Google
This is a digital copy of a book that was preserved for general ions on library shelves before il was carefully scanned by Google as part of a project
to make the world's books discoverable online.
Il has survived long enough for the copyright to expire and the book to enter the public domain. A public domain book is one that was never subject
to copyright or whose legal copyright term has expired. Whether a book is in the public domain may vary country to country. Public domain books
are our gateways to the past, representing a wealth of history, culture and knowledge that's often diflicult to discover.
Marks, notations and other marginalia present in the original volume will appear in this file - a reminder of this book's long journey from the
publisher to a library and finally to you.
Usage guidelines
Google is proud to partner with libraries to digitize public domain materials and make them widely accessible. Public domain books belong to the
public and we are merely their custodians. Nevertheless, this work is expensive, so in order to keep providing this resource, we have taken steps to
prevent abuse by commercial parlies, including placing technical restrictions on automated querying.
We also ask that you:
+ Make non-commercial use of the plus We designed Google Book Search for use by individuals, and we request that you use these files for
personal, non-commercial purposes.
+ Refrain from automated querying Do not send automated queries of any sort to Google's system: If you are conducting research on machine
translation, optical character recognition or other areas where access to a large amount of text is helpful, please contact us. We encourage the
use of public domain materials for these purposes and may be able to help.
+ Maintain attribution The Google "watermark" you see on each file is essential for informing people about this project and helping them find
additional materials through Google Book Search. Please do not remove it.
+ Keep it legal Whatever your use, remember that you are responsible for ensuring that what you are doing is legal. Do not assume that just
because we believe a b<x>k is in the public domain for users in the United States, that the work is also in the public domain for users in other
countries. Whether a book is still in copyright varies from country to country, and we can't offer guidance on whether any specific use of
any specific book is allowed. Please do not assume that a book's appearance in Google Book Search means il can be used in any manner
anywhere in the world. Copyright infringement liability can be quite severe.
About Google Book Search
Google's mission is to organize the world's information and to make it universally accessible and useful. Google Book Search helps readers
discover the world's hooks while helping authors ami publishers reach new audiences. You can search through I lie lull text of this book on I lie web
at|http : //books . qooqle . com/|
AndoVeFHWarP
theological ubrakf
SCHAFF-HERZOG ENCYCLOPEDIA
THE NEW
OP
RELIGIOUS KNOWLEDGE
EDITED BY
SAMUEL MACAULEY JACKSON, D.D., LLJX
(Editor-in-Chief)
WITH THE ASSISTANCE OF
CHARLES COLEBROOK SHERMAN
[VOLUMES I— VI]
AND
GEORGE WILLIAM GILMORE, M.A.
(Associate Editors)
AND THE FOLLOWING DEPARTMENT EDITORS
CLARENCE AUGUSTINE BECKWITH, D.D.
(Department of Systematic Theology)
HENRY KING CARROLL, LL.D.
(Department of Minor Denominations)
JAMES FRANCIS DRISCOLL, D.D.
{Department of Liturgies and Religious Orders)
JAMES FREDERIC McCURDY, PH.D., LL.D.
(Department of the Old Testament)
HENRY SYLVESTER NASH, D.D.
(Department of the New Testament)
ALBERT HENRY NEWMAN, VJ>„ LL.D.
(Department of Church Htitory)
FRANK HORACE VIZETELLY, F.S.A.
{Department of Pronunciation and Typography)
Complete in Gtoelve Volumes
FUNK AND WAGNALLS COMPANY
NEW YORK AND LONDON
THE NEW
SCHAFF-HERZOG ENCYCLOPEDIA
OP
RELIGIOUS KNOWLEDGE
EDITED BY
SAMUEL MACAULEY JACKSON, D.D., LL.D.
(Editor-in-Chief)
WITH THE SOLE ASSISTANCE, AFTER VOLUME VI., OP
GEORGE WILLIAM GILMORE, M.A.
(Associate Editor)
AND TNI FOLLOWING DEPARTMENT EDITORS
CLARENCE AUGUSTINE BECKW1TH, D.H.
{Department of Systematic Theology)
HENRY KING CARROLL, LLD.
(Department of Minor Denominations)
JAMES FRANCIS DRISCOLL, D.D.
(Department of Liturgies and Religious Orders)
JAMES FREDERIC McCURDY, PH.D., LL.D.
(Department of the Old Testament)
HENRY SYLVESTER NASH. D.D.
(Department of the New Testament)
ALBERT HENRY NEWMAN, D.D., LLD.
(Department of Church History)
FRANK HORACE YIZETELLY, F.S.A.
(Department of Pronunciation and Typography)
volume x
REUSCH — SON OF GOD
FUNK AND WAGNALLS COMPANY
NEW YORK AND LONDON
Harvard Unlversityi
Divinity School Library.
COPTRIOHT, 1911, BY
FUNK & WAGNALLS COMPANY
Registered at Stationers' Hall, London, England
Printed in the United States of America
Published May, 1011
V, /o
EDITORS
SAMUEL MAOAULEY JACKSON, D.D., LL.D.
(Editor-in-Chief. )
Professor of Church History. New York University.
GEORGE WILLIAM GILMORE, M.A.
(Associate Editor.)
New York,
Formerly Professor of BlbUdal History and Lecturer on Comparative BaUgkm.
Bangor Theolodcal Seminary.
DEPARTMENT EDITORS, VOLUME X
CLARENCE AUGUSTINE BECK. WITH,
D.D.,
{Department of Systematic Theology.)
Professor of Systematic Theology, Chicago Theological
Seminary.
HENRY XING OABBOLL, LL.D.,
(Department of Minor Denomination*.)
Secretary of Executive Committee of the Western Section
for the Fourth Ecumenical Methodist Conference.
JAMES FRANCIS DRI800LL, D.D.,
(Department of Liturgies and Religious Orders.)
Rector of St Gabriel's, New RocheUe, N. Y.
JAKES FREDERICK McOURDY, Ph.D.,
LL.D.,
(Department oftheOld Testament.)
Professor of Oriental Languages, University College,
Toronto.
HENRY SYLVESTER NASH, D.D.,
(Department of the New Testament.)
Professor of the Literature and Interpretation of the New
Testament, Episcopal Theological School, Cambridge, Mass.
ALBERT HENRY NEWMAN, D.D., LL.D.,
(Department of Church History.)
Professor of Church History, Southwestern Baptist
Theological Seminary, Fort Worth, Tex.
FRANK HORACE "VTZETELLY, F.S.A.,
(Department of Pronunciation and Typography.)
Managing Editor of the Standard Digtionaky, etc.,
New York City.
CONTRIBUTORS AND COLLABORATORS, VOLUME X
JUSTIN EDWARDS ABBOTT, D.D.,
Missionary in Bombay* India.
HANS AOHELIS, Th.D.,
Professor of Church History, University of Halle.
FRANKLIN CARL ARNOLD, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Church History, University of Breslau. ■.
BRUNO BAENTSOH (f), Ph.D., Th.D.,
Late Professor, University of Jena.
FERENOZ RALOGH, D.D.,
Professor of Church History, Reformed Theological Acad-
lemy, Debrecsen, Hungary.
HERMANN GEORG JULIUS BECK,
Conaistorial Councilor and first Preacher, Beyrouth.
CLARENCE AUGUSTINE BECKWITH,
D.D.,
Professor of Systematic Theology, Chicago Theological
Seminary.
KARL BENRATH, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Church History, University of Konigsberg.
OfMANTJEL GUSTAV ADOLF BENZIN-
GER, Ph.D., Th.Lic,
German Orientalist and Vice-Consul for Holland in Jerusalem.
CARL BERTHEAU (f), Th.D.,
Late Pastor at St. Michael's, Hamburg.
EDWIN MUNSELL BLISS, D.D.,
Author of Books on Missions, Washington, D. C.
AMY GASTON CHARLES AUGUSTS
BONET MAURY, D.D., LL.D.,
Professor of Church History, Independent School of Divinity,
GOTTLIEB NATHANAEL BONWETSCH,
Th.D.,
Professor of Church History, University of Gottingen.
GUSTAV BOSSERT, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Retired Pastor, Stuttgart.
JOHANN FRANZ WILHELM BOUSSET,
Th.D.,
Professor of New Testament Exegesis, University of
Gottingen.
FRIEDRICH HEINRICH BRANDES,
Th.D.,
Reformed Minister and Chaplain at Buokeburg, Schaum-
burg-Lippe.
KARL BURGER (f), Th.D.,
Late Supreme Conaistorial Councilor, Munich.
JOHN CAIRNS,
Clergyman of the United Free Church of Scotland,
Dumfries, Scotland.
PAOLO OALVTNO,
Pastor at Lugano, Switzerland.
HENRY XING CARROLL, LL.D.,
Secretary of the Executive Committee of the Western Section
for the Fourth WwimuMiWi Methodist Conference.
vi
CONTRIBUTORS AND COLLABORATORS, VOLUME X.
JOHN FLEMING CARSON, D,D.,
Pastor of the Central Presbyterian Church, Brooklyn,
New York.
JAMES CARTER,
Professor of Church History and Sociology, Lincoln Univer-
sity, Pa.
PAUL CHRIST (f), Th.D.,
Late Professor of Theology, University of Zurich.
FERDINAND OOHRS, Th.Lic.,
Consistorial Councilor, Ufeld, Qermany.
WILLIAM HENRY COX,
Editor-in-Chief for the Salvation Army.
SAMUEL CRAMER, Th.D.,
Professor of the History of Christianity, University of Am-
sterdam, and Professor of Practical Theology, Mennonite
Theological Seminary, Amsterdam.
AUGUST HERMANN CREMER (f), Th.D.,
Late Professor of Systematic Theology, University of
Greifswald.
SAMUEL MARTIN DEUTSCH (f), Th.D.,
Late Professer of Church History, University of Berlin.
FRANZ WILHELM DIBELIUS, Ph.D.,
Th.D.,
Supreme Consistorial Councilor. City Superintendent, and
Pastor of the Kreuskirche, Dresden.
ERNST VON DOBSCHUETZ, Th.D.,
Professor of New Testament Exegesis, University of Breslau.
RICHARD WILHELM DOVE (t),
Ph.D., Th.D.,
Late Professor of Ecclesiastical Law, University of G6ttingen.
PAUL GOTTFRIED DREWS, Th.D.,
Professor of Theology, University of Berlin.
JAMES FRANCIS DRISCOLL, D.D.,
Pastor of St. Gabriel's, New Rochelle, New York.
SIMEON BILLINGHAM DUNN, D.D.,
Of the Editorial Staff of the New York Observer.
EMIL EGLI (f), Th.D.,
Late Professor of Church History, University of Zurich.
CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH DAVID
ERDMANN (t), Ph.D., Th.D.,
Late Honorary Professor of Church History, University of
Breslau.
JOHN OLUF EVJEN, Ph.D.,
Professor of Theology, Augsburg Seminary, Minneapolis,
Minn.
E. FABIAN, Ph.D.,
Gymnasia! Professor in Zwickau, Saxony.
CHRISTIAN THEODOR FICKER, Ph.D.,
Emeritus Pastor at Eythra, near Leipsio.
FRITZ FLIEDNER (f), M.D.,
Late German Evangelist in Spain.
FRANK HUGH FOSTER, Ph.D., D.D.,
Professor of History, Olivet College, Michigan.
FRANZ HERMANN FRANK (f),
Ph.D., Th.D.,
Late Professor of Theology, University of Eriangen.
GUSTAV WILHELM FRANK (f), Th.D.,
Late Professor of Dogmatics, Symbolics, and Christian
Ethics, University of Vienna.
ALBERT FREYBE, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Emeritus Gymnasial Professor, Parchim, Mecklenburg.
GEORG FROBOESS,
Director for the Evangelical Lutheran Church in
WILHELM GASS (f), Ph.D., Th.D.,
Late Professor of Theology, University of Heidelberg.
DAVID PERCY GILMORE, B.A.,
Specialist in Germanics, Brooklyn, N. Y.
GEORGE WILLIAM GILMORE, M.A.,
WASHINGTON GLADDEN, D.D., LL.D.f
Pastor of the First Congregational Church, Columbus, Ohio.
FRANZ G0ERRE8, Ph.D.,
Assistant Librarian, University of Bonn.
LEOPOLD KARL GOETZ, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Philosophy, University of Bonn.
WILHELM GOETZ (f), Ph.D.,
Late Honorary Professor of Geography, Technical High
School, and Professor, Military Academy, Munich.
GWILTM OSWALD GRIFFITH,
Pastor of the Sixth Avenue Baptist Church, Brooklyn, N. Y.
GEORG GRUETZMACHER, Ph.D., ThXic,
Extraordinary Professor of Church History, University of
Heidelberg.
HERMANN OUTHE, Th.D.,
Professor of Old Testament Exegesis, University of Leipsio.
WILHELM HADORN, Th.Lic,
Pastor in Bern and Lecturer on New Testament Exegesis,
University of Bern.
ARTHUR CRAWSHAY ALLISTON
HALL, D.D., LL.D.,
Protestant Episcopal Bishop of Vermont.
JULIUS HAMBURGER (f), Ph.D., Th.D.,
Late Professor of Theology, University of Munich.
ADOLF HARNACK, Ph.D., Th.D., Dr.
Jur., M.D.,
General Director of the Royal Library, Berlin.
EDWIN FRANCIS HATFIELD (f), D.D.,
Late Stated Clerk of the Presbyterian General Assembly,
New School.
ALBERT HAUCK, Ph.D., Th.D., Dr.Jur.,
Professor of Church History, University of Leipsic, Editor-
in-Chief of the Haucfc-Hersog Realencyklopftdie.
CARL FRIEDRICH GEORG HEINRICI,
Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of New Testament Exegesis, University of Leipsio.
HEINRICH HERMELINX, Ph.D., Th.Lic,
Privat-docent in Church History, University of Leipsic.
JOHANN CHRISTOPH FRANZ MAX
HEROLD, Th.D.,
Ecclesiastical Councilor, Dean and City Preacher, Neustadt-
an-der-Aisch, Bavaria.
JOHANN JAKOB HERZOG (f),
Ph.D., Th.D.,
Late Professor of Reformed Theology, University of
Eriangen.
PAUL HINSCHTUS (f), Th.D., Dr.Jur.,
Late Professor of Ecclesiastical Law, University of Berlin.
OSWALD HOLDER-EGGER, Ph.D.,
Professor at Berlin and Director for the Publication of the
Monwncnta Germania Historica.
KARL HOLL, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Church History, University of Berlin.
HENRY SCOTT HOLLAND, D.D.,
Canon of St. Paul's Cathedral, London.
CONTRIBUTORS AND COLLABORATORS, VOLUME X.
▼ii
GEORG HOLZ, Ph.D.,
Professor of German Language and literature, University
01 Leipsic
JOHN H0R80H,
Pastor at Soottdale, Pa.
OABL BERNHARD HUNDEBHAGEN (f),
Th.D.,
Late Professor of New Testament Exegesis at Bonn.
George Mcpherson w™1
Secretary of the American Seamen's Friend Society.
KARL J0HAHNE8 HERMANN JAOOBY,
Th.D.,
Professor of Homilctios, University of Konigsberg.
MARTIN XAEHLER, Th.D.,
Professor of Dogmatics and New Testament Exegesis,
University of Halle.
ADOLF HERMANN
Late Prof
:■ hi
HAUSEN (f), ThJ>.,
r of Old Testament Exegesis, University of
Bonn.
FERDINAND FRIEDRIOH WILHELM
KATTENBUSOH, PhJX, Th.D.,
Professor of Dogmatics, Univejosity of Halle.
SMIL FRTEDRIOH KATJTZSOH,
Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Old Testament Exegesis, University of Halle.
PETER GUSTAV KAWERAU, Th.D.,
Supreme Oonsistorial Councilor, Provost of St. Peter's, Ber-
lin* and Honorary Professor, University of Berlin.
GOTTLOB KIROHHOFER»
Minister at Schaffhanaon, Switzerland.
OTTO KIRN, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Dogmatics, University of Leipsic.
RUDOLF XITTEL, PhJ>., Th.D.,
Professor of Old Testament Exegesis, University of Lefpaio.
GBORG HETNRIOH XLIPPEL (t), Ph.D.,
Late Sector at Verden, Prussia.
[OH ADOLF KOESTLIN(t),
Ph.D., ThJ>.,
Councilor in Cannstadt, formerly Professor of
Theology, University of Qiessen.
THSODOR FRTEDRIOH HERMANN
KOLDE, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Church History, University of Erlangen.
HERMANN GUSTAV EDUARD XRUEGER,
Ph*D., Th.D.,
Professor of Church History, University ot Oieasen.
ERNST XUEHN, Th.D.,
Supreme Oonsistorial Councilor, Dresden.
ABRAHAM XUENEN (f), DJ>.,
Late Professor of Theology, University of Leyden.
EUGEN LAOHENMANN,
OHy Pastor, Leonberg, Wurttemberg.
GEORG RTTTER VON LAUBMANN.(t),
PhJ>.,
Late Director of the Royal Library, Munich.
LTJDWIG LEMME, Th.D.,
Professor of flystematie Theology, University of Heidelberg.
0. H. d'E. LEPPINGTON,
Fellow of the Royal Economic Society, England.
ORLANDO FAULKLAND LEWIS,
General Secretary of the Prison Association of New York.
(t),
Late Pastor in Plochingen, Wurttemberg.
RUDOLF UEOHTENHAN, Th.Lic,
Pastor at Booh, Canton of Zurich, Switzerland.
PAUL LOBSTEIN, Th.D.,
Professor of Dogmatics in the Evangelical Theological
Faculty, University of Strasburg.
GERHARD LOESOHKE, Th. Lie,
Privat-dooent in Church History, University of Bonn.
FRTEDRIOH ARMIN LOOFS, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Church History, University of Halle.
WILHELM PHTLTPP FRIEDRIOH
FERDINAND LOTZ, Ph.D., ThJ>.,
Professor of Old Testament Exegesis, University of Erlangen.
CHARLES HALLAN MCCARTHY, PhJX,
Prof
of American History in the Catholic University,
Washington, D. C.
HERMANN MALLET (f),
Late Pastor in Bremen.
PHTTiTPP MEYER, Th.D,
Supreme Oonsistorial Councilor, Hanover.
GrEROLD MEYER VON KNONAU,
Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of History, University of Zurich.
ALEXANDER MIOHBLSEN (f), Ph.D.,
Late Pastor at Lubeck.
OARL THEODOR MIRBT, Th.D.,
Professor of Church History, University of Marburg.
ERNST FRIEDRIOH KARL MUELLER,
Th.D,
Professor of Reformed Theology, University of Erlangen.
GEORG MUELLER, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Inspector of Schools, Leipsio.
OHRISTOF EBERHARD NESTLE,
Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor in the Theological Seminary, Maulbronn,
Wurttemberg.
ALBERT HENRY NEWMAN, D.D., LL.D.,
Professor of Church History, Southwestern Baptist Theo-
logical Seminary, Port Worth, Texas.
' THEODOR JULIUS NEY, Th.D.,
Supreme Oonsistorial Councilor, Speyer, Bavaria.
JAN JAOOB VAN OOSTERZEE (f),
Ph.D., Th.D.,
Late Professor of Theology, University of Utrecht.
CONRAD VON ORELLI, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Old Testament Exegesis and History of
Religion, University of Basel.
KARL HERMANN PAHNCKE,
Ecclesiastical Inspector, Public Schools, Pforta, Prussia.
ANTON FRIEDRIOH LUDWIO PELT (f),
Ph.D., Th.D.,
Late Superintendent in Kemnita.
OARL PETER (f), Th.D,
Late Consistorial Councilor, Jena.
OARL PFENDER,
Pastor of St. Paul's Evangelical Lutheran Church, Paris.
EDUARD CHARLES PLATZHOFF-
LEJEUNE, Ph.D.,
Formerly Privat-docent in Philosophy at Geneva.
LYMAN PIERSON POWELL,
Rector of St. John's, Northampton, Mass.
Vlll
CONTRIBUTORS AND COLLABORATORS, VOLUME X.
WALDO 8ELDEN PRATT, Mut.B.,
Professor of Music and Hymnology, Hartford Theological
Seminary, Conn.
ERWIN PREUSCHEN, PhJ>., Th.D.,
Pastor at Hirschhom-on-the-Neckar, Germany.
EDUARD GUTLLAUME EUGENE
REUSS (f), Fh.D., Th.D.,
Late Professor or Theology, University of Strasburg.
OTTO KARL ALBREOHT RITSCHL, ThJX,
Professor of Systematic Theology in the Evangelical
Tbeologioal Faculty. Bonn.
RUDOLF ROCHOLL (f), Th.D.,
Late Ecclesiastical Councilor, Dusseldorf
GUSTAV RUDLOFF (f), ThJ>.,
Late Superintendent in Wangenheim.
KARL HEINBIOH SACK (f), Ph.D., Th.D.,
Late Professor of Theology at Bonn.
DAVID SCHLEY SCHAFF, D.D.,
Professor of Church History, Western Theological Seminary,
Pittsburg, Pa.
PHILIP SOHAFF (f), D.D., LL.D.,
Late Professor of Church History, Union Theological
Seminary, New York, and Editor of the Original
ScHAFr-HmRsoo Emcyclofssdia.
OHRISTOF GOTTLOB VON SOHEURL (f),
Ph.D., Th.D.,
Late Professor in Nuremberg.
OARL SCHMIDT (f), Th.D.,
Late Professor of Theology, University of Strasburg.
EDMUND SCHMIDT,
Pastor in Krappits, Prussia.
OSWALD SCHMIDT (f),
Late Superintendent in Werdau, Saxony.
JOHANNES SCHNEIDER,
Emeritus Pastor, Darmstadt.
OARL WTLHELM SOHOELL (f),
Ph.D., D.D.,
Late Pastor of the Savoy Church, London.
EARL SOHORNBAUM, PhJ>.,
Pastor in Alfeld, Prussia.
MAXIMILIAN VICTOR SOHULTZE,
Th.D.,
Professor of Church History and Christian Archeology,
University of Greifswald.
LUDWIG THEODOR SCHULZE, Ph.D.,
Th.D.,
Retired Professor of Systematic Theology, University of
Rostock.
Prof.
Prof
RETNHOLD 8EEBERG, Th.D.,
>r of Systematic Theology, University of Berlin.
EMIL SEHLING, Dr. Jar.,
>r of EcclesiaBtical and Commercial Law, University
of Eiiangen.
WILLIAM AMBROSE SHEDD, D.D.,
Missionary, Urumia, Persia.
FRIEDRIOH ANTON EMIL SIEFFERT,
Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of New Testament Exegesis, University of Bonn.
ERNEST GOTTLIEB SIHLER, Ph.D.,
Professor of Latin, New York University.
EDUARD SIMONS, Th.D.,
Extraordinary Professor of Practical Theology, University
of Berlin.
FHUJFP FRIEDRIOH ADOLPH THEO-
DOR SPAETH (f), D.D., LL.D.,
Late Professor in the Lutheran Theological Seminary,
Mt. Airy, Philadelphia.
ANTHONY ANASTASIOU STAMOULI,
Formerly Member of the Editorial Staff of Atlantis, New York.
CHARLES JANEWAT STILL* (f), LL.D.,
Late Professor of History, University of Pennsylvania.
HERMANN LEBERECHT STRACK, Ph.D.,
Th.D.,
Extraordinary Professor of Old Testament Exegesis and
Semitic Languages, University of Berlin.
LEWIS CLINTON STRANG,
Author and Christian Science Practitioner, Boston, Mas*.
RUDOLF STUEBE, Ph.D.,
Head Master, Nioolai Gymnasium, Leipsic.
JAMES WESTFALL THOMPSON, Ph.D.,
Associate Professor of History, University of Chicago.
ORAWFORD HOWELL TOY, LL.D.,
Emeritus Professor of Hebrew, Harvard University.
PAUL TSOHAOKERT, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Church History University of Q6ttingen.
JOHANN GERHARD WTLHELM
X7HLH0RN (f), Th.D.,
Late Abbot of Lokkum, Qermany.
EBERHARD VISCHER, ThJ>.9
Professor of Theology, University of Basel.
WTLHELM VOGT, Ph.D.,
Gymnasia! Rector, Nuremberg.
HENRI VUILLEUMIER, ThJ>.,
Professor of Hebrew and Old Testament Exegesis, University
of Lausanne.
JULIUS AUGUST WAGENMANN (t),
Th.D.,
Late Consistorial Councilor, Qdttingen.
HANS WAITZ, Th.D.f
Pastor in Darmstadt.
OARL HEINRIOH VON WEIZ-
8AE0XER (t), Ph.D., Th.D.,
Late Professor of Theology, University of Tubingen.
JOHANN JAKOB WERNER,
Privat-docent in Medieval Philology, Zurich.
FRANCIS METHERALL
Pastor of the Bethlehem Congregational Church, Cleveland.
Ohio. ^^
AUGUST WUENSOHE, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Retired Titular Professor, Dresden.
RUDOLF ZEHNPFUND, Ph.D%
Pastor in Oranienbaum.
OTTO ZOECHXER (t), Ph.D., Th.D.,
Late Professor of Church History and Apologetics, Univer-
sity of Qreifswald.
BIOHARD OTTO ZOEPFFEL (f), Ph.D.,
Th.D.,
Late Professor of Theology, University of Strasburg.
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL APPENDLX-VOLS. I-X
The following list of books is supplementary to the bibliographies given at the end of the articles
contained in vols. I.-X., and brings the literature down to Feb. 20, 1911. In this list each title entry
is printed in capital letters. It is to be noted that, throughout the work, in the articles as a rule only
first editions are given. In the bibliographies the aim is to give either the best or the latest edition,
and in case the book is published both in America and in some other country, the American place of
issue is usually given the preference.
Abbott, E. A.: The Son of Man: or. Contributions
to the Study of the Thoughts of Jesus, London,
1910.
Africa: R. E. Dennett, Nigerian Studies; the re-
ligious and political System of Yoruba, New
York, 1910.
Alexandria: CSCO, vol. DC., fasc. II., contains
Severus Ben el Mogaffa: Historia Patrir
archarum Alexandrinorum, vol. I., fasc. II.,
ed. C. F. Seybold, Vienna, 1910.
Apocrypha: J. M Oiler, Beitrdge zur Erkl&rung und
Kritik des Buches Tobit, in Revue de V orient
'chriHen, 1910.
Apologetics: J. F. Love, The Unique Message and
the Universality of Christianity, New York
and Chicago, 1910.
W. D. Mackenzie, The Final Faith; a Statement
of the Nature and Authority of Christianity as
the Religion of the World, New York, 1910.
Armenia: T. E. Dowling, The Armenian Church,
London, 1910.
M. Ormanian, L'Eglise arminienne. Son his-
toire, sa doctrine, son regime, sa discipline, sa
UtUratwre, son present, Paris, 1910.
Asylum: J. C. Cox, The Sanctuaries and Sanctuary
Seekers of Mediwval England, London, 1910.
Atonement: J. B. Champion, The Living Atone-
ment, Philadelphia, 1910.
C. C. Morgan, A Lawyer* s Brief on the Atone-
ment, Boston, 1911.
Augustine: W. J. S. Simpson, St. Augustine and
African Church Divisions, London, 1910.
Sancti Aurelii AuausHni episcopi de civitate
dei libri XXII. , ed. E. Hoffmann, vol. I., libri
i.-xiii., Vienna, 1910.
Babylonia: C. Fossey, L'Assyrioloaie en 1907.
Geniralites. Explorations etfouxues. Langues
sumerienne et assyrienne. Geographic et his-
toire, religion, droit, vie privte, astronomic,
mtUorologie, litterature, varia, archioiogie, in-
fluences babyloniennes, Paris, 1910.
R. F. Harper, Assyrian and Babylonian Letters
belongina to the Kouyunjik Collections of the
British Museum, vol. ix., Chicago, 1910.
H. Schneider, Kultur una Denker der Baby-
lonier und Juden, 2 vols., Leipsic, 1910.
Bacon, F.: Q. W. Steeves, Francis Bacon: a Sketch
of Ms Life, Works, Literary Friends, etc.,
London, 1910.
Bernard of Clatrvaux: St. Bernard, Abbot of
Clairvaux. Selections from his Letters, Medi-
tations, etc., rendered into English by H. Grim-
ley, London, 1910.
Bible Text: Der Cambridger Psalter, Hamburg,
1911.
H. A. Sanders, The Old Testament Manuscript
in the Freer Collection. Part I.: The Wash-
ington Manuscript of Deuteronomy and
Joshua, New York, 1910.
A. Souter, Novum Testamentum Grace, London,
1910.
H. J. Vogels, Die Harmonistik im Evangelium-
text des Codex Cantabrigiensis. Bin Beitrag
zur neutestamentlichen Textkritik, Leipsic,
1910.
Bible Versions: J. O. Bevan, Our English Bible:
The History and Its Development, London,
1911.
W. J. Heaton, Our Own English Bible: its
Translators and their Work, London, 1910;
The Bible of the Reformation, London, 1910.
J. P. Hentz, Hist, of Lutheran Versions of the
Bible, Columbus, Ohio, 1910.
W. Muir, Our Grand Old Bible. Being the Story
of the Authorized Version of the English Bible,
Told for the Tercentenary Celebration, London,
1910.
Fourteenth Century Enalish Bible Versions, ed.
A. C. Pauis, Cambridge, 1904.
Biblical Criticism: F. C. Conybeare, History of
New Testament Criticism, London, 1910.
R. Kittel, The Scientific Study of the Old Testa-
ment. Its Principal Results, and their Bear-
ing upon Religious Instruction, London, 1910.
Biblical Theology: T. K. Cheyne, The Two Re-
ligions of Israel. With a Re-examination of
the Prophetic Narratives and Utterances,
London, 1910.
M. Dibelius, Die GeisterweU im Glauben des
Paulus, Gottingen, 1909.
P. C. Purves, The Gospel according to Hosea and
the Master's Gospel, London, 1910.
H. C. Sheldon, New Testament Theology, new
rev. ed., New York, 1911.
J. Weiss, Paulus und Jesus, Berlin, 1909.
Blaurer, T.: Briefwechsel der Brftder Ambrosius
und Thomas Blaurer, 1509-1548. Herausge-
geben von der badischen historischen Kommis-
sion, ed. Traugott Schiess. Vol. i.: 1509 bis
Juni 1558. Vol. ii., August 1538 bis Ends
1548, Freiburg, 1908-10.
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL APPENDIX— VOLUMES I-X
Bossuet, J. B.: E. Longuemare, Bossuet et la so-
cUti francaise sous le regno de Louis XIV.,
Paris, 1910.
Bourignon, A.: A. R. Macewen, Antoinette Bourig-
non, Quietist; her Life and Doctrines, New
York, 1910.
Bowne, B. P.: C. B. Pjrle, The Philosophy of Bor-
den Parker Bowne and Us Application to the
Religious Problem, Columbus, O., 1910.
Brooks, P.: J. Gregory, Phillips Brooks: A Study
for Present-day Preachers, London, 1911.
Brahmanism: H. Brunnhofer, Das Buch der hun-
dert Pfade {Catapatha Brahmana), die aV
teste Quelle der Ritualwissenschaft, Bern,
1910.
Buddhism: T. Richard, The New Testament of
Higher Buddhism, New York, 1911.
J. Wettha Sinha, The Singularity of Buddhism,
with Introduction and Notes by F. L. Wood-
ward, London, 1910.
Bubdtt, F. C: The Earliest Sources for the Life of
Jesus, London, 1910.
Burma: R. T. Kelly, Burma; the Land and the
People, Boston, 1911.
Catharinus, Ambrosiub: J. Schweizer, Ambrosius
Catharinus Politus (1484-1653), ein Theotoge
des Reformationzeitalters. Sein Leben und
seine Schriften, M Ouster, 1910.
Charles V.: E. Armstrong, The Emperor Charles
V., 2 vols., new ed., London, 1910.
China: A. Little, Gleaninqs from Fifty Years in
China. Revised by Mrs. A. iAtue, London,
1910.
E. H. Parker, Studies in Chinese Religion, New
York, 1910.
Christology: W. Olschewski, Die Wurzeln der
paulinischen Christologie, Kbnigsberg, 1909.
Church History: H. Appel, Kurzgefasste Kirchen-
geschichte fur Studierende. Part 1. Alte
Kirchengeschichte, 1909. Part 2. Kirchen-
geschichte des Afittelalters, Leipsic, 1910.
B. W. Bacon, The Founding of the Church,
London, 1910.
F. W. Butler, The Permanent Element in
Christianity, London, 1909.
L. David and P. Lorette, Histoire de Viglise,
Paris, 1910.
S. M. Deutsch, Lehrbuch der Kirchengeschichte,
Bonn, 1909.
E. A. Edgehill, The Spirit of Power, as seen in
the Christian Church in the Second Century,
London, 1910.
Canon E. E. Holmes, The Church; her Books
and her Sacraments, New York, 1910.
W. Kohler, Idee und Persdnlichkeit in der
Kirchengeschichte, Tubingen, 1910.
M. Manitius, Geschichte der lateinischen Litera-
tur des Afittelalters, I. Teil: Von Justinian
bis zur Mitte des 10. Jahrhundert, Munich,
1910.
C. Platts, Pioneers of Faith, London, 1910.
Sir W. M. Ramsay, Pictures of the Apostolic
Church, its Life and Thought, Philadelphia,
1910.
K. Sell, Christenthum und Weltgeschichte bis
zur Reformation, Leipsic, 1910.
Clement of Rome: BruchstUcke des ersten Clemens-
briefes, ed. F. Rdsch, Strasburg, 1910.
CoMENius, J. A.: The Great Didactic. Translated
into Enalish and edited with bioaraphioal,
historical and critical Introductions by M. W.
Keatinge, part 1, London, 1910. <
Common Prayer, Book of: J. H. Benton, The
Book of Common Prayer and Books Con-
nected with its Origins and Growth; Catalogue
of the Collection of Josiah Henry Benton,
Boston, 1910.
Comparative Religion: A. Churchward, The
Signs and Symbols of Primordial Man. Being
an Explanation of the Evolution of Religious
Doctrines from the Eschatology of the ancient
Egyptians, London, 1910.
F. B. Jevons, The Idea of God in Early Religions,
London, 1910.
Conscience: T. H. Lipscomb, Conscience and He
Culture* or through Conscience to Christ,
Nashville, Tenn., 1910.
Cooke, G. A.: The Progress of Revelation. Sermons
chiefly on the Old Testament, Edinburgh,
1910.
Creation, Babylonian Accounts of the: A.
Kirchner, Die babylonische Kosmoqonie und
der biblische Schdpfungsbericht. Em Beitrag
zur Apologie des biblischen Gottesbegriffes,
Munster, 1910.
Daniel: E. Hertlein, Der Daniel der Rdmerzeit,
Leipsic, 1908.
Dante: R. W. Church, Dante, new ed., London,
1910.
F. Flamini, Introduction to the Study of the
Divine Comedy, Boston, 1910.
Denmark: A. Krarup and J. Lindbaek, Acta Pan-
tificum Danica, vol. iv., lJtfl-92, Copen-
hagen, 1910.
Dionysius: A. B. Sharpe, Mysticism, its true Na-
ture and Value. With a Translation of the
mystical Theology of Dionysius and of the
Letters of Carve and Dorotheus, London,
1910.
Diseases and the Healing Art: L. Kotelmann,
Die Opthalmologie bei den alien Hebrdern.
Aus den alt- und neutestamentlichen Schrif-
ten mil BerUcksichtigung des Talmuds dar-
gesteUt, Hamburg, 1910.
Divorce: H. J. Wilkens, The History of Divorce
and Remarriage. Compiled from Holy Scrip-
ture, Church Councils, and Authoritative
Writers, London, 1910.
Dobschuetz, E. von: The Apostolic Age, New
York, 1910; The Eschatology of the Gospels,
London, 1910.
Doctrine, History of: G. N. Bonwetsch, Grundr
riss der Dogmengeschichte, Munich, 1909.
A. Humbert, Les Origines de la theologie mo-
derne. I. La Renaissance de VantiquiU chr6-
tienne {1450-1520), Paris, 1910.
Dods, M.: Early Letters of Marcus Dods, London,
1911.
Dogma, Dogmatics: See below, Lobstein.
J. H. Snowden, The Basal Beliefs of Christi-
anity, New York, 1911.
Egypt: E. A. W. Budge, Facsimiles of Egyptian
Hieratic Papyri in the British Museum, Brit-
ish Museum, 1911.
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL APPENDIX— VOLUMES 1-X
Egyptian Exploration Fund: E. Naville, The
Eleventh Dynasty. Temple at Deir-elrBa-
hart. Part II. With Architectural Descrip-
tions by Somas Clark. 13th Memoir of the
Egyptian Exploration Fund, 1911.
England, Church of: J. F. Kendall, A Short His-
tory of the Church of England, New York,
1011.
F. J. Kinsman, Principles of Anglicanism
London, 1911.
Epiphanius: K. Holl, Die handschrifdiche Ueberlie-
feruna des Epiphanius (Ancoratus und Pan-
arion), Leipsic, 1910.
Episcopacy: D. Stone, Episcopacy and Valid
Orders in the Primitive Orders in the Primi-
tive Church. A Statement of Evidence, New
York, 1910.
Eschatoloot: See above, Dobschuetz.
Ethics: T. C. Hall, History of Ethics within Organ-
ized Christianity, London, 1910.
Eusebius of Cacsarea: Eusebii Hieronymi ems-
tula. Pars I. Epistula I.-LXX., ed. I. ffil-
berg, Vienna, 1910.
Exorcism: F. J. Dolger, Der Exorzismus im alt-
christlichen Taufritual. Eine religionsge-
schichOiche Studie, Paderborn, 1909.
Ezra-Nehemiah: J. Theis, Oeschichtliche und
literarkritische Fragen in Esra i.-wi., in Ab-
handlungen, alUestamentliche, vol. ii., part 4,
MQnster, 1910.
Faith: J. Q. W. Herrmann, Faith and Morals.
1. Faith as Ritschl defined it; 2, The Moral
Law as under stood in Romanism and Pro-
testantism, London, 1910.
J. Lindsay, The Psychology of Belief, London,
1910.
Gar vie, A. E.: The Christian Certainty amid the
Modem Perplexity, London, 1910.
Geioer, A.: L. Geiger, Abraham Geiger, Leben und
Lebenswerk, Berlin, 1910.
Germany: W. Konen, Germanenbehehrung. Part
I. Die Heidenpredigt und der Germanehbe-
kehrung, Dusseldorf, 1910.
Gospels: W. M. F. Petrie, The Growth of the Gos-
pels as Shown by Structural Criticism, New
York, 1910.
T. J. Thoburn, The Resurrection Narratives and
Modern Criticism. A Critique of Prof.
SchmiedeVs Article in the Encyclopedia Bw-
lica, London, 1910.
J. M. Wilson, Studies in the Origins and Aims
of the Four Gospels, London, 1910.
Hall, F. J.: The Trinity (Dogmatic Theology, vol.
iv.), New York and London, 1911.
Hebrews, Epistle to the: F. Dibelius, Der Ver-
fasser des Hebraerbriefes. Eine Untersuch-
ung zur Geschichte des Urchristentums, Stras-
burg, 1910.
Hegel, G. W. F.: The Phenomenology of Mind, 2
vols., Transl., with Introduction and Notes
by J. B. Baillie, London, 1910.
Herrmann, J. G. W.: See Faith, above.
Hexateuch: See below under Naville.
H. M. Wiener, The Origin of the Pentateuch,
Oberlin, O., 1910.
Hinduism: Brahm Sankar Misra, Discourses on
Radhasoami Faith. An Exposition of the
Principles of the New Religious Order, Benares,
1910.
Holy Spirit: W. E. Biederwolf, A Help to the
Study of the Holy Spirit, New York and
Chicago, 1911.
Huguenots: J. Bloundelle-Burton, The Fate of
Henry of Navarre, London, 1910.
Hutten, U. von: D. S. Jordan, Ulrich von Hutten
" Knight of the Order of Poets," Boston, 1910.
Innocent XI.: F. de Bojani, Innocent XI. Sa cor-
respondance avec ses nonces 21 Septembre
1676-81 Decembre 1679, Rome, 1910.
Isaiah: M. Glazebrook, Studies in the Book of
Isaiah, New York, 1910.
Israel, History of: D. Chwolson, Beitrdge zur
Enturickeluna des Judentums, Leipsic, 1910.
S. Daisches, The Jews in Babylonia in the Time
of Nehemiah according to Babylonian Inscrip-
tions, London, 1910.
A. Loisy, The Religion of Israel, New York,
1910.
L. Lucas, Zur Geschichte der Juden im 4. Jahr-
hundert, Berlin, 1910.
D. Neumark, Geschichte der judischen Philoso-
phic des Mittelalters nach Problemen darge-
steUt. Vol. II., part 1. Die Grundprinzipien;
part 3: Attributenlehre, 1st half: Altertum,
Berlin, 1910.
N. Peters, Die judische Gemeinde von Elephan-
tine-Syene una ihr Temjpel im 6. Jahrhundert
vor Christi, Freiburg, 1910.
W. M. F. Petrie, Egypt and Israel, London,
1910.
Italy: G. Buschbell, Reformation und Inouisition
in Italien um die Mitte des XVI. Jahrhun-
derts, Paderborn, 1910.
P. Villari, Mediaeval Italy from Charlemagne to
Henry VII., London, 1910.
Jainism: Nyayavatara: The Earliest Jaina Work
on Pure Logic, by Siddha Sena Divakara,
Calcutta, 1909.
Jesus Christ: C. M. Bishop, Jesus the Worker;
Studies in the Ethical Leadership of the Son
of Man, London, 1910.
A. Drews, The Christ Myth. Translated from
the Third Edition {revised and enlarged) by
C. Burns, Chicago and London, 1910.
F. H. Dudden, Christ and Christ's Religion,
Edinburgh, 1910.
F. R. M. Hitchcock, Christ and His Critics.
Studies in the Person and Problems of Jesus,
London, 1910.
A. Niemojewski, Gott Jesus im Lichte fremder
und eigener Forschungen samt Darstellung
der evangelischen Astralstoffe, Astralszenen
und Astralsysteme, 2 vols., Munich, 1910.
Job: N. Schmidt, The Message of the Poets; the
Book of Job and Canticles and some Minor
Poems in the Old Testament, New York, 1911.
John the Apostle: E. H. Askwith, The Historical
Value of the Fourth Gospel, London, 1910.
P. Ferguson, A Month with the Apostle John.
A Study of his First Epistle, London, 1910.
G. T. Jowett, The Apocalypse of St. John; a
brief Contribution to the Controversy as to Date
and Authority thereof with a short History of
its interpretation, New York, 1910.
xii
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL APPENDIX—VOLUMES I-X
Kant: F. Pinski, Der hdchste Standpunkt der Tran-
zendental Philosophic Versuch einer Ver-
voUstdndigung una systematischen Darstellung
der letzten Geaanken Immanud Kants, Halle,
1911.
R. M. Wenley, Kant and his Philosophical Rev-
olution, Edinburgh, 1910.
Kempis. T. A.: R. Storr, Concordance to the Latin
Original of De imitatione Christi, New York,
1910.
Knox, G. W.: The Gospel of Jesus, the Son of God.
An Interpretation for the Modern Man,
London, 1910.
Leighton, R.: Archbishop Leighton's Practise of
the Presence of God: a Tercentenary Volume
with Biographical Introduction by D. But-
ler, London, 1911.
Liturgy: F. C. Eeles, Traditional Ceremonial and
Customs Connected with the Scottish Liturgy,
New York, 1910.
T. Schermann, Der liturgische Papyrus von der
Balyzeh. Eine Abendmahlsliturgie des Oster-
morgens, Leipsic, 1910.
Lobstein, P.: An Introduction to Protestant Dog-
matics, Chicago, 1910.
Luke: B. S. Easton, Linguistic Evidence for the
Lucan Source L, in JBL, xxix (1910), 139-
180.
Lutherans: E. Weber, Der Einfluss der protes-
tantischen Schulphilosophie auf die orthodox-
lutherische Dogmatik, Leipsic, 1908.
McCabe, J.: The Evolution of Mind, London,
1910.
Magic: T. de Cauzons, La Magie et la sorceUerie en
France, Paris. 1910.
Manning: V. de Marolles, Kardinal Manning,
Mainz, 1911.
Matr: S. Beissel, Geschichie der Verehrung Marias
im 16. und 17. Jahrhundert, Freiburg, 1910.
Missions: W. O. Carver, Missions and Modern
Thought, New York, 1910.
J. Jackson, Lepers: Thirty-six Years' Work
Among Them. Being the History of the Mis-
sion to Lepers in India and the East, 1874-
1910, new ed., London, 1910.
H. F. Williams, In Four Continents; a Sketch
of the Foreign Missions of the Presbyterian
Church, U. S., Richmond, Va., 1910.
W. T. Coppin, John Martin; Pioneer, Mission-
ary, Hero, and Saint, London, 1911.
J. P. Jones, The Modern Missionary Challenge;
a Study of the Present Day World Missionary
Enterprise; its Problems and Results, New
York and Chicago, 1910.
H. C. Mabie, The Task worth while; or, the di-
vine Philosophy of Missions, Boston, 1910.
Alexander Tomory: Indian Missionary, Edin-
burgh, 1910.
Methodists: G. Alexander, The Doctrines and Dis-
cipline of the Methodist Episcopal Church,
South, Nashville, Tenn., 1910.
W. J. Townsend, H. B. Workman, and G. E.
Ayre8, New History of Methodism, 2 vols.,
London, 1910.
Mohammed, Mohammedanism: M. Bromhall, Islam
in China. A Neglected Problem, London,
1910.
J. Strzygowski, Beitrdge zur Kunstgeschichte des
Mittetalters von Nordmesopotamien, in Ma-
teriaux vour Vepigraphie et Vhistoire musuU
manes au Diyar-Bekr par M. van Berchem,
Heidelberg and Paris, 1910.
Monasticism: M. Dix, Instructions on the Religious
Life. Given to the Sisters of St. Mary, New
York and London, 1910.
Morality, Moral Law: See Faith, above.
E. Westermarck, Ursprung und Entwickelung
der Moralbegriffe, vol. ii., Leipsic, 1909.
Mythology: W. Schmidt, Die Mythclogie der
austronesischen V biker, Vienna, 1909; idem,
Grundlinien einer Vergleichung der Reli-
gionen und Mythologien der austronesischen
Vdlker, Vienna, 1910.
Naville, E.: La Decouverte de la loi sous le Roi
Josias. Une Interpretation egypHenne d9un
texts biblique, Paris, 1910, Eng. transl., The
Discovery of the Book of the Law under King
Josiah, London, 1910.
Nestorian8: W. A. Wigram, An Introduction to
the History of the Assyrian Church; or the
Church of the Sassinid Persian Empire, 100-
640, A.D., London, 1910.
Nestortu8: LeLivred'Heradidede Dumas. Traduit
enfrancais par F. Nau, avec le concurs du R.
P. Bedjan et de M. Briere. Suivi de texte
grec des trois homilies de Nestorius sur les
tentations de Notre-Seigneur et de trois ap-
pendices: Lettre a Cosme, Presents envoyes
d Alexandria, Lettre de Nestorius aux habitants
de Constantinople, Paris, 1910.
NiCiEA: E. A. W. Budge, Texts Relating to Saint
Mena of Egypt and Canons of Niccea in a
Nubian Dialect, London, 1910.
Nietzsche, F. : S. Friedlander, Friedrich Nietzsche:
Eine inteUektueUe Biographie, Leipsic, 1911.
D. Halevy, The Life of Friedrich Nietzsche.
Translated by J. M. Hone, London, 1911.
A. M. Ludovici, Nietzsche, London, 1910.
Works, vols, vii.-ix., New York, 1911.
Non-conformists: J. Ritson, The Romance of Non-
conformity, London, 1910.
North African Church: F. Martroye, Genseric.
La Conquite vandale en Afrique et le destruc-
tion de t empire d 'Occident, Paris, 1907.
W. J. S. Simpson, St. Augustine and African
Church Divisions, New York, 1910.
Oesterley, W. O. E., The Psalms in the Jewish
Church, London, 1910.
Ordination: T. A. Lacey, A Roman Diary and
other Documents Relating to the Papal In-
quiry into English Ordinations, London.
1910.
Organization: C. G. A. Harnack, Constitution and
Law of the Church in the First Two Centuries,
New York, 1910.
Orb, J. : The Faith of a Modern Christian, London,
1910.
Palestine: W. Harvey and Others, Tlie Church of
the Nativity at Bethlehem, London, 1911.
Parables: L. G. Broughton, The Kingdom Para-
bles and their Teaching, New York and
Chicago, 1910.
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL APPENDIX— VOLUMES I-X
:iii
Pascal: A. Grazier, Les Derniers Jours de Blaise
Pascal. Etude historique et critique, Paris,
1911.
Pastoral Theology: W. J. Da vies, The Minister
at Work, London, 1910.
Paul the Apostle: R. J. Fletcher, A Study of the
Conversion of St. Paul, London, 1910.
M. Jones, St. Paul the Orator, London, 1910.
R. Knopf, Paulus, Leipsic, 1909.
E. Viscner, Der Apostel Paulus und sein Werk,
Leipsic, 1910.
Paul IV.: L. Riess, Die Politik Pauls IV. und
seiner Nepoten, Berlin, 1909.
Persecutions: J. Visser, Der Christenvervolgin-
gen in de eerste eeuwen na Christus, Kempen,
1910.
Persia: V. Blrard, Revolutions de la Perse. Les
Provinces, les peuples, et le governement du roi
des rois, Paris, 1910.
Ella C. Sykes, Persia and its People, New York,
1910.
Peru: C. R. Markham, The Incas of Peru, London,
1910.
Pessimism: A. Vogele, Der Pessimismus und das
Tragische in Kunst und Leben, Freiburg,
1910.
Petrie, W. M. F.: see above, Israel, History of.
Pfleiderer, Ol: Primitive Christianity; Its Wri-
tings and Teachings in their Historical Con-
nections, vol. 3, London, 1910.
Philip of Hesse: P. Wappler, Die SteUung Kur-
sachsens und des Landgrafen PhUipp von
Hessen zur Tauferbewegung, M Ouster, 1910.
Philo: E. BrShier, Philon, Commentaire aUegorique
des Saintes Lois, Greek Text with French
Translation, Paris, 1909.
Phtrson, A. T.: Knowing the Scriptures; Rules and
Methods of Bible Study, London, 1910.
Platonxsm: N. Hartmann, Platos Logik des Seins,
Giessen, 1909.
Pope, Papacy: W. E. Beet, The Rise of the Papacy,
London, 1910.
H. K. Mann, The Lives of the Popes in Middle
Ages, vols, v.-viii., London, 1910.
L. Pastor, History of the Popes from the close
of the Middle Ages, vol. z., London, 1911.
Regesta Pontificum Romanorum. Iubente regia
societate Gottingensi congessit Paulus Fridoli-
nus Kehr. Vol. i., Italia pontificia sive reper-
torium privilegiorum et lUterarum a Romania
pontificibus ante annum MCLXXXXVIII.
Italia ecdesiis, monasteriis, concessorum sin-
gulisque personis concessorum, vol. iii.,
Etruria, Berlin, 1908.
Pragmatism: J. M. MacEachran, Pragmatismus,
eine neue Richtung der Philosophic, Leipsic,
1910.
A. W. Moore, Pragmatism and its Critics,
Chicago, 1910.
Property, Ecclesiastical: A. Hauck, Die Entste-
hung der geistlichen Territorien, Leipsic,
1909.
Psalms: See above, Oesterley.
Psychotherapy: R. M. Lawrence, Primitive
Psycho-Therapy and Quackery, Boston and
London, 1910.
Punishment, Eternal: C. K. Irwin, Eternal Pun-
ishment. The Teaching of the Church and
Holy Scripture upon the Doctrine, London,
1910.
Punishment, Future: Add to bibliography: W.
Jackson, The Doctrine of Retribution, philo-
sophically Considered (Bampton lectures),
1875.
Reformation: F. Thudichum, Die deutsche Refor-
mation 1517 bis 1637, vol. ii., 1625-87, Leip-
sic, 1909.
Religion, Philosophy of: H. E. Warner, The
Psychology of the Christian Life, London,
1911.
Ritualism: F. G. Henke, A Study of the Psychology
of Ritualism, Chicago, 1910.
Robinson, C. S.: Add to list of his writings: Anno-
tations upon Popular Hymns: for Use in
Praise-Meetings (New York, 1893).
Sabbath: Add to bibliography: G. Schiaparelli,
Astronomy in the O. T., chap, ix., Oxford,
1905.
A. T. Clay, Amurru, the Home of the Northern
Semites, pp. 55 sqq., Philadelphia, 1909.
Sancttfication: P. Fleisch, Zur Geschichte der
HeUigungsbewegung. I Heft. Die Heiligungs-
bewegung von Wesley bis Boardman, Leipsic,
1910.
Savonarola, G.: T. Sardi, Girolamo Savonarola
giudicato da un suo contemporaneo. Docu-
menti inediti publicati da A. Bianconi, Rome,
1911.
Social Service: W. F. Crafts, A Quarter Century
of . . . Legislation . . . Relating to Moral
and Social Reforms, Washington, D. C, 1911.
BIOGRAPHICAL ADDENDA— VOLUMES I-X
BIOGRAPHICAL ADDENDA
Atwtll, E. R.: d. at Kansas City Jan. 24, 1911.
Bebtheau, C. : d. at Hamburg Deo. 19, 1910.
Bradford, A. H.: d. at Montclair, N. J., Feb. 18,
1911.
Dawson, W. J.: Accepted call to First Presby-
terian Church, Newark, N. J., 1911.
Ferris, J. M.: d. at Flatbuah, L. I., Jan. 30,
1911.
Funcke, O.: d. at Bremen Dec. 26, 1910.
Hastings, T. S.: d. at New York Apr. 2, 1911.
Klostermann, E.: called to Strasburg as ordi-
nary professor of N. T. theology.
Krteg, K.: d. at Freiburg Jan. 24, 1911.
Mead, C. M.: d. at New Haven Feb. 15, 1911.
Paret, W.: d. at Baltimore Jan. 18, 1911.
ADDENDA ET CORRIGENDA
Vol. vii., p. 251, col. 2, lines 7 and 6 from bottom:
Read " Donizo . . . Domnizo " for " Doni-
zone . . . Domnisone."
Vol. viii., p. 143, col. 2, line 14: Read " Odhner "
for " Odlmer."
Vol. viii., p. 162, col. 1, line 17, first word: Read
M Papacy " for " Popes."
Vol. viii., p. 236, col. 1, line 21 from bottom: Read
" Nagot " for " Magot."
Vol. viii., p. 487, col. 2, line 40: Read " S. D. F."
for " G. D. F."
Vol. ix., p. 120, col. 1, article Poly crates: Insert
after line 2 "by his controversy with Pope
Victor on the cele-."
Vol. ix., p. 122, col. 1, line 14 from bottom: Read
" den Ursprung " for " den Alter:'
Vol. ix., p. 132, col. 2, line 9 from bottom: Read
" Giesebrecht " for " Gieselbrecht."
Vol. ix., p. 143, col. 2: Read " HOlscher " in
signature.
Vol. ix., p. 163, col. 2, lines 18-17 from bottom:
Read " Jan van Ruysbroeck " for " Henry
Ruysbroek."
Vol. ix., p. 174, col. 1, line 17: Remove " (q.v.)."
Vol. ix., p. 175, col. 1, line 1: Read " I. F. E." for
«-• J. E. F."
Vol. ix., p. 289, col. 1, line 21: Read " Batterson "
for " Patterson "; line 24: Read " E. E." for
" R. E."; line 47: Read " J. W." for " J. A.";
line 53: Read " F. N." for " F. W."
Vol. ix., p. 337, col. 1, line 20: Read " 1723 " for
"1743"; line 21: Read " Vlis " for " Blis ";
line 10 from bottom: Read " Gunkel " for
" Gunkelchen."
Vol. ix., p. 338, col. 1, line 21 from bottom: Read
" Apocrypha " for " Apocryphi "; line 19
from bottom: Read " Beloved of God/'
Vol. ix., p. 339, col. 1, line 6 from bottom: Read
" Abraha " for " Abrahama "; line 4 from
bottom: Read " Vassilyew" for " Bassilyew."
Vol. ix., p. 340, col. 1, Une 20-. Read " B. Beer "
for " G. Beer."
Vol. ix., p. 342, col. 1, line 2 from bottom: Read
" Bousset " for " Bossuet "; col. 2, line 6:
Read " Couard " for " Con^ad.,,
Vol. ix., p. 479, col. 1, line 11 from bottom:
Read " 1911 . . . $101,000 " for " 1908 . . .
$65,000."
Vol. ix., p. 422, col. 2, line 37: Read " 1570 " for
" 1557 "; line 39: Read " Bocskai " for
" Bocskag."
Vol. x., p. 19, col. 2: In signature read " G. E."
for " D."
Vol. x., p. 38, col. 2, line 3 from bottom: Change
signature to " H. Cremer."
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
AJP...
AJT..
ASfgmfim drutscXt Biographis, Lcdpsie,
1876 eqq, vol. 53, 1907
inlnfTHU, against "
American Journal of Philology, Balti-
more. 1380 aqq.
American Journal of Theology, Chisago,
1807 sqq.
Ardiiv for koAolitchet Kirdtamcht,
Innsbruck. 1857-01, Mains. 1872 sqq.
Ardiiv far Litteratur. itiuf Kirdtengo-
tchichlt at* MMdatttn, Freiburg 188S
AM A...
ASF..
a~F.::
Baldwin.
Munis. New York, 1887
. . Apocrypha, apocryphal
, .Apologia, Apology
. .Aramaic*
'. iSchmalkmld Artioles
J Acta sanctorum, od. J. Bolland and o therm,
1 Antwerp, 1043 sqq.
'■■'- ' — -n ordtnU 3. Bensdidi. ed.
~ iris, 1888-1701
' Old Testament "
GadactU.
Bardenbewer. I
Patreloai* )
. .Authorise. _...,
)J. M. Baldwin. Dictionary of Philosophy
and Psychology, 3 rob. m i. New York,
JO. Bardeohewer, OetchicMe der altkirch-
1 lichen Litteratur, 3 vole.. Freiburg, 1902
O, Bardenhemr, Patrotogit, 2d ed., Frei-
burg, 1001
The Dictionary Hittorioal and Critical of
"- PMerBayle, 2d ed.. 5 vole, London,
1734-38
". Baubwrr, H
ed.. Freiburg,
1907
Bingham.
B— ft. Batumi-
Dower, Pop—. . .
BQB
CIO
CIL
Ct8
TCor
D Cor
cor
eg*....
ij. Bingham, Origins* ttdetiattiem, 10
vol*.. London, 1708-22; new ed., Ox-
ford. I860
. Bouquet, Reraril dts hietoriens lies
Caul/t el de Id Front* , funlmui'.) l.v
Peris. 17,18-78
'iatory °f the Poor*
in.tfrf b« ,S\ //. Col,
3 vols., Philadelphia, 1845-17
Baptist Quarterly Review, Philadelphia.
. SeeJafltl
. Canticles, Bong of Solomon
caput. " chapter "
f 1858-89
. Chronic
II «A '.'.'.
ArchilKiL'l Hower, History
it&oues, 18 vols.
Ep is tie to tht-U....
column, ixilnmiu
Cee/sseionss, " Confess
First Epistle to the Corinthians
Second Epistle to the 0r--**-;- —
-St Ckureh -
1875 sqq.
Orders..
D.
Corpus rsformatot-um, begun
1834, ToL Imk, Berlin a
1906 sqq.
M. Creuthv
from the
. — ighton, A History of At Papacy
from at Great Sehitm to the Sack of
.,._. .. "— "orkand
, liun, ed. J.
! others. Pani
Corpus teriplo
'Xl-'w Vurk.'l:
ed., St.
-J97
ipiorum Christiana
"W
V of Religious Orders,
ll.-'.ll,.;
J. Hastings, ZHcfionorv of At BiUr, 4
vols, and extra vol., Edinburgh and
Now York, 1898-1904
W. Smith and 8. Cheetham, Dictionary
J'l'hrmlia,! 1ij(;.V:,,Y„:.., :>v..|«, l...ri.l,r>.
875-80
W. Smith and B. Waoa, Dictionary of
Christian Biography, 4 void, Boston,
1877-87
J. Hastings, J. A. Selbie. and J.
vols.. I
1908
DOQ ,
DNB
Driver, Intnduc- '
L Sr.^,lnTi and fl. Lee, Dictionary of
National liiography, 63 vols, and
Ml|i|i|.n,,,p,r :i v,.[,., I..„i,l,.„. iss-> mill
9. 11. Drivt-r. fHtT.*ia,-t;,m to the Literature
of At Old Testament, 10lh ed. New
, York, 1910
. . Elohist
I T. K, Chcyno and J. S. Black. Encydo-
1 padia Biblica, 4 vols., London and
( New Yort 1899-1""'
. .Ecdemia, ■' Church ";
Epiti.
. .flirjon; tdidit, " edited by "
.-,- EpwUiM. /■:;•: ■!■■!■:■. " !■:[■!!■( I","" Epistles"
Ersch sad 0iTs-(J. 8. Kr.idi iiJid J. tl. (ifiil»>r. .!7.™,,w
her, Bneyhio* I Eneytdop/ldic der Wistenechaften and
Friedriob, KD.. ' .
. Kirchcnandiirht* Dcattch-
\lsr-
Gee and Hardy, J a;, " '"
00 A
Gibbon, £
and Fall
Grose, Souths. .
E. Gibbon, History of At Dedins at
FaU of At Roman Empire, ed, J. \
Bury, 7 vols., London, 1898-1900
Oraek
" Gross, The Smrctt
English History . . .
sr
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
Bar
Hag
Hardum. Con-
Harnack, Dogma
Hsrnack, Littera-
fw
Hauck, KD ..
J.*SlaVdt
._ -oil, Pari* 1715
1. Harnack. Hittory of Dogma . . . from
the 3d Gorman trillion, 7 vols., Boston,
1895-1900
I A. Hnrnsck, Getchichte drr allchriltlichen
l.ittcraluT bit Eutebiut, 2 vols, in 3,
"■■*!, 1893-1904
c-k. /fircasiwsscA.
. vol. i, Lcipsic 1904;
1900; vol. iii.. 1806; vol. iv„ 1903
Realenekylapadie far prolrtlantiocho The-
olagio und KirrJit, founded by J. J.
Ho mm. 3d ed, by A. Hauck, Leipric,
2. 1. von Hefele, ConcilienoceckichH^ cc
tinued by J.Tfergenrotber, vela, L-.
Heimbueher Or- I M. Heir
. t 3 vol*., Pnderborn. 1907
I P. Helyot. HUloire del ordret mow
< riquet, rdigieux et militairtt. 8 vols..
' I Parie, 1714-19; mid., 1839-43
c- ( E. F. Henderson. Select H\tt,trical Docv-
. I me nli of the Middle Aget, London. 1893
. . . History, hitioirt, hittoria
IHittoria tedemattiea, ecdetiot, " Church
History"
. . Homili •
...Hois*
homiliai, " homily, homilies "
Jahviat (Yahwist)
Journal Atiatique, Paris, 11
A Standard Bible Dictionary
Zenoe
New York a
Jnsephus. Avion
Joseph us, Lift. .
KrQgw, Hittory
1. W.W.J*.
. . and A. C.
._ . . . _ idoD, 1909
JaBe, Bibliothtea rerun Qtrmani-
carum. 8 vols.. Berlin. 1864-73
P. Jaffa, Regetta jtonU'fleum Romanorum
. . . ad annum 1198, Berlin, ISfil;
2d ad.. Leinsic 1881-88
Journal of tat American Oriental Society,
New Haven. 1849 sqq.
Journal of Biblical Literature and Exegt-
na, fii-nt appeared as Journal of the
Society of Biblical Literature and Exe-
fttit, Middletown, 1882-88, then Boe-
. Ion 1890 sqq.
The JitnsA Eneydopedia, 12 rata.. New
York, 1901-08
Tne combined narrative of the Jahvist
( Yahwist ) and Elobist
Jeremiah
Flavius Josephus, " Antiquitiea of the
Flsvius Josephus. " Against Anion "
. Life of Flavins Joaephua
Flsvius Josephus, " The Jewish War "
SJahrbOcher far nrolmtantitcht Thedagit.
t Leipsic, 1875 aqq.
) The Jcvith Quarterly Review, London,
1 1888 aqq.
) Journal of the Royal Atia'ic Society, Lon-
1 don, 1634 sqq.
i Journal of Theological Studitl. London,
1890 aqq.
J. Julian. A Dictionary of Hymnoloay,
revised edition, London, 1907
..BoeBchrader
. . Bee Schrader
See Friedricb. Hauck. Rettberg
Wetter und Wdte'i KirchentexiJtan, 2d
ed., by J. Hergeurfltber and F. Kaulen.
12 vols., Freiburg, 1882-1903
C. KrUger. Hittory of Early ChritHan
Literature in the Firtt Three Centuriet,
New York. 1897
K. Krumbaeher, QmchieMt der bytan-
- litchen Littcratur, 2d ed., Munich,
Labbe, Concilia
1897
rum concHiorum
n Miadalter, 3d ed., Berlin. 1
] A. Mai, Scriptorui
1 lectin, 10 vok, Re
"alaebi
. C. Mann, U»
Early Middle At
i, 1825-3B
Lisa* of the Popes i
'- low. London, 1902
a. 1738
"tub folio
™ of thb°wprk* ATi'°Antmit.
.^Juu^'r-' nl.t., Wri'leia'^
Chron, mill.. Chronica minora, " Lag
ploinas,' Do'cumenia";' "
tolit, Letters "; Gctt
'/'",'ij ; ttfkum Roman
..f ill., r,..jM.* of Romr '
a Strife
/;/,.«
.... I'.lerenth
un.l Tw-lfth (.'.jiirurics '■; Net,. W«-
»"i"i/u ii'fumM, ' ' Neuiulogy of
Germany "; Poet. Lot. oni Car.,
Paeta latini orri Carolini, " Latin
Poets of tho Carolina Time"; Pott
Lai. mod. am, Pnelim I1-I.-1 __!•-,' aal
" Latin PoeU o. .
Script, Saiptortt, '
:, Middl.
le Ajm";
"; Script
Writer.
on mexovinnan Subjects "
IDeah
R. H. Milman, Hittory of Latin Ckrit-
tianitu, Including that of the Popee to
1,1 ■ ' * 8 voto., London,
ffieholat
\C. Mii-bt, QueUen tur Qetehiehte det P
Mirbt, Quettem. . < rums und det rdmitchen Katholiat
[ Tflbingen, 1901
UPti J'- p- Mi»?e, Patratooiaz curtut completut,
UPO 1 ttrietOriea. 102 vols., Paris, 1857-orT
AfPt -jJ- "
• I tal icamm ten
61
| ffeuet Archiv^der OmeOtchaft far alt
o date of publication
,™™.-, . -r,^ S *■ Neander, General Hilton, «
TS?%£3^"1 (*» Region and CWot, 8
run t-nnrcA. . 1 I-J,. BrMLnn. 1872-AI
Neander. Chrit-V
n. Jr'-IK. P. Nioeron. Mfmoire, pew
. -e det hommet dluttrte .
) vols,, Paris, 1/29-15
(F. K. Nielsen. Hittory of the Pap
h Century, 2 v '
) F. Nippold, The Papacy in the Nineteenth
■ 1 Century, New York, 1900
IrVtus kirchlicki Zeittchrift, LeipaJe, 1890
NPNP. . .
N.T
1 The Nicene and Pott-Nicene Fathert, 1st
t aeries, 14 vols.. New York. 1887-92; 2d
\ series, 14 vole.. New York. 1890-1900
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
xvii
o.aa J0**,
sancti Benedict*, "Order of St.
1 Benedict "
O. T Old Testament
OTJC See Smith
P Priestly document
( L. Pastor, The History of the Pope* from
Pastor, Pope*. ..< the Close of the Middle Apes, 8 vols.,
| London, 1891-1908
r>if a J Patree ecdesia Anglicana, ed. J. A. Giles,
™A 1 34 vols., London, 1838-46
PEF Palestine Exploration Fund
I Pet First Epistle of Peter
II Fist Second Epistle of Peter
( B. Platina, Live* of the Pope* from . . .
Platina, Pope*. . < Gregory VII. to . . . Paul II., 2 vols.,
( London, n.d.
Pliny, Hist not... Pliny, Historia naturali*
buaau.^ xxr*~- \ A. Potthast, Bibliotheca hietoriea medii
"SHr w"-{ cevi. Wegweiser durch die Geschichts-
•"■^ I werke, Berlin, 1896
Prov Proverbs
Ps Psalms
bora J Proceeding* of the Society of Biblical
raaA \ ArcheologytLondon, 1880 sqq.
Q.v., qq.v Quod (qua) vide, " which see "
n.«ir. Pmm JL- von Ranke, History of 0u
Ranke, Pope*. . . ( 3 yq]b hondoUt 1906 *
RDM Revue de* deux mondea, Paris, 1831
RE See Hauck-Hersog
Reich, Docu- S E. Reich, Select Document* IUu*trating Me~
I diaval and Modern History, London, 1906
1880 sqq.
le Deutsch-
1846-48
the Pope*,
•qq.
Smith, OTJC.
RHR
Later
Re-
and
Re-
Revue de Vhistoire de* religion*, Paris,
1880 sqq.
fE. C. Richardson, Alphabetical Subject In-
Richardson, En- dex and Index Encyclopaedia to Period-
cyclopaedia. . . teas* Article* on Religion, 1890-99, New
York.1907
Rioter jr«f*&Mt. A. L. Richter. Lehrbuch de* katholi*chen
tucker, Ktrcnen- . und €vange)iaeh€n Kirchenrechtt, 8th
rmM f ed. by W. Kahl, Leipsic, 1886
Robinson, &«-fE. Robinson, Biblical Researches in
Palestine, Boston, 1841. and Later
Biblical Researches in Palestine, 3d ed.
_ of the whole. 3 vols., 1867
Robinson, Euro- \ J. H. Robinson, Reading* in European
peon History. . I History. 2 vols., Boston, 1904-06
Robinson and I J. H. Robinson, and C. A. Beard, Develop-
Beard, Modem \ ment of Modern Europe, 2 vols., Boston,
Europe ( 1907
Rom Epistle to the Romans
dtp S Revue de theologie et de philosophie,
K2i^ 1 Lausanne, 1873
R. V Revised Version (of the English Bible)
sme seteulum, " century "
I Sam I Samuel
118am II Samuel
g£jl J SitMungtberichte der Berliner Akademie,
I Berlin, 1882 sqq.
(F. Max M tiller and others, The Sacred
8BE < Book* of the East, Oxford, 1879 sqq.,
f vol. xlviii.. 1904
_^^_ J Sacred Book* of the Old Testament (" Rain-
SBOT < bow Bible "), Leipsic, London, and
f Baltimore, 1894 sqq.
Rf4t*ff rhri^in* I P- Schaff, History of the Christian Church,
Bch*£Chrx*txan) volfl . _. y ^ "^ New York. 1882-92;
%'mmrcn ( vol. v., 2 parts, by D. 8. Schaff, 1907-10
R~»i.ff Ct~A* iP- SchafT. The Creed* of Christendom,
Bfiftan. cresttt. . . -j 3 vo|^ New York 1877_g4
,COT
■\
E. Schrader, Cuneiform Inscriptions and
the Old Testament, 2 vols., London,
1885-88
, v AT J E. Schrader, Die Keilinschriften und da*
,aam. Alf0 Teatamtntt 2 vols., Berlin. 1902-03
KR . E. Schrader. Keilinschriftliche Bibliothek,
• *>a- ") 6 vols.. Berlin. 1889-1901
E. SchQrer, Oeschichte de* judischen
Volke* im ZeitalterJesuChrUti, 4th ed.,
3 vols., Leipsic, 1902 sqq.; Eng. t ran si., 5
. vols.. New York, 1891
8criptores, " writers "
( F. H. A. Scrivener, Introduction to New Te*-
. . \ foment Criticism. 4th ed., London, 1894
§**t Sententia, " Sentences "
8. J Societa* Jem, " Society of Jesus "
8 hi A f 8itMung*berichte der Munchener Aka-
j demxe, Munich, 1860 sqq.
hthh rrinmMn JW. R. Smith, Kinship and Marriage in
ma, Ktnstop. . ] EaHy Arabia$ London, 1903 ^
Oeschichte.
Beript
. W. R. Smith, The Old Testament in the
Jewish Church, London, 1892
Qm,'*h PMnjLw. JW. R. Smith, Prophets of Israel ... to
Smith, Prophet*.. ( ^ E{. ^ fr^^ London, 1896
Smith, ReL o/tW. R. Smith, Religion of the Semite*,
Sem ( London, 1894
a "p n xr ( Society for the Promotion of Christian
°* r* **' * ] Knowledge
a p fi j Society for the Propagation of the Gospel
°* r' w \ in Foreign Parts
sqq and following
Strom Stromata, " Miscellanies "
s.v sub voce, or sub verbo
Swete, Introdue- S H. B. Swete, Introduction to the Old Tes-
tion { tament in Greek, London, 1900
Syr Syriao
Thatcher and (0. J. Thatcher and E. H. McNeal, A
McNeal, Source < Source Book for Mediaeval History,
Book / New York, 1905
I Thess First Epistle to the Thessalonians
II Thess Second Epistle to the Thessalonians
ThT i Theologische Tijd*chrift, Amsterdam and
Ini ) Leyden, 1867 sqq.
Tillemont, Me-)L' S* ,e K^n.de T111®111011** Memoire*
mni—m -\ ... ecdesxashques de* *xx premier*
m<wre, ( eikdes, 16 vols.. Paris, 1693-1712
I Tim First Epistle to Timothy
II Tim Second Epistle to Timothy
( Theologischer Jahresbericht, Leipsic, 1882-
TJB 1 1887. Freiburg. 1888, Brunswick, 1889-
f 1897, Berlin. 1898 sqq.
Tob Tobit
Theologische QuartaUchrift, Tubingen,
1819 sqq.
. J. A. Robinson, Texts and Studies,
TQ.
TS.
TSBA.
TV.
Cambridge, 1891 sqq.
Transactions of the Society of Biblical
Archawlogy, London, 1872 sqq.
TfQjr j Theologische Studien und Kritiken, Ham-
Ia* 1 burg, 1826sqq.
Text* und Unterauchungen zur Oeschichte
der altchriatlichen Litter otur, ed. O. von
Gebhardt and A. Harnack, Leipsic,
1882 sqq.
Ugolini, Thesauri B. Ugolinus, Theeauru* antiquitatum
ru* | sacrarum, 34 vols., Venice. 1744-69
V. T Vetus Testamentum, Vieux Testament, "Old
Testament "
W. Wattenbach, Deutschlands Geschichts-
queUen, 5th ed.. 2 vols.. Berlin, 1885;
6th ed.. 1893-94; 7th ed., 1904 sqq.
Wattenbach,
DGQ
Wellhausen,
Heidentum.
Wellhausen,
Prolegomena, . .
ZA
Zahn, Einlei-
tung
Zahn, Kanon.
ZATW
ZDAL
ZDMG
J. Wellhausen, Rest* arabischen Heiden-
tums. Berlin, 1887
J. Wellhausen, Prolegomena zur Oeschichte
Israels, 6th ed., Berlin, 1905, Eng.
transl.. Edinburgh, 1885
Zeitschrift fur Assyriologie, Leiprac,
1886-88, Berlin, 1889 sqq.
T. Zahn, Einleitung in das Neue Testa-
ment, 3d ed., Leipsic 1907; Eng. transl..
Introduction to the New Testament, 3
vols., Edinburgh, 1909
T. Zahn. Geschichte des neutestament-
lichen Kanons, 2 vols., Leipsic 1888-92
. Zeitschrift fQr die alUsstamentliche Wis-
senschaft, Giessen, 1881 sqq.
. Zeitschrift fur deutsches Alterthum und deut-
sche Lxteratur, Berlin. 1876 sqq.
Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenl&ndi*chen
QsseUschaft, Leipsic, 1847 sqq.
ZDP \ Zeitschrift fur deutsche Philologie, Halle,
1869 sqq.
ZDPV Zeitschrift de* deutschen Palastina-Ver-
} eins, Leipsic 1878 sqq.
Zech Zechariah
Zeph Zephaniah
I Zeitschrift fur die historische Theologie,
ZHT published successively at Leipsic
Hamburg, and Gotha, 1832-75
2 EG S Zeitschrift fur Kirchengeschichte, Gotha,
I 1876 sqq.
ZKR \ Zeitschrift fiir Kirchenrecht, Berlin, Tu-
I bingen. Freiburg. 1861 sqq.
_ Zeitschrift fur katholische Theologie, Inns-
bruck. 1877 sqq.
Zeitschrift fur kirchliche Wissenschaft und
I kirchliches Leben, Leipric, 1880-89
7TJTW i Zeitschrift fur die neutentamentliche Wi*-
*nivr ) sennchaft. Giessen. 1900 sqq.
ry-BY S Zeitschrift fur Protestantismus und Kirche,
*™ ) Erlangcn. 1838-76
( Zeitschrift fur tnssensehaftliche Theologie,
ZWT { Jena. 1 858-60, Halle, 1861-67, Leipsic
i 1868 sqq.
ZKT.
ZKW.
SYSTEM OF TRANSLITERATION
The following system of transliteration has been used for Hebrew
It = ' of omitted at the
T = z
beginning of a
word.
n = b
a = b
B = t
n = bh or b
, = y
* = g
3 = k
J = gh or g
3 = kh or k
*l = d
i.=i
T = dh or d
D = m
H = h
J = n
1 = w
D = s
B
D
v
to
to
n
n
p
ph or p
r
8
:8h
t
th or t
The vowels are transcribed by a, e, i, o, u, without attempt to indicate quantity or quality. Arabic
and other Semitic languages are transliterated according to the same system as Hebrew. Greek is
written with Roman characters, the common equivalents being used.
KEY TO PRONUNCIATION
When the pronunciation is self-evident the titles are not respelled ; when by mere division and accen-
tuation it can be shown sufficiently clearly the titles have been divided into syllables, and the accented
syllables indicated.
iu as in duration
c = k ". " cat
ch " " ctoirch
cw = qu as in gueen
dh (th) " " the
f " " fancy
g (hard) " " go
h " " loch (Scotch)
hw (wh) " " why
j " " /aw
1 In accented syllables only ; in unaccented syllables it approximates toe sound of e in ortr. The letter n, with a doc
beneath It, indicates the sound of n as in ink. Nasal n (as in French words) is rendered n.
* In German and French names u approximates the sound of u in dune.
a
as in
sofa
a
tt «
arm
a
it u
at
ft
« tt
fare
e
it n
pen1
6
tt tt
fate
•
i
a it
tin
t
a a
machine
o
it a
obey
6
a *t
no
e
as
in
not
5
a
tt
nor
U
tt
tt
full"
a
tt
tt
rule
u
it
tt
but
0
tt
it
burn
ai
tt
n
pine
au
tt
tt
out
ei
u
tt
oil
ia
tt
it
few
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF RELIGIOUS KNOWLEDGE
REUSCH, reish, FRANZ HEINRICH: German
Old Catholic; b. at Brilon (78 m. n.e. of Cologne)
Dec. 4, 1825; d. at Bonn Mar. 3, 1900. He was ed-
ucated at the universities of Bonn (1843-45), Tu-
bingen, and Munich (1845-47), and the seminary
of Cologne (1848-49) ; he was ordained to the priest-
hood in 1849, chaplain of St. Ai ban's at Cologne
until 1853, when he returned to Bonn as lecturer
in the theological seminary there, and in 1854 be-
came privat-docent in the Roman Catholic theo-
logical faculty of the university of the same city.
In 1858 he was appointed associate professor of Old-
Testament exegesis, and three years later became
full professor, while in 1873-74 he was rector of the
university. The Vatican Council of 1870 marked
an epoch in the life of Reusch, after he had already
written his commentaries on Tobit (1857) and Ec-
clesiasticus (1861), as well as a Lehrbuch der Ein-
leitung in das Alte Testament (1859) and Bibel und
Natur, Vorlesungen fiber die mosaische Urgeschichte
und ihr VerhSltnis zu den Ergebnissen der Natur-
forschung (1862). As a theologian he had taken a
position with the liberal wing of the Roman Catho-
lics, as evidenced by his editorship of the Theologir
sches Litteraturblatt from 1866 to 1877. His refusal
to subscribe to the declaration of papal infallibility,
however, caused him to be suspended and excom-
municated, and he then took an active part in or-
ganizing the Old Catholic Church, being made gen-
eral vicar by Reinkens, and also acting as pastor of
the Old Catholic congregation at Bonn. With the
abolition of the requirement of celibacy in his de-
nomination in 1878, Reusch resigned his offices,
though he continued to give instruction in religion,
as well as to conduct occasional services and to hear
confessions.
His change of confession turned Reusch from Old-
Testament exegesis to the history of the Roman
Catholic Church after the Reformation. Here be-
long, accordingly, his Luis de Leon und die spanische
Inquisition (1873), Der Prozess Galileis und die
JesuiUn (1879), and, above all, his Index der ver-
botenen Bucher (2 vols., 1883-85). Together with
J. J. I. von Dollinger (q.v.) he published the Selbst-
biograpkie des Kardinals Bellarmin (1887) and the
Gesckichte der Moralstreitigkeiten in der r&misch-
katholischen Kirche seit dem sechzehnten Jahrhundert
(2 vols., 1889), and after Dollinger's death he ed-
ited his Briefe und Erkldrungen fiber die vatikani-
schen DekreU (1890) and Kleinere Schriften (1890).
X.— 1
During this latter period of his life Reusch also
wrote, besides numerous briefer contributions, Die
deutschen Bischdfe und der Aberglaube (1879) and
Beitrdge zur Gesckichte des Jesuitenordens (1894),
while his last work was his Briefe an Bunsen von
rdmischen Kardindlen und Prdlaten (1818-87) mil
Erl&uterungeh (1897). (L. K. Gobtz.)
Bibliography: L. K. Goets, Franz Heinrich Reusch 1885-
1900, Gotha, 1901; J. F. von Schulte, Der AUkatholicia-
mu*, Gieasen, 1887; J. Mayor, Fran* Heinrich Reusch,
Cambridge, 1901; Vigouroux, Dictionnaire, fasc. xxxiv.
1078-79.
REUSS, reis, EDUARD GUILLAUME EUGENE:
Biblical scholar; b. at Strasburg July 18, 1804; d.
there Apr. 15, 1891. His preliminary studies were
pursued at the gymnasium of his native city, during
which his bent was developed for accurate scholar-
ship; he continued work first at the University of
Strasburg, where his dissertation De statu literarum
theologicarum per scBcula VII. et VIII. was written
(1825), after which he went to Gottingen and later
to Halle and Jena, and finally to Paris, where he
worked under Sylvestre de Sacy. In 1828 he be-
came privat-docent in the Protestant seminary at
Strasburg, in 1829 licentiate in theology with the
thesis De libris Veteris Testamenti apocryphis, ex-
traordinary professor in 1834, professor in 1836,
and he entered the theological faculty in 1838. Dur-
ing the rest of his activity there he held many offices
of importance and influence.
Reuss did not permit himself to engage in a wide
field of research, and had no interest in either dog-
matic or practical theology, while he preached only
three times. Philosophic speculation also had no
attraction for him, and he confined his efforts to
Biblical science, in which he evinced the talents of a
historical investigator, showing patience in pur-
suing details and diligence in collecting facts. An
illustration of this is the fact that he projected his
work on the history of the Old Testament as early
as 1834 but issued it only in 1881 (Gesckichte der
heiligen Schriften des Allen Testaments, Brunswick).
Graf was one of his students and was influenced by
him in the line of work carried on by himself and
further developed by Kuenen and Wellhausen. A
like importance attaches to his work on the New
Testament, his original edition of Die Gesckichte der
heiligen Schriften Neuen Testaments appearing in
Brunswick, 1842 (6th ed., 1887; Eng. transl., Hist,
of the Sacred Scriptures of ike N. T.f Edinburgh,
Revelation
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
2
1884), in subsequent editions growing greatly in size,
comprehensiveness, and completeness. His general
attitude had some connections with the Tubingen
school, but was much more conservative. His Bib-
liotheca Novi Testament* Greed (1872) is the result
of twenty years of unremitting toil. His work as a
teacher was no less effective than his literary labors,
fitting his teachings to the needs of his students, and
eschewing the merely pedantic, and he lectured in
both French and German. The results of his first
lectures in French was a demand for the printing
of his work, and this ended in his Hist, de la thiologie
chreHenne au siede apostolique (2 vols., Strasburg,
1852; Eng. transl., Hist, of Christian Theology in
the Apostolic Age, 2 vols., London, 1872-74). Other
works which may be noted are Die johanneische
Theologie (Jena, 1847); Hist, du canon des saintes
Ventures dans Viglise chreHenne (Paris, 1863; Eng.
transl., Hist, of the Canon of the Holy Scriptures in
the Christian Church, Edinburgh, 1884); La Bible,
traduction nouveUe avec introductions et commentaires
(16 vols., Paris, 1874-81); Notitia codicis quatuor
evangeliorum Graci (Cambridge, 1889); and a
large number of luminous contributions to the
Revue de theologie (1850-67) and to other period-
icals. He also collaborated in the complete edition
of Calvin's works (see Calvin, John, Bibliography),
for which he furnished the prolegomena.
(P. Lobstein.)
Bibliography: Hium* correspondence, ed. K. Budde and
H. J. HolUmann, appeared at Gieraen, 1904. Consult:
T. Gerald, Eduard Reuee, 1804-91, Straabuig, 1802; idem,
Edouard Reuse. Notice biographique, Paris, 1807; A.
Grots, in Vie chrttienne. May, 1801; H. Holtsmann, in
Proteetantieche Kirchenseitung, 1801, pp. 385-303; P.
Lobstein, in EvangUe et liberie*, 1801, nos. 20-23; idem,
in Revue chrttienne. viii (1801), 481-487; J. H. W. Stucken-
berg, in HomileUc Review, xxiii (1802), 81-82; C. A.
Briggs, General Introduction to the Study of Holy Scripture,
passim, New York, 1800; Vigourouz, Dictionnaire, fasc.
xxxiv. 1070-1080.
REUTER, rei'ter, HERMANN FERDINAND:
German Lutheran; b. at Hildesheim Aug. 30, 1817;
d. at Kreiensen (35 m. s.w. of Brunswick) Sept. 17,
1889. He was educated at the universities of Got-
tingen (1837-38) and Berlin (1838-40), and in 1843,
after having published his De erroribus qui (state
media doctrinam christianam de sancta eucharistia
turpaverunt (Berlin, 1840) and Johannes von Salis-
bury: tur Geschichte der christlichen Wissenschaft
(1842), he began as privat-docent his lectures at
Berlin, which were eventually to range over the
entire domain of the historical theology* of the time.
In 1845 he published at Berlin the first volume of
his Geschichte Alexander des Dritten und seiner Zeit,
which he later entirely rewrote (3 vols., Berlin,
1860-64). In 1852 he became associate professor
at Breslau, where he lectured primarily on church
history, though he also gave courses in systematic
theology. During this period, besides editing the
AUgemeines Repertorium fur die theologische Lit-
teratur, of which he was the head from 1845 to 1860,
he published his Abhandlungen zur systematischen
Theologie (Berlin, 1855). Immediately after the
publication of this collection Reuter was called to
Greifswald as professor of theology. He now
began to restrict himself more and more to sym-
bolics, the results being shown in his Ueber die
Etgenthumlichkeit der sittlichen Tendenz des Pro-
testantismus im VerhSltnis turn Katholizismus
{Greifswald, 1869).
In 1866 Reuter returned to Breslau as professor
of church history. Pursuing the theme already be-
gun in his history of Alexander III., he wrote his
Geschichte der religidsen Aufklarung im MiUelaUer
vom Ende des achten Jahrhunderts bis zum Anfang
des vierzehnten (2 vols., Berlin, 1875-77). In 1876
he was called to Gottingen as the successor of
Duncker. Here he was appointed abbot of Bura-
felde in 1881, having been a consistorial councilor
at Breslau since 1869. In 1887 he issued his Augus-
tinische Studien (Gotha, 1887), and in the same
year received, in honor of his seventieth birthday,
the KirchengeschichUiche Studien of T. Brieger, P.
Tschackert, T. Kolde, F. Loofs, K. Mirbt, and his
son, A. Reuter (Leipsic, 1888). Reuter also con-
tributed largely to theological periodicals, especially
to the ZKG, of which he was one of the founders.
(T. Kolde.)
Bibliography: Worte geeprochen an dem Sarge dee Profes-
sor* Hermann Reuter, Gotha, 1880; T. Brieger, in ZKG,
vol. xL
REUTER, QUIRINUS: German Reformed; b.
at Mosbach (20 m. e. of Heidelberg) Sept. 27, 1558;
d. at Heidelberg Mar. 22, 1613. He was educated
at the Sapienzkollegium, a theological institution
in Heidelberg, and when the Reformed were dis-
missed from it in 1577 by the Lutheran Louis VI.,
he received a scholarship at the Dionysianum, an
institute for indigent scholars. In the following
year (1578) he accepted a call to Neustadt. In 1580
he went to Breslau as the tutor of the eldest son of
Andreas Dudith, whom he succeeded in winning
over completely to Reformed views. He quickly
became the confidant of Dudith, whose Orationes he
published posthumously (Offenbach, 1590). Dur-
ing his residence in Breslau, Reuter is said to have
written his De significatione cometarum, but early in
1582 he was recalled by John Casimir to Neustadt.
He did not, however, leave Breslau until the end of
Mar., 1583. His teacher Ursinus had died on the
sixth of the same month, and at the suggestion of
Dudith Reuter edited the works of Ursinus (3 vols.,
Heidelberg, 1612).
Reuter's initial duties in Neustadt were teaching
and preaching. He was soon appointed third pas-
tor at Neustadt, and in 1584 was the opponent of
Jakob Grynseus in the disputation between the Lu-
therans and Reformed. Soon after he became
teacher at the Psedagogium, and in the same year
was made pastor at Bensheim, while in 1587 he was
called to the pastorate of Neuhausen near Worms.
Three years later he was appointed second teacher
at the Sapienzkollegium, but in 1593 became the
pastor of the Reformed church in Speyer. In 1598
he succeeded Parens as ephor of the Sapienzkolle-
gium. Four years later he was appointed professor
of Old-Testament theology at Heidelberg, a posi-
tion which he retained until his death. Reuter was
the author of Censura catecheseos HeideJbergensis
diatriba de ubiquitate; Tractatus de ecdesia; Aphor-
ismi thealogici de vera religione; De cultu Dei nat-
ural!; De lege morali non abrogata; Utrum inter
ecdesiam Lutheranam et ponOficiam sit speranda
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
con-jttnctio; De reformation* ecclesiw; and a com
mentary on Obadioh. (J. Schneider.)
Frebar, T/uatnan virorum
i 1013, Dependent upon 1
m, 2 vols., NurembMg.
mkfort, 170B: C. O. JOcber. Qtltlirten-Lailuin, 10
-87; J. Schwab. Quotum- sscuiorum
, Heidelberg, 17S6; ADB, xaviii.
REUTERDAHL, roi'ter-dat, HEHRHC: Swe-
dish archbishop; b. at Malmo (20 m. h.c. of Copen-
hagen) Sept. 10, 1795; d. at Upsala June 29, 1870.
After completing hia education at the University of
Lund, he became, in 1817, docent at the theolog-
ical seminary at the same city, associate adjunct
in the theological faculty in 1824, and prefect of
the seminary in 1826. Several years later he was
made first adjunct of theology, mas appointed chief
librarian of the university in 1838, full professor of
theology in 1844. With all his duties Re u tenia hi
found time for literary pursuits. Together with
J. H. Thomander, Bcrgquist, and others, he founded
the " Theological Quarterly " in 1827, and in 183S
published the first volume of his Saentka kyrkans
historic! (3 vols., Lund, 1838-63), a work in which
the ecclesiastical material is obscured by details of
secular politics, though its author's careful Investi-
gation of original sources renders it important for
future investigators. In 1844 Reuterdahl was
elected deputy to the diet for the theological sem-
inary, and was repeatedly reelected, even after be-
ing appointed provost of the cathedral at Lund in
1845. He was minister of religion, 1852-55, and
in this capacity sought forcibly to prevent any de-
fections from the Swedish church through sectarian
movements, thus arousing considerable opposition.
In 1855 Reuterdahl was chosen bishop of Lund,
and in the following year was appointed Uishbisbop
by the king, as well as prochancellor of the Univer-
sity of Upsala. During his administration sweep-
ing reforms were carried out by Charles XV. in
1865, whereby the clergy ceased to form an estate
in the diet. Reuterdahl, reluctantly acquiescing.
held the first general synod under the new order of
affairs in Sept., 1868. In the winter of 1869 severe
illness put an end to his public career.
(A. MicHBUJENt-)
REVEL, ALBERT: Waldensian; b. at Torre Pel-
See (21 m. s.w. of Turin), Italy, Jan. 2, 1837; d.
»t Florence Nov.—, 1888. He was educated at the
Waldensian college of his native place, at the theo-
logical school at Florence, and in the New College
(TVee Church). Edinburgh; was ordained in 1861 ;
became professor of Latin and Greek literature in
the Waldensian college at Torre Pellice, 1861, and
professor of Biblical literature and exegesis to the
Waldensian Church, Florence, 1870. He was the
a,uthor of L'EpUtoia di S. Jacobo (Florence, 1868);
L'Eputaia di S. Clemenle Romano & Corinti (lsfitt);
Antiehila bibliehe (1372); Teoria del cullo (1875);
Le arigini del Papato (1875); Cento leziont sulla
vila di Getu (1875); Storia Ittteraria deW anlico
Tfftamrnlo (Poggibonsi, 1879); Manvale par lo
trudio deUa lingua ebraiea (Florence, 1879); / Salmi;
wrtiane e atmmento topra i Salmi i.-xl. (1880); II
N iun>o Tatamento, tradotto sul testo originate (1881);
Le telle dtieee dell' Asia Minors (1886); Enciclopedia
deUe teienie Ualogiehe (1886); Letteratura ebraiea (2
vols., Milan, 1888): and / selle suggelli (Apoe. IV.-
VII.; Florence, 1890).
REVELATION.
Origin ud Meaning (1 1).
Biblical History (I 3).
Dogmstic History (13).
Modern Method (H).
Subjectivism (I S).
Theory Based on the Biblo sad Positivism (| 7).
The Doctrine ■■! the W...H .,( God (f 8).
Philosophic Adjustment of this View (| 9).
Revelation is the act of God in disclosing or com-
municating truth to the human soul. The concept
here becomes a subject of theological discussion as
a scientific tee! mi c; J express] nn. Doubtless it coined
from the Greek Bible (o/w/.-ii?v;^>-i'n,
i. Origin phaneroun, dlloun, gnoriiein), where
and the variety of representation indicates
Meaning, that, as later in the language of prayer
and hymn, no fixedness of idea had
yet been reached. The idea embodied in the later
technical term was distinctly that of an act of God,
direct or indirect. BacfaafntEcfJ Latin first pro-
vi'lrd i led [lite fiirsn by layiuj: down the term r, rrlnrr.
with manifestare for narrower usage. With the
Christian era philosophy ceased to employ itself
exclusively with the concept of God; no religious
phenomena, and consequently also the idea of reve-
lation, wen.' taken uri'l'T consideration, especially
after the advent of the genus-concept of rcligio,
which is not found in the Bible. With ine reusing
measure religio and reuelare become tAvin-thr.iiadits:
the idea of revelation became estranged from its
original historical ground an* I bol li were .subjected (<■
comparative generatizat ii.m and lifted to the rare at-
mosphere of abstraction. The utmost content com-
prehended in these conceptions may be denoted :h
that which constitutes the ground of religion. Tho
variety of meanings is not improbably due to sub-
servience to expediency in theological system-huiM-
ing. Fundamental to all views is a making or
becoming manifest, whether the object enter within
the horizon for the first time (either existing previ-
ously or coming into existence simultaneously), or
the removing of an impediment to its realization
(either without or within the recipient). By this
the conveyance of the description, originally rev
ceived by sensible appreciation, to the spiritual real-
ization is for tho most part effected, if this also
mediates through sense. The process of revelation
presupposes consciousness for its object, and through
taking possession of intuition for the sphere of re-
ligion, there fall to revelation, as its content, the
actual or possible subjects of a religious character.
Thought on these points originated in connection
with the historical monotheism of the Bible. God
represented a
opening
withn
a by
means. Theophany or the ap-
i. Biblical pcarance of angels alternates or corn-
History, bines with speech, Miraculous events
assume the value of signs. Decisive
experiences of the people or of divinely appointed
persons are conceived a.- specially designed dis-
pensations of God. Prophecy comes to the front,
Revelation
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
retiring what resembles oracle (Urim and Thum-
min; q.v.), and by the prophets God now speaks
directly to the people. Thus the word coming from
God takes its authoritative place. In the immedi-
ate pre-Christian period, under the impression that
prophecy has been silenced, apocalyptic revelation
takes its place. Instead of continuous intercourse
with God there arises tradition with the dogma
of sacred Scripture and its inspiration, more and
more extraordinary, in representation. Depend-
ence upon Hellenism introduced the allegorical
method of interpretation. This dogma of Old-Tes-
tament Scripture was carried over for the estima-
tion and treatment of the New, with two points of
difference. First, the Jewish representation dealt
with reflection upon events in the past; the New
arose under the sense of a living intercourse with
God. Second, and more significant, Judaism di-
rects its inquiry to the transcendent God who con-
trols the world; the New Testament realizes more
intimately than in olden time the relation with God,
and this through the presence of the Holy Spirit.
In the fellowship of the risen Christ all are in the
most direct communion, as were the prophets. This
assurance is dependent on the knowledge of the
person of him who was sent by the only true God
(John xvii. 3). Jesus is more than prophet; he not
only speaks the word of God, but this was made a
human person in him, manifesting the invisible God.
What this person represents historically, is trans-
mitted and interpreted by the Spirit of God and
Christ in the hearts of believers. In this Christ are
all the treasures of wisdom but not their acquire-
ment, for redemption is the instrumental good.
Two elements, more distinct in thought than in
life, are contained in the New-Testament idea of the
Spirit of Christ in Christianity: the distinctive sig-
nificance of the historical fact named Christ; and
the immediate contact of every Christian with God
through his Spirit. The conception of
3. Dogmatic the former is identified with the re-
History, ceived account of it, and subsequently
with the Bible. With the completion
of the double canon of Scripture, the other element,
conscious possession, either had to lose itself in the
confirmation of crystallizing tradition, or aim to
sustain its independence by new productivity, which
it did in Montanism (q.v.) and Ecstasy (q.v.), or in
eclectic Biblicism or mysticism. In the next place,
the Church in awe of traditionalism fell a victim to
the confusion of dogma and revelation. This, to-
gether with the native equipment and training of
the Greek theologians, resulted in positing the op-
eration of revelation as the advancement of knowl-
edge, and the validity of such knowledge was to be
deduced from the idea of the supernatural mode of
transmission. In support was adduced, in depend-
ence upon Scripture, the proof of the Spirit and
power evidenced by the accordance of prophecy
with fulfilment and by miracle. This resulted, in
the course of the Middle Ages, in the problem of the
relation of the reason to the materials of traditional
thought (see Scholasticism). Previously an ob-
servation of far-reaching consequence comes into
view. The mission to the Greeks was fond of fall-
ing back upon the philosophic and popular mono-
theism for a basis of connection, and for a counter-
part to revelation. This gave rise to the assumption
of a revelation in all religions, even in the ethical,
and the claim was made for these remnants or rays
of light, in behalf of the revealer or Logos. The
Reformation planting itself on the Bible destroyed
irremediably the assurance that church doctrine
and revelation coincide. Protestant orthodoxy in
the interest of dogmatism followed with the reen-
forcing dogma of the inspiration of an infallible
text. The strain of attack drew out, on the part
of reason, the theory of an original revelation, of
the innate ideas, and of the two books of nature and
conscience. The period of the Enlightenment (q.v.)
brought forth the idea of a supernatural instruc-
tion as a supplement to a rational foundation given
in and with creation. A philosophic followed by a
literary criticism demolished the dogma of a mirac-
ulously constructed text. The supernatural in-
struction was said either to be substantially cor-
roborated by reason (Wolff), or to be a temporary
episode until rational knowledge was ripe and self-
sufficient (Semler, Leasing). Finally, the possibil-
ity itself of such a revelation comes to be challenged
(Reimarus), and ordinary rationalism presumes, on
the basis of deism, to have done with revelation as
superfluous, impossible, and unreal. Meanwhile,
earnest treatment of Scripture turns from the valid-
ity of dogma to the unity of Biblical history. Ro-
manticism (q.v.) instilled a reaction as to the value
and origin of religion. The mystical infusion is not
to be disregarded after Schleiermacher. To this
influence of psychological and anthropological em-
piricism only one more point of view has been added,
which may be termed ethnological empiricism.
Under its banner, Comparative Religion (q.v.) is
prosecuted, which is a statistic of religions with ret-
rospect of their origin and growth, which again in
respect of the study of the sources is denominated
history of religion, and on the basis of the evolu-
tionary hypothesis is elaborated into a philosophy
of religion.
During the long period of orthodox thought the
concept of revelation served to insure an otherwise
inaccessible content. To remain certain that this
was received intact, the representation
4. Modern of the communication was wrought out
Method, without regard to the facts of historical
and individual personal life. Ecstasy
as the intermission of personal life is valid in the
strictest sense, and miracle as interruption is a
mark for the recognition of revelation, particularly
in rationalistic supernaturalism (see Rationalism
and Supernaturalism), at the risk of losing a con-
tent, however, otherwise inaccessible. In straining
the point of the mode, the content was neglected,
with which, however, revelation originally started
out. The resulting modern movement has, in all
its variations, the observation of the human phe-
nomenal form of revelation in the forefront. The
problem presents itself in the relation of human
autonomy to divine operation, and further in tense
ethical subjectivism. This is most evident in the
consideration of prophecy. The matter of con-
tent, however, readily recedes into the background,
while the problem becomes epistemological because
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Revelation
the content whose form of transmission is under
examination is itself spiritual. Within this anthro-
pocentric, exclusively earthly horizon two funda-
mentally distinct series of observation have found
room: one, the historical empiricism from Bengel
to Hegel, to the modern science of religion; the
other, the psychological, proceeding from " the
inner testimony of the Holy Spirit," through
Schleiermacher, to the agnostic mysticism of the
religion of the indeterminate or blank religiousness.
According to Aristotle (see Religion, Philosophy
of), the practical activity of reason consists in the
judgments of formal thought, from which results
the overe8timation of coordinating abstractions and
of empty universal formal concepts.
5. Sub- Such a fate also befalls the considera-
jectivism. tion of the religious life from which
depends the understanding of revela-
tion. Employed by the universal concept of relig-
ion, revelation is either not universal and then not
essential to religion, or else remains as an insepa-
rable accompaniment. Theology presumes to mid
in revelation the cause of religion, and the term
offers itself conveniently to denote that unknown
quantity through the effective entrance of which
into the soul-processes the appearance of religion
in the inner household may be explained. The
points of connection with the ideas of natural re-
ligion and revelation lie already at hand for the
correlation of these ideas. The axiom is assumed:
no revelation, no religion, whether in history or in
personal life. What, however, is thus thought of as
revelation is compared throughout with the preva-
lent idea of religion according to psychological de-
termination. In this collation immediacy of the
religious relation or the original capacity for relig-
ious experience in every human being coalesces with
- revelation. R. A. Lipsius emphatically pronounces
mystical experience to be the vital center in relig-
ion and the essential in revelation. This experience,
however, is not a disclosure, since it gives rise to a
feeling never fully tangible to apprehension. Turn-
ing the thought around, it appears evident that re-
ligion, so far as its content is concerned, would never
get beyond the speaking of tongues. But the fun-
damental perception is everywhere at hand, wher-
ever the fact of religion is found in universal relig-
iousness fundamentally independent of history. In
^case this religiousness is found in connection with
an atheistic philosophy, it affords revelation even
without deity. The transfer of the ecclesiastical
technical expression to formal analogies observed
in other departments of life affords means for closer
comparison. Discoveries have been made, whether
by search or fortuitously, which have been desig-
nated revelations. The ingenious conception of the
thinker (especially of the artist), or vision, offers
itself as analogous to the flash of the religious spark.
If thought be not reinforced by conviction, with
reference to the content of religion, from elsewhere,
namely, from the more securely grounded ethical
consciousness, or if the pious only experiences him-
self and the self-assigned relation to the non-ego,
then the fear arises that such revelation may be no
more than self-deception of the imagination, or pos-
sibly a universal strained representation, without
foundation in fact (Feuerbach). Against such a
8ubjectivistic dissection of the generalized concept
of revelation recourse from the abstract theory of
religion to comparative religion affords no relief.
There is, indeed, no little mention, in such presenta-
tions, of revelation underlying all religions, without
going into the concept of it. Nevertheless it is ad-
mitted (Thiele) that a class of religions of revela-
tion is to be abstracted; namely, those conscious
of the possession of revelations. Meanwhile there
remains for this consciousness, so long as religion
is assumed to be nothing else than becoming in-
wardly aware of an inevitable superior power,
nothing but the verdict that it is an imagery of the
fancy pertaining to psychological movements other-
wise explainable. If it is only a matter of influences
and their psychological exercise, then the specially
religious lies either in the content, or perhaps on
the side of the elaborating soul and its mode of ap-
prehension. In either case the special mediation
of religious operations drops out and with this also
the occasion for applying the notion of revelation.
If not set aside, its universalized use serves (o
generalize the Biblical religions with the others, by
presenting them merely as particularly shaded
modes of the universal concept of religion.
This entire point of view is guilty of a deprecia-
tion of the historical. Schleiermacher was aware of
this when he declared ethics to be the book of forms
for history, and history to be the book of illustra-
tions for ethics; only it is to be borne
6. Depre- in mind that by ethics he meant the
ciation of formulation of the natural laws of so-
the Histor- cial life. The uniform laws, therefore,
ical and are essential; the variations of phe-
Personai. nomena are secondary. So also as re-
gards the religious; they are varieties
similar in kind to the species of a genus. So far,
however, the introduction of the historical treat-
ment of religion does not alter the case. For if the
steps of religious movement are deduced not from
what is characteristic in religion, but from the prog-
ress of mental culture, the illumination of ethical
views, or the repletion of philosophical thought — in
short, from influences whose representations are in-
dependent of religion — then religion and its line of
development remain the same, namely, the ever
fundamentally invariable religiousness. Only its
reflex imagery in consciousness and its spiritual
elaboration vary. Consequently the standard for
judging these influences lies outside of the religious,
according to this position. In this connection also
appears, with some logical consequence, a departure
in the use of the concept of revelation. Originally
denoting an impulse giving rise to the fact of re-
ligion, its given historical connection leads to the
observation that religiousness in the strongly ex-
ercised becomes itself revealing upon the passively
susceptible. As these transmissions must fulfil
themselves in the active appropriation of impulses,
and their use is determined by influences from with-
out, these mediations must ultimately be of indif-
ferent importance or must act as inhibitions, just
as soon as religiousness becomes first-hand or orig-
inal. Inasmuch as this form of revelation again
removes itself from the field, all thought of a relig-
Bevel&tion
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOQ
6
ions content communicated thereby can no longer
be entertained, or the unvarying consciousness of
dependence continues to hold the ground, remain-
ing fundamentally awry with respect to all indi-
vidual or historical supplementing. The concept of
revelation is consumed by the naked idea of causa-
tion. The reason is that the phenomena dealt with
are taken from the observation of things in general
without respect to the peculiarity of personal life;
except that it is impossible to banish reflex imagery
from consciousness, although this receives treat-
ment only in accordance with the nature of those
phenomena. The main matter is not altered by
substituting for the differentiation of the class in
varieties the series of necessary development, i.e.,
for things coexistent things in succession. The re-
sultant ever remains the exercise of the unvarying
basis in religious consciousness. If this is as a mat-
ter of fact once conceded, its practical elaboration
or " revelation/' just as readily on an atheistic as a
pantheistic hypothesis, is of itself understood.
In this way, the idea of revelation has. become a
mere adjunct to that of religion, and with doubtful
advantage; for it serves partly to make prominent
the nativity of religion in every indi-
7. Theory vidual, and partly to describe in a
Based on vacillating manner the religion's recip-
the Bible rocal activity. In contrast, the idea
and has been positively remanded to its
Positivism, original field; i.e., for the historical life.
This has taken place in the name of the
Bible, on the part of the later Biblicists, and on the
ground that religion exists only in historical posi-
tivism (Ritschl). History is the department of
those facts which pertain to acting persons, their
practical conduct, and its effects. Here the setting
of aims or ends is a matter of fact. Room is af-
forded for the transactions of God apart from his
universal activity according to law. It may find
play in events, in the formal complexity of things,
or in the appointment of particular persons. Such
transaction invades effectively the whole; for the
receptive mind it is at the same time presentation.
It is to be called revelation by manifestation. In
reaction to the self-analyzing intellectualistic con-
ception, revelation by divine act merely has ob-
tained acceptance (Hofmann). The question then
occurs, What raises a fact or group of facts in their
revealing value above doubt? Two answers are
possible: the one points to the unity of universal
design; the other to the admission that the reveal-
ing fact may not be satisfactorily deduced from
historical conditions. These considerations may
mutually support or may oppose each other. Both
result in recognizing in Jesus Christ the focus of
historical revelation. That is to say, they will ad-
mit, as real revelation, only history determined
through him. Another path leads to this point. If
the personal life be held in view, its ethical quality
looms up as important, and so also, in connection
with the Bible, the fact of human sin. It throws
light upon the necessity of a special revelation, pro-
ductive oi the view that it is to be regarded as one
phase of the redemptive activity of God (Krauss).
As redemption appears to generalizing thought in
the aspect of a particular form of revelation, so here
this appears as an instrumental effort of divine ac-
tivity for the conquest of evil wrought by sin. Its
unique position within the comprehensive divine
activity becomes self-evident as well as character-
istic. However forcefully this special activity of
God in the manifestation of Christ is set forth, it
yet falls subject, so far as it is presentative, to the
conceptual appropriation of man. Then the old
question reappears — whence comes the warrant for
the corresponding conception and a reliable trans-
mission, if even this presentation constitutes an in-
dispensable part of the redeeming act. Further,
how is certainty to be gained that God is acting and
making revelation in any other way than in his
universal world-activity? Does not special history
dissolve on every hand into the stream of human
evolution in conformity with law? Within this, the
merely negative marks of an undeducible content
of the fact or uniqueness of the personal manifes-
tation of Christ will not submit to proof. The tran-
scendence above nature and the revelation value of
the fact has become questionable. Here the most
recent critical movement has applied the fruits of
oriental study to the Old Testament.
The Bible places the word foremost among the
instruments of revelation. Word and act are not
exclusive in simple meaning or in human life. Word
is not without act; it may be a most
8. The forceful act, but wordless act is never
Doctrine revelation. Revelation has not to do
of the Word with an all-working power that, must
of God. be provided with the word by the con-
templation of its impression on man
who has fallen under its influence; but it knows
the speaking God. God avails himself of human
thought and speech to make himself known and
his speech intelligible, so far as knowledge of him
is requisite for sinners to overcome by it sin and
death. How much, according to the Biblical mode
of thought, the divine act, for the sake of continu-
ing disclosure, is in need of the opening of the
mind to conceive and of the understanding to ex-
plain, is shown in that the incarnate Word attains
only to effective revelation by the aid of the Para-
clete. As indispensable as this instructive disclo-
sing activity may be, so positive is this effected
Word of revelation; it is not merely the inade-
quate expression of what is, according to its nature,
ineffable. Without hesitation this intuition so
obtained is regarded even to its very form of state-
ment as that designed and imparted by God con-
cerning himself and his will (I Cor. ii. 9-10). The
operation of God by his Spirit upon men is not lim-
ited to the generation of his Word; for it is the
comprehensive challenge, which calls forth the re-
lation to him in all phenomenal forms: but the
formation of words belongs to it essentially. Such
influence of the Holy Spirit restricts itself not to
impulse and feeling; it makes requisition upon all
the forms of thought. The indwelling Spirit is not
thought of as a power operating externally upon the
conscious activities which mediate through the
senses. The characteristic figure within the hori-
zon of this circle is not the genius who founds sects,
but the prophet prepared for martyrdom; the mes-
senger of the word which laid a task upon him.
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Revelation
This statement concerning a process which inter-
relates manifestation and inspiration, the perma-
nent result of which is the word of God (C. J.
NiUsch; Rothe), produces itself as the expression
of present experience. Just as soon as the thread
of continuity is broken, as among the Jews after
the exile and in the post-Apostolic Church, percep-
tion becomes readily darkened. That, however, not
merely its caput mortuum is present, is proved by
the experience that this word may by proxy repre-
sent the manifestation more effectively than the
manifestation itself, where there is a thorough ac-
tivity of the Spirit. This statement of the self-
revelation of God does not explain how religion
originated on the whole or primarily. The knowl-
edge concerning God, who may then be sought and
rediscovered in his world-activity, is presupposed
in all revealing action; the Bible knows nothing
concerning a monotheism discovered only in late
times. The fact of religion is presupposed for all
men, and not until the state of religious necessity
appears does revelation come under observation.
Revelation is fundamentally always the self-evi-
dencing of God for the recognition of him, and only
subsequently does it extend itself also to the cor-
relative. Wherefore, the knowledge of God has just
the opposite force, within these limits, of humanly
found and humanly conditioned thoughts concern-
ing the divine. For it no simpler or more absolute
testimony can be given than that of the first peti-
tion of the Lord's Prayer. Neither are the depths
of deity exhausted in every dimension nor are the
means provided for the impenetration of the uni-
verse in detail (theosophy); only the reality and
verity of the acquaintance with the self-revealing
God are assured.
It has already become clear that the historicity
of revelation is not alone to be proved in the fact
that it fulfils itself in actuality that must first be
understood in order to be described;
o. Phflo- much rather the emphasis rests upon
sophic Ad- the complex happening, evidently in
Jnstment of fulfilment of a purpose, in which the
mis View, indicating word is involved in a cor-
responding onward movement. So it
may well be said of revelation, that it generates a
development; in a certain sense also that it devel-
ops in its results. Only that such revelation must
not be taken as analogous to the process in nature,
but is to be conceived as the manifestation of a
training according to design; for otherwise there
would be a becoming manifest by means of, but not
a revelation to, human consciousness. If abstract
metaphysics, to the extent of deism, has assumed
too disparate a conception of the highest being for
alternative activity with the finite, then modern
anthropology takes too disparate a conception of
the subjectivity of persons to get any farther with
respect to influence upon them than a stimulus to
self-propulsion. Both exclude such a revealing op-
eration of God, which is something else than a con-
dition of the well-ordering of the whole. Therefore
the God-man must be, apart from the ethical, a
cosmic ordering and with him and in him is revela-
tion (Dorner). At this point comes to view the de-
pendence of the various forms of the conception of
revelation upon cosmology. Something of this kii
seems to be unavoidably bound up with the solu-
tion of the^problem of the natural or the supernat-
ural character of revelation through the generali-
zing of this idea, which is really indigenous only to
the circle of New-Testament religions. Therefore,
it is advisable, in its theological treatment, not to
overlook how, in its origins, revelation serves, not
only to weigh the knowledge of God afforded by it
over against other representations; but, much more,
to distinguish it as the true over against the decep-
tions; and not to forget how positively revelation
is identified in thought, not merely with the reality
of contact with God, but above all with the truth of
the knowledge of God. In the restriction of the
concept to this one side of the comprehensive activ-
ity of God, by which he founds the new life and
within it the perfect religion, it preserves its pecu-
liar significance, and is indispensable for the main-
tenance of the understanding of the religious rela-
tion on the high level of personal life, be it in the
form of religiousness or of positive religion.
(M. Kahler.)
Bibliography: For the Biblical side consult the literature
named in and under Biblical Theology; and for the
dogmatic side the works on systematic theology named
in and under Apologetics; Dogma, Dogmatics; Doc-
trine, History op; and Inspiration. Consult further:
R. Seeberg, Revelation and Inspiration, New York, 1910;
J. Leland, The Advantage and Necessity of Christian Reve-
lation, shown from the State of Religion in the Ancient
Heathen World, 2 vols., London, 1768, Philadelphia, 1818;
H. Alford, Consistency of the Divine Conduct in Revealing
the Doctrines of Redemption, 2 vols., London, 1842; F. D.
Maurice, What is Revelationt A Series of Sermons on the
Epiphany, ib. 1859; idem, Sequel, to the Inquiry, " What
is Revelation t " Letters in Reply to ManseVs Examination
of Strictures on the Bampton Lectures, ib. 1800; K. A.
Auberlen, Die gottliche Offenbarung, Basel, 1861, Eng.
transl., The Divine Revelation, Edinburgh, 1867; E.
Krauss, Die Lehre vonder Offenbarung, Gotha, 1868; A. B.
Bruce, The Chief End of Revelation, London, 1881, new
ed. 1887; R. W. Dale, Epistle to the Ephesians, its Doctrine
and Ethics, lecture viii., ib. 1882; G. T. Ladd, The Doc
trine of Sacred Scripture, 2 vols., New York. 1883; J.
Robson, The Bible; Us Revelation . . . , London, 1883;
C. A. Row, Revelation and Modern Theology, ib. 1883;
J. H. A. Ewald, Revelation: its Nature and Record, Edin-
burgh, 1884; H. Rogers, The Superhuman Origin of the
Bible, London, 1884; W. W. Olssen, Revelation, Universal
and Special, New York, 1885; S. J. Andrews, God's Reve-
lations of Himself to Men as successively made in the Patri-
archal, Jewish, and Christian Dispensations and in the
Messianic Kingdom, ib. 1886; R. H. Hutton, Essays Theo-
logical and Literary, 2 vols., London, 1888; J. F. Weir,
The Way, the Nature, and the Means of Revelation, Edin-
burgh, 1889; G. P. Fisher, The Nature and Method of
Revelation, New York, 1890; E. Cowley, The Writers of
Genesis and Related Topics, Illustrating Divine Revelation,
ib. 1890; W. D. Thomson, Revelation and the Bible. A
popular Exposition for the Times, London, 1890; R. F. Hor-
ton. Revelation and the Bible. An Attempt at Reconstruc-
tion, ib., New York, 1892; E. R. Palmer, Development
of Revelation, London, 1892; D. Van Home, Religion and
Revelation, Dayton, Ohio, 1892; J. Macgregor, Revelation
and the Record, London, 1893; S. J. Andrews, Cod's Reve-
lations of Himself to Men, New York, 1901 ; C. B. Brews-
ter, Aspects of Revelation, London, 1901; J. R. Illingworth,
Reason and Revelation, ib. 1902, new ed., 1908; T. Simon,
Entwicklung und Offenbarung, Berlin, 1907; H. Bavinck,
The Philosophy of Revelation, New York, 1909; J. Wilson,
How Ood has spoken. Or, Divine Revelation in Nature, in
Man, in Hebrew History and in Jesus Christ, Edinburgh,
1909; J. Orr, Revelation and Inspiration, London, 1910;
G. Henderson, The Bible a Revelation from Ood, Edin-
burgh, 1910; DCG, ii. 520-526; Vigouroux, Dictionnaire,
fasc. zxxiv. 1080-83.
Bevivals of Bellgrlon
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
8
r r
REVESZ, IMRB: Hungarian Reformed; b. at
Debreczin (116 m. e. of Budapest) Jan. 14, 1826;
d. there Feb. 13, 1881. He was educated at De-
breczin (1841-51), and after completing his studies
at Vienna, Berlin, and in Switzerland, became, in
1856, pastor at Debreczin. In. 1861 he was elected
to the Reichstag, though he resigned a few months
later to devote himself exclusively to pastoral and
literary labors. He distinguished himself in the de-
fense of his church, when, in 1856, Leo Thun, the
Austrian minister of public worship, drafted a new
system of government for the Hungarian Protes-
tants which completely destroyed consistorial in-
dependence. Three years later an imperial patent
was issued directing the Hungarian Lutherans and
Reformed to organize in accordance with the royal
charter. Both churches protested, while ReYesz
presented arguments from history to show that the
autonomy of the Protestant bodies could not be
changed without the consent of their own synods.
He likewise addressed a memorial to the foreign
powers, which was presented, in English transla-
tion, to the British ambassador and printed in The
Edinburgh Review (1860). He was a member of
the Protestant deputation which unsuccessfully
sought to gain audience with Francis Joseph I. in
Jan., 1860, and after his return he drew up and pub-
lished a program for passive resistance to the exe-
cution of the obnoxious patent. The program was,
however, confiscated by the government, and R6-
vesz, among others, was summoned to appear be-
fore the civU courts. He now wrote his " Defense
of the Hungarian Protestant Church " (Sarospatak,
1862; which appeared in its essential parts in
German in the Protestantische Kirchenzeitung, 1861).
In 1860 the obnoxious patent was withdrawn, and
the suits against Re" vesz and other Protestants were
quashed.
In 1870 Revesz founded the monthly FigyeU
mezd, which he conducted for nine years, and in
this he combated the German Protestant Union
(see Protestant Union, German). Among his
numerous works, all of them in Hungarian, special
mention may be made of the following: " Basal
Principles of Protestant Church Organization "
(Szarvas, 1856); "Jan Erddsi, the Hungarian Re-
former " (Budapest, 1859); " Life and Works of the
first Hungarian Reformer, Mathias Bir6 of De*va "
(1863); "Calvin's Life and Calvinism" (1864); and
a Hungarian translation of the sermons of Frederick
William Robertson (3 vols., 1864-69).
F. Balogh.
Bibliography: F. Balogh, in The Catholic Presbyterian,
London, 1861, pp. 418-427; K. Kuzmoni, Urkundenbuch
turn dsterreichischen evangelischen Kirchenrecht, Vienna,
1856.
REVILLE, re-vil', ALBERT: French Protestant:
b. at Dieppe Nov. 4, 1826; d. at Paris Oct. 25, 1906.
He was educated in his native city and at the uni-
versities of Geneva and Strasburg; was assistant
pastor at Nimesln 1847-48; pastor at Luneray in
1848-51 ; and of the Walloon church at Rotterdam,
1851-73; professor of the history of religions in the
College de France, Paris, 1880-1906, as well as presi-
dent of the section in the Ecole pratique des hautes
Etudes for religious sciences in the same city after
1884. He translated J. H. Scholten's Geschiedenis
der godsdienst en wijsbegeerte (Ley den, 1853) under
the title Manuel d' histoire comparie de la philoso-
phie et de la religion (Paris, 1861); and wrote L'Au-
thenticiU du Nouveau Testament (1851); De la re-
demption (1860) ; Essais de critique religieuse (1860) ;
Etudes critiques sur VevangUe selon Saint Matthieu
(Leyden, 1862); Manuel d'instruction religieuse
(1863; Eng. transl., London, 1864); Theodore
Parker, savieet ses aeuvres (1865; Eng. transl., Lon-
don, 1865); Histoire du dogme de la diviniii de
Jtsus-Christ (1869; 5th ed., 1906; Eng. transl., His-
tory of the Doctrine of the Deity of Jesus Christ, Lon-
don, 1870; revised, 1905); Histoire du diable, ses
origines, sa grandeur et sa decadence (Strasburg,
1870; Eng. transl., The Devil, his Origin, Greatness,
and Decadence, London, 1871); ProUgomenes de
Vhistoire des religions (1881; Eng. transl., London,
1884); Les Religions des peuples non-civilisis (2
vols., 1883) ; The Origin and Growth of Religion as
illustrated by the Native Religions of Mexico and
Peru (Hibbert lectures, London, 1884; French
transl., Paris, 1885); La Religion chinoise (2 vols.?
Paris, 1888); and Jisus de Nazareth (2 vols., 1897).
Bibliography: Polybiblion, 1897. pp. 199-203; P. Alphan-
d6ry, in RHR, 1906, pp. 401-423; Revue chrHienne, 1896,
pp. 416-417; Vigouroux, Dictionnaire, fasc. xxxiv. 1083-
1084.
REVILLE, JEAN: French Protestant, son of the
preceding; b. at Rotterdam, Holland, Nov. 6,
1854; d. at Paris May 6, 1908. He was educated at
the universities of Geneva, Paris, Berlin, and Hei-
delberg; was pastor at Sainte-Suzanne (1880-83);
teacher of the Evangelical religion in the Lycee
Henri Quatre, Paris (1884-86); instructor in church
history in the ficole pratique des hautes Etudes,
Paris (1886-94); and professor of patristics in the
Protestant theological faculty of the University of
Paris (1894-1907); succeeded his father as profes-
sor of the history of religions in the College de
France. He was also editor of the Revue de Vhis-
toire des religions after 1884. Among his numerous
works special mention may be made of La Religion
a Rome sous les S&veres (Paris, 1884); Les Origines
de Vipiscopat (1894); Paroles dfun libre croyant
(1898); Le Quatrieme Evangile, son origine et sa
valeur historique (1900); Le Protestantisme liberal,
ses origines, sa nature, sa mission (1903; Eng. transl.,
Liberal Christianity, its Origin, Nature, and Mission,
London, 1903); and Le Prophttisme hebreu; es-
quisse de son hist, et de ses destinies (Paris, 1906).
Bibliography: W. San day, Criticism of the Fourth Gospel,
pp. 2, 28, 31, 200, 256, Oxford, 1905; Journal de Gentve,
May 8, 1908; A. Reiyss, in Le Protestant, journal des chrt-
tiens liberaux, 1908, pp. 155-156; RHR, June-July, 1908;
Vigouroux, Dictionnaire, fasc. xxxiv. 1084.
REVIUS, rS'vi-us, JACOBUS: Dutch theologian;
b. at Deventer (8 m. n. of Zutphen) Nov., 1586; d. at
Leyden Nov. 15, 1658. He was educated at Leyden
(1604-07) and Franeker (1607-10), and in 1610-
1612 visited various foreign universities, particu-
larly Saumur, Montauban, and Orleans. Return-
ing to Holland, he held brief pastorates at Zeddam,
Winterswijk, and Aalten in 1613, and by Oct., 1614,
had become pastor in his native city, where he re-
mained twenty-seven years. In 1618 he was ap-
0
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
B4v4i
Revivals of Religion
pointed librarian of the Fraterhuis, and in the same
year the Synod of Dort assigned him a part in the
new revision of the Dutch translation of the Old
Testament. The committee of translators and re-
visers, which convened at Leyden in 1633-34, made
Revius secretary. He likewise took an active part
in the establishment of the Athenaeum at Deventer
in 1630, and was influential in calling the first pro-
fessors. In 1641 he accepted a call to Leyden as
regent of the state college, and held this position
for the remainder of his life. His closing years
were embittered by the rise of Cartesianism, to which
he was intensely opposed. A rare Hebrew scholar,
Revius was also a prolific writer. He showed, how-
ever, a domineering disposition and exercised a
vehement polemic, as shown in his struggle with
Cartesianism and the Remonstrants. Against the
latter he wrote, Schriftuurlijk iegen Berickt van de
Leere der Gereformeerde Kerken aengaende de godde-
lijke Predestinatie ende andere aen-clevende Poinden
(Deventer, 1617); against the former he wrote es-
pecially his Statera philosophies Cartesians (Leyden,
1650) ; and Theke, hoc est levitas de/ensionis Carte-
siance (Briel, 1653). The rights of the Church he
defended in his Examen . . . sen de potestate magis-
tratuum reformatorum circa res ecclesiasticas (Amster-
dam, 1642), and his Uittreksels . . . over de macht
der overheid in het afzeUen van predikanien (Leyden,
1650). While endeavoring to avoid the contempo-
rary controversy whether men might wear long
hair, he was obliged to defend his moderate position
in his Libertas Christiana circa usum capillitii defensa
(1647).
While he was regent, no less than 576 disputa-
tions took place at Leyden. In 1623 Revius pub-
lished at Leyden his own Greek and Latin
translation of the Belgic Confession, a revised and
enlarged edition appearing four years later as Bel-
gicarum ecclesiarum doctrina et or do. Copies of this
were widely circulated among the Orthodox Greeks
and won the approval of Cyril Lucar (q.v.), whose
own " Confession " may thus have been materially
influenced by the Belgic Confession. Revius also
conferred a considerable service on science by edit-
ing 300 letters of the famous Joseph Juste Scaliger
(q.v.) under the title Epistres francoises des person-
nages illustres et doctes & M. Joseph Juste de la Scala
(Harderwijk, 1624). His main work entitled him
to prominence among historical writers, Daventriw
illustrate, sive historian urbis Daventriensis libri sex
(Leyden, 1651). Revius was also one of the best
poets of his time, publishing Over-Yseselsche Sangen
en Dichten (Deventer, 1630; enlarged ed., Leyden,
1634), and De CL Psalmen Davids . . . in sin en de
rijmen gebetert (Deventer, 1640).
(S. D. van Veen.)
Bibliography: Sources are his own sketch in his Daventriw
illustrates, ut sup., pp. 725-728; and J. Hoornbeek, Mis-
cellanea sacra, pp. 575-591, Utrecht, 1676. Consult: J.
van Vloten, Het Leven en de uitgdezen tangen en dichten van
Jacobus Revius, Schiedam, 1863; E. J. W. Posthumus
Meyjes, Jacobus Revius, xijn Leven en Werken, Amsterdam,
1895.
I. Theory of Revivals.
II. Early Revivals.
In Biblical Times (f 1).
Protestant Revivals (f 2).
III. In America.
1. Revivals under Edwards.
Revival of 1734-35 (| 1).
Great Awakening, 1740 (| 2).
Revival under Criticism (| 3).
James Davenport (I 4).
Edwards' Defense; Statistics
(§5).
2. Revivals about the Year 1800.
REVIVALS OF RELIGION.
College Revivals; Timothy Dwight
(§1).
Lyman Beecher (f 2).
Kentucky Revival (| 3).
3. Theology of these Revivals.
4. Later Revivals.
Asahel NetUeton (f 1).
Charles Grandison Finney (§ 2).
Criticism of Finney's Methods
(§3).
Dwight Lyman Moody (§ 4).
5. General View of the Nineteenth and
Twentieth Centuries.
In General (§ 1).
Benjamin Fay Mills (§ 2).
Reuben Archer Torrey (| 3).
J. Wilbur Chapman (| 4).
IV. The Welsh Revival of 1904-1906.
The Welsh People (ft 1).
The Revival Described (| 2).
Its Origin (| 3).
Evan John Roberts; Early Life
(§4).
Work in the Revival (| 5).
Occult Phenomena (| 6).
V. Roman Catholic Mission.
The phrase " revivals of religion " is ordinarily
applied to the spiritual condition of a Christian
community, more or less limited in extent, in which
a special interest is very generally felt in respect to
religious concerns, accompanied with a marked
manifestation of divine power and grace in the
quickening of believers, the reclaiming of back-
sliders, and the* awakening, conviction, and conver-
sion of the unregenerate.
I. Theory of Revivals: The progress of Chris-
tianity in the world has rarely, for any length of
time, been uniform. Its growth in the individual
and in the community is characterized by very ob-
vious fluctuations. Like all things temporal, it is
subject to constant change, exposed to influences
the most varied and antagonistic. Now it makes
rapid advances in its conflict with sinful propen-
sities and developments; again it is subjected to
obstructions and reverses that effectually check its
onward course, and result in spiritual declensions.
Growth in grace is attainable only by ceaseless vigi-
lance, untiring diligence, unremitting conflict, and
a faithful improvement of the opportunities and
means of spiritual advancement. Any relaxation
in the strife with moral evil tends to spiritual re-
tardation: the evil gets the advantage over the
good; the religious fervor abates; the soul becomes
lukewarm, cold, dead. As with the individual be-
liever, so is it with the community. A church, a
sisterhood of churches covering a large section of
country, by reason of the predominating influence
of some worldly interests — the greed of gain in a
season of great commercial prosperity, the strife of
party during a highly excited political campaign,
the prevalence of a martial spirit in time of war, or
the lust of pleasure in a time of general worldly
gaiety and festivity, or any absorbing passion for
mere temporal good — may be so diverted from the
direct pursuit of holiness, and the prosecution of
the work of advancing the kingdom of Christ, as to
Berlvals of Bellffion
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOQ
10
lose, to a considerable extent, the power, if not the
life, of godliness. The spiritual and eternal become
subordinate to the worldly and temporal. The
blight of spiritual declension settles down and at-
taches itself with increasing persistency year by
year. Such has been the history of Christian
churches everywhere. This being the testimony of
universal experience to the proneness of human
nature to decline from the spirit and the power of
godliness, how, it is asked, is this tendency to be
checked ? Obviously the true and only effective
and appropriate remedy for a season of spiritual
declension is a season of spiritual revival. Such a
season, by whatever agencies or instrumentalities
brought about, by whatever adjuncts of question-
able propriety it may be accompanied, and of
greater or less extent, may properly be termed " a
revival of religion." These manifestations, more-
over, are to be regarded as a result of a special and
peculiar effusion* of the Holy Spirit. All spiritual
life, ail progress in the divine life, whether in the in-
dividual or in the community, in the church or in
the nation, is the Spirit of God. The whole period
of grace, from the Day of Pentecost to the final
judgment, is properly termed " the dispensation of
the Holy Spirit." Every true convert is begotten
of the Spirit, and so becomes a child of God. The
Spirit is always in and with the Church, carrying
forward the work of redemption.
EL Early Revivals: Mention, moreover, is made
in the Scriptures of special dispensations of the
Holy Spirit, of copious effusions of the Spirit of par-
ticular times of refreshing from the
z. In Bib- presence of the Lord: " It shall come to
lical Times, pass afterward, that I will pour out
my spirit upon all flesh.1' The fulfil-
ment of this prediction of the prophet Joel began,
as the Apostle Peter testifies, on the Day of Pen-
tecost next following the crucifixion of our Lord.
So great and so efficacious was this outpouring of
the Spirit, that about 3,000 souls were that day
made partakers of the divine nature by regenera-
tion. And this was only the initial of a marvelous
dispensation and display of divine grace in the re-
newal and sanctification of a great multitude of
souls extending through a continued series of years,
whereby the Christian Church was planted, took
root, and filled the land of Israel with its blessed
fruits. It was a great and glorious revival of re-
ligion. This was but the first great revival in the
history of the Christian Church. Times without
number, at particular periods, in peculiar exigen-
cies God has interposed for the redemption of the
Church and for the triumphant advancement of the
Gospel of Christ. After a season of spiritual de-
clension, when iniquity had come in, and rolled over
the whole land like a desolating flood, a wave of
renewing and sanctifying grace has spread itself
over a whole region of country, whereby the atten-
tion of the multitude has been aroused, great num-
bers of the careless and thoughtless have been
brought under saving conviction, and converts by
thousands have been brought into the Church of
such as should be saved. Marvelous changes have
thus been wrought in the aspect of large communi-
ties, affecting most favorably the character and the
results of the preaching of the Word, the devotions
of the closet, the family, and the sanctuary, and the
interest taken by the multitude in spiritual and ex-
ternal concerns, resulting in an extraordinary quick-
ening of religious affections, a general stimulus of
Christian graces, and the divine renewal of souls
that were dead in trespasses and sins. Not only at
Jerusalem, but everywhere in all the region round
about where the apostles and apostolic men preached
in those days, and far away among the Gentiles,
such scenes were witnessed. So many and so mighty
were those special manifestations of divine power
and grace in the Gospel, by reason of such effusions
of the Holy Spirit, that Tertullian could say at the
beginning of the third century, in his appeal to the
civil authorities, " We have filled all places of your
dominions, — cities, islands, corporations, councils,
armies, tribes, the senate, the palace, the court of
judicature." " So mightily grew the work of God,
and prevailed."
Passing over the intervening centuries, it may
well be asked, What was the Protestant Reforma-
tion, that, beginning in the fourteenth century under
Wyclif, and continuing under Hubs in the fifteenth,
• at length culminated in the sixteenth
a. Protes- under Luther and Calvin and a host of
tant kindred spirits? It was a special dis-
Revivala. pensation of the Spirit, whereby the
minds of men everywhere in Christian
lands were turned toward the utterances of the
divine word, the errors of the papacy were discov-
ered and renounced, the truth as it is in Jesus was
apprehended and embraced by multitudes, and the
churches were built up in the faith of the Gospel. It
was a great and general revival of religion, whereby
converts by tens of thousands were born of the
Spirit of God. So thorough and wide-spread were
those conversions, that the fires of persecution were
kindled in vain. In spite of princes and prelates,
converts to the pure faith of the Gospel were made
all over Germany, Switzerland, France, Holland,
and Great Britain, and not a few in Spain and Italy.
It was the greatest revival of religion that the world
had witnessed, and the Church enjoyed, since the
days of Constantino. From that day, all along the
centuries, the annals of the Church abound in tes-
timonies to the reality and efficacy of these special
effusions of the Spirit. The Church of Scotland was
born anew in the great revival under Knox and his
brethren. " The whole nation," says Kirkton,
" was converted by lump." Near the close of the
sixteenth century, under the ministry of such di-
vines as Wishart, Cooper, and Welsh, all Scotland
was visited by an extraordinary effusion of the Holy
Spirit. So mightily were men affected, that the
whole general assembly, 400 ministers and elders,
while renewing their solemn league and covenant,
with sighs and groans and tears, were swayed by
the Spirit, as the leaves of the forest by the " rush-
ing of the wind " of the driving tempest. Similar
scenes were further witnessed in Scotland, begin-
ning in 1625, at Stewarton, extending through the
land and into the north of Ireland, and eventuating
in that remarkable display of divine grace in the
Kirk of Scotland, where in June, 1030, under the
preaching of Bruce and Livingston, " near 500 "
11
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Revivals of Religion
souls in one day were brought under deep convic-
tion of sin, and presently into the light and liberty
of the Gospel. So, too, in 1638, on the occasion of
signing the covenant, the whole country was stirred
as by the mighty hand of God. Such was the prep-
aration in Scotland, and in England, also, for the
great reformation that issued in the commonwealth
under Cromwell and the prevalence of Puritanism
in the Church of England.
like importance attaches to what is known as the
Evangelical revival under the Wesleys in Great
Britain, which spread also to America under Francis
Asbury (q.v.) and Philip Embury (q.v.), resulting
in the foundation and upbuilding of Methodism
(see Methodists). E. F. Hatfield t-
IIL In America. — 1. Revivals under Edwards:
The earliest period of New England history
was a period of almost constant revival, for
religion was the chief interest of the Pilgrim and
Puritan churches, and revivals of a
1. Revival less continuous type were not infre-
of 1734-35. quent in the later years of their first
century and the beginning of the
next. Increase Mather was a powerful revival
preacher. Both the father and the grandfather
(Solomon Stoddard, q.v.) of Jonathan Edwards had
revivals in their parishes. But the history of Amer-
ican revivals, as a distinct element of the religious
life, begins properly in 1734 with the preaching of
a series of sermons by Edwards, at Northampton,
upon justification by faith. There had at this date
been no considerable additions to the village church
for a long time. The religious condition of the
church had become low, and that of the community
around it worse. Interest began among the young
and spread to the old. Five or six persons were con-
verted; and then, all at once, the community as a
whole began to manifest an absorbing interest in per-
sonal religion. Religious meetings became thronged.
In half a year about 300 persons were converted,
embracing nearly all the town above sixteen years
of age. The revival was not limited to Northamp-
ton, but spread, partly with the active cooperation
of Edwards, to most of the towns about, then into
Connecticut, and even into New Jersey. The means
taken to extend the revival were the simple and
ordinary services of the house of God, special meet-
ings for a lecture by the minister, followed by meet-
ings for prayer, group meetings of young and of old,
and private interviews by the pastor with persons
specially concerned. The sermons upon justifica-
tion were upon the traditional lines of Calvinistic
theology, and great emphasis was laid upon what
" justice " would demand in God's treatment of
men, and upon the utter lack of claim that any
sinner had upon God for favorable treatment. And
the sovereignty of God was so emphasized as to
give the impression that, even after the sinner has
repented, it may be entirely uncertain whether God
will forgive, him or not I Still, Edwards took occa-
sion to encourage the diffident with the assurance
of the goodness of God, and that it is his " man-
ner " to give success to diligence. The great
motive employed was, however, fear. It was
Edwards' purpose to produce conviction of sin
and a sense of the great danger in which the
soul stood of suffering the torments of an eternal
hell.
In the spring of 1740 the spirit of revival was
again present. The same increasing seriousness as
had ushered in the former revival was observed.
Some conversions occurred. And in
A-^kk**6** October George Whitefield (q.v.), who
17408r,na(* come to **ew England from Geor-
gia, and was preaching from place to
place with great power, to immense assemblies of
people, arrived in Northampton. While his com-
ing does not seem to have had a revolutionary in-
fluence, he was largely instrumental in producing
the general prevalence of a revival which was lim-
ited to no part of the country, and enlisted the ac-
tive cooperation of a large number of effective
preachers. Of these one of the most famous was
Gilbert Tennent (q.v.). Edwards himself joined in
the itinerant work in which Whitefield took the
lead. In this revival, as in the former, the great
appeal was to fear. It was at this time that the
famous sermon of Edwards upon Sinners in the
Hands of an Angry Ood was preached at Enfield,
Conn. " Before the sermon was ended, the assem-
bly appeared deeply impressed and bowed down
with an awful conviction of their sin and danger.
There were such manifestations of distress and weep-
ing that the preacher was obliged to speak to the
people and desire silence that he might be heard.
This was the beginning of the same great and pre-
vailing concern in that place with which the colony
in general was visited."
Had the revival been confined to places under the
influence of Edwards and his more immediate asso-
ciates, it may be that comparatively
d V*^ *^e criticfe*11 would have been called
Criticism, forth. It is necessary here to call at-
tention to certain phemonena which
arose in the newly compacted Presbyterian church
of New Jersey. This was composed of a Scotch-
Irish element, attached to the forms and methods
of an established church, and making little inquiry
into the evidence of regeneration among professing
Christians, and a New England Congregational ele-
ment, with whom the reality of the experience of
regeneration was the great prerequisite for church
membership as well as the great essential of the re-
ligious life. William Tennent (q.v.), of the New
England side, had founded a college in his parish
to educate men for the ministry, upon which the
Scotch looked with some suspicion; and when his
son, Gilbert Tennent (q.v.), inveighed against an
" unconverted ministry " and went about preach-
ing the Gospel to all whom he could gather, the
criticism was still stronger. Tennent and his friends
were thus brought into the parishes of many men
who had no sympathy with their doctrines or their
methods. And so at the synod of 1741 a " protes-
tation " was made which objected to their " an-
archical principles," their " irregular irruptions
upon the congregation to which they have no im-
mediate relation," " their principles and practise of
rash judging and condemning all who do not fall in
with their measures, both ministers and people,"
their doctrine of the necessity of an inward divine
call to the ministry, " their preaching the terrors of
Revival* of HnliRlon
I lie 1
THE NEW 8CHAFF-HERZ0G
ind their doctrine of conscious religious
exp.aii.-i ice. It was natural that Tenneni's preach-
ing in \cw England should arouse strong criticism
from men of like mind with the " Old Side " of his
own church.
The first and chief difficulty in New England was,
however, connected with Jamea Davenport, of
Souihold. L. I. The news of Whitefields successes
had |(-,1 him in 1740 to begin special exhortation of
his people, iiii.l in i ] j<- fullowing year he began an
itini ■: ,rv ill Easthampton which carried him through
. Connecticut, and finally as fax as Bos-
is not to ho (iuuliti-i! that lie was labor-
ing under :) inuiitid aberration which increased dur-
ing hi.-! itinerant ministry. He indulged is caustic
critiii-'ii i if most 'if (he 1 1 iii i inters whom he met. Id
New Haven the final outcome of his work was the
fortt] ■uion of a (separate church. Even the legisla-
ture nt Hartford took notice of his excesses and
sent him home as a man of disordered mind. In
June, 1742, he appeared in Boston, and here began
in ci)i'j$i?<|Ufrjc<? that oppo.sii iou to the revival which
long continued ami greatly affected the entire later
history not only of that, city but of all America,
The association of ministers issued a declaration in
whit 1 1 they gave generous recognition to Davenport's
excf ill ;;eies. but on account of his irt-ogi.l.irilii"',
they judged it their " present duty not to invite
Mr. Davenport into our places of public wor-
ship." The result, of this declaration w» i;,..: :ln ■••
wen.' preachings upon the common, a great deal of
controversy and disturbance, and finally a present-
ment before the general court, upon which Daven-
port was discharged as not guilty because 'ion com-
pos mentis. After a while Davenport departed for
home. On his arrival, and with the mending of his
health, he saw his errors and published •' retracta-
tion.- " in which he withdrew his statements and
explicitly recognised his errors. It is upon such a
background that tile history of Whilcfield's revival
movements in New England is painted. He was
charged with being an "enthusiast," i.e., one who
acted on stimuli furnished by dreams and sudden
impulses which he mistook for inspiration, with
disorderly methods, censorious ness, alander, and
with deluding the people.
Edwards' defense of the revival did not ignore
" imprudences," " irregularities," " indiscreet zeal,"
nor " outcries, agitatioiiH, and faintings of the
body "; but he defended the revival, nevertheless,
- Edwards' oecau3e '* nai' produced "a rcmnrk-
Defenee- alj'<? ;")I' Poll|,nl' alteration in the face
Statistics. °' *^ew England " in matters pertain-
ing to religion and common morals. He
defends the evangelists in respect to many things
for which they had been unjustly blamed, as he
thought, and maintains that there is a proper ad-
dress to the emotions, and that the preaching of
terror is justifiable, for the state of unrepentant
man is indeed terrible. Neither did he refuse to see
in physical effects of preaching " probable tokens
of God's presence." Edwards left quite complete
and very significant data as to the numbers affected
by this revival, and their ages, from which the fol-
lowing table is compiled, in which no distinction is
made between males and females, who were eon-
vertex), according to Edwards' explicit statement,
in about equal numbers.
Ah* Number Asa. Number.
II..
. .10
10
It will serve the purposes of confirmation of the
Edwanlcan table as normal and valuable, if the fol-
lowing table of a revival in an Iowa town, about
ten years since, be given. It was conducted by 4
( jjngrtgational minister.
An), Number. Age Number.
. 1
The numerical results of the revival in the coun-
try at large can be estimated upon the basis of only
partial information; a conservative estimate puts
the number of additions to the New England
churches in consequence of the revival at 25,000,
which, as there seem to have been then about 250,-
tltHJ population in New England, makes the pro-
portion of conversions to the population at least ten
per cent. This docs not, however, completely cover
the number of conversions, for a large number were
already within the churches by the operation of the
Half Way Covenant (q.v.), who needed conversion,
and actually were converted. The whole number
of conversions, therefore, when these dead church-
members arc included in the enumeration, must
have been nearly 50,000. One hundred and fifty.
Congregational churches were formed in less than
twenty years, most of which can be credited to the
revival. A considerable number of separatist
churches were formed, many of which contributed
[iiiwrrfully to the influence of practical religion;
while Baptist and Presbyterian forces were largely
increased. Thus, when a broad review of the nu-
merical results is taken, it is evident at once that
the rcenforccment of the religious forces of the
country was very great.
2. Revivals About the Yeax 1800: Prom the
close nf the ■' Great Awakