Jerome (240,
and 124) as located beyond (i.e., to the south of)
Daroma as the borderland of Canaan and Egypt.
The modem name of the Wadi Jerar or Jenir in
the neighborhood of Kadesh recalls the old name
and agrees with the geographical conditions.
(H. GUTHE.)
Bxbuooeapht: K B. Stark. Oaaa und die pkiUtiliiKki
KiMe, p. 463. Jena, 1852; H. Ewmld. OeaekiehU d»t
Volkee leraei, iv. 416, Gdttingen. 1864; C. L. W. Grimm.
Dae tweite . . . Buck der MakkabiUr, Letpnc, 1857; H.
Wace. Apoervpha^ ii. 633. London, 1888.
OERSON, zh&r''85n', JEAK CHARLIER DE.
His Philosophy. Mysticism (f 1).
His Pride as a Theologian. Influence of Pstriotit
Feelins (f 2).
Gerson's Doctrine of the Papacy and Councils (f 3).
The Council of Constance ({ 4).
Last Years (f 5).
Johannes Amaudi de Gersonio, as the earliest
entry of his name reads in the records of the Uni-
versity of Paris, was chancellor of the University
of Paris, one of the most prominent figures in the
ecclesiastical disputes of the late fourteenth and
early fifteenth centuries, and one of the founders of
Gallicanism (q.v.). He was bom in tbe long since
obhterated hamlet of Gerson (Jarson), not far from
Rethel (100 m. n.e. of Paris), in the diocese of
Reims, Dec. 14, 1363, and died at Lyons July 12,
1429. He was the eldest son of peasants,
Amolphe le Charlier and Elisabeth Chardeni^re
(concerning an extant letter from his mother to her
two eldest sons, cf. Schwab, p. 54; Jadart, pp. 119-
120), and his education was made possible by the
Duke of Burgundy's patronage. After prepara-
tion at Reims, he went to Paris in 1377 and entered
the (Ik>llcge of Navarre. Having completed his
course in the arts in 1381, he took up thedogy the
same year. In 1383 and 1384 he was procurator of
the Gallic nation; in 1387 he was a member of the
university's embassy to (dement VII. against the
Dominican Jean de Montson, who denied the Im-
maculate O)nception. He became doctor of the-
ology in 1392, and in 1395 succeeded his teacher
Pierre d'Ailly in the chancellorship. This office,
which he occupied to the end of his life, gave him
opportunity to exert a lasting influence not only
476
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Gerok
Oerson
upon theological instniction, but on academic in-
struction at large; while the ecclesiastical position
therewith connected favored his natural inclina-
tion to activity in the domain of ecclesiastical prac-
tise, preaching, and the cure of souls.
He began his scholastic activity with a notable
reform of the theological course on its practical side
(cf. the letter to his teacher D'Ailly, De reforma-
Hone theologuBf OperOf i. 1, p. 120; and two letters
to the scholars of the College of Navarre, p. 106).
Only from the closing period of his life are certain
tracts preserved which treat of logical
I. His Phi- and metaphysical problems. Gerson
losophy. is a nominalist, but he seeks to mediate
Mysticism, between this tendency and realism;
our ideas of things first have necessity
in the notion of God, and at this point being and
thinking coincide. Philosophy, too, is a revelation
of God, but knowledge needs to be supplemented
through faith, which is not merely an act of cog-
nition, but rather a matter of volition. Accordingly
the task of theology is a practical one; and for
Gerson the true theology is mysticism. The func-
tion of scholasticism is merely to supply the form
for the treatment of mysticism. But the latter, in
turn, can preserve its wholesomeness, that is to say,
its ecclesiastical character, only by such treatment.
Radical mysticism, including that of Jan van Ruys-
broeck (q.v.), Gerson combated zealously. His
prototypes were Hugo and Richard of St. Victor
(qq.v.) and Bonaventura; on occasion he reaches
back to Bernard, Augustine, and the great Dio-
nysius. His principal mystical writings (OperOf
vol. iii., ed. Du Pin) belong in a remarkable degree
to the period of his activity in church politics; the
Conaideratianea de theclogia mystica grew out of
lectures, and their second part bears evidence of
having been written down in the autimm of 1407,
during a journey as ambassador to Genoa. The
mystical process culminates in love, the fundamental
attitude of mind, innate in man. In its highest
development — to be sure not an " actual " union
with God, but still the closest conceivable moral
union — ^it is also the highest knowledge. But the
prepossessions of the theologian here prevent Ger-
son from drawing the right conclusion from this
knowledge. He speaks of a perfected knowledge
without love, and of a love without perfected in-
sight. Only the theologian can attain to perfected
mysticism. And to restore to the theologian his
natural right, to enable him to exercise this right,
was the aim of his many-sided literary and practical
activity.
The overpowering development of the papal rule
in the Church had thrust law before theology, the
faculty of the canonists before that of the theo-
logians. And now the schism threat-
2. His Pride ened to destroy utterly the venerable
as a Theo- halo of the Parisian doctors of divinity;
logian. In- with a distinctly French papacy, also
fluence of — after they had prided themselves on
Patriotic having pronounced decisions for the
Feeling, popes of the entire Church — they saw
the danger that they would sink to the
level of theological schools like Avignon and Tou-
louse. With their ambition patriotism worked as
an equally powerful factor, a product of the times,
of the political need of France as it then was — the
most glowing enthusiasm for the idea of the French
kingdom; and yet, the national growth of that same
kingdom was, in reality, to strike the death-blow
to the university's world-fame. The union of het-
erogeneous elements the theologian seeks in a
single dogma: France the New Jerusalem, and its
kingdom, since the baptism of Clovis, consecrated
by a universal ecclesiastical call I The coalescence
of the two factors is what stam]>s the character of
a man like Gerson in its comprehensive historical
bearings; for that is what dominates the activity
in church politics which placed him among the
leaders of his age.
Gerson entered the 'field of church politics as a fol-
lower of his teacher D^\illy; and this occasioned him
at the outset a serious conflict, since he was pledged
to follow the House of Burpundy, whereas D'Ailly
had attached himself to the young Prince of Orleans,
and from the pontificate of Benedict
3. Gerson's XIII., the political opposition of these
Doctrine of two houses had appeared more and
the Papacy more sharply in ecclesiastical matters,
and Gerson sought to mediate, especially
Councils, in his highly finished Trialogua in
materia schiamatis. Nevertheless he
belonged to the Burgundian camp, and in a great
state address, in 1405, he dared to lay down the
law to the " tyrant ** Orleans. In the subsequent
evolution of affairs, he became more and more of a
partisan down to the Council of Pisa. He did not
attend the same in person, but in his De uniiate
eccleaiaatica and De auferiinlilate papce ab eccleaia
he upheld its legitimacy in the strongest terms;
after the decrees of the council itself, his tracts are
the most important original sources for " Council-
ism.'' Here, too, Gerson is not original, but de-
pendent in the main on Conrad of Gelnhausen and
Henry of Langenstcin (q.v.); it was his casuistical
elaboration of their principles, and, on another side,
his diverting them from the danger of an antihier-
archical negation, that first made them popular.
For Gerson is so little of a " liberal " that he
attaches preeminent validity to papacy and hier-
archy, as the mode of being immutably ordained by
God for the Church. However, he makes a dis-
tinction between the office in itself (Jormaliter) and
the office in its personal administration at any given
time (materialiler); and as every law is interpreted
by the purpose of the law, so the hierarchy is sub-
ordinate to the more comprehensive idea of the
Church Ecumenical. Furthermore, this is not a
mere theory, but it has its visible illustration in the
general and at least potentially infallible council.
The council, to be sure, is composed only of hier-
archical authorities, but still every beUever must
be able to find expression therein. The individual
pope is subject to the council, and, if need be, it
can assemble without him. Indeed, the motive
thought so greatly outweighs, in Gerson's mind, the
literal text of the law that he supposes the con-
tingency that a duly elected pope might be executed,
if the weal of the Chiurch required it.
At Constance, Gerson experienced the gratifi-
cation of seeing this doctrine of his erected into an
Gttrson
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
476
article of faith; and he played a leading part at the
head of the deputation from the University of Paris
in the critical days after the flight of John XXIII
(see Ck)NBTANCE, Council of). But
4. The from that time forth his fame rapidly
Council of paled. In the trial of Huss he served
Constance, as accuser. After that, apart from
certain reports and gala addresses, his
name is no longer mentioned in the official docu-
ments. The animating forces of the council passed
out of his control. In fact, though chancellor of
the first imiversity in the world, from whom an
influence over that impressionable assembly might
have been expected equaled by few others, he had
missed his mark. He had conceived the notion of
making the council decide a question which was
really French in its coloring and became uplifted to
the plane of a theological moral problem. On
Nov. 23, 1407, an assassin's hand, in the hire of
John of Burgundy, the son and heir of Philip, had
made way with Duke Louis of Orleans, the brother
of Charles VI.; and in the year following, Jean
Petit, professor of theology in Paris, justified this
murder as due to a tyrant and arch-traitor. Ger-
son was so deeply devoted to the Burgundian cause
that he maintained silence, and still further up-
held the assassin's policy. But in Paris this shortly
led to mob rule, and revolution was succeeded by
reaction. Patriots' eyes were opened, and they
became permanently estranged from the Burgun-
dian. Gerson in particular now believed all the
nation's misery to be traceable to that crying vio-
lation of law and morality, and thenceforward he
applied all his power to the end of making satis-
faction, without which a real peace were impossible.
But by this course he naturally passed into the
service of the opposing party, which came to wield
a decisive influence in shaping the policy of the
French delegation to the council, and — if a few
waverings be excepted— continued to maintain this
influence throughout the entire session. The
bishop of Paris, on Feb. 23, 1414, had been obliged
to condemn the " doctrine " of Petit; and it was
desired to have the council confirm this verdict.
In striving for this goal Gerson displayed a persist-
ency which proclaims a pure idealism far exalted
above partisan passion. It is his fairest renown,
but also the tragic strain in his life. For in the
course of the highly excited proceedings which ex-
tended over the years 1415 to 1417, he almost en-
tirely isolated himself. From the council, which
he had approached so joyfully and hopefully, he
withdrew under the bitterest protest (cf. the Z>ta-
logus apologeticua and Tractatus quomodo etan liceat
in causis fidei a summo porUifice appellare seu ejus
judicium dedinare). And, instead of returning to his
beloved fatherland, he had to wander into exile for
fear of his former patron, the Duke of Burgundy.
Through Albert of Bavaria he first found refuge
at Rattenberg on the Inn, later at Neuburg. In
the autumn of 1418 he moved over to
5. Last Austrian territory, probably to M5lk;
Years. and Duke Frederick of Austria even
offered him a Vienna professorship.
After the assassination of John of Burgundy (Sept.
10, 1419) Gerson retired to the quiet of a canonry
at St. Paul's in Lyons. emplo3ring his leisure in
literaiy labors. Amid the abundance of partly
edifying, partly dogmatic and moral writings that
belong to this latter period, mention may be made
merely of the Conaolaiio theologice ; the rather long
poem Joaephiruif in honor of St. Joseph; the Gos-
pel harmony Monoteasaron ; the Dialogus aaphia
et naturm super ccdibatu ; the treatise De concordia
metaphysiccs cum logica; the CoUectorium super
Magnificat, and the Tractatus super cantica cantir
corum. He appeared in public only to deliver an
address before a provincial synod at Lyons (1421).
That he instructed children is probably a myth.
He obtained a proud monument in the Church of
St. Lawrence. The populace honored him as one
of the blessed, and miracles at his grave were re-
ported. But this memorial did not survive the
progress of time, and the Chiurch of St. Lawrence
itself succumbed to the Revolution. Only his
title of Doctor christianissimus continued to live
in the learned world in connection with his peren-
nially reprinted works. For his claim to the au-
thorship of the '' Imitation of Christ" see Kempis,
Thomas 1. B. Bess.
Biblioorapht: The best and most complete €»dition of the
works of Gerson is by L. Elliea Du Pin, 5 vols., Antwerpi
1706. For discussion of the sources up to 1858 the best
works are J. B. Schwab, Johann Oeraon, W Orsburg, 1858,
and P. Tschackert, Peter von Ailli, Gotha, 1877. Consult
J. C. E. Bourret, Euai hittorique et ariiique ewr lea eer-
monM francaU de Oereon, Paris, 1858; H. Jadart, Jean de
Oereon^ . . . rediereAes eur eon orioine, eon village natal
et §a famille, Reims, 1882; K. Werner, Die Seholae-
tik dee epMeren MitUlaltere, vol. iv.. Vienna, 1887; E.
Guillon, De JoKanne Gersonio, Paris, 1888; B. Bess.
Johannee Oeraon und die kirthenn-polUiaAen Parteien
Frankreiche vordem Koncil tu Piaa, Marburg, 1891. Con-
sult also R. A. Vaughan, How teiA, the Myetice, i. 338,
360, London, 1870; KL, v. 457-473; Neander, ChHetian
Church, V. 53-03 et passim.
gerth van wijx:, johannes Abraham:
Dutch Protestant: b. at Wijk bij Duurstede (12 m.
s.e. of Utrecht) Aug. 27, 1827; d. at The Hague
Dec. 23, 1907. He was educated at the University
of Utrecht (D.D. 1859), and was minister at Eem-
nesbuiten (1864-66), Kampen (1866-72), Groningen
(1872-74), and The Hague (1874-1902), being made
pastor emeritus in 1902. In the latter year he was
also made a knight of the order of Orange- Nassau.
He took an active part in the promotion of relig-
ious teaching in the public schools of Holland, and
was a Dutch delegate to the conferences of the
Evangelical Alliance at Copenhagen (1884), Berlin
(1888), Florence (1891), and London (1896). Be-
sides a number of translations and contributions
to the Hauck-Herzog RE, he wrote Historia EccUsia
UltrajectincB Romano-CatholioB male JansenisticcB
dicta (Utrecht, 1859) and Ome kinderen in Christus
geheUigd (1866).
GERTRUDE: The name of several women
honored as saints or blessed in the Roman CathoUc
Church.
1. Saint Gertrude the Great was bom at Eisleben
(18 m. w.n.w. of Halle) Jan. 6, 1256, and died at
the Benedictine nunnery of Helpede, or Helfta.
near Eisleben, in 1302 (according to others, about
1311). She entered this convent at the age of five
and received a thorough education from its second
477
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
cSSSiii
abbess, St. Gertrude of Hackebom (see below, 3).
For twenty years her interest lay in secular sub-
jects, until on Jan. 27, 1281, a vision of Christ
changed the entire current of her thoughts, and
she devoted herself henceforth to the exclusive
study of the Bible and the Church Fathers. In
Feb., 1290, she began to commit to writing the
visions vouchsafed her. The German original of
her four books of Inainuaiiones divincB pieiaHs (or,
more properly, Legatus divince pieUUia) is lost, and
the work is preserved only in a Latin translation,
first edited by the Carthusian Johann von Lansperg
(Cologne, 1536) and frequently reprinted, both in
Latin and in French, Flemish, Spanish, and (}erman
versions, especially after her canonization in 1677.
Her biography, prefixed to the Innnuaiiones as
the first book, seems to have been written some
time after her death by one of the yoimger nuns at
Helpede.
2. Saint (or Blessed) Gertrude, Abbess of IfivelleSy
was bom about 626, and died, probably. Mar. 17,
659 (scarcely, as some think, in 664). She was the
daughter of Pippin of Landen and Itta, or Iduberga,
and when the latter founded the convent of Nivi-
alia (the modem Nivelles near Brussels), about the
mid(Ue of the seventh century, Gertmde, who had
already refused the hand of a king (possibly Dago-
bert), entered it and succeeded her mother as ab-
bess in 652. Her symbol is the lily, the emblem of
virginity, and she is also frequently represented
as surroimded by hosts of mice, since the expulsion
of these creatures from the fields is recorded as one
of her miracles.
8. Gertrude of Hackebom, the sister of Matilda
(q.v.), was bom near Halberstadt (28 m. s.w. of
MiELgdeburg) 1232, and died at the convent of Hel-
pede in 1292. In 1251 she became abbess of the
convent of Rodersdorf, but in 1258 went to Hel-
pede, where she spent the remainder of her life.
4. Gertrude, the half legendary sister of Charle-
magne, is said to have founded the convent of
Karbburg (or Saalburg) on the Main.
5. Gertrude, the daughter of the Thuringian land-
grave Ludwig VI. and Saint Elizabeth, was bom
about 1226 and died in 1297. She was abbess of
the Premonstratensian convent of Altenburg-on-the-
Lahn.
6. Gertrude of Oosten, a pious Beguin at Delft,
Holland, is said to have received the stigmata in
1340; she died in 1358. (O. ZOcKLERf.)
Bxblioorapbt: 1. Weissbrodt, Der heilioe Oertrud der
Oro99€n " O^aandter der oifttlidten Lithe," 2 vols., Freibunc.
1876; M. Sintiel, G0r<rt4di« . . . LebenundOffenbarungen,
2 vols., Regensburg, 1876; KL, v. 473-476.
2. Tlie Vito, by a eontemporary, is with a eommentary
in ASB, March* ii. 690-600. and ed. B. Knuch. in MOH,
Script rer. Merov., ii (1888), 447-464. Consult H. £. Bon-
nell. Die AnfAnoe dee karolingiechen Haueee, pp. 149-153,
Berlin, 1866; J. Friedrich, KD, ii. 341. 667-670; Hauck.
KDt i. 307; for further literature, Potthast, Wegweieer,
1339-40. and XL. v. 479-480.
3. RevelaHonee Oertrudiana ae Me^Uildiance, vol. i..
preface. Paris. 1876; KL, v. 477-479.
GERVASIUS AND PROTASIUS, SAINTS: Two
brothers martyred at Milan during the reign of Nero.
In 386 their remains were found by St. Ambrose
under the pavement of the church at Milan. He
describes his discovery in a letter to his sister
(Epist,, xxii.; cf. also Augustine, Conf., ix. 7), and
says the place of burial was revealed to him in a
vision. This vision and the miracles which the
relics immediately performed were used by Am-
brose in his contest with the Arians as proof of his
orthodoxy. The cult of the martyrs rapidly spread
over Europe and was introduced into Africa by
Augustine. In 1864 a porphyry shrine was dis-
covered at Milan, which, according to the inscrip-
tion it bears, contains the remains of the two
martyrs and of Ambrose.
Bxbuoorapht: ASB, June, iii. 817-^46; L. A. Muratori,
Anecdotal i. 171-177, Milan, 1697; DCB, ii. 666; JCL, iv.
486-491.
GESENIUS, (HEINRICH FRIEDRICH) WIL-
HELM: German Protestant Hebraist; b. at
Nordhausen (38 m. nji.w. of Erfurt) Feb. 3, 1786;
d. at Halle Oct. 23, 1842. After completing his
early training at the gymnasium of his native city,
he entered the University of Helmstedt in 1803,
whore he received a lasting influence from the ra-
tionalistic H. Henke. Having taught for a short
time at Helmstedt, he migrated to G6ttingen at
Easter, 1806, and a few months later received the
degree of Ph.D. For three years he lectured at
G5ttingen on the Old Testament and on the clas-
sics, Neander being one of his first pupils. In
1809 he accepted a position in the Roman Catholic
gymnasium of Heiligenstadt, but in the following
year went to a more congenial position at Halle as
extraordinary professor of theology. In 1811 he
was promoted to ordinary professor, and retained
this position imtil his death, decUning calls to
G6ttingen in 1827 and to Oxford in 1832. Semester
after semester he had in his courses of lectures over
a thousand pupib. In 1820 he visited France and
England, and in 1835 went to England and Holland,
both times bringing back rich treasures for his
studies. Shortly after his return from this second
trip, he was seized with a stubborn and painful
disease of the stomach, which recurred at irregular
intervals with increasing severity until it finally
caused his death.
Gesenius was the pioneer of a new era of Hebrew
philology. On the basis of the great Dutch Orien-
talists of the eighteenth century, he divorced He-
brew linguistics from dogmatic theology, and placed
the subject on the level of other linguistic sciences
by a systematic comparison of cognate languages
and a strictly rational method. As a lecturer he
was no less influential than as an author. He was
a bom teacher, and knew how to make the driest
subjects - fascinating in their interest. Exactness
of method, absorption in details, sobriety of judg-
ment, clear presentation, and practicality were his
chief characteristics. He was a student of linguis-
tics rather than of theology, and his attention was
devoted to^details rather than to generalizations,
even in the realm of Hebrew grammar.
In 1830, three years after receiving the title of
consistorial councilor, Gesenius was attacked for his
rationalism by the Pietistic Evangelitche Kirchen-
zeitunQf but the preliminary investigation con-
ducted by the Minister of Worship, Altenstein, ended
in the complete vindication of the accused professor
and his colleagues. He was again assailed by
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
478
Heinrich Ewald for his grammatical views, but
this onslaught in its turn proved futile.
The chief works of Gesenius were lexicographical.
His dictionary, which bore in its first edition the title
Hebrdischea Handwdrterhuch uber die Schriften dea
AUen Testaments mil Einschluss der geographischen
Namen und der chalddischen W drier heym Daniel
und Ezra, was begun in 1810 and completed two
years later. Like the majority of his works, it was
published at Leipsic. In 1815 appeared an abridg-
ment entitled Neues Hebrdisch-Deutsches Hand-
wdrterbuck iiber die Schriften des AUen Testaments ,
which aft€r its tliird edition in 1828 was translated
by the author into Latin as Lexicon manuale Hebrai-
cum et Chaldaicum in Veteris Testamenti libros
(1833). The abridgment gradually superseded the
original work, and has been repeatedly reprinted
since the death of Gesenius, the fifth to the seventh
editions (1868) being edited by F. E. C. Dietrich,
the eighth to the eleventh (1890) by F. MUhlau
and W. Volck, and the twelfth to the fourteenth
(1905) by F. Biihl, A. Socin, and H. Zimmem.
The richest fruit of his lexicographical studies was
his Thesaurus philologicus criticus lingua Hebrasas
et ChaldcBCB Veteris Testamenti (3 vols., Leipsic,
1829-58), which was continued and completed
after its author's death by his pupil E. R5diger.
Among his grammatical works the chief is his
Hebrdische Grammatikf which first appeared in 1813,
and which passed through repeated editions, thir-
teen being issued in the lifetime of Gesenius, who
revised the last in 1842. After his death the four-
teenth to the twenty-first editions (1872) were
revised by E. Rddiger, and the twenty-second to
the twenty-seventh (1902) by E. Kautzsch. This
is by far the most popular work of Gesenius, and
has been translated into French, Danish, English,
Polish, Hungarian, and other languages. His
extremely rationalistic Hebrdisches Lesebuch ap-
peared in 1814, and after passing through six edi-
tions in the author's lifetime was edited by W. M.
L. de Wette (1844) and A. Heiligstedt (1873). Men-
tion may also be made of his Geschichte der hebrd-
ischen Sprache und Schrift (Leipsic, 1815) and
Ausfiihrliches grammatisch-krUisches Lehrgebdude
der hebrdischen Sprache mit Vergleichung der ver-
wandten Dialekte (1817).
The sole exegetical work of Gesenius was his
Der Prophet Jesaia (3 parts, Leipsic, 1820-21), one
of the last products of the rationalistic exegesis
which had hitherto enjoyed complete supremacy,
and one of the best productions of its class.
His remaining writings, in chronological order,
include Versuch iiber die malteaische Sprache (Leip-
sic, 1810), in which he rightly interpreted the lan-
guage as a corrupt Arabic dialect; De Pentateuchi
Samariiani origine, indole et auctoHlate (Halle,
1815); De Samaritanorum theologia ex fontibus
ineditis (Leipsic, 1822); Carmina Samaritana
(1824); De Bar Alio et Bar Bahlvlo, lexicographis
Syro-Arabicis ineditis (1834); Paldographische
Studien uber ph6nizische und punische Schrift
(Leipsic, 1835); Scripturce lingucsque PhcmicicB
monumenta quotquot supersunt (3 parts, 1837), the
result of his second trip to England and a work which
marks an epoch in Phenician studies; and numerous
briefer contributions to periodicals, particularly to
the AUgemeine Ldtteraturzeitung, of which he was
associate editor after 1828. He likewise contribu-
ted a number of articles to Ersch and Gruber's
Encyklopddie. (R. KRAETZBCHMARf.)
Bzbuoorapht: Both the Handw&rteHntdt and the OrammaHk
of Gesenius have appeared in several English transla-
tions. The earliest version of the former was by J. W.
Gibbs (Andover, 1824); other versions, many of them
with amendments and additions, followed — by C. Leo
(2 parts, Cambridge. 182^28), £. Robinson (Boston,
1836), and S. P. Tregelles (London, 1846). The Gram'
matik was rendered into English by M. Stuart (Andover.
1826), T. J. Ck>nant (Boston, 1839), B. Daviee (London.
1869). and G. W. Collins and A. £. Cowley (Oxford. 1896).
H. (Gesenius, W. Oeseniua^ Bin ErinnerunaMaU an den.
hundertjahrigen OeburUtao, Halle, 1886 (printed, not pub-
lished); R. H. 8. (Robert HaymT). Oeteniiu. Bine Erin-
nerung fUr aeine Freunde, Berlin, 1842; T. K. Cbeyne.
Foundera of Old Te$tament Criiiciam, pp. 53 sqq., London,
1893; iiDB, ix. 89 sqq.
GESENIUS, ge-sl'ni-us or g^z^'n!-us, JUSTUS:
Lutheran theologian of the seventeenth century,
known for his catechisms; b. at Esbeck (near Elze,
20 m. s. of Hanover), in the principality of Kalen-
berg, July 6, 1601; d. at Hanover Sept. 18, 1673.
His father was preacher at Esbeck. Having re-
ceived his early education at the Adreanum in
Hildesheim,he went in his eighteenth year to Helm-
stedt, where he studied under Georg Calixtiis and
Conrad Home jus. In 1628 he took his degree of
master of philosophy in Jena and was called as
pastor to the church of St. Magnus in Brunswick.
After seven years of beneficent activity there, he
received a call to Hildesheim, the seat of George,
duke of Brunswick, as court chaplain and preacher
in the cathedral. After the duke's death (1641),
he, as well as the whole consistory, removed to
Hanover, where he became chief court chaplain
and general superintendent of the principality of
Kalenberg; later (1665) he was general sup)erintend-
ent of Grubenhagen as well. He received the
degree of doctor of divinity in 1643 for a dis-
sertation, De igne purgatorio.
Gesenius' importance lies chiefly in the services
he rendered in the production of good hynmals and
catechisms. With his friend David Denicke, he
brought out a hymnal containing 222 hymns (Han-
over, 1646), which w^as later enlarged and arranged
for use in the churches. The compilers did not con-
fine themselves to collecting and arranging the
hymns, but also adapted many of the older ones
and probably added a few of their own compo-
sition. To correct the prevaihng ignorance in
regard to Ghristian doctrine, Gesenius, in 1631,
brought out his Kleine Katechismusschule, or
** Brief Instruction as to how the Catechism Should
be Taught to the Young and the Simple " (often
reprinted). Later, by order of Duke George and of
the consistory, he issued an abridgment of this
work under the title Kleine Catechismusfragen uber
den kleinen Catechismum Lviheri (1639 and many
times republished). This work constitutes the
celebrated catechism of Gesenius, which was intro-
duced into all the schoob of the principality of
Kalenberg and gained great repute in many parts
of Lower Saxony. Notwithstanding the praise
which was accorded the author, he was violently
479
REUGI0U8 ENCYCLOPEDU
attacked, especially by Statius Buscher in his
Cryptopapismus nova theologus Helmatadienaia
(Hamburg, 1638). Although Gesenius justified
himself in a Griindliche Widerlegung (LUneburg,
1641) and although his innocence was established
through an investigation by impartial theologians,
it must be admitted that, carried away by his zeal
for a lively faith and for better knowledge, he al-
lowed himself to wander from the straight path of Lu-
theran doctrine. Of the charge that he was secretly
a Roman Catholic he clears himself in his last
important work, Warum tciUst du nicht romisch-
katholisch werden, wie deine Vorfahren waren t (4
parts, Hanover, 1669-72). The strife concerning
his Catechismusfragen was renewed in the eighteenth
century, when King George I., in 1723, sought
vainly to introduce Gesenius's catechism into the
duchies of Bremen and Verden (cf. Unschuldige
Nachrichten, 1724). In addition to the other serv-
ices rendered by Gesenius to the cause of religious
education, he published, in 1656, a manual of in-
struction in Biblical history, BiblUche Historien
Alien und Neuen Testaments. Carl Bertheau.
BiBuooRAPHT: P. J. Rehtmeier, BraunachtDeigi9ch€ Kir-
ehetiQetdiiehte, iv. 458 aqq., Brunswick, 1715; J. K. F.
Schlegel, /CircAen- und ReformationM-Oetchidite von Nord-
deuUchland, vols, ii.-iii.. passim. Hanover, 1820-32; F.
Ehrenfeuchter, Zur Oetdiichte dea Katechimttu, pp. 7^
82 and supplement pp. 62-67. Gdttingen, 1857; E. Koch.
GeachichU dea Kirchenliedea, iii. 230-237, Stuttgart, 1867;
C. A. Q. von Zezschwits, Syatem der . . . Katechetik,
II.. ii. 1. pp. 03 sqq., Leipsic. 1874; ADB, ix. 87 sqq.; W.
Bode, QuellennachvfeiM aber die Lieder de» fiannoveriachen
. . . Geaangtmches, Hanover, 1881; Julian. Hymnology,
p. 410.
GESHURTTES, ge-shQ'raits. See Canaan, § 11.
GESS, ges, WOLFGANG FRIEDRICH: German
Lutheran, belonging to the modem kenotic school
(see Christoloqy, X., 4, § 2; Kenosis); b. at
Kirchheim imter Teck (16 m. s.e. of Stuttgart),
Wlirttemberg, June 27, 1819; d. at Wemigerode
(43 m. s.w. of Magdeburg) June 1, 1891. He
studied at the monastic school at Blaubeuren
and at Tubingen (1837-41), and became vicar of
his father, who was general superintendent at Hcil-
bronn. Following the WUrttemberg custom of his
time, as candidate in theology in 1843 he visited
various universities — Heidelberg, Bonn, Berlin,
Wittenberg, and Halle. His first pastorate was at
^laulbronn, whence he returned in 1846 to Tubingen
as repctent, and then became pastor at Gross-
anspach. In 1850 he went to the Mission House in
Basiel as instructor in theology. From 1864 to 1871
he was ordinary professor of systematic theology
and exegesis at Gdttingen, from 1871 to 1880 pro-
fessor at Breslau and member of the Silesian con-
sistory, then general superintendent of the province
of Posen till 1885, after which time he lived in
retirement at Wemigerode.
The teaching of Gess was fundamentally Bib-
lical. " The Biblical doctrine of faith, which we
have here to deal ^ith," he declared in one of his
lectures at Basel, " is derived not from the symboli-
cal documents of any particular Church, but imme-
diately from the revealing sources themselves. . . .
It presupposes that the transmitting author really
comprehends the fundamental thoughts [of the
Spirit] out of which all Scripture has grown and did
not import extraneous or foreign views." With
Auberlen, Riggenbach, St&helin, and others he
delivered popular lectures in Basel in 1860-^1 in
vindication of the Christian faith (Eng. transl.. The
Foundations of our Faith, Edinburgh, 1863), and
here he first brought out his chief literary work,
Die Lehre von der Person Christi (1856), with three
supplementary articles " On the Atonement " in
the Jahrbiicher fUr deutsche Theologie, 1857-59. He
aims to set forth the conccivableness of the union
" of the complete humanity and the real divinity in
Christ," especially in the light of Phil. ii. 5 sqq.;
and to prove " how completely a demonstration,
once apprehended with ethical profundity, of the
righteousness of God in the fact of Christ's death,
corresponds to the needs of the human conscience,
and accords with the holy love of God." In con-
nection with his lectures in Gdttingen he began to
re^^Tite the work entirely de novo and as the result
published first Christi Selbstzeugniss (Basel, 1870);
a second part, Das apostolische Zeu^iss von Christi
Person und Werk, followed in two volumes (1878-
1879), the first treating of Paul's views and in-
fluence, the second of the apostolic testimony after
Paul's labors; a third and concluding part. Dogma-
tische Verarbeitung des Zeugnisses Christi und der
apostolischen Zeugnisse, also entitled Das Dogma
von Christi Person und Werk entunckelt aus Christi
Selbstzeugniss und den Zeugnissen der Apostel ap-
peared in 1887. His last work, Die Inspiration der
Helden der Bibel und der Schriften der Bibel was
issued in 1891 by his son, Ernst Gess, pastor in
Beriin, after his death.
The solution of the problem, " how he who was
bom as very man can be the same person with him
who had glory with the Father before the founda-
tion of the world, who was as God with God " (vol.
iii., p. 254), constituted the literary life-work of
Gess. " Christ's actual acknowledgment of the
righteousness of God by silent and humble endur-
ance of the sentence of condemnation, is the main-
spring of his messianic work " (iii. 144). The ex-
pression that with the Son of God all variableness
is excluded, is ** only a theological construction,
not a canon of Christ, Paul, John " (iii. 352). The
" great transformation " took place in him, " in
that he passed over from the life of the absolute,
or self-constituent, into the life of the transposed,
or objectively constituted " (p. 353). Just as with
the children of men God creates the soul at the in-
stant of conception, and the divinely created spirit
unites with the bodily nature engendered by man
and woman, so '' with Jesus the Logos-Nature
unites with the corporal nature as conceived in
Mary by the Holy (}host." Thus arises " the re-
semblance of Jesus to his mother " (p. 360). So,
too, his vital development is conditioned by the
gradual maturing of his bodily organism (p. 367).
Again, his sanctification remained '' the act of real
freedom; that is, the freedom of choosing between
contrasted or opposing possibilities " (p. 369).
" He was still in the process of learning, even in
Gethsemane (Heb. v. 7 sqq.). He was doing the
same on the cross. Gnly with his death was his
voluntary sanctification, together with the Atone-
QMim
Geaer
THE NIIW SCHAFF-HERZOG
480
ment, completed " (p. 370). After glorification he
lives in the body, '' mediates all his world work,
even his triune relationship, through his body. -. . .
Nay more, even his soul's life itself maintains the
impress that was stamped upon it by his earthly
career; his holiness, fais love, his mercy, though
divine, is at the same time accounted human " (p.
411).
Of the minor works of Gess, the Bibelstunden on
the last discourses of Jesus (Basel, 1871) reached a
fifth edition in 1894, and those on the Epistle to the
Romans (2 vols., 1885-88) a second edition in
1892. He also published several volumes of lec-
tures. WiLHELM SCHBODT.
GETHSEMANE. See Jerusalem, V., § 5.
GEZELIUS, ge-z^1i-u8, JOHANNES: The name
of two bishops of Abo, Finland.
1. Johannes Gezelius the Elder was bom at Rom-
fertuna, Westmanland, Sweden, 1615; d. 1690.
He studied at Dorpat from 1632 and became pro-
fessor of Greek and Hebrew there in 1641. As
such he lectiu^d dihgently and published text-books
of which there was a great need at that time.
About 1649 he became provost at Skedevi in Oes-
tergdtland, Sweden, where he devoted himself with
diligence to the service of the congregation, and
also gathered students around him and held lec-
tures. On the recommendation of Ck)unt M. G. de
le Gardie he was appointed general superintendent
in Livonia and vice-chancellor of the University of
Dorpat. Owing to his energy and efficiency, he
was made bishop in Abo in 1664, where he found
his real life-work. He was intent upon raising the
standard of education among the Finnish preachers,
required a theological examination of aU who in-
tended to enter the ministry, and ordered all
preachers to introduce church registers with the
names of all church-members. Of people who
intended to marry, he required a knowledge of
Luther's catechism. Every family was to be pro-
vided with a hymn-book, a book of prayer and
meditations. He exerted himself to teach his
people to read, and paid much attention to the
education of children. He had his own printing
establishment in which most of the Finnish publi-
cations of the time were printed. He showed im-
fiatience of the opinions of others, however, and
his reluctance to grant liberty of conscience to
Pietists is not free from blame. He pubUshed
many text-books, and one on the Greek language
(1647) was much used. For his preachers he pub-
lished a Fasciculua hamUeticarum disposUionum
annis circiter XXVII aeorsim editor um (1693) and
Casuum conscierUice et prcecipuorum qucestionum
practicarum decisionea (1689). He also started a
great work on the Bible which was continued by
his son.
2. Johannes Gezelius the Younger, son of the
former, was bom in 1647; d. 1718. He entered the
university in 1661. In 1670 he received a royal
stipend to go abroad for the completion of his
studies, and visit<id Germany, Holland, England,
and France. Immediately after his return, he was
appointed professor extraordinary in the University
of Abo. In 1681 he became superintendent in In-
germanland. In 1689 his aged father called him
back to Abo to be his assistant, and the next year
he became his successor. He faithfully continued
his father's labors and devoted much time to the
great work on the Bible; but he also was not able
to finish it. The New Testament appeared during
his lifetime (1711-13), the Old Testament after his
death (1724-28). In 1711 he fled before the in-
vading Russians to Stockholm, where he remained
imtil his death. His attitude toward the Retists
was as haughty and intolerant as that of his father.
(J. A. Cbdebbero.)
GEZER, gi'cer.
Doeumentary History (S 1).
Excavationa; the Troglodytic Period (| 2).
Semitic Period to the Exile (S 3).
Syro-Greek Period (| 4).
Results of Excavation (| 6).
The city of Gezer, known from the Old Testa-
ment as a stronghold of the Canaanites or frontier
fortress of the Philistines, has acquired no sUght
interest at present owing to the thorough and sci-
entific excavations, covering about half the area,
carried on there during 1902-05 by R. A. S. Mac-
alister for the Palestine Exploration Fund. It is
the modem Tel-Jezar, 18 m. w. in a direct line from
Jerusalem, 20 m. s.e. of Jaffa, to the north of the
railroad, near the foot of the hills which border the
extreme northeast of the Plain of Philistia. The
name is in the list of names of places in Pales-
tine left by Thothmes III. at Kamak (c. 1500 B.C.)
as held by him under an Egyptian governor. In
the Amama Tablets it figures frequently, part of
the time as loyal and furnishing provisions to
Jerusalem (then a city asserting its fidelity to the
^gyptisLDB)f later as among the ene-
I. Docu- mies of Ebed-tob, king of Jerusalem,
mentary and unfaithful to the Egyptian over-
History, lord. The inscription of the Pharaoh
Meneptah (c. 1280 B.C.) mentions the
city, though the meaning of the inscription is not
clear in this part, since it has been rendered as
saying that Gezer was captured by the Egyptians,
and on the other hand that it was taken by the
Ashkelonites. According to Josh. x. 33, xii. 2, its
king and people were defeated by Joshua, and the
city itself was assigned (theoretically) to Ephraim
(Josh. xvi. 3) and to the Kohathite Levites (Josh,
xxi. 21 ), though it was not captured by the Hebrews
but became tributary to them (Josh. xvi. 10; Judges
i. 29). In II Sam. v. 25 it appears as the limit of
David's pursuit of the Philistines. According to
I Kings ix. 15-16 it figures as the conquest of a
Pharaoh who assigned it to his daughter, the con-
sort of Solomon. Solomon strengthened ita forti-
fications and it became an important fortress, com-
manding one of the principal routes from the coast
to Jerusalem. Because of this fact it was in Macca-
bean times, imder the name Gazara, the object of
constant struggle between the Syrians and Macca-
bees (I Mace. iv. 15, vii. 45, ix. 52, xiii. 43, 53, xiv.
7, 34, XV. 28; II Mace. x. 32). It is the Mont
Gisart of the period of the Crusades, where Baldwin
V. gained the victory over Saladin in 1177. Its
site was identified by C. dermont^anneau in 1873,
481
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Gethsemane
Gezer
who discovered there three bilinpial inscriptions in
Greek and Hebrew, one has the phraae ** Boundary
of Geaer."
The results of the recent excavations are in a
measure checked and confirmed by excavations
at Tel-Hesy, Taanak, and Megiddo,
2. Excava- though the value of the Gezer exca-
lions; The vations is in some respects far greater
Troglodytic than at either of the other places
Period, named because of the continuous his-
tory uncovered and the greater an-
tiquity to which that history is traced. No less
than eight stages in the story of the population of
Palestine are revealed in these researches, as repre-
sented by eight series of dwellings. The lowest of
these stages is referred to troglodytes of a period
about 3000 B.C. or earlier, the latest to a period
about 100 B.C. The two lowest strata involve the
existence of two series of cave-dwellers, of low
stature, averaging little above five feet two inches
in height; they inhabited a chain of imderground
chambers somewhat extensive in plan, used flint
and bone weapons of the neolithic type, domesti-
cated the cow, pig, sheep, and goat, sacrificed the pig
to an underground deity, and cremated their dead;
the later of them employed extensively the yoni as a
religious emblem. The city of this period was
defended by walls of earth faced with stone.
The next two periods, covering perhaps 2500-
1200 B.C., are early Semitic; the people ranged in
height from five feet seven inches to five feet eleven
inches, flint is gradually replaced by bronze while
iron begins to appear toward the end, and the fe-
male phallic emblems of the previous period are
replaced by those of the male type.
3- Semitic One of the distinguishing features of
Period to this period is a " liigh place " on which
the Exile, a megaUthic temple is indicated in a
series of rough stone pillars, ten in num-
ber, of which eight remain, while the places of the
other two are marked, these ten being separated
by an interval into groups of three and seven. Of
the eight still standing seven are of native stone,
while the other has been brought from a distance,
and is still marked by a groove which perhaps held
the ropes by which it was dragged. These pillars
range in height from five feet five inches to ten feet
six, and one of them shows clear traces of having
been an object of worsliip. The city wall of these
periods and the next was of stone, fourteen feet in
thickness and nearly a mile in circumference.
These two strata, as well as the one immediately
preceding, 3aelded many scarabs, most of them
belonging to the middle kingdom of Egypt, and in
particular abundance rude pottery images of a cow —
the emblem of fertility and connected with Astarte.
This period also yielded several examples of the
foundation sacrifice, including infants, a young girl,
and an aged and deformed woman and an old man.
Some such cult as Moloch-worship is implied by the
many charred remains of skeletons of infants. One
object belonging to the end of this period is a
masonry box-tomb with objects of art in silver and
alabaster and a mirror, an exotic suggesting per-
haps the Philistine occupation. The fifth and sixth
strata cover the Hebraic period, the fifth being
IV. -.^J
apparently that of the city destroyed by the Pharaoh
of I Kings ix. 16, and the next the Gezer of the
Hebrew regal period. In this age foundation sac-
rifice was merely symboUcal, indicated by depo-
sition of bowls without the skeleton. The end of
this age, corresponding to the Assyrian occupation, is
represented by two tablets in the cuneiform, neither
of them entire, but both dated, one either 649 or
651 B.C., the other two years later. The first relates
to the sale of an estate of which a slave and his
family formed part, and the governor is Hur-wasi,
an Egyptian name, regarded as showing, when
taken in conjunction with other Egyptian remains,
Egyptian control of the city continuously from
Solomonic times. The second records the sale of a
field by a Hebrew named Nethaniah. The record
of deaUngs in the Assyrian script under an Egsrptian
governor repeats the characteristic of the Amama
Tablets.
The seventh period is the Syro-Greek, including
the Maccabean age. Characteristic of this is a
votive altar, bearing on one side a
4. Syro- dedication to Heracles, on the other
Greek the name Yahweh in its Greek form.
Period. This reflects the religious eclecticism
of the pre-Maccabean age in which
Jason the high priest led in promoting the circu-
lation of Greek ideas. A result of the excavations
here is the uncovering of the bastions added to the
wall by the Syrian occupants and of the palace or
castle of Simon, identified by a graffito of limestone
with inscription in rude Greek, reading probably,
" (Says) Pampras, may fire follow Simon's palace I"
This is interpreted as a magic charm made by a hater
of that nder. The eighth stratum is that of the
late Syrian, pre-Roman occupation, after the palace
of Simon had been destroyed and on it;^ site a
structure reared in wliich a remarkable series of
baths with basins and drain and furnace existed.
The special results of the excavation are the fol-
lowing: (1) The tracing of successive populations
backward to the earhest troglodytic
5. Results inhabitants; (2) the existence of con-
of Excava- tinuous traces of Egyptian occupation
tion. from the second troglodytic popula-
tion (a scarab of Usertesen III., c.
2500 B.C.) to about the middle of the seventh pre-
Christian century, including an inscribed statuette
of the period of the twelfth dynasty, four and one-
eighth inches in height; (3) the existence of a high
place where the worship of Astarte is abundantly
indicated, especially by a bronze statuette of two-
homed Astarte and by numerous phallic emblems;
(4) the votive altar already described; (5) the
possibihty that an inscribed sherd carries back
Phenician writing four centuries earlier than the
Baal-Hermon inscriptions (c. 600 B.C.) to an age
when it was written boustrophedon like the early
Greek and the Hittite inscriptions; (6) the illus-
tration of many Biblical features, such as the
" tongue " of gold (R.V., " wedge," Josh. vii. 21),
two ingots of gold in this form being discovered,
one of them being fifty-two shekels in weight. Of
gold and silver objects comparatively few were
found, but bronze was relatively abundant: the
pottery, while fragmentary, is valuable for its
(H!roerer
Olbbon
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
482
epigraphic illustrEtioa of Hebrew tmmes and per-
haps qJbo of Hebrew geDealogy.
Geo. W, GiLMORE.
Bismooiiapht: C. Clermont-Gomiejiu, Arehaohekal Re-
Meardua in Pi^eatine^ U- 257, hondon, ISSl^ idem, Recuat
d'ardi4&heie ^rieniaie. i. 351-361, P^ris. ISSfij PEF.
QuarterfiF Stat^mentt, 10(B-ds.le, panicuki'ty that for
July, 1907. gi>ing la teat resuJtii; R. A. 3. ^laoili^ter,
B^ie Side lAghta frofn ih^ Mound of Qtner^ Loudon, 1&06;
U. Vinceot, Cano^an d'apriM V^pl^raiion riGmte, pp^ 100
•qq„ ParU, IQOI
GFROERER, gfrU'rer, AUGUST FBIEDRICH:
Germaa hiatoriaa; b. at Calw (20 m. w.s.w. of
Stuttgart) Mar. 5, 1803; d, at Carlsbad July fl,
1861. He studied theology at Ttibingen, where he
became re pe tent in 1828, after he had spent three
years in Switzerland and Italy. In 1829 be became
Stadtvtcar at Stuttgart, and in 1S30 Ubmrian at
the royal library there. He then definitely aban-
doned the ministry and devoted himself to his-
torical studies. In 1846 he was appointed pro-
fesaor of history at Freiburg:, and in 1848 was
elected to the German parliament, in whieh he dis-
tinguished bimself an an adherent of the " Gross^
doutacho '^ party and an opponent of Prussia.
After failing in an attempt at Frankfort to unite
Protestants and Cathohca be joined the Roman
Catholic Church in 1853- He had already been long
recognized aa one of the leaders ot the Ultramontane
party in Germany, His principal works bt^, Philo
und die iudisck-Ale^andrinische Thm»ophie (2 vols.,
Stuttgart, 1831); Gtt^tav Adolf utid seine ZeU
(2 vols., 1835-37); Ge^chkhU dta Urchristtntums
(3 vols., 1S3S); AUgemeine KirchengedchicMe (4 vols*,
1841-46); GeschMUe der o^t- und wesifrdnkischen
Karolinger (2 vols,, Freiburg, 1848); Vrgmchickte
des menschtichen GeschiecJUs (2 vols,, Scbaffhausen,
1855); and Pap$t GregoHu^ VlL uTid sein Zeiitdier
(7 vols.^ Sctiaffhausen, 1859-^1; index vol,, 1864).
BiBLioomiii'Rt: P. Alberdin^lt Thijm, A. F. Qfrftr^ en ti/ur
iMrfeew, Huarlem, I870j KL* v. 67&-680.
GUILTS m THE OLD TESTAMENT: The pas-
sage!3 in the Old Testament where the word giant
or it^ equivalents occur may be difforentiftted into
two classes: (I) those which addu<?e sporadic cases
of exceptional stature or strength ^ against which
no a priori hiatoiical objection can lie (such as
I Sam. xvii.); (2) those in which a mythological or
early legendary character is clearly in evidence*
The first class requires no discussion here. In con-
sidering the second class preliminary notes of im-
portance are (1) that in the canonical i^Ti tings
there are but fugitive references to what waa
probably a much larger body of current folk-lore,
which entered literature cxtensi%^cly only in the
Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha (H. Gunkel, Gene-
sis^ G5ttingea, 1901, p. 52); and (2) that illumina-
tion is received from comparison with like myths of
other peoples.
In the Old Teestament two wortis convey the idea
of giants, NephUim (Gen. vi. 4, J; Num. xiii. 33,
JE), and RephaHm (Gen, xiv, 5, from a special
sovirce; Deut. ii. 10-12, 20, 21, iii. 11; U Sam. xxi,
16-21). The passage Gen. vi. 1^ stands alone in
the canonical writings in spe^ldjig of a race of
giants which sprang from a union of angels (" sons
of God/' the " watehers " of the Pseudepigraplia)
and women {'* daughters of men "). This narra-
tive ia an etiological myth accounting to the HebreTT
mind for the giants already known to common
folk-lore. Its motif is taken up in the pseudepi^
graphic literature, especially that which g;athered
about the nam© of Enoch. In the other pasea^jes
the terms Nephilim and Repha'im, used as ineluaivv
of Emim^ Zuzim, ^Analcim, and Morim^ mgnlff
the autochthonous Inhabitants of Palestiiie (in ita
larger sense of the region both east and west of the
Jordan), the predecessors of the Cajiaanites from
whom the Hebrews took the land. The philo-
togical notion underlying NepkUim is not satisfac*
torily determined. RephaHm is coiuected with ibe
word meaning " sliatte " or ** ghost," and thus fits
absolutely with the mythological refepences to the
extinct races supposed to have inliabited the land.
Other particulars agree with this Interpmtation.,
Thus the reference in Deut. iii. 11 to tlue bed (bett«r
** sarcophagus/* so Scbaff, Bihh IHctionartf, New
York, 1880) of Og, king of Bashan, probably a
coffin -shaped block of basalt {" iron "), is to be put
alongside similar objects elsewhere, such as the
Giant's Causeway, a name embcMlying a primitive
explanation of a strange feature of the Irish land-
scape.
In ethnic myths the earlier inhabitants of earth
are pictured as of more ttian human stature and
strength, and often as Uving beyond the usual spaa
of human life. Thus in India the first Jina is ^d
to have been 3,000 feet in height and to have lived
eight millions of years. Another characteristic of
these myths is that the gianta come into conAiet
mih the gods and are destroyed, Exarnplcs of
this are the Mardiik-Tiamat myth of Babylonia and
the Gigantomachia and Titanomacbia of Greece-
In Hebrew legend these characteristics ane sep-
arated; the lengthened span of life is assigned to
antediluvians in general, abnormal stature is at-
tributed to the prehistoric race in canonical literm-
ture, the contest of the giants with God appears
first in the Apocryyiha (Eeclus. xvi, 7) and developa
enormously in the pE^eudepigrapha. Wisd. of Sol.
xiv, 6 has a curious explanation of the «fur\^ival of
the flood by the giants, and rabbinic literature ex-
plains in equally grot esq vie fashion the siir\'ival
of Og, In such paseages as Barueh iii. 26-28^
HI Mace, ii, 4, Enoch vii. 2-4, and Jubilees vii. theaa
varied characteristics appear. The " sons of God **
were angels of high estate who fell, and the idea
was peqietuated and finds its exlieme expression
in Christian literature in Milton's Paradwe Lost.
It may be noted that among the Repha^im were
the Horim, generally explained as " troglodytes,"
and that excavations in Palestine as elsewhere shows
the cave-tiwellers to have been of low^ stature (see
Gezeh), Geo, W. OiiJkiOHii.
Biblicmhafht: J. L. Porler, GiarU CiHtM of BatAan, Heir
York, 1871; F. l^normoMtt Lea Oncnner de rhistmrr^ 3
voLh., riLrJci, ]^£S0-84. Kag- tmnat. erf voL j.. LoncJon, 18£);
E. Meyer, in ZATW, i (IgSl), 139, aad SchwaJly in the
name, xviii (1808), 127 »qq.; K. Builde* Die bibli§dim
Ur§^j€hi€h(Ji, pp. 30 iqq., Oiei^sen, 1SS3; H, E. Hyle, £<nfi
Nairativea of (lenrsi^^ London, IBP^; S. R. Drivrr, €mn-
metriary on DeultromMnj/, on Deut. iii. 11, New York, 18&S;
C, R, Brigus, Shidp of Holy Scripturt^ pp. 333-334, lb.
1899; DB, i. SO {'* Aiukim ">, ii. iee-16S, iii, 512 C'|tt«phi'
483
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Qfroerer
Gibbon
Urn "); EB, i. 161-162, iii. 3391 sqq.; JE, v. 656-658;
the literature on Enoch and Baruch under Fbeudepio-
BAPHA.
GIBB, JOHN: English Presbyterian; b. at
Aberdeen, Scotland, Dec. 14, 1835. He studied in
Aberdeen, Edinburgh, and Heidelberg, and after
being assistant minister at the Presbyterian church
at Malta 1863-67, was theological tutor in the
College of the Presbyterian Church in England,
London, 1868-77. Since 1877 he has been pro-
fessor of New Testament theology and ecclesiastical
history in Westminster College, Cambridge. He has
written Biblical Studies and their Influence upon the
Church (London. 1877) and Gudrun, Beawolfy and
the Song of Roland (1884), and has translated selec-
tions from Luther's " Table Talk " (London, 1883)
and St. Augustine's " HomiHos on the Gospel of
John " (Edinburgh, 1873), in addition to editing
the " Confessions " of St. Augustine in collabora-
tion with W. Montgomery (Cambridge, 1906).
GIBBON, EDWARD: The historian of the
Roman Empire; b. at Putney (7 m. w.s.w. of St.
Paul's, London), Surrey, Apr. 27, 1737; d. in
London Jan. 16, 1794. For his early training he
was indebted chiefly to his aunt, Catherine Porten,
from whom he received that taste for books which,
he says, was the pleasure and glory of his life. In
Jan., 1749, he entered Westminster School, but had
to leave it in Dec, 1750, on account of ill health.
A glance into Eachard's Roman History in 1751
started him on a wide course of historical reading.
In Apr., 1752, he entered Magdalen College, Ox-
ford, where he spent what he considered the four-
teen most unprofitable months of his life. His brief
career at Oxford was terminated by his temporary
conversion to Roman Catholicism, which was ac-
complished by Middleton's Free Enquiry (London,
1749) and works of Bossuet and the Jesuit Robert
Parsons (q.v.). On June 8, 1753, he was received
into the Roman fold by a Jesuit priest in London.
He at once acquainted his father with this fact,
who placed him first in the home of David Mallet, at
Putney, but sent him to Lausanne, Switzerland,
almost immediately to the care of M. Pavillard, a
Calvinistic minister, under whose tutelage Gibbon
quickly renounced Roman Catholicism. He returned
to England in August, 1758, and took up his abode
at Buriton, near Petersfield, Hampshire, whither
his father had removed in 1747. An attachment
which he had formed at Lausanne for Susanne
Cupchod, afterward Madame Necker and mother of
Madame de StaSl, was now broken off, owing to his
father's objection to the match. Gibbon's subse-
quent behavior toward Mile. Curchod was con-
demned by Rousseau. On June 12, 1759, he be-
came captain in the Hampshire militia. From May,
1760, to Dec., 1762, he was quartered in various
towns in the southern counties. He retained his
commission till 1770, becoming major and colonel
commandant. This experience gave him robust
health and a knowledge of military affairs that
stood him in good stead when he came to write of
the phalanx and legion. He had now published his
Essai sur VUude de la liUfraiure (London, 1761;
Eng. transl., 1764). From Jan., 1763, to June, 1765,
he traveled and studied on the Continent. " It
was at Rome," he says, " on Oct. 15, 1764, as I sat
musing amidst the ruins of the Capitol, while the
barefooted friars were singing vespers in the temple
of Jupiter that the idea of writing the decline and
fall of the city first started into my mind." Hav-
ing come into the possession of ample means on the
death of his father in 1770, he settled in London in
1772 and be^ to vmi^ The Decline and Fall of the
Roman Empire. In 1774 he became a member of
Dr. Johnson's famous literary club, and on Oct. 11
of that year he was returned to Parliament for
Liskeard, Cornwall. In Feb., 1776, he published the
first volume of the Decline and Fall, Its success was
as rapid as it has been lasting. To a number of
attacks provoked by the theological chapters Gib-
bon replied in a Vindication (1779). Early in 1779
he was employed by the ministry to write a Md-
moiro Justificatif (1779) in answer to a French
manifesto; and in the summer of 1779 he was given
the lucrative sinecure of commissioner of trades
and plantations, wliich he held till the office was
abohshed in 1782. In Apr., 1781, he published the
second and third volumes of his history. On June
25, 1781, he was returned to Parliament for Lym-
ington, that body having been dissolved Sept. 1,
1780. In Sept., 1783, he settled at Lausanne.
Near midnight of the 27th of June, 1787, sitting in
the summer-house in his garden, he wrote the last
sentence of his monumental work. The last three
volumes were published on his fifty-first birthday,
thus completing The UisUyry of tlie Decline and FaU
of the Roman Empire (6 vols., London, 1776-88; best
ed. by J. B. Bury, 7 vols., 1896-1900). Gibbon came
to London to see the work through the press, but
returned to Lausanne in July, 1788. He resided
there till Apr., 1793, when he returned to England
to visit his friend, Lord Sheffield, whose wife had
just died. His own death came unexpectedly,
following upon a series of operations for hydrocele.
He was laid in the burial-place of the Sheffield
family, Fletching, Sussex. Lord Sheffield published
his Miscellaneous Works (2 vob., London, 1796; 5
vols., 1814), which include his excellent autobiog-
raphy, Memoirs of my Life and Writings (ed. O. F.
Emerson, Boston, 1898; ed. G. B. Hill, London,-
1900; ed., with introduction, J. B. Bury, London,
1907). Sheffield's grandson, Earl of Sheffield, has
published the six different manuscripts from which
the Memoirs were compiled (London, 1896), and
also prefixed an introduction to Gibbon's Private
Letters (ed. R. E. Prothero, 2 vols., 1896).
The Decline and Fall, which covers the period
extending from about the middle of the second
century to the year 1453, has, by unanimous con-
sent, been placed in the very front rank of historical
works. For accuracy, thoroughness, lucidity, and
comprehensive grasp of a vast subject, it has never
been surpassed. While later researches have cor-
rected Gibbon in a few details, they have not
materially changed the picture drawn by him. His
work is perhaps the one history in English that may
be regarded as definitive. The only charge that
has ever been successfully brought against it is
that it betrays an unfriendly animus to Christianity;
but Gibbon had so little sympathy with the aims of
Gibbons
Oiohtel
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
484
the Church that it was not to be expected that he
would throw the mantle of charity over the foibles
and failings of churchmen. In regard to the famous
fifteenth and sixteenth chapters, which relate to
the rise and spread of Christianity, wherein its suc-
cess is explained by reference to secondary causes,
and the severity of its early trials declared to have
been overestimated, it may be remarked that Gib-
bon himself admitted that his array of secondary
causes left the question of the divine origin of Chris-
tianity untouched; and, now that the smoke of the
battle against this portion of the history has cleared
away, church historians allow the substantial just-
ness of ius main positions. In Gibbon's lifetime
the work was translated into German, French, and
Italian. It has also been translated, in part, into
Magyar, modem Greek, Polish, and Russian.
Bibliographt: Besides the Memoin and Private Lettera,
ut sup., consult the biography by J. C. Morison, in Eng-
lish Men of Lettert, London. 1878; that by S. Walpole.
Studies in Bioffraphy, New York, 1907; and DNB, xzi.
260-256.
GIBBONS, JAMES: Cardinal; b. at Baltimore,
Md., July 23, 1834. He received his early education
in Ireland, but returned to the United States in
1851, and lived for several years in New Orleans.
He studied at St. Charles' College, Ellicott City,
Md. (1855-57), and at St. Mary's Seminary, Bal-
timore (1857-^1). He was ordained priest in
1861, and after being assistant at St. Patrick's,
Baltimore, for a few months, was appointed rector
of St. Bridget's, Canton (a suburb of Baltimore),
where he remained until 1865. He was private
secretary to Archbishop Spalding 1865-68, and
was also chancellor of the archdiocese 1866-68.
He was assistant chancellor of the Second Plenary
Council of the American Roman Catholic Church
held at Baltimore in 1866, and in 1868 was conse-
crated titular bishop of Adraraytum and appointed
vicar apostolic of North Carolina. In 1872 he was
translated to the see of Richmond, Va., and after
five years became archbishop coadjutor with right
of succession to Archbishop Bailey of Baltimore.
Five months later he succeeded to the see, thus
becoming the primate of the Roman Catholic Church
in the United States. He presided over the Third
Plenary Council at Baltimore in 1884, and two
years later was created cardinal. On account of
his advancing years, Bishop Curtis, formerly of
Wilmington, Del., was appointed to assist him in
1896. He has written The Faith of our Fathers
(New York, 1871); Qur Christian Heritage (Balti-
more, Md., 1889); and The Ambassador of Christ
(1896).
GIBERTI, ji-bar'ti, GIOVAIfOT MATTEO: A
reforming prelate of the sixteenth century; b. at
Palermo 1495; d. at Verona Dec. 30, 1543. Being
appointed by Clement VII. apostolic datary, he
became a member of the Oratory of Divine Love
at Rome. In 1524 he wiis made bishop of Verona,
but he did not enter upon his episcopal duties until
1528. He endeavored to raise the educational and
moral standard of the clergy and to enforce the
discipline of the religious orders. In the work
Constitutiones ecdesiaUicm and in various treatises,
ordinances, and letters, he proposed far-reaching
measures of reform. But he was obstinately op-
posed by both the secular clergy and the religious
orders; and the famous Concilium de emendanda
ecdesia (1537), in whose authorship, besides Con-
tarini and Caraffa, Giberti was also concerned, pro-
duced no result. After entering upon his episcopal
duties, Giberti had one more important conmiission
outside his diocese, going to the Colloquy of Worms
(1540) as papal legate. It was intended that he
should act in a similar capacity at the Council of
Trent, but his sudden death prevented this. His
works were published in Verona 1733, 1740; his
official correspondence in Guicciardini, Opere t»-
ediie, iv., v (Florence, 1863). K. Benrath.
Bibliographt: A. von Reumont, Oesehichle der Stadt Ram,
vol. iii., part 2. passim, Berlin, 1870; Dittrich, in Ht*-
torisches Jahrbuch der Odrres-Gtsellschaft, vi (1886), 1-50;
Creighton, Papacy, vi. 278-291, 308-309.
GIBSON, EDGAR CHARLES SUMNER: Bishop
of Gloucester; b. at Southampton Jan. 23, 1848.
He studied at Trinity College, Oxford (B.A., 1870),
and Wells Theological College (1871-72), and was
ordained priest in 1872. He was chaplain of WeUs
Theological College 1871-74, vice-principal of the
same institution and curate of Dinder 1874-76,
lecturer at Leeds Clergy School 1876-80, principal
of Wells Theological College 1880-95, and vicar and
rural dean of Leeds 1895-1905. In 1905 he was
consecrated bishop of Gloucester. He was also
prebendary of Wells Cathedral 1880-1905, lecturer
on pastoral theology at Cambridge 1893-94, select
preacher at Oxford 1893-95, examining chaplain to
the bishop of Bath and Wells 1894-1904, honorary
chaplain to Queen Victoria 1901, chaplain in ordi-
nary to King Edward VII. 1901-05, Warburton
Lecturer of Lincoln's Inn 1903, and a member of the
Royal Conmiission on Ecclesiastical Discipline and
commissary to the bishops of North China and
Shan-tung 1904. In theology he is a liberal High-
churchman. He has written Northumbrian Saints
(London, 1884); Commentary on St. James in The
Pulpit Commentary (1886); Self-Discipline (1894);
The Thirty-Nine Articles Explained (2 vols., 1896-
1897); Commentary on the Book of Job (1898;) John
Howard (1901); and Messages from the Old Testa-
ment (1904). He also translated the works of
Cassianus for the Nicene and Post-Nicene Library
(Edinburgh, 1894) and edited George Herbert's
Temple (London, 1899).
GIBSON, EDMUND: Bishop of London; b. at
Bampton (24 m. s.s.e. of Carlisle), Westmoreland.
Dec, 1669; d. at Bath Sept. 6, 1748. He was
educated at Queen's College, Oxford (B.A., 1691;
M.A., 1694), where he was given a fellowship.
His early interest in Anglo-Saxon and British
antiquities led to a friendship with Archbishop
Tenison, who made him his domestic chaplain and
got him the librarianship at Lambeth. Through
Tenison's influence Gibson became lecturer at St.
Martin 's-in-t he-Fields, rector of Stisted in Essex
(1700), and rector of Lambeth (1703). He sided
with Tenison in the controversy between the two
houses of convocation and within three years pub-
lished ten tracts in support of the upper house.
He became archdeacon of Surrey in 1710, bishop of
485
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Gibbons
Olohtol
Lincoln in 1716, and bishop of London in 1723. For
years he was the intimate friend and chief adviser
of Sir Robert Walpoie in ecclesiastical matters.
His crusade against court masquerades and his
opposition to Walpole's Quakers' Relief Bill cost
bim the appointment to the archbishopric of Can-
terbury in 1737. Ten years later the archbishopric
was offered him, but he declined on accoimt of age
and infirmity. Besides tracts, sermons, and pas-
toral letters, some of which were directed against
deists, freethinkers, and Methodists, his principal
publications were, Synodu8 Anglicani^ or the Conn
stUtition and Proceedings of an English Convocation
(London, 1702: ed. E. Cardwell, Oxford, 1854),
which now forms the text-book for all proceedings
in convocation; Codex juris ecdesiastici Anglicani;
or the StaivieSf ConstUvixons, Canons^ Rvbrics^ and
Articles of the Church of England (2 vols., 1713), a
monument of research and still the highest au-
thority on church law; and A Preservative against
Popery (3 vols., 1734; ed. J. Cumming, 18 vols.,
1848-49; Supplement, 8 vols., 1849), a collection
of treatises on the subject by various eminent
EInglish divines.
Bxbuoorapht: Some Account of . . . Dr. E. Oibaon, Lon-
don, 1749 (by R. SmalbrokeT); W. Ck>xe, Memoin of
HoraHo Lord WalpoU, vol. ii.. London, 1808; A. k Wood.
Athena Oxonieneee, ed. P. Bliss, iv. 540, London, 1820;
DNB, xxi. 274-276; J. H. Overton and F. Relton, The
Englieh Church, . . . 17lJhiS00, pp. 90-120 et passim.
London, 1906.
GIBSON, JOHN MONRO : English Presbyterian;
b. at Whithorn (9 m. s. of Wigtown), Gallowayshire,
Scotland, Apr. 24, 1838. He studied at the Uni-
versity of Toronto (B.A., 1862) and Knox College,
Toronto, from which he was graduated in 1864.
He was classical tutor in Knox College 1864 and
pastor of Erskine Church, Montreal, 1864-74, as
well as lecturer in Old and New Testament exegesis
in the Presbyterian College, Montreal, 1868-74.
He was then pastor of the Second Presbyterian
Church, Chicago, 1874-80, and since 1880 has been
pastor of St. John's Wood Presbyterian Church,
London. He was moderator of the Synod of the
Presbjrterian Church of England in 1891 and presi-
dent of the National Council of Evangelical Free
Churches in England and Wales in 1898, of which he
was also honorary secretary 1898-1905. He is an
honorary secretary of the Religious Tract Society,
and in theology is a liberal Evangelical, although he
holds firmly to the cardinal truths of Christianity.
He has written Ages before Moses (New York,
1879) ; The Foundations (lectures on the evidences
of Christianity; Chicago, 1880); The Mosaic Era
(London, 1881); Rock versus Sand (1883); Pome-
granates from an English Garden (New York, 1885);
Christianity according to Christ (London, 1888);
T?ie Gospel according to St. Matthew in The Exposp-
tor's Bible (1890); Acts in PeapWs Bible History
(1895); Unity and Symmetry of the Bible (1896);
Frtm, Fact to Faith (1898); A Strong City and Other
Sermons (1899); The Glory of Life (1900); Apoca-
lyptic Sketches (1901); Protestant Principles (1901);
and The Devotional Study of Holy Scripture (1905).
GIBSON, MARGARET DUNLOP: English Ori-
entalist; b. at Irvine (22 m. s.w. of Glasgow), Ayr-
shire, Scotland. She was the daughter of John
Smith, solicitor, Irvine, Ayrshire, was educated at
private schools and by university tutors, and in
1883 married Rev. James Young Gibson, who died
three years later. She has visited Sinai five times,
and in company with her sister, Mrs. Agnes Smith
Lewis, has made important discoveries of Arabic
and Syriac manuscripts of the Bible, among them
the justly celebrated and important Sinaitic Syriac
codex of the Gospels, upon which both have done
excellent work. A rigid Presbjrterian and very
decidedly Protestant, she and her sister gave the
site for Westminster Theological College, Cam-
bridge, and laid its comer-stone in 1897. She has
edited An Arabic Version of St, Paul's Epistles to
the RomanSj Corinthians^ GalatianSy and Ephesians
(London, 1894); Apocrypha Sinaitica (1896); An
Arabic Version of the Acts of the Apostles and the
Seven Catholic Epistles (1899); The Palestinian
Syriac Lectionary of the Gospels (in collaboration
with Mrs. Lewis, 1899); Apocrypha Arabica (1901);
and The Didascalia Apostolorum (Syriac text and
translation; 2 vols., 1903); and has written, in
addition to a number of tracts, Catalogue of the
Arabic Manuscripts in the Convent of St. Catharine
on Mount Sinai (London, 1894).
GIBSON, ROBERT ATKINSON: Protestant
Episcopal bishop of Vii^inia; b. at Petersbui^, Va,,
July 9, 1846. After serving as a private in the
First Vii^ginia Artillery of the Confederate Army
1864-65, he was graduated at Hampden-Sidney
College in 1867, and at the Virginia Theological
Seminary in 1870. He became a missionary in
southern Virginia, 1870, assistant of St. James'
and curate of Moore Memorial Chapel, Richmond,
Va., 1872; rector of Trinity Church, Parkersbuig,
W. Va., 1878, of Christ Church, Cincinnati, O.,
1887. He was consecrated sixth bishop of Vir-
ginia, 1897.
GICHTEL, gtn'tel, JOHANN GEORG: German
ascetic and mystic; b. at Regensburg May 14,
1638; d. at Amsterdam Jan. 21, 1710. He was a
descendant of a Protestant family, and the religious
impulse was awakened in him at an early age. He
studied theology and history at Strasburg, but after
the death of his father he took up the study of law
and settled in Regensbui^ as a lawyer, but his
religious life received a new impulse through his
association with Justinian Ernst von Weltz (q.v.),
a Hungarian baron who was endeavoring to propa-
gate his ideas concerning a reformation of the
Church, a reconciliation between the Lutherans
and Reformed, and a revival of missionary activity.
They aroused the suspicion of the orthodox clergy,
however, and were denounced as fanatics. Weltz
now resolved upon a missionary tour to South
America and was accompanied by Gichtel as far
as Holland. There mysticism, the natural trend of
his religious development and disposition, claimed
him for his own, and Friedrich Breckling, a mystic
preacher in Zwolle, exerted a decisive influence
upon him.
The external church service now seemed to
Gichtel an obstacle to inner communion with God,
and he felt himself called to take up the battle
Oiohtel
OifltheU
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
486
against false church service, especially in Luther-
anism. After his return to Germany he addressed
to his native city a letter filled with violent accu-
sations against the clergy, whereupon he was im-
prisoned, deprived of all civic rights, and exiled.
In 1665 he began his w^anderings, and after a short
stay at the residence of Pistorius, a Pietistic preacher
of Gersbach in Baden, he went to Vienna to settle
some business affairs of Weltz. In 1667 he re-
turned to Zwolle, where Breckling employed him as
chaplain^ leader of the choir, and porter, but he
became involved in Breckling's dissensions with
his congregation and the consistory, and was exiled
from Zwolle and the whole province of Upper
Yssel. He spent the remainder of his life quietly
in Amsterdam, winning many converts to his views.
At first he earned his living by translating and
proof-reading, but renounced even this work as in-
compatible with the trust which leaves all care to
God.
Gichtel was opposed to sects of his time such as
Quakers, Mennonites, and Labadists, nor was it his
desire to found a sect. Violent dissensions arose
among his followers, and at last only two of his
friends remained — ^Isaak Passavant and Johann
Wilhehn Ueberfeld. After Gichtel's death, Ueber-
feld became the leader of his Dutch adherents,
while his followers in Hamburg and Altona were
headed by Johann Otto Gliising. Gichtel's wri-
tings were regarded by them as equal to the Bible,
and he himself was considered an elect instrument
of God. Traces of the sect were also found in Ber-
lin, Magdeburg, and Nordhausen.
In Amsterdam Gichtel became acquainted with
the works of B6hme, which he declared to be on a
par with the Bible, and his ideas were molded by
his study of this mystic, especially his discourses
on the struggle between the love and the wrath of
God, on creation, on the fall of Lucifer and Adam.
Like all the radical mystics of his period, he main-
tained a polemical attitude toward the established
Church and toward the Reformation, which in his
opinion had contented itself with the destruction
of popery without putting anything better in its
place, while with B5hme he shared the combination
of Pietism and a mystical conception of nature.
From his general contempt of learned writings were
excepted only works on science " because of the
light of nature." Gichtel strove to reduce the ideas
of B6hme to practicality, and for this reason he
rejected marriage, regarding it as unchastity in the
sight of God and as a perversion of the original order
of creation, advocating the priesthood of Mel-
chisedeck, and beUeving that man by prayer and
absorption into the death and blood of Jesus might
offer his soul as a sacrifice for others. With others,
especially with Alhardt de Raedt, a former pro-
fessor of theology in Haderwijk, and with the finan-
cial aid of Coenraad van Beuningen, mayor of
Amsterdam, Gichtel published the first complete
edition of B5hme's works (Amsterdam, 1682). His
own writings have been collected in seven volumes
under the title of Theosophia pradica (Leyden,
1722). (A. HEGLERf.) K. HOLL.
Biblioorapht: A life is contained in G. C. A. von Harless,
Jakob B6hme und die AlchymUUn, Leipsic. 1882; and the
Theoaoj^ia pracHca, Leyden, 1722, contains both his works
and a sketch of his life. Consult also: Ersch and Gruber.
Encyklttptidie, section 1, Ixv. 437 sqq.; ADB, ix. 147-150
GIDEON (Septuagint, Gedeon, also called Jervb-
baal): One of the " Judges of Israel." He was a
son of Joash, and one of the great liberators of
Israel. He made an end of the predatory excur-
sions of the Midianites, who, like modem Arabs,
regularly invaded the country before the harvest
and carried away the produce. Judges vi.-viii.
gives in detail his call in his native city Ophrah
(the modem Far'ata, southwest from Nablus?), his
experience, his preparation for the fight, his vic-
tory gained with help of a small band by surprising
the enemy, his pursuit of the enemy over the Jor-
dan and his second victory over the Midianite kings.
On theocratic principles he refused the royal crown
offered to him, a fact apparently confirmed by the
ancient parable of Jotham. With the booty he
made an ephod (Yahweh-image or oracle-dress, see
Ephod), which according to the narrator caused
the destruction of his house, through his son Abime-
lech, who killed the seventy sons of Gideon after
the father's death. The name Jembbaal is ex-
plained from a national standpoint vi. 31-32.
Robertson Smith reads the verse differently (Rel.
of Setn., pp. 162-163) as " the man who wars with
Baal (provided Baal is a god) must die before (the
next) morning.'' There are Arabic parallels for
this. Originally the name may have meant:
"Great or strong is the Lord (Yahweh or Baal?)."
In order not to mention Baal, the name was after-
ward called Jembbosheth (II Sam. xi. 21).
In this narrative Gideon appears a hero of royal
stature, devoted to his people, of bold, enduring
fortitude and yet humble before God and free from
vain ambition before men. Criticism has made it
probable that the narrative which treats of him is
a composite from dififerent sources and contains
besides the interpolations of the Deuteronomic
redactor and later additions. Distinction is made
between two main sources which the redactor of
the book combined. To one narrative belong the
history of Abimelech (chap, ix.) and viii. 4-21 (ex-
cept the numbers in v. 10); and to the other (esti-
mated as somewhat later) belong vi. 2-6a, 13-25;
viii. 1-3, 24-27a. The section attribut<ed to the
first can not be an older version of the events
recorded vi. 2-viii. 3. One would rather suppose
that the stories of two campaigns of Gideon, a west-
Jordanic and East-Jordanic, are united in the pres-
ent naiTative. Since in both narratives the house
of Abiezer is especially mentioned, Studer and Well-
hausen have supposed that the campaign of Gideon
according to the original record was undertaken as a
family blood-feud (viii. 18-19), whereas the rein-
forcements of the other tribes and the lessening of
the force to 300 are later additions. But the char-
acteristic narratives vii. 1 sqq. are certainly not by
the redactor, and seem to have good parentage.
While the religious motive appears in these narra-
tives, there is no reason for regarding them as much
later than the time they treat. That Gideon's
achievement was regarded as memorable and as one
of God's greatest deeds of deliverance is shown by
Isa. ix. 4, X. 26; Ps. Ixxxiii. 11. C. von Orelu.
487
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Glohtal
OifltheU
BifiLiooRAfllT^ The sectione in lh« acuoynti of the ki story
of taraeL as given under Ai]jia» tbe AppropnaCe iecrtJonA
iti the tsommeatairies on Judges {tfce Judges}, ofipecinny
tiarjse by Berthenu, Budd« and Moore, nod DB^ ii. 17 1- 172;
EB. ii. 1719-22; JE, v. 660-662; R, Kjttel Studien lur
hetraischm. Arch&ci&gie, i. 97-1Q4, Leipdic, 1908.
GIESEBRECHT, g!"55e^fonjHt, FRIEDRICH WIL-
HELM KARL: Gemum Protestaiit. ; b. at Kon-
topp (50 m. s.w. of Posen) July 30, 1S52. He stud-
ied in Erktigen and Halle (Ph.D., 1876), and from
1876 to 1879 waa in charge of the oouraes in Old
Testament exegesis and adjunct at the royal eemi-
naiy for canons at Berlin. In 1S79 he beoame pri vat-
dooent at Gretfswald, and was appointed assoeiate
professor of Old Testament exegesis in the same
university in 1883. In 1895 he was niiide honorary
professor there, and sin<^ 1898 has been professor
of the same subject at Konigsberg, He has written
Di£ hthriihche Frapostiwn Lamed (Halle, 1876);
Der Wendepunki des Buckea Hiob (Berlin, 1879);
Bettrage tur Jesaia^Kniik (Gtittingen, 1890); Daa
Such Jercmias fibfraetzi und erkldri (1893); Die
Berufsbegabung der alUeManwiUtichert Prophelen
(1897); Die Ge&chichUt^hkeit des SinathundeB
(Kftnigsberg, 1900); Die aUiestamenUichc Schdiz-
ung d€^ GtMerniamewt (1901); Der ** Knechi Juh-
vtM " des Deuter&jeaaia (1902); Friedefiir Babel und
Bibel (1903); Grund^iige der iwaeliiucken Religiona-
geschichte (Leipeic, 1904); Die Me^h Jerem^ias (G6t*
tingen, 1905); and commentary on Jeremiah in
Hand-Kommeniar zum. Alien Testatmrnt (1907)*
GIESELER, gf'M!-ler, JOHAKN KARL LUDWIG:
Church histonaD; b, at Pclershag^n (on ih& Weser,
35 m. w. of Hanover), Prussia, Mar. 3, 1792; d. at
Gottingen July S, 1854. He attended the Latin
school of the Orphans' House at Halle and the
University of Halle, In 1812 he became coUabora*
tor in the Latin school, but the following year
joined the German army at the outbreak of the
war of liberation. In 1814 he resumed his activity
as teacher, in 1S17 he became doctor of philosophy
and eonrector at the gymnasium of Minden, 1818
director of the gymnasium at Cleves, and 1819
professor of theology at Bonn. In 1831 he went
to G5ttingen where he showed administrative
talents besides ability as scholar and teacher. His
lecture treatec! church history, history of dogma
and dogmatii^. Several times he was prorector of
the university, he served on different oommissionH,
and was member of the Gdttinger Geselbchaft der
Wisftenaehaften; as curator of the orphans' home,
he displayed much practical benevolence, and he
was an active freemason. His principal work k
hk Lehrbuch der KirehengeitcJtichlef one of the most
remarkable productions of German learning, dis-
tioguiahed by erudition, accuracy, and careful selec~
tion of passages from the sources, given in foot-
notee. The first volume appeared at Darmstadt in
1824; the fifth and last; containing his lecturea,
and treating the period after 1814, at Bonn, 1857.
An English translation from the earlier editions by
F* Cunningham, was published at Philadelphia in
three volumes, in 1836; another, from the last
edition by S, Davidson ^ in five volumes at Edin-
burgh, 1848-56 (revised and edited by H. B. Smith
and Mary A, Robinson, New York, 1867-81)* The
work is characterized by the fundamental principle
that every age or period can be understood only in
so far as we allow it to speak for itself; the chief
task of the historian is to judge objectively and
from the sources. His main strength lies therefore
in the careful observation of details rather than m
a gra^p of the unity of events. His standpoint has
been characterized as that of a historico-critical
rationalism. Of his other writings may be meU'
tioned : Versttch iibcr die EntMehuTtg und die fruhes-
ten Schi^kmte der ^hri/tHchen Bt^angdien (Leipstc,
1818), against the hypothesis of a primal Aramaic
UremngeUum; Ucher den Reichstag ^u Augisburg im
Jakre ISSO (Hamburg, 1821); St/mbolee ad hiMmiam
rrmmMlerii Lacensis (Bonn, 1826) ; an edition of the
history of the Manicheans of Petriia Siculus (GOt-
tlngen, 1846} and other works devoted to ancient
or medieval church history. He treated of modem
church history in RUckblick auf die theologischen
Rictdungen der leizten funfzig Jahre (GSttingen,
1837), and U^terdie LehninMche Weismgung (1849)*
(N. Bonwetsch)
BiBLioaBAPwrr A sketch of Giemhr'n life by E. R. Reepeu^
nin^ Ja to the last vol. of the Kir^en^adiirhte, iLtid w-Mdb.
a Bketeh m In vol. i. of the Atn^ rd., Nevr York. 1868*
Canaulti F. Oewterley, O&chichteder Univtrnliit 06ttin4fmtt
pp. 41Q mm., Guttingen, 1S3B; ADB» is. 163 niq.
GIFFORD LECTURES: One of the most im-
portant lectureships yet created. Its founder was
Adam, Lord Gifford of Edinburgh {d. 1887), an
able Scotch jurist and judge of the Court of Sessions,
noted not only for his knowledge of jwrisprudenoe,
but also for hia interest in Uterature and philosophy.
By his will, recorded in the year of his death, the
sum of £80,000 was bequeathed to found a lecture
ship in Natural Theology at each of the Scotch
universities, £25,000 going to Edinburgh, £20,000
each to Glasigow and Aberdeen, and £15^000 to St,
Andrews. The terms of the foundation are note-
worthy in that the lectures " may be of any relig-
ion or way of thinking, or (as is sometimes said)
they may be of no religion, or they may be so-called
skepticii or agnostics, or freethinkers." The sole
qualification is ability to deal as specialists in
Natural Theology in the widest eense of the term
as a *' strictly natural science." The freest re-
search is allowed, without regard to tradition or
established belief. The first lectures were delivered
at Edinburgh, Glasgow, and St. Andrews in 1888,
and at Aberdeen in 1889. Some of the moat noted
scholars of the century have taught on this foun-
dation, among them John and Edward Caird and
Andrew Lang of Scotland, F. Max MiSUer and
E. B, Tylor of England, Otto Pflctderer of Germany,
C. P. Tiele of Holland, Emile Boutroux of France,
R. A. Lanciani of Italy, and Josiah Royce of the
United Slates. A full list of the lecturers and their
subjects up to 1906 is given in L. H. Jordan, Com-
jtaraiive Religion, pp. 570-571, New York, 1905.
GIFFTHEIL, gift'hail, LUDWIG FRIEDRICHs
An enth«.^iast of the seventeenth century; d. at
Amsterdam 1661. He was the son of an abbot in
Wtirttemberg, and became noted for his fanatical
declamations against the established Church. His
literary activity belongs to the period of the Thirty
Gifts
OlUaflpie
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
48d
Years' War. He stood in connection with Fried-
rich Breckling (q.v.) and other persons of the same
description, published letters of warning to the
rulers of Saxony and Brandenbivg, Denmark and
Sweden, England and Holland, Spain and France,
and to Cromwell, whom he styled *' field-marshal
of the devil," while he called himself commander-in
chief of the Lord Sabaoth. He published many
works in liatin, German, English, and Dutch, which,
like his actions, betray a passionate and vehement
temperament. (F. W. Dibeuus.)
Bxblxoorapht: Q. Arnold, Unparteii9che KircKen^- und
Ketaer-Hiatorie, iii., ohap. z.; iv., sect, iii., no. 18. 4 vols.,
Frankfort, 1700-16.
GIFTS, SPIRITUAL. See Charismata.
GILBERT, gil'bert, GEORGE HOLLEY: Con-
gregationalist; b. at Cavendish, Vt., Nov. 4, 1854.
He was graduated at Dartmouth College in 1878,
Union Theological Seminary in 1883, and the Uni-
versity of Leipsic (Ph.D., 1885). He was profes-
sor of New Testament literature in Chicago Theo-
logical Seminary 1886-1901. He has written The
Poetry of Job (Chicago, 1888); The Student's Life
of Jesus (New York, 1899); The Student's Life
of Paul (1899); The Revelation of Jesus (1900);
The First Interpreters of Jesus (1901); A Primer of
the Christian Religion (1902); and A History of the
Apostolic Age (Chicago, 1906).
GILBERT, zhil^bftr', DE LA PORREE, p«r"r6'
(QiJhertus Porretanus): Bishop of Poitiers; b. at
Poitiers 1070; d. there Sept. 4, 1154. He studied in
the episcopal school of Poitiers, then in Chartres un-
der Bernard of Chartres, whose realistic Platonism
he appropriated. In Paris he heard first William
of (}hampeaux, then his pupil and opponent Abe-
lard, in Laon the famous theologians Anselm and
Radulf. In knowledge he stood far above the
average of the scholarship of his time. From 1125
to 1136 he was chancellor and presiding officer in
the cathedral school in Chartres; in 1137 he be-
came teacher of dialectics and theology in Paris;
in 1141 he removed to his native city as leader of
the episcopal school, and in 1142 he became also
bishop. Two zealous archdeacons of his church
denounced him in Rome for heresies in regard to
the Trinity, and Bernard of Clairvaux became one
of his chief opponents. Pope Eugenius III. post-
poned the decision to a council to be held in Reims
in 1148. Gilbert was asked to furnish an authentic
copy of his commentary on the De trinitate of
Boetius. There were extracted from it foiu* assail-
able sentences for the council at Reims, according
to which he taught (1) that the divine essence was
not God; (2) that the attributes of the persons
were not the persons themselves; (3) that the theo-
logical persons could not be predicated in any
proposition (it would be wrong to say, for instance,
that God is the Father); (4) that the divine nature
was not incarnated. In knowledge of the Fathers
and in dialectics Gilbert was far superior to his
opponents, also to Bernard. The latter set up a
confession of faith in opposition to Gilbert, but the
cardinals were against him. Bernard had to
humble himself, although the pope approved his
confession in a general way. Gilbert agreed to
purify his manuscripts from errors, and after
reconciliation with his opponents returned to
Poitiers where he administered his diocese undl
his end, much respected as a teacher; but he does
not seem to have corrected his book. Gilbert's
philosophy is a consistent realism, combined with
the dialectic method of Aristotle. To the mystics
he naturally appeared as the champion of a dan-
gerous rationalism. Walter of St. Victor called
him one of the " four labyrinths of France." But
the earnest and solid character of the man, his
devotion to the Church, and his personal piety are
a guaranty that his doctrine and activity were not
destructive although he asserted the right to lib-
erty of scientific investigation. (R. ScHMint.)
Biblioorapht: Qilbert's Commentary on the writtngi ot
Boetius are in MPL, bdv., his Principia and three letten
are in MPL, clxxxviii. The writings of Gaufredus. secre-
tary to Bernard of Clairvaux against Gilbert are in MPL,
cUxxv. Consult: Otto of Freising. OeUorum Friderid I.
libri, book i.. chaps. 48. 50-61, in MOH, Script., xz (1868),
338-401; Hiatoire litUraire de la France, vol. xii.; Ber-
thaud, Gilbert de la Porrie , . , et aa phUoaophie, Paris,
1802; Ceillier. Auteura aaerSa, ziv. 342 sqq., 111»-2Q,
X. 654-666; KL, v. 500-601.
GILBERT, ga'bert (GUILBERT), SAINT, OF
SEMPRIN6HAM: Founder of the order of Gil-
bertines, or Sempringham Canons (Qrdo GUber-
tinorum canonicorum, Ordo Sempringensis); b. at
Sempringham (20 m. s.s.e. of Lincoln), Lincoln-
shire, England, about 1083; d. there Feb. 4, 1189.
He was educated at Paris, and after being ordained
to the priesthood in 1123 became parish priest at
Sempringham and Tyrington. In 1135 he founded
a house for seven destitute giris, who lived in strict
seclusion, and after several other houses of the same
type had been established, he requested Pope
Eugene VII. to unite his foundations with the Cis-
tercian order. The pope declined, however, and
Gilbert then built houses for canons near the nun-
neries, separating the two with the utmost strict-
ness. The canons were placed under the rule of
St. Augustine, and the nuns under that of St. Bene-
dict, but while the control of the entire community
was vested in the hands of the monks, the nuns
were regarded as owning the property of the order.
To all the houses, which soon contained 2,200
monks and several thousand nuns, were attached
almshouses, hospitals, orphanages, and similar
institutions. Gilbert reached the age of 106 years,
and was canonized by Innocent III. in 1202. The
order of Gilbertines was suppressed by Henry VIII.,
after it had come to number twenty-two double
convents. It never spread outside of England.
In its system of double convents the order offers a
partial parallel to the order of Fontevraud (q.v.),
while the employment of lay brothers to attend the
monks and of lay sist-ers to attend the nuns recalls
the religio quadrata of Cluny. (O. ZOcKLERf.)
Bibliograpbt: Sources: The authoritative life, by a mem-
ber of his order, is in W. Dugdale, Monaaticon AmHieanum,
vol. vi..pp. i.-xcix. following p. 945 in the ed.of Londoc
1817; two shorter lives are in ASB, Feb., i. 667-573;
Walter Mapes, De nugia curicUium diaUncHonea, ed. T
Wright for the Camden Society, London. 1850; Ralph de
Diceto, Opera hiatcrica, ed. W. Stubbs, no. 68 of RoUi
Series, 1876; the works of St. Bernard of Clairvaux (q.v.).
Consult: Helyot, Ordrea monaatiquea, ii. 188 sqq.; A.
Butler, Livea of the Fathera, Martyra, Feb. 4th; DNB, zzi
4Sd
REUQIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Gifts
OillMpie
325^317; Earn OrahuD, Sl G^mt of SempnnoHam, and
GILO) AS, Gallc!d tb« Wise: Author of the oldest
hislorical work of Christian Britajn, the De excidio
d c&nquestu Britanni(E ac fkbUi ecatigalwt^ in tegeM,
priacipes et sm^rdoiet^ quoting tlie title from oue
of the latest editors ^ Tbeodor Momm^n, It ia
sometimes called the ''Querulous Book/' and was
divided by an early editor^ Thomas Gale, without
good ra&Bon, into two parts, a Hhtorva and an
EpUtida. A tenth century chronicle puts the
death o! Gildas in 570. All otlier traditions about
him, including hia visits to Brittany and Ireland,
are doubtful. He states himself, according to the
moat probable interpretation of a corrupt paesage
of his work (MGH, Aud. ani., xin, 3, chap, xxvi,,
Chronica minora^ p. 40, U. 16-20), that ha was bom
in the year of the battle of Mount Badon [and that
tliis occurred in the forty-fourth year before the
time of writing. Hence it has been inferred that
he was bom in 493 and wrote c. 537], but the date
of the battle of Mount Badon is uncertain. Less
doubtful is the inference that the work was written
before 547 (cf. chaps, xxxiii. sqq.). And beyond
question the author was a well-inf ormed t HomaniEed
Brit'On, notwithstanding his clumsy Latin » who
judged his countrymen with a monk's severity and
criticised them with ruthless zeal [cf. W. Bright,
Early Englkh Church HtAk^, Osrford, 1897, 24,
30-32]. Other wiitiniss are ascribed to Gildaa,
but without good authority. [He was a popular
saint in Brittany and was the reputed fouJader of
a monastery at Ruys, which became famous as the
place of retirement of Abelard. His work has
historical value chiefly from the absence of anything
better.] (P. Loofs,)
Biblidqb^pst: Tlifl work of Gildu ji in MPL. Ixix. 327-302;
with the exoepljon of cbapp. li -igevi., it Ib in H»ddan and
Btubbii^ CouncUM. L 34-107. The be«t editioiui are by
T, Uommsen in MQH, AmcL unL, idli. 3« Chronica minora
tfflc- lT.~tfii.. p«Jt 3 (1S&8), l-liO; and by H. Willi Mm,
nilh tr&EuL, LoQdoD. 1899. There !■ ao EnjE. iTtLaal. by
Gibflt Lobdoti, tS41, reprittted in Boba'a Aniitp*anan
Library, vol. iv. The life of Gildu by the monk of Ruys
is in ABM, i. I3a-130. teas fully in ASB, Jan,, iii. 573-574.
Two liven ly^ Kivetii by J. A. GU^a. V'da ipaommhm ,4nflto-
Sa^onufrh London, 1854, For edticiiin Hjaault : T. Af omm-
HOp ut iup.. pp. 1-24. ei-llO; C. G. Sch&U. Dn tade-
noaliev Briforum ScoiorumquM hUiariit foi^buM^ Berlin,
Igfil; X OH anion, Livta of Ihe Iri»ti Saintt, L 471-404,
Dublin, 1875; A. de la Borderie, La Z)al« de la nainana
d* Gildat, in Sevtut C^HQue, vi (1833-85), 1-13; A, Ana-
combe, SL GildoM of Buu* and triah RrQal Ckrofwli>gv of
Ih4 Siitk Century, London, 1893: H. dimmer, NmnitiM
mndi4-ahiM. Berlin, ISaS; J. Briel, Saint Gildta, abbi d*
Rhuy*. Vann^a, 1903; DNB, xxi,S44-346.
GILEAB. See Perjea,
GILES (GILLES), jli {Fr.] or jails [EngJ (Lat
^giditig), SAUft: A saint of great repntation
from the mn th century on ward , Apparently he spent
some tune in Ptovence as a hermit, and waa then
at the head of a monaatery founded by him, in
the vicinity of which a town named after him Saint-
Giiles sprang up (11 m, e.B.e. of NImes), As the
brief of Benedict IT. in favor of hii monaatery dated
Apr, 26, 685 (Jalffi, Regexta, 2127), ia a forgery,
there are no certain faeU for his biography. Hia
festival h Sept. 1. (A, Hauck,)
Biht40omAPHt: Thtt gubjeet ia wdl di««U0Hed in DCB^ L 47^
40. The early life wiib cammeELtuyiBia ASB, S^pl.. i,
284-304; tbe Mitvcuia ftre b«pt Eiven tn Anaitcia Bol-
ianHiana. ix. 303-422, Faiisi, 1S90; and the ljf« by WilUiLm
of liefntvilb ia publi^bed by Q. Pada, and A, Bos« Paria;,
tSSl. Ccinntilt: J de Kervol, Vis td ?u/Jtf ds S. Giile*,
he M&iiii. 1875; E. Rembiy, S, GUia, h vif, «ev reliqua^
won cuU^, 2 voIa., Bruges 1371^2.
GUFILLAN, GEORGE : Clergyman of the
United Presbyterian Chureh of Scotland; b. at
Comrie (20 ni, w, of Perth), rerthHlitre, Jan, 30,
1S13: d. at Amludtp Brechin (S m. w. of Montrose),
Aug. I'A, 1878, He atudied at the Dniveiigities of
Glasgow and Edinburgh, and fmni 1S36 till hia
death was pastor of the School^Wynd church at
Dundee, He was a zealous worker for the cause of
liberal and progressive thought, and waa active in
the promotion of mocbanica' inatituteai free libra-
ries, and popular lectures. He brought to Dundee
such lecturers as R. W, Emen^on, Samuel Brown,
and John Nicol the astronomer, and himself
delivered several courses of popular lectures, Gil-
fUlan is be.st known as a man of letters. Altogether
he published more than a hundred booka and pam-
phlets, indudlng various critical editions of the poeta,
Hi8 most important worka are, Hrnte^, or the Vn^
t«n (Dundee, 1842), a sermon that 'was attacked
by John Eadie and Alexander Balfour; A GoMery
t>l Liierary Portraits (Minbiirgh, 1845; 2d ser,, 1850;
M ser., 1854) J Bar(h and the Bit^k (1S51); Chria-
tianOy and Our Era (1857); Alpha and Omega (2
vols., London, 1860); NigM : a Poem (1867);
Modem Christiart Herom (1869), and Mariyra and
Heroea of ihe ScgUM Covenant (7th ed., 1903),
Beblioobapht: DNB, xicj, 352-353.
GILGAMESH, See BAnYLOWtA, VII., 3, f 2.
GILLj JOHK: Engliah Baptiat, Biblical scholar;
b. at Kettering (14 m, n.n.e. of Northampton),
Northamptonshire, Nov. 23, 1597; d. at Camber-
well (2 m, s. of St, Paul's, London) Oct. 14, 1771.
He attended the Kettering grammar-ichool for a
short time, became pastor at Highara Ferrers in
1718. and in 1719 entered upon a pastorate of fifty-
two years at HorsJeydown, South wark. In 1748
he received the degree of D.D. from the ITniveraity
of Aberdeen. He was a profound scholar and a
voluminous author. His moat important works are,
The Doctrine of the Triniiy StaJted and Vindicated
{London, 1731); The Cause of God and Truth
(4p^ts, 1735-38), an able answer to Whitby's Five
Points ; An Expoaiiion of ihe Kcw Testament (3
voia., 1746-48), which with hia Ea^poaUion of the
Old Testament (6 vols., 1748^63) fonns his magnumr
opua (best ed., 9 vols., Philadelphia, 1811-lQ^; ako
A Dissertation on ihe AMtquUy of the Hetfrew Lan-
guage (1767); A Body of Doctrinal DivinUy (1767);
and A Body of Practical Diviniiy (1770),
BiBLitoo kaput: J, Rippon, Brief Memoir of the Life and
Wriiinffi of . . . John Gill Loadoa, 1838; DNB, %id. B5&,
GILLESPIE, GEORGE : Scotch Presbyterian;
b, at Kirkcaldy (11 m, n, of Edinburgh) Jan, 21,
1613; d. there Dec, 16, 1648, After his graduation
from the Univereity of Bt. Andrews he became
cliaplain to John Gordon, and in 1634 chaplain to
John Kennedy. He became pastor of the parish
of Wemyss in 1638, and of Oreyfriars Church,
QUlespie
Oirald de Barri
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
490
Edinburgh, in 1642. He preached before Charles I.
at Hoiyrood Sept. 12, 1641, and received a pension
from Charles Nov. 16. In 1643 he was chosen a
member of the Westminster Assembly. Though
the youngest member of that body he proved to be
one of its ablest debaters. He took his leave of the
Assembly July 16, 1647. A few weeks later he
presented the confession of faith to the General
Assembly at PMinburgh and secured its ratification.
In Sept., 1647, he was elected to the High Church
of Edinburgh, and in 1648 he was moderator of the
General Assembly. His writings, which are almost
entirely controversial, include an anonymous
DisptUe against the English Popish Ceremonies
Obtruded upon the Church of Scotland (n.p., 1637),
of which the Scottish privy council ordered all
copies to be collected and burned; An Assertion of
the Government of Scotland (1641); and Aaron*s
Rod Blossoming ; or, the Divine Ordinance of Church-
Government Vindicated (London, 1646). His works
were edited, with a memoir, by W. M. Hetherington
(2 vols., Edinburgh, 1843-46).
Biblioorapht: Sources are: R. Wodrow, Hiat. of the Suf-
feringa of the Church of Scotland, 2 vols., Edinburgh, 1829-
1830; idem. AnaUcta, Glasgow, 1842; Hew Soot, Fasti
eccleeicB ScoticancB, 5 parts, London, 1871. Consult: W.
M. Hetherington, Hiat. of Church of Scotland, pp. 182-197,
New York, 1881; DNB, jod. 359-361 (where other lit-
erature is indicated).
GILLESPIE, GEORGE DE NORMANDIE: Prot-
estant Episcopal bishop of Western Michigan; b.
at Goshen, N. Y., June 14,1819; d. at Grand Rapids,
Mich., Mar. 19, 1909. He was graduated at the
General Theological Seminary in 1840, was ordered
deacon, 1840, and ordained priest 1843. He was
rector of St. Mark's, Leroy, N. Y. (1843-45), St.
Paul's, Qncinnati, O. (1845-51), Zion, Palmyra,
N. Y. (1851-61), and St. Andrew's, Ann Arbor,
Mich . ( 1861 -75) . In 1875 he was consecrated bishop
of the newly created diocese, of Western Michigan.
He wrote The Season of Lent (New York, 1877).
Bibliography: W. S. Perry, The Episcopate in America,
New York, 1896.
GILLESPIE, THOMAS: Founder of the Relief
Church in Scotland; b. at Clearburn (2 m. e. of
Edinburgh) 1708; d. at Dunfermline (16 ra. n.w.
of Edinburgh) Jan. 19, 1774. He studied at the
University of Edinburgh, then attended Dod-
dridge's academy at Northampton, where he was
ordained Jan. 22, 1741. On Sept. 4 following he
was admitted to the parish of Camock, near Dun-
fermline. For refusing to take part in the settle-
ment of a minister who was opposed by the people
he was deposed by the General Assembly in May,
1752. After preaching to large open-air meetings
during the summer he settled in Dunfermline the
following winter and formed an independent con-
gregation there. In 1761 he joined Thomas Boston
(the younger), independent minister at Jedburgh,
in ordaining a minister over the parish of Colins-
burgh. On Oct. 22, 1701, the three congregations of
Dunfermline, Jedburgh, and Colinsburgh formed
themselves into a presbytery for the rehef of Chris-
tians deprived of their church privileges. The
Relief Church thus established united with the
Secession Church in 1847, the two forming the
United Presbyterian Church of Scotland (see Pres-
byterians). Gillespie's posthumous Treatise an
Temptation was edited by J. Erskine (Edinburgh,
1774).
Biblioorapht: W. Lindsay, Life of T. Gillespie, el J.
Harper. Edinburgh, 1849; G. Struthera, Hisi. of tht Rise
. . . of the Relief Chur<^, Glaaeow, 1843; Hew 3cott«
Fasti ecdesicB ScoHcanas, iv. 580, London, 1871 ; DNB, xzi.
365-366.
GILLETT, jil'let, CHARLES RIPLEY: Presby-
terian; b. in New York aty Nov. 29, 1855. He
studied at New York University (B.A., 1874; A.M.,
1876), Union Theological Seminary (1877-80), and
the University of Berlin (1881-83). He was libra-
rian of Union Theological Seminary, 1883-1908,
as well as instructor in theological encyclopedia
since 1893 and secretary of the faculty since 1898.
He became registrar in 1908, and since 1900 has
been temporary curator in the department of Ori-
ental Antiquities in the Metropolitan Museum, New
York City. He was Hterary editor of the Magazine
of Christian Idterature, 1891-97, and besides com-
piling the general catalogue of Union Theological
Seminary (New York, 1886, 1898) and catalogues
of the Egyptian antiquities in the Metropolitan
Museum and of the stone sculptures in the Cesnola
collection of the same institution (1896), he wrote
the third volume of the Descriptive Atlas of the
Cypriote Antiquities in the Metropolitan Museum of
AH (New York, 1903), and translated A. Hamack's
Das Mimchtum, seine Ideate und Geschichte (New
York, 1895) and G. E. Krttger's Geschichte der
altchristlichen Literc^r in den ersten drei Jahrkun-
derten (1897).
GILLETT, EZRA HALL: American Presby-
terian; b. at Colchester, Conn., July 15, 1823; d.
in New York CSty Sept. 2, 1875. He was graduated
from Yale in 1841, and from the Union Theological
Seminary in 1844. He was pastor of a Presby-
terian church in Harlem (New York City) from
1844 to 1868, when he became professor of political
economy, ethics, and history in New York Univer-
sity. Besides numerous articles in the American
Theological Reinew, the Presbyterian Quarterly, the
Historical Magazine, and other periodicals, his
publications include. The Life and Times of John
Huss (2 vols., Boston, 1861); History of the Pres-
byterian Church in the United States (2 vob., Phila-
delphia, 1864); God in Human Thought (2 vols..
New York, 1874); and The Moral System (1874).
GILLIN, JOHN LEWIS: Dunker; b. near Hud-
son, la., Oct. 12, 1871. He studied at Upper Iowa
University, Fayette, la. (Lit.B., 1894), Iowa Col-
lege, Grinnell, la. (B.A., 1895), Union Theological
Seminary (B.D., 1904), and Columbia l-niversity
(Ph.D., 1906). From 1895 to 1901 he was pastor
of the Brethren church at Waterloo, la., and since
1905 has been connected with Ashland College,
Ashland, O., first as professor of church liistory and
social sciences (1905-06), lat^r as president (since
1906). He was also moderator of the General Con-
ference of his denomination in 1904-06. In theology
he is, " in general terms, a modified Ritschlian,"
and has written The Dunkers : A Sociological
Interpretation (New York, 1906).
401
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Gillespie
Giraldr
deBarri
GILMORE, gil'mar, GEORGE WILLIAM : Con-
gregationalist; b.in London May 12, 1857. He was
educated at Princeton University (A.B., 1883) and
Union Theological Seminary (1886), and in 1886 was
appointed by the United States Commissioner of
£>iucation, at the request of the king of Korea, to
found the Royal Korean College at Seoul, Korea.
He remained in Korea with that institution imtil
1889, and after his return to the United States
taught in the Brooklyn Polytechnic Institute and
in private schools till 1893. He was then succes-
sively instructor in English Bible (1893-95) and
professor of Biblical history and lecturer on com-
parative religion (1895-99) in Bangor Theological
Seminary, Bangor, Me., after which he was pro-
fessor of Old Testament language and literature
and the history of religion in Meadville Theo-
logical School from 1899 to 1906. Since 1905 he
has been a member of the editorial staff of the New
Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge,
to which he has contributed the main portion of its
bibUography and numerous articles, especially on
comparative religion. In addition to many studies
in scientific and theological periodicals and book-
reviews on Old Testament subjects and comparative
rehgion, he has written Korea from its Capilal
(Philadelphia, 1892) and The Johannean Problem
(1895), and has compiled Literature of Theology
(under the editorship of Bishop J. F. Hurst; New
York, 1896).
GILMGURy JAMES: Scotch Congregationalist
and missionary; b. at Cathkin (5 m. s. of Glasgow)
June 12, 1843; d. in Tientsin (70 m. s.s.e. of Peking),
China, May 21, 1891. After studying at the Univer-
sity of Glasgow (B.A., 1867; M.A., 1868) and at
Cheshunt Congregational Theological College (14 m.
n. of London; 1867-69), he was accepted by the
London Missionary Society as missionary to reopen
the long-suspended mission in Mongolia. Conse-
quently he studied a year in the society's missionary
seminary at Highgate (a London suburb 4} m.
n.n.w. of St. Paul's), and Chinese in the city. In
1870 he left for Peking, and after a few weeks there
pressed forward into Mongolia. Until 1882 he spent
his sunmiers with the nomadic Mongols, acquired
their language, adopted their dress, lived in their
tents and upon their food, and as far as possible
made himself one with them. He increased his hold
upon them by practising medicine. In the winters
he lived in Peldng, ministering to such Mongols as
he found in need of aid. In 1874 he married
and his wife shared his experiences and dangers.
In 1882 he made a visit home and was induced to
write his well-known book, Among the Mongols
(London and New York, 1883), which tells so much
and so graphically about those nomads. In 1883
he returned to his exposed life. His wife could not
stand the strain and died m 1885, leaving two boys.
Solitary and sad, he took up work with the agricul-
tural Mongols of Eastern Mongolia and carried it on
till his own death, which was hastened by his trials
and dangers. He was a missionary hero, lived for
the strange people he loved so much, and will go
down in the annals of missionary history as " Gil-
mour of Mongolia."
Biblioorapht: R. Lovett. JomM Gilmcur of Mongclia, Lon-
don and New York, 1802.
GILPIN, BERNARD : English clergyman, called
"The Apostle of the North"; b. at Kentmere
(17 m. s.w. of Keswick), Westmoreland, 1517; d.
at Houghton-le-Spring (10 m. s.e. of Newcastle-
upon-Tyne) Mar. 4, 1583. He was educated at
Queen's CoUege, Oxford (B.A., 1540; M.A., 1542;
B.D., 1549), where he was elected to a fellowship
and admitted to holy orders in 1542. He was one
of the first scholars elected to Christ Church, on
the completion of Wolsey's foundation by Henry
VIII. To clear up his theological doubts he went
abroad in 1552 and lived for several years in Lou-
vain and Paris. On his return to England in 1556
he was made rector of Easington and archdeacon
of Durham, despite the fact that he had now adopted
the theology of the Reformation. Soon afterward
he became rector of Houghton-le-Spring. His life
at Houghton is said to have been a ceaseless round
of benevolent activity; and his extensive charities
here and throughout the northern counties soon
won for him wide popularity, which, coupled with
his Protestant views and his fearless denunciation
of clerical vices, naturally made him enemies
among the clergy. He was accused before Edmund
Bonner, bishop of London, and would have been
tried for heresy, and probably beheaded, but for
an accident. While on his way to London for
trial he broke his leg; and before he was able to
continue his journey Queen Mary died. In 1559
he decUned the bishopric of Carlisle, and in 1560
the provostship of Queen's College, Oxford. His
most important charity was the foundation of
a large grammar-school at Houghton. A sermon
preached by Gilpin before Edward VI. has been
preserved (London, 1581; reprinted 1630).
Bibliography: G. Carleton wrote a life in Latin, London,
1628, Eng. transl., 1629. W. Gilpin, Life of Bernard Gil-
pin, London, 1752, roisHued in Livea of the Reformera,
vol. ii., 1800; A. k Wood, Fanti OionienMes, ed. P. Bliss,
i. 129, ib. 1820; DNB, xxi. 378-380.
GILSE, JAN VAN: Dutch theologian; b. Oct.
19, 1810; d. at Amsterdam May 24, 1859. At the
age of eighteen he entered the Mennonite institute
at Amsterdam, and after receiving his degree, eight
years later, served as i)astor at Koog and Zaandyk,
and finally at Amsterdam. On the death of Koop-
man, Gilse was chosen his successor as professor of
theology in Amsterdam representing the Menuon-
ites, and held this position from Oct. 9, 1849, until
he died. His collected essays and an anthology
of his sermons were edited after his death, with a
comprehensive biography, by P. J. Veth (Verspreitle
en nagelaten schriften, 5 parts, Amsterdam, 1860).
Special mention may be made of his studies on the
Muratorian Canon (q.v.), and on the meaning of the
plirase " Catholic Epistles," which he believed to
connote the epistles recognized by the Church
Catholic and received as writings of importance
among the books of the New Testament.
(C. SEPPf.)
GIRALD DE BARRI, called Giraldus Cambrenaia:
Welsh ecclesiastic; b. at Manorbier Castle (5 m.
s.e. of Pembroke), Pembrokeshire, Wales, 1146 or
1147; d. after 1216. He was educated in Paris,
GKralddeBarri
GlaM
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
492
returning to Wales in 1 172. His abilities and family
connections with the Welsh and Irish nobility made
him a fitting agent of the English crown in the effort
to extend its power in Wales and to introduce the
Roman hierarchy. The archbishop of Canterbury
commissioned him to reform the diocese of St.
Davids, particularly to introduce celibacy and to
collect tithes. He carried the work through with
a high hand and, as a reward for his success, was
made archdeacon of Brecknock (1175). In 1176
the chapter of St. Davids chose him to succeed his
uncle, David Fitzgerald, as bishop of that see,
hoping that he might attain to metropolitan rank,
independent of Canterbury. Owing to English
opposition he retired and till 1180 lectured with
much approval on canon law in Paris. He was
commissary to the bishop of St. Davids, as royal
chaplain attended Prince John in Ireland (1185-
1186), and in 1188 accompanied Archbishop Baldwin
through Wales, preaching the crusades. He did
good service in keeping Wales peaceful and loyal
after the death of Henry II (1189). In 1198,
while he was living in retirement in Lincoln, the
chapter of St. David again nominated him for
bishop, but, as before, the arehbishop of Canter-
bury would not have a Welshman. For four years
Girald prosecuted a suit to obtain the see; he
visited Rome three times, suffered many hardships
and vicissitudes, but finally yielded, became recon-
ciled with the king and archbishop, and spent the
remainder of his life in retirement, devoted to
literary work.
GirsJd wrote many works which are a strange
mixture of truth and fiction, trivialities and im-
portant facts; his value as a historian is impaired
by his vanity, partizanship, credulity, and use of
legend and fable. Nevertheless he presents a picture
of his time, and his information has importance in
the absence of anything better. His descriptions
of Ireland and WaJes {Topographia HtbemioB, Itiiv-
erarium CambricPf Descriptto Cambrice) furnish
about all that is known of land and people in his
period. In his Speculum ecclesice and Gemma ecde-
siastica he scourges the monastic life as he knew
it. The Expugnatio Hibemice is the most impor-
tant of his historical works. In De jure et stato
Menevensis ecclesice he seeks to justify his claims
to the bishopric. The De rebus a se gestis, De in-
vectionibus libera and Speculum electorum (letters,
poems, addresses) are autobiographical and display
his vanity and self-confidence. There is an excel-
lent complete edition of his works, ed. J. S. Brewer,
J. F. Dimock, and G. F. Warner (Rolls Series^ no.
21, 8 vols., London, 1861-91). The Itinerarium
Cambrice has been published with translation and
sketch of his life by Sir R. C. Hoare (2 vols., Lon-
don, 1804-06; the transl. is also in Bohn's Antiqiui-
rian Library, xli.). (C. ScHttLLf.)
Biblioorapht: A valuable work is J. Lynch, Cambrentis
Everms, ed. M. Kelly. 3 vols.. Dublin, 1848-62; also by
the same editor, S. White, Apologia pro Hibemia adversua
Cambri Calumnitu, ib. 1849. Ck)nsult Brewer's preface
to the ed. of the works mentioned in the text; Lanigan.
Eccl. HiaL, cf. Index; Girold U Galloia, in Mhnoirea de
Vacadhnxe de» Bciencea . . . rf« Ca<rn. 1887-88, pp. 117-180,
1889, pp. 3-73; H. Owen, Gerald the Welshman, London,
1889
GIRDLE. See Vestments and Insignia, 'EcclXt
SIASTICAL.
GIRDLESTONE, ROBERT BAKER: Church of
England; b. at Sedgley (13 m. n.w. of Birmingham),
Staflfordshire, Oct. 3, 1836. He studied at Charteiv
house, London, and Christ Church, Oxford (B.A.,
1859), and was head of the translation department
of the British and Foreign Bible Society 1866-76,
principal of Wydiffe Hall, Oxford, 1877-89, and
minister of St. John's, Downshire Hill, Hampstead,
1889-1901. He is an honorary canon of Christ
Church. He has served on various committees
and subcommittees connected with the Church
Missionary Society, the Society for the Promotion
of Christian Knowledge, the British and Foreign
Bible Society, the London Jews' Society, the Na-
tional Protestant Church Union, and similar oi^gani-
zations. In theology he is a liberal Evangelical,
but is conservative on Biblical questions. He has
written Anatomy of Scepticism (London, 1863); Dies
IrcB (1869); Synonyms of the Old Testament (1871);
How to Study the English Bible (1887); Foundations
oj the Bible (1890); Doctor Doctorum (1892); Deur
terographs: Duplicate Passages in the Old Testa-
ment (1894); The Student's Deuteronomy (1899);
Grammar of Prophecy (1901); Why do I bdieve in
Jesus Christ {1904); The Churchman's Guide {1905);
and Monotheism, Hebrew and Christian (1907).
GLABRIO, gla-bii'd, MANIUS ACILinS : Roman
consul in the year 91, afterward banished and put
to death by Domitian 95 a.d. He belonged to a
family distinguished in Roman history from 200 B.C.
till the end of the empire, especially in the second
century, and has interest for church history because
of certain fragments of epitaphs discovered by De
Rossi in 1888 in an aisle of the catacombs of St.
Priscilla on the Via Salaria near Rome. Because
of the honorary epithets employed, the epitaphs
can hardly refer to freedmen of the gens Acilia, but
must mark the resting-places of actual members of
the family (cf. Prosographia imperii Romani saecuio-
rum I -III., ed. E. Klebs, pp. 7-8, nos. 64-59, Ber-
lin, 1897), who were evidently, from the wording
of the inscriptions. Christians or at least friends of
Christians. Evidence thus appears to be offered
that even before the time of Commodus (cf. Euse-
bius, Hist, ecd., v. 21) some of the prominent cir-
cles of the Roman nobility were favorably disposed
toward Christianity, and perhaps actual conver-
sions occurred. It is possible that Glabrio was put
to death as a Christian (see Domitian).
(Edqar Henneke.)
Bibliography: G. de Rosai. in BuUeUino di arekeoloffia
eriatiana, pp. 15 sqq., 103 sqq.. t«ble v.. 1888-89; W. Smith,
Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography^ ii. 272, London,
1890 (gives early sources for a life).
GLADDEN, WASHINGTON: Congregationalist;
b. at Pottsgrove, Pa., Feb. 11, 1836. He was grad-
uated at Williams College in 1859, and held pas-
torates at Brooklyn, N. Y. (1860-61), Morrisania,
N. Y. (1861-66), and North Adams, Mass. (1866-
1871). He was then a member of the editorial staff
of the New York Independent 1871-75 and pastor
of the Congregational CJhurch at Springfield. Mass..
1875-82, also editing the Sunday Afternoon (Spring-
493
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
QiralddeBarrl
Qlaas
field) 1878--80. Since 1882 he has been pastor of
the First Congregational Church, Columbus, O.
He has written Plain Thoughts on the Art of Living
(Boston, 1868); From the Uvb to the Hudson (1869);
Workingmen and their Employers (1876); Being a
Christian (1876); The Christian Way (New York,
1877); The Lord's Prayer (Boston, 1880); The
Christian League of Connecticut (New York, 1883);
Things New and Old (Columbus, O., 1884); The
Young Men and the Churches (Boston, 1885); Ap-
plied Christianity (1887); Parish Problems (New
York, 1888); Burning Questions (1889); Santa
Claus on a Lark (1890) ; Who Wrote the Bible f (Bos-
ton, 1891); Tools and the Man (1893); The Cos-
mopolis City Club (New York, 1893); The Church
and the Kingdom (Chicago, 1894); Seven Puzzling
Bible Books (Boston, 1897); Social Facts and Forces
(New York, 1897); AH and Morality (1897); The
Christian Pastor (New York, 1898); How Much is
left of the old Doctrines? (Boston, 1899); Straight
Shots at Young Men (New York, 1900); Social Sal-
vation (Boston, 1901); The Practise of Immortality
(1901); Where does the Sky begin? (1904); Chris-
tianity and Socialism (New York, 1905); New
Idolatry and Other Discussions (1905); and The
Church and Modem Life (1908).
GLAIWILL, JOSEPH: English clergyman, con-
nected with the school known as the " Cambridge
Platonists" (q.v.); b. at Plymouth 1636; d. at
Bath Nov. 4, 1680. He was educated at Exeter
College, Oxford, but had a close mental affinity
with the Cambridge school, especially with More.
He took orders, conformed at the Restoration, and
held several church preferments, the last being the
incumbency of the Abbey Church at Bath (1676)
and a prebend at Worcester (1678). Among his
numerous works, none equals for brilliancy his
early essay on The Vanity of Dogmatizing (London,
1661), from a passage in which Matthew Arnold
received the suggestion for his famous poem '' The
Scholar Gipsy." Lux Orientalis (1662) is a repro-
duction and defense of More's doctrine of the pre-
existence of souls. The attempt to find an em-
pirical basis for supematuralism led Glanvill, like
More, to combine a singular measure of credulity
with his philosophy in the work which in its final
form (1682) bears the title of Sadducismus Triumr
phatus. It is nothing but a collection of ghost-
stories to support an ingenious argument on the
possibility of spiritual existences imder the form of
witches and apparitions, with some chapters on
the notion of spirit translated from Morels Manual
of Metaphysics. Besides the controversy to which
this gave rise, Glanvill took a vigorous part in an-
other on behalf of the new Royal Society and the
right of free scientific inquiry. He comes into con-
tact with the Cambridge School again in an essay
on Anti- Fanatical Religion and Free Philosophy
which appeared with several others in 1676. In
its fictitious narrative, a sort of continuation of
Bacon's New Atlantis^ he describes a visit to the
happy imaginary country of Bensalem, depicts the
character and teaching of the Cambridge divines
under a thin disguise, and offers what is reaUy the
most effective of the several contemporary vin-
dications of the school.
Biblioorafht: Beddes the literature under Cambbidgb
Platonistb, consult: The account of Glanvill's life and
writings, by H. More, prefixed to Sadduciamua irium'
phaiu9, London. 1726; A. k Wood, Athena Oxonierues,
ed. P. Bliss, iii. 1244, 4 vols., London. 1813-20; DNB,
xxi. 408-409.
GLAS, JOHK: Scottish sectary, founder of the
sect of Glassites or Sandemanians; b. at Auchter-
muchty (17 m. w.s.w. of St. Andrews), Fifeshire,
Sept. 21, 1695; d. at Perth Nov. 2, 1773. He was
educated at St. Leonard's College, St. Andrews
(M.A., 1713) and at the University of Edinburgh,
and was ordained pastor of the Presbyterian church
at Tealing, Forfarshire, May 6, 1719. Here he be-
came an independent in his views, and in The Tes-
timony of the King of Martyrs (Edinburgh, 1727)
he denied the right of the civil authorities to inter-
fere in religious matters. For his publication he
was suspended by the Synod of Angus and Mearns
Apr. 18, 1728, and deposed from the ministry Oct.
13. Despite the intercession of influential friends
the deposition was affirmed by the conunission of
the General Assembly Mar. 12, 1730. Glas then
formed an independent church at Dundee. In 1733
he removed to Perth, where he built the first church
of the new sect. Here he was joined by Robert
Sandeman, who married his daughter and became
the leader of the sect in England and America (see
Sandemanians). The works of Glas, in four vol-
umes, appeared at Edinburgh in 1761, and in a more
complete edition in five volumes, Perth, 1782-83.
Biblioorapht: Walter Wilson, Hiat. and Anttquitiet ot
DiMenting Churcheg, iii. 261-262, 4 vols., .London, 1808-
1814; William Anderson. The ScoUUh Nation, ii. 307, ib.
1870; E. Grub, EecL Hiat. of Scotland, iv. 55, EdinbiUKh,
1861; Hew Scott, F<uti eccUHcB SeoticancB, 6 parts. Lon-
don, 1871; DNB, xxi. 417-418.
GLASS (Glassius), SALOMON: Lutheran theo-
logian; b. at Sondershausen (28 m. n.n.w. of Erfurt)
May 20, 1593; d. at Gotha July 27, 1656. He
occupies an honorable position among the strict
orthodox who in the middle of the seventeenth cen-
tury were preparing the way for a transition to
Spener's attitude. From 1612 to 1615 he studied
philosophy at Jena, and then went to Wittenberg
for a year. His health obliged him to return to
Jena, where Johann Gerhard had recently begun
to lecture. A scholarship enabled him to enjoy
for five years the lectures and daily intercourse
of this " archtheologian and model dogmatician."
Glass had already begun to make a special study
of Hebrew with its cognates. In 1617 he was made
master of philosophy, and in 1619 adjunct professor
in the philosophical faculty. Owing to his timidity,
and perhaps also to conscientious scruples, he long
refused to appear in public disputations or in the
pulpit; when the university offered him the degree
of doctor of theology, he hesitated to accept it,
even when commanded by his princely patrons.
In 1621 he was appointed to the chair of Hebrew,
which was usually considered a transition rom
philosophy to theology. In 1625 he was called to
Sondershausen as superintendent, and in the fol-
lowing year he accepted the doctor's d^ree from
Jena. But a greater distinction awaited him.
Gerhard, on his death-bed, had designated his be-
loved pupil as his successor, and after some dis-
cussion the request was complied with in 1638.
Glass
Olosses
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
404
This position Glass occupied only two years. He
was then summoned to Gotha by Duke Ernest I.
as court preacher and general superintendent, and
aided his sovereign in all his beneficial endeavors.
Such a thorough Biblical theologian and a man of
such practical piety could find no pleasure in the
passionate scholastic disputes of those times, though
he did enter the controversial field against the mys-
tics who disparaged the authority of Scripture.
To those who charged even such a man as Johann
Amdt with heresy, he sail: "He who loves not
Amdt must be afilicted with the spiritual dyspepsia."
In his estimation the spread of pure doctrine availed
little where it was not united with the life. Faith-
fully adhering in his own belief to the statements
of the symbolical books, he yet maintained a con-
ciliatory attitude in the syncretistic controversies
which raged for decades with such animosity. He
seems to have had no intimate relations with Calix-
tus, though he had with some of his friends and
admirers. The duke, anxious for harmony, had
asked for an opinion for his own information.
Glass replied with great moderation, avoiding
everything which could hurt the orthodox, but
doing justice to Calixtus. Even his friend, the
fanatical Michael Walther, did not dare to reject
this opinion, though he soon afterward opposed it
in essential points. The strict orthodox, however,
disliked it so much, that, as it was published only
after the author's death and without his name,
doubts were raised as to its genuineness.
Glass's greatest scientific work is his PhUo-
logia sacra (Jena, 1623-36), a kind of Biblical-
philological encyclopedia, which was extravagantly
praised by his contemporaries as a key to all Bil>-
lical difficulties. It shows, indeed, very great
diligence and the necessity of following the general
standards of higher instruction and scientific
method. It rests on an extensive knowledge of
Scripture and of Hebrew and rabbinical literature,
and contains a valuable collection of illustrations
and many acute linguistic observations. For the
first time is found here an attempt at consistent
study of the grammatical peculiarities of New Tes-
tament diction, the Hebrew coloring of which is
shown. But its critical positions are taken from
the narrow standpoint of the time, the grammar is
not satisfactory, and its rhetoric and logic are anti-
quated. See Exegesis or Hermeneutics, III., § 7.
Georo Loesche.
Biblioorapht: A full list of Glass's works is given in
Hauck-Herzog. RE, vi. 671-672. Consult: the preface to
Crenius' edition of the Opuscula, 1700; J. C. Zeumer,
Vita profesaorium Jenerunum, p. 141, Jena, 1711; ADB, ix.
218-219; KL, v. 612-613.
GLOAG, PATON JAMES: Scotch Presbyterian;
b. at Perth May 17, 1823; d. at Edinburgh Jan. 9,
1906. He studied at Edinburgh (1840-43) and St.
Andrews (1843-44), and held pastorates at Dunning,
Perthshire (1848-60), Blantyre, Lanarkshire (1860-
1870), and Galashiels, Selkirkshire (1870-90). He
was Baird lecturer in 1869 and moderator of the
General Assembly of the Church of Scotland in
1889, while after his retirement from the active
ministry in 1890 he was temporary professor of
Biblical criticism m the University ot Aberdeen
1896-99. He wrote TAe Assurance of Salvation
(Edinbiirgh, 1853); Justificalian by Faith (1856);
The Primeval Worlds or, the Relation of Geology to
Revelaiion (1859); The Resurrection (London, 1862);
Practical Christianity (Glasgow, 1866); Commentary
on Acts (2 vok., Edinburgh, 1870); Introduction to
the Pauline Epistles (1876); The Messianic Prophe-
cies (Baird lectures for 1869; 1879); Life of Paul
(1881); Commentary on James (1884); Exegetical
Studies (1884); Introduction to the Catholic Epistles
(1886); Commentary on the Epistles to the Thessa-
lonians (London, 1887); Introduction to the Johan-
nine Writings (1891); Subjects and Mode of Baptism
(Paisley, 1891); The Life of St. John (London,
1893); Introduction to the Synoptic Gospels (Edin-
burgh, 1895); and Evening Thoughts (1900). He
likewise translated a number of German commen-
taries on various books of the New Testament.
Biblioorapht: E. S. Gloag. Paion J. Gloag. A Memoir, YAxn-
burgh. IOCS.
GLOEL, JOHAlfNES: (merman exegete; b. at
Cdrbelitz (near Magdeburg) Apr. 22, 1857; d. at
Erlangen June 16, 1891. He was educated at the
gymnasium in Magdeburg, studied at Halle and
Berlin, was for a time private tutor, then assistant
preacher at the cathedral in Berlin. After acting
for a short time as court preacher to the Prince of
Reuss in Ernstbrunn he became inspector of the
Silesian school of beneficiary students at Halle, and
in 1884 undertook a journey to Holland for the pur-
pose of study. Subsequently he became a teacher
at the University of HaUe and in 1888 professor at
Erlangen where he taught three years. He was a
man of wide education, thorough knowledge of his
special branches, unwearied diligence and scien-
tific courage. His early death hindered the full
development of his scientific labors. He published
Hollands kirchliches Leben (Wittenberg, 1885); Der
Heilige Geist in der Heilsverkundigung des Paulus
(Halle, 1888); and Die jUngste Kritik des Galater-
briefes auf ihre Berechtigung gepruft (Leipsic, 1890).
W. Caspari.
Biblioorapht: The address of W. Caspari at the burial was
published, Erlangen, 1801.
GLORIA IN EXCELSIS, GLORU PATRL See
LiTURGICS, III.
GLOSSES, BIBLICAL AND ECCLESIASTICAL.
Origin and Development of the Terms (| 1).
Glosses in the Greek World (§ 2).
Transference to the West (5 3).
Influence on Encyclopedic Works (§ 4).
Modem Use in Bibli(»l Criticism (f 5).
A gloss is a marginal note employed for explana-
tion or illustration. The term is derived from the
Greek gldssa, " tongue, speech, dialect." The use
of marginal notes can be traced to classical times
when they were employed to explain for Greek
students the meaning of obsolete,
I. Origin provincial or foreign words, especially
and Devel- such as occurred in the Homeric poems,
opment of Indexes of the glosses were made to-
the Terms, gether with their equivalents in the
common speech, and thus began the
work of lexicography. (On the question whether
the New Testament phrase Udein glOssais, etc.,
'* to speak with tongues," has any connection
495
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Glass
Olosses
with this usage cf. Bleek in TSK, ii. 1. 1829; see
Speaking with Tongues.) Glossa came to mean
any word not in common use at any particular
time or one used in a limited sense and so requiring
elucidation. A synonym, gloss^ma, came into use
later when, especially in Alexandrian times, anno-
tation of manuscripts was required because of the
spread of the Greek language. Naturally this anno-
tation developed from mere explanation of words
to discussion of grammatical forms and then of
subject-matter. The use of glosses passed to the Ro-
mans, by whom the term glossarium was coined.
The ready-made term glossa was applied to the
marginal notes found in the Biblical manuscripts,
such as the kere of the Old Testament (see Keri
AND Kethibh) and the explanations of Hebrew
terms used in the New Testament. The term
GlosscB sacrce was used of the collections of difficult
passages which occurred in the Bibles
2. Glosses in in various languages with the accom-
the Greek panying elucidations, and soon came
World. to be applied to the explanations alone.
IIow the glosses multiplied is under-
stood when it Ls remembered that the earliest Chris-
tian teaching and preachini^ consisted in large part
of rendering the Bible into the tongues used by the
hearers. Naturally the difficult passages were an-
notated on the margin. The scope of the anno-
tations was gradually enlarged, and came to em-
body the substance of oral and then of written
tradition concerning the matter treated, especially
matters which concerned the rendering of Hebrew
terms. Such discussion and elucidation was par-
ticularly needed in the Greek world in connection
with the Septuagint, where unusual Greek con-
structions were employed in the attempt to repro-
duce the Hebrew original, and with the renderings
of Symmachus and Aquila. In cases of differences
of text the marginal notes came to embody the
different readings or at any rate to indicate them.
From such collections as these, concerned in great
part with the explanation of individual words,
containing mainly excerpts from the most popular
commentaries, developed the so-called Glossa sacrce,
of which a good example is the lexicon of Hesychius,
either in its original or developed form. Others
of this kind are the Lexedn synagdgS of Photius, the
lexicon of Suidas, the so-called Cyril-Glossarium,
the lexicon of Zonaras, the Etymologicum magnum^
and the work of the sixteenth century compiled by
the Benedictine Varinus Phavorinus (on these cf.
J. C. G. Ernest i, Glossw sanctorum Hcsychii^ Suidce
€l Phavorini, Leipsic, 1785-86; F. G. Sturz, ZonarcB
glosses, ib. 1818).
An activity, the exact analogue of tliat just de-
scribed as applied to the Greek Bible, was exerted
in the West upon the Latin, in which the necessities
were of the same clmracter. But as the marginal
notes consisted not only of explanations of indi-
vidual words, but of longer remarks (cf. Tortullian,
Adv. Vakntinum, chap. vi. ), the term glossa came
to mean the " assigned meaning of the passage,"
as for example in the Ktymologioi (i. 30) of Isidore
of Seville and in a passage from Alcuin {MPL,
ci. 858), though this did not exclude the older
meaning of an elucidation of single words. But in
the case of Latin equivalents used to explain words
in the text, it often occurred that they were written
between the lines. From this the cus-
3. Trans- tom developed to reserve the margin
ference to for the longer annotations which grew
the West into connected comment, to which
in particular the term glossa in the
singular was applied. Thus the word came to be
equivalent often to " commentary," though it
could still be used in its original sense of " explana-
tion of obscure words." In the Middle Ages
the word received a double connotation: it meant
either explanation of single words or comment upon
an entire work, such as the Bible. Some authorities
used the term to designate the kere of the Hebrew
Bible, others included part at least of the Masoretic
apparatus. Then it meant any collection of exe-
getical explanatory remarks, whether written be-
tween the lines or on the margin or interjected
paragraphically into the text. As an example of
the kind of work to which this name was applied
the work of Walafrid Strabo may be mentioned, a
compilation from the writings of Alcuin, Ambrose,
Augustine, Bede, Cassiodorus, Chrysostom, Gregory
the Great. Haimo, Hesychius, Jerome, Isidore of
Seville, Origen, Rabanus, and others, which for
six centuries was the vade-mecum of exegesis (see
Catena, § 8) . The character of this work was, how-
ever, rather theological than philological. Mention
should also be made in this place of the " Interlinear
Gloss " of Anselm of Laon (d. 1117). From the
fourteenth century on, many manuscripts of the
Vulgate were enriched by the addition of these
two works or of parts of them, together with the
PostillcB of Nicholas of Lyra and the Additiones of
Paul of Burgos, written at the bottom and even so
printed. But with these there were also interlinear
glosses which dealt with matters philological, some
of which originated in the schools of the monasteries.
Of course this same kind of work was done on other
books, like the writings of Homer, patristic works,
canons, hymns, legends, monastic rules, and the like.
And these interlinear glosses naturally developed
into interlinear versions in the various tongues of
the peoples to whom Christianity was conveyed.
In another direction these glosses developed into
a kind of literature which anticipated the work
of encyclopedia (see Encyclopedia,
4. Influence Theological), of which Isidore's
on Encyclo- Etymohgiarum lihri xigirdi is a speci-
pedic men (on this literature cf. S. Berger,
Works. De glossariis el compendiis exegetids,
Paris, 1879, pp. 7 sqq.) and repre-
sents a large class of works. Other works of this
character are the Glossa of Solomon III., bishop
of Constance (d. 919), printed 1483; the Papice
elementarium dodrincB enidimentum, compiled c.
1050 and often reprinted since the fifteenth century;
the Panormia of Osbem of Gloucester (c. 1150, in
Mai, Classiconim auctorum . . . tomi, Rome, 1836);
the DxctionariuJi sive de diciionibus obscuris of John
of Garlandia, often printed; the Repertorium vocahu-
lorum and vocnbulanum biblicum of Alexander
Neckam (d. 1215); and the Breviloqmis i^ocabularitts,
recast and edited by Reuchlin. That bihngual
glossaries should develop is a matter of course.
Olosaes
Onostioism
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
496
The Latest use of the word applies to those inser-
tions which, in the course of the transmission of the
text, have crept into the body of a work. They
arise from the inclusion by a copyist of material
which he foimd written between the lines or on the
margin. This often occurs with set
5. Modem design though without evil purpose on
Use in the part of the copyist and also
Biblical through his mistake. The result,
Criticism, however, often is that it is impossible
to discover whether a corruption of
the text occurs through an intended improvement
or through importation of a marginal note. Cor-
rections of this sort are foimd in the text of the
original Languages of the Bible, since the more a
book is used and copied, the more likely are such
corrections. This is the case with the Hebrew text.
A means of detection is often the comparison
of two or more translations (cf. Wellhausen's
edition of Bleek's Einleitung in doB AUe Testament,
Berlin, 1893, § 269; F. Buhl, Kanon und Text des
Alien Testamente, Leipsic, 1891, p. 257, Eng. transl.,
London, 1892; and for the New Testament cf.
E. Reuss, Geechichte der heiligen Schriften dee Neuen
TeetamentSf Brunswick, 1874, § 359, Eng. transl.,
2 vols., Boston, 1874). In similar fashion the old
versions were corrupted by the incorporation of
glosses. This is the case with the manuscript of the
Septuagint in spite of the criticism of such men as
Origen, Lucian, and Hesychius, and of the Vulgate
(cf. Z. Frankel, Vorsttuiien zu der Septuaginiaf
Leipsic, 1841, §§11 sqq.; F. Kaulen, Oeschichte der
Vulgata, Mainz, 1868, pp. 212 sqq., 266). For the
marginal notes and references of English Bibles,
which are of the nature of glosses, see Bibles,
Annotated, and Bible Summaries, II.
Bibltoorapht: Fabridus-Harles, Bibliotheea Or oca, vol. vi.
passim, Hamburg, 1708; J. G. RosenmOller, Hiatoria
interpretationia aacrorum librorum, iv. 356 sqq., Leipsic,
1795; C. G. Wilke. HermeneuHk dea Neuen TeatamerUa,
ii. 102 sqq., Leipsic, 1844; K. Gddeke, Oeachichte der
deutMchen Dichtung, i.. f 13, Dresden, 1862; J. A. U.
Scheler, Lexicographie latine, Leipsic, 1867; £. Steinmeyer
and £. Sievers, AUhocKdetUache Gloaaent i.-iv., Berlio.
1870-08; P. Piper, LUeraturgeachidUe und Grammatik
der AUhochdeuUchen, pp. 35 sqq., Paderbom, 1880; T.
Birt, AnHke Buchweaen, Berlin. 1882; H. P. Junker,
Orundriaa der franzdaiachen LittenUur, pp. 15 sqq., Miln-
ster, 1880; F. Blass. Hermeneutik und Kritik, Munich,
1802; U. Wattenbach, Schriftweaen im MitUlalter, Leip-
sic, 1806; Krumbacher, Oeachichte, ffi 154. 216. 232 sqq.;
KL, V. 708-716; and the works on introduction to the
Old and the New Testament.
GLOSSES AND GLOSSATORS OF CANON LAW:
Terms applied to the commentaries and commen-
tators upon canon law. The pattern for a treatment
of canon law and of the collections which contain
it was given about the beginning of the twelfth
century in the Bologna school of Roman law among
the so-called " Legists," where in the second half of
that century lectures were delivered on the work
of Gratian, author of the first part of the Corpue
juris canonici, the Decretum (see Canon Law, II.,
§ 7). Alongside the Legists thus arose schools of
Canonists, Decretists, and Decretalists. The re-
sulting literary activity busied itself in glosses or
short explanations first of words and phrases, later
of the subject-matter of the sources of canon law,
which glosses were either interlinear or marginal.
The books of law were supplied with abstracts
{summoB), illustrations (casue) and rules (noiabHiaf
brocarda). The usefulness of these earlier glosses
and their continuous employment tended to pro-
duce still others imtil at length a comprehensive
and rich body of comment developed which became
digested into the Apparatus , ledura, cammentarii
of the period subsequent to 1400. Among the
glossators on the work of Gratian were his pupil
Paucapalea, Rolandus Bandinelli (afterward Pope
Alexander III., 1159-81), Rufinus, Stephen of
Toumay (d. 1203), Johannes Faventinus, bishop of
Faenza (1160-90), Sicard, bishop of Cremona (11S5-
1215), and Johannes Teutonicus (d. 1245 or 1246).
The work of the last-named, which depends upon the
labors of his predecessors, is the Glossa ardinaria
(c. 1215) to the Decreta, The glossa ordinaria of
the collection of decretals of Gr^ory IX. originated
w^ith Bernard of Botone, professor and chancellor
of Bologna, who used the labors of Vincent of Spain
(c. 1240), Gottfried of Trani (d. 1245), and Sini-
baldus Friscus, later Pope Innocent IV. Among the
glossators of the Liber sextus was Johann Andrea,
whose work is the glossa ordinaria upon the Liber
sextus; he also made the glossa ordinaria to the
Clementina, Inasmuch as the work of these men
brought about reciprocal activity between the
Church and the school, their results have not merely
a literary interest, but a practical one, and they are
of importance for the history of canon law.
(P. HiNscHrosf.)
Bibliography: M. Sarti and M. Fattorini, De daria ar<hi-
ffipnnaaii Bononienaia profeamribua, ed. C. Albicinius and
C. Malagola. Bonona, 1888-96; F. C. von Savigny.
Oead^ichte dea rdmxacJien Rechta im MittelalUr, vols, iii.-
vii., Heidelberg. 1843-61; J. F. von Schulte, Oeadiichle
der QueUen und Literaturdea canoniachen Rechta, vols, i.-ii.,
Stuttgart, 187&-77; R. Ritter von Scherer. Handbuch dea
Kirdienreehta, i. 254« Gras, 1886; KL, v. 716-717.
GLYN, EDWARD CARR: Church of England,
bishop of Peterborough; b. at London Nov. 21,
1843. He was educated at Harrow School and
University College, Oxford (B.A., 1867), and was
ordained priest in the following 3rear. He was
curate of Doncaster under C. J. Vaughan in 1868-
1871, vicar of St. Mary's, Beverley, in 1872-75,
vicar of Doncaster in 1875-78, and vicar of Kensing-
ton in 1878-97, as well as rural dean in 1881-97.
In the latter year he was consecrated bishop of
Peterborough. He was also chaplain to the arch-
bishop of York in 1877-93, honorary chaplain to
Queen Victoria in 1881-84, and chaplain in ordinary
1884-97. His literary activity has been restricted
to individual sermons and pamphlets.
GNAPHEUS, GULIELMUS. See Fullonitts,
GULIELMUS.
GNOSTICISM.
Gnoflis and Gnosticism (f 1).
Origin and Meaning (f 2).
Sources (fi 3).
A Religion, not a Philosophy
(§4).
Reliance upon Authority
(§6).
Its Dualism (fi 6).
The Church and Gnostidsm
(§7).
Gnosticism (derived from Gk. gnosis, " knowl-
edge ") is a degenerate form of true gnosis, the true
meaning of which as regards Christianity is gained
from the New Testament, and is the knowledge
497
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Glosses
Gnosticism
and recognition of the divine plan of salvation
by means of a God-given insight. According to
the oldest tradition, the Lord said to
z. Gnosis his disciples (Matt. xiii. 11):^^ it is given
and Gnosti- unto you to know the mysteries of the
cism. kingdom of heaven." To the Apostle
Paul, gnosis was a function of the
spiritual man (I Cor. ii. 11 sqq.), which every Chris-
tian possessed in its essentials. But as '' there are
diversities of gifts, but the same Spirit " the gift of
gnosis, as well, could be given to some one in special
measure (I Cor. xii. 4 sqq.). In a narrower sense,
the Apostle regarded gnosis as the discerning of the
ways in which the divine purpose of salvation had
led man, in particular the people of the Covenant,
in the course of history, and which, therefore, could
be gained only from Scripture. Paul was aware of
the moral dangers of such a gnosis; he knew that
the possessor of it might imagine himself to be some-
what better than other men; nor was gnosis one of
the three things that abide (I Cor. xiii. 13). It is
a theological, more properly a theosophical, function;
and for that very reason must be subordinated to
faith, the specifically religious function. This con-
ception is the one that has always been upheld by
the Church. Even where it might seem as though
the possessor of gnosis occupied a higher place than
the poor in spirit, yet the point is emphasized again
and again, that the possession of gnosis as such
does not carry with it the assurance of redemption;
and Clement of Alexandria, the ecclesiastical Gnos-
tic, writes: " There are not, then, in the same Word
some * illuminated (Gnostics) and some animal (or
natural) men '; but all who have abandoned the
desires of the flesh are equal and spiritual before
the Lord '' (ANF, ii. 217).
But not all were of this opinion. At quite an
early period in Christendom the contrary view
sprang up, which in the First Epistle to Timothy
(vi. 20, R.V.) is aptly designated as " the knowledge
which is falsely so called." Not individuals alone,
but whole groups of such men, professing to be
Christians, called themselves Gnostics (Carpocra-
tians, in Irenseus, ANF^ i. 350-351; cf. Epiphanius,
MPG, xli. 373; Naasseni, in Hippolytus, ANF, v.
47 sqq.; in Origen, a loosely defined sect, ANF, iv.
570; cf. again, Epiphanius, A/PG, xli. 321, 364, 641,
and other passages). They boasted, moreover,
" that they aione have sounded the depths of knowl-
edge " (Hippolytus, ANF, v. 47; cf. I Cor. ii. 10),
and these ** deep things " they pretended to have
** searched " through a speculative process not
founded upon Scripture. Irenajus, who opposes
them, used the term Gnostics in this Latter signifi-
cation, and since that time it has come to be the
current designation for them. But this, at best,
is only a formal qualification, the concrete analysis
of which is difficult in proportion to the diversity of
the phenomena to be comprehended under one gen-
eral head.
Gnosticism was not a specifically Christian phe-
nomenon but belonged to religious history in general.
It happened quite often that Gnostic sects pro-
fessed to be Christian when in reality they had noth-
ing in common with Christianity; so that Origen
justly said {ANF, iv. 585): ** nor would Celsus,
IV.— 32
in his treatise against the Christians, have intro-
duced among the charges directed against them
statements which they never uttered."
2. Origin On the other hand, many a religious sect
and seemed to be independent which really
Meaning, was only a variety of Gnosticism:
e.g., the Mandseans and the Manicheans
(qq.v.). At any rate the view that Gnosticism is
only a partial phenomenon of Christian metaphys-
ics, and only to that extent important, is too nar-
row; for, in order to understand Gnosticism com-
pletely, it should not be looked upon with the eye
of the ecclesiastical historian and dogmatist, for
whom those forms of Gnosticism are alone of interest
which have acquired special significance in relation
to the progress of Christianity, for the investigation
of Gnosticism in religious history is yet in its rudi-
ments, and has not hitherto produced convincing
results. On the one hand, Gnosticism is apt to be
closely associated with Hellenism, and is thought
to be explained by reference to Greek philosophy
(Joel), or, at any rate, in connection with the Greek
mysteries (Weingarten and others), a theory cul-
minating in Hamack's famous epigram, '' the
Gnostic systems represent the acute secularizing or
Hellenizing of Christianity" {Dogma, i. 226). It
is but an application of the same idea, to designate
Gnosticism as Christian Orphism (Wobbcrmin),
and by way of proof adduce the peculiar combination
of theogonic and cosmogonic elements with the
religious interest in expiation, consecration, de-
liverance. Others refer to the religious and magic
sides of the Babylonian worship (Kessler: " the old
Babylonian "; Anz: " the kte Babylonian "), as
though here was the native soil of Gnosticism, and
mention also the influences of Zoroastrianism, and
assume that the movement, as it spread over Chris-
tian Greek territory, lost its original character.
However, no less expert an investigator than Jean
R^ville, in Revue de Vllistoire des Religions^ xxxviii.,
1898, 220-224), opposed this reference of Gnosti-
cism to Chaldaic and Persian sources with the re-
mark that an Egyptologist might advocate, with
equal propriety, the derivation of Gnostic ideas
from Egyptian speculative schools; and indeed
Reitzenstein did derive a fair portion of Gnostic
views from Egyptian syncretism. And yet those
investigators might prove to be in the right who
refer the origin of Gnosticism to the speculations of
Babylonian or Zoroastrian priests. Bousset, taking
for his guide some data supplied by Anz, has lately
shown that the chief Gnostic problems are best ex-
plained by those Oriental conceptions (the seven
and the m&ir; the mother and the imknown father;
dualism; the first man; elements and substance;
form of the redeemer; mysteries). In all the Gnos-
tic systems he saw branches of a conmion tree
whose roots deeply penetrated the syncretistic soil
of the dying antique religion. And however it might
be in particular instances, in general he judged cor-
rectly when he said; " Gnosis is not a phenomenon
that presses forward; it is rather backward and
stationary, a reaction of antique syncretism against
the rising universal religion of Christianity " (W.
Bousset, Hauptprobleme der Gnosis^ p. 7, Gdttin-
gen, 1907). The doctors of the Church were right
Onosticism
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
in resisting with all their might these tendencies
among their congregations, even if they did not
always use the right remedies.
[The Gnostics may be divided into: the Judaizing
Gnostics; the Anti-Judaistic Gnostics; the Gnos-
ticizing pagans; the Ophites; and later the Man-
icheans and New Manicheans. The chief among the
Judaizers were the followers of Basilides (q.v.), of
Valentinus (q.v.), of Cerinthus (q.v.), and of Bar-
desanes (q.v.). The greatest leaders of the Anti-
Judaizers were Satuminus (q.v.), Cerdo (q.v.), and
Marcion (q.v.). One curious sect of them were the
Archontici described by Epiphanius {Ucer., xl.).
Their founder was a hermit of Palestine, named
Peter, but their principal seat was in Armenia.
According to their sacred books there were seven
heavens each with an archon or ruler, whence came
their name; there was also an eighth heaven where
dwelt the "mother of light." The ruler of the
seventh heaven was the God of the Jews, and the
Devil was his son. They rejected baptism but
anointed the dying with oil and water to protect
them from the archons of the lower heavens. See
also DocETiSM. Among the Gnosticizing pagans
were the Borborites or Borborians (dirt-eaters, from
Gk. horhoroBy mud). See also the articles on Car-
POCRATE8 AND THE CaRPOCRATIANB, SiMON MaGUS,
Antitact^, Prodicianb, Nicolaitans, Ophites,
and Cainiteb. For an account of the later develop-
ments of Gnosticism see Encratites, Mand^&ans,
Manicheans and New Manicheans.]
The Gnostic writings were of all kinds: Gospeb
(of Eve, Mary, Jude, Thomas, Philip, etc.); Apoc-
alsrpses (of Adam, Abraham, Nico-
3. Sources, theus, Zoroaster, etc.); Acts (of Peter,
John, Thomas, Andrew, and Matthew) ;
hymns (Naasseni, Bardesanes, "Books of Je<i");
odes (Basilides); psalms (Valentinus, Bardesanes,
Marcionites) ; and homilies (Valentinus). Then,
too, the Gnostics had their theological literature;
dogmatic nnd philasophic treatises (Isidore, Valen-
tinus, Thi»odotiis, Bardesanes, Marcion); critical
investigations (Ptolemajus, Apelles); commentaries
on sacred writings and prophetic revelations (Basil-
ides, Hemcleon, Isidore); mystery books (Piatu-
Sophiay " Books of Je<i," etc.). Of all these books,
only a f«?w have been preserved; but enough to
apply a check to the heresy refutations (see below),
and to give an insight into the Gnostic beliefs and
ideas. Preserved intact are: (1) The letter of the
Valentinian Ptolemseus (see Valentinus) to Flora
(Greek text edited by A. Hamack in H. Lietzmann's
KleineText€,No. 9, Bonn, 1904); (2) Pistis-Sophia,
the two " Books of Jeil," and a Gnostic work of
unknown origin, in Coptic (ed. C. Schmidt, Leipsic,
1905; see Ophites); there is an Eng. transl., Pistia
Sophia. A Gnostic Gospel (with Extracts from the
Books of the Saviour appended). Originally trans-
lated from Greek into Coptic and now for the first
time Englished from Schwartze^s Latin Version of
the only known Coptic MS. and checked by Am^li-
neon's French Version, with an Introduction by G. R.
S. Mead (London, 1896); (3) three Gnostic writings
of the second century: ** Gospel according to Mary,"
" Wisdom of Jesus Christ," " Acts of Peter," in
Coptic (not yet published. The " Gospel of Mary "
is the source which Ireiueus used for his account of
the Barbelo-Gnostics: cf. C. Schmidt, in PhUotena
fur Kleinert, Berlin, 1907). There are also pre-
served many fragments, especially in Clement and
Origen, which afford much information about Ba-
silides and Isidore, Valentinus and Heradeon, as
also about the Valentinians of the Oriental school
(the so-called Excerpta Theodotx). Bardesanes has
quite a different aspect when he is seen not only by
the light of the polemics of Ephraim, but also by
that of his own ideas, as shown by one of his pupils,
in the " Book of the Laws of the Lands " (SpicHe-
gium Syriacumf Syriac, Greek, and English, ed.
Cureton, London, 1855). Again enough is known
of Marcion and Apelles for a clear conception of
their work.
The polemics of the ecclesiastical writers against
heretics are, at best, but a secondary source, and
that strongly colored by both defective knowledge
and personal ill-will; although still a valuable
source of our acquaintance with Gnosticism. Un-
fortunately the earliest writings of this kind (by
Agrippa, Castor, Justin, Rhodon, Philip of Gortyna,
Modestus, Hegesippus; see the separate articles)
have been lost. In all probability, however, their
substance was incorporated into extant writings on
heresies by Irenaeus, Tertullian, Hippolytus, Epi-
phanius, Theodoret of Csrrrhus, into the so-caUed
" Catalogues of Heretics " of the pseudo-Tertullian
and are treated in the works of Philastrius, Augus-
tine, PrsDdestinatus, etc. There is also a pagan
tract on the subject: the discourse of Plotinus, Adv.
gnosticos {Enneadf ii. 9).
The chief defect in all these expositions and refu-
tations is the impossibihty of adapting oneself to*
the opponent's platform; the eager-
4. A Relig- ness to impute to him motives and in-
ion, not a tentions such as he either has not at
Philosophy, all, or at least does not hold and pursue
in the manner chaiged against him.
The combaters of the heretics seem to maintain
again and again that the speculative utterances of
the Gnostics are merely philosophical, not religious;
merely cosmological, not soteriological. This view
is false. In the sense of the Gnostics, gnosis is
religion; knowledge is redemption: to know, that
is to be redeemed, is possible only for the spiritual
man who has come from heaven and is prepared
for eternity. Hence Gnostics and spiritual men
become synonymous terms, and gnosis is the gift
of grace which is imparted to the spiritual man in
his very cradle and develops with his gro\)vth, re-
solving the riddles that surround him. " We are
freed by the knowledge of these things: who we
were, what we have become; where we were, and
whither we were brought; whither we hasten and
whence we were delivered; what birth is, and what
regeneration" (MPG, ix. 696). The means of
solving these questions varied, in each case, accord-
ing to the spiritual elevation of the questioner:
dualistic and pantheistic, mythological and pagan,
Oriental and Hellenistic, mystical and profoimdiy
thoughtful, speculations contributed their several
strands to the composite fabric. Yet even in so
abstruse a product as the philosophy of the Books of
Je<i, i^emption is still brought back to the divine
490
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Onostiolsm
revelation as manifested in Christ. Now the surest
sign that this gnosis was a matter of religion and
not of philosophy was the fact that its advocates
made efforts to form associations; although it was
not always clear where the school stopped and the
church began, nor were Gnostics like Valentinus to
be classed with the Oriental sectaries included under
the designation of Ophites (q.v.), with whom or-
ganization on a mystic basis can be shown most
distinctly. Still, not among these alone, but rather
almost everyrv'here in Gnostic commimities, mystic
consecrations and symbolic rites of the utmost
variety were customary alike at the beginning and
end of religious services: such as induction into
the bridal chamber, branding the right ear, bap-
tism with water, fire, and spirit, anointing, cele-
bration of communion, unction of the dying, and
so on. Nor is it to be overlooked, that the religious
way to salvation is also accompanied by the moral
way. The spiritual man either strives to suppress
and annihilate that which still fetters him to the
material, by weakening and mortifying his body;
or, thanks to his exalted state of mind in the pos-
session of salvation, he believes himself exempt
from accountability in respect to the deeds of his
body, thus giving free course to the sensual desires,
since they can not stain the spirit. In short, both
asceticism and libertinism were prevalent among
Gnostic sects.
It is, finally, of particular significance that the
heretical gnosis too was founded upon revelation
authorities, and so emulated or-
5. Reliance thodox Christendom. The founders
upon of sects and the foremost oracles of the
Authority. Spirit drew power and instruction
from direct converse with deity;
prophecy stood in high esteem; great value was
laid on tradition: whereby, just as the Church did,
they contrived to link themselves to primitive
Christianity. Basilides named Glaukias, supposedly
an interpreter of Peter, as his teacher; Valentinus
professed to have heard Theodas, a disciple of Paul;
the Naasseni referred to James, brother of the Lord,
and in like manner they esteemed Scripture tradi-
tion highly, although most of the Christian Gnos-
tics saw the enemy of their gnosis in the God of the
Jews, and consequently rejected his book, the Old
Testament. Nevertheless the docmnents of primi-
tive Christianity, in so far as they could trace them
back to the Apostles, ranked with them as Holy
Scripture; even though they tried first to render
them orally acceptable by means of dogmatic inter-
pretation. Above all, however, they enriched sa^
cred literature with their own productions (cf. 3,
above).
Then the radical Gnostic tendency that gave
special offense to the orthodox mode of thinking
was its dualism which was strongly
6. Its opposed to orthodox Christianity,
Dualism, based on monism. This dualism was
plain in every way, and may be treated
under the following heads: (1) Diialism in theol-
ogy and cosmology: for the Gnostics separated the
supreme God and the creator of the world. So, too,
in the elaborated forms of gnosis, the supreme God
was considered as the God of the new covenant, the
creator of the world as the God of the old covenant;
but in seeking to show the highest honor to Chris-
tianity by separating its God from the God of Ju-
daism, they thereby uprooted Christianity from the
very soil in which it had been planted as a historic
religion. (2) Dualism in Christology: the divine eon,
sent from on high to redeem the spiritual that
is in the material, was Christ, but a sharp distinc-
tion was drawn between this supermundane Christ
and the historical Jesus. With the latter the eon
either merely contracted a temporary union (joined
him in baptism, but forsook him before death); or
the Jewish Jesus was only the manifestation of
the heavenly redeemer, who was obliged to assimie
a body in order to become visible; or, lastly, the
entire visible apparition of the redeemer, his birth,
life, and death, was in semblance only. (3) Dual-
ism in anthropology: men were distinguished as
spiritual men, in whom the divine portion to be
redeemed lived bound to the material portion; and
as material men, who, having deteriorated into
matter, were not an object of redemption. There
were besides, in certain cases, the men " of soul,"
who were destined to a certain degree of blessed-
ness, and for whose understanding the verities of
salvation had to be clothed in their historic dress.
(4) Dualism in soteriology: redemption was sep-
aration of spirit from matter: a, beginning even
at present; hence there was either mortification
and contempt of the material, by way of asceticism,
or else libertinism, b. The process became com-
plete in the future: hence there was rejection of
the primitive Christian hopes as to a future life:
especially the belief in the resurrection of the body.
The Church did right in opposing this dualism
with all possible vigor. The crisis evoked by the
assaults of Gnosticism was the greatest
7. The and most momentous in its conse-
Church and quences of all the convulsions to which
Gnosticism. Christianity was exposed in the course
of its growth in the soil of antique
civilization. Had Gnosticism not been overcome,
then Christianity had forfeited its peculiar genius;
torn loose from its historic foundation, it would
have been drawn into the general vortex, thus per-
ishing like the religions of collapsing paganism.
The danger was especially serious in so far as the
still immature organization of the congregations,
only partly formed and insecurely established as
they were then, was easily accessible to perver-
sions, and offered the enemy various points for
attadc. Men of might then strove to strengthen
this organization, by creating the standards the
acknowledgment of which was absolutely required
of every one who would be a Christian; such as the
Apostles' Creed, the collection of ApostoHc writings,
the Apostolic office. Like shrewd physicians, too,
they did not scruple to inject into the sick body
some of the poison that threatened to destroy its
life, and in fact, both in faith and in manners and
customs, the ancient catholic Church distinctly
showed the influence exerted by the vanquished
syncretism on its successful conqueror.
Gnosticism was indeed the bastard offspring of
genuine, real gnosis; yet injustice would be done
if it were forgotten that amid the well-nigh inex-
QnoBtioiBm
Ooa, Arohblshoprio of
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZCX5
500
tricable tangle of the most heterogeneous tendencies
and strivings, there lurked many a sublime inven-
tion. The reader of the Books of Je(i, to be sure, is
not prepared by their introductory strain of beauti-
ful praise for the living Jesus to be plunged afterward
into that ocean of barren formulas in magic, the bulk
of their contents. On the other hand, the reader who
lays aside the Naassenian Hymn without feeling its
inward hold on him, may well begin to ask himself,
does he know what religion is 7 Athwart the trans-
parent envelop of Valentine's wonderful cosmic poem
may be caught gleams of the loftiest and profound-
est ideas in a very noble setting. G. KrCoer.
Bibliography: For the extant literature of the Gnostics
consult: the edition of Irenojus by A. Stieren, i. 901-
071. Leipsic, 1853; the Piatia Sophia, ed. M. G. Schwartse
and J. H. Petennann, Gotha, 1851-63 (Coptic and
Latin), cf. the Fr. transl. by E. AnK^lineau. Paris.
1895, Eng. transl., mentioned above in fi 3; Codex
Brucianiu, ed. C. Schmidt in TU, vii. 1-2 (1892); idem,
in SB A, 1896, pp. 839-847; Hamack, GeachichU, i. 143-
201; idem, Zur QueUenkritik dea Gnoaticiamiiat Leipsic.
1873, and cf.: G. Volkmar, Die Quellen der Ketzerge-
aehi<jite bia zum Nic&num, Leipsic, 1855; R. A. Lipsius,
Zur QueUenkritik dea Epiphanioa, Vienna. 1865; H.
St&helin, Die ono^tiachen Quellen Hippolyta, in TU, vi.
3 (1891); J. Kunse, De hiatoria gnoaUciami foniibua,
Leipsic, 1894.
On the system in general the fullest discussion is still
J. Matter, Hiat. critique du onoaticiame, 3 vols., Paris.
1843-44. Consult further: A. Neander, Oenetiache Ent-
Vfickeluna der vomehmaten gnoatiachen Syateme, Berlin.
1818; idem. ChriaHan Church, consult Index; E. Burton.
Hereaiea of the Apoatolic Age, Oxford. 1829; J. A. Mohler.
Der Uraprung dea Gnoaticiamua, Tubingen. 1831; F. C.
Baur. Die chriatluJie Gnoaia oder die chriatliche Religiona-
philoaophie, ib. 1835; R. Massuet, in Stieren's Irenaeua,
ut sup., ii. 54 sqq.; BL. A. Lipsius. Der Gnoaticiamua,
Leipsic. 1860; W. M6hler, Oeachichte der Koamologie in
der griechiachen Kirche, Halle, 1860; E. Am^lineau, Ea-
aai aur le gnoaticiame igyptien, Paris, 1866; T. Mansel,
The Gnoatic Hereaiea of Oie Firat and Second Centuriea,
London, 1875; J. B. Lightfoot, in his Commentary on
Colos!uans. ib. 1879; M. Joel, Blieke in die Religionage-
achichU, i. 114-170, Breslau. 1880; G. Koffmane, Die
Gnoaia nach ihrer Tendenz und Organiaation, ib. 1881;
A. Hilgenfeld, Die Ketzergeachichte dea Urchriatentuma,
Leipsic, 1884; C. W. King, The Qnoaiica and their Re-
maina, London, 1887; A. Dieterich. Abraxaa. Studien
tur Religionageachichte dea apdteren Altertuma, Leipsic,
1891; G. Anrich, Daa antike Myaterienweaen, Gdttingen,
1894; A. Harnack, Unterauchungen Hber daa gnoatiache
Buch Piatia-Sophia, in TU, vii. 2 (1891); idem, Dogma,
passim, consult Index; H. Gunkel, SchUpfung und Chaoa,
Gdttingen, 1895; G. Wobbermin, Religionageachichtliche
Studien zur Frage der Beeinfluaaung dea Urchriatentuma
durch daa antike Myattrienu>eaen, Berlin, 1896; W. Anz,
in TU, XV. 4 (1897); M. Friedl&nder, Der vorchriaUiche
judiache Gnoaticiamua, Gdttingen, 1898; G. R. S. Mead,
Fragmenta of a Faith Forgotten; Sketchea among the
Gnoatica of the firat two Centuriea, London, 19(X); £. H.
Schmitt, Dia Gnoaia. Grundlagen der Weltanachauung
einer edleren KtUtur, Leipsic, 1903; £. Preuschen. Zwei
gnoatiache Hymnen, Giessen, 19()4; R. Reitzenstein.
Poimandrea, Leipsic, 1904; £. Bischoff, Im Reiche der
Gnoaia; die myatiachen Ijehren dea jUdiachen und chriat-
lidien Gnoaticiamua, MandOiamua und Manichdiemua und
ihr babyloniach-aatraler Uraprung, ib. 1906; W. Bousset.
Hauptprobleme der Gnoaia, Gdttingen, 1907; E. Buonaiuti,
LoGnoatidamo, Rome, 1907; DCB, ii. 678-687; KL, v. 765-
775; the literature under the articles named in the firKt
paragraph of this article, the text-books and treatises on
the church history of the period, and the works on the his-
tory of dogma.
GOA, ARCHBISHOPRIC OF: A metropolitan
see in Portuguese India, founded in 1534 by Paul
III. The first bishop was the Franciscan Jofio
Albuquerque, consecrated in 1537. After the ex-
tension of Christianity by the labors of St. Francis
Xavier (q.v.), who landed at Goa in 1542, Paul III.
raised the see to metropolitan rank in 1557, assign-
ing to it as suffragan bishoprics Cochin, Malacca,
and Macao, the last-named including the oversight
of the Chinese and, from 1576, the Japanese mi.s-
sions. About 1570, three-fourths of the 200,000
inhabitants of the city were Christians. The in-
creasing conquests of the Dutch diminished the
importance of the city, and in 1753, in consequence
of a plague, the residence of the Portuguese viceroy
was removed to New Goa or Panjim (5 m. to the
westward), which became the seat of government
in 1845. The ancient city is now little but ruins,
with few inhabitants; its most remarkable remain-
ing monuments are the churches, of which that con-
taining the body of St. Francis Xavier is a place of
pilgrimage for the Roman Catholics of all India.
The later history of the mission which was once so
flourishing is an unhappy one. In the seventeenth
century the Portuguese government, relying on the
right of patronage originally conceded by the pope,
made claims which could not be admitted, and on
their rejection deliberately organized a schism which
maintained its existence for over two hundre<l years,
the consequences of which are not yet ctTaced.
Bibliography: J. A. E. de Silva, Catholic Church in India,
Bombay, 1885; C. Dellon, Hiat. of the Intjuiaition at Goa,
London. 1748; Life of Biahop Hartmann, Calcutta, 1868;
J. P. Kirsch and V. Luksch. Illuatrierte Oeachichte der
katholiachen Kirche, pp. 493, 647, 577, 601, Munich. 1905;
KL, V. 776-780.
END OF VOL. IV.
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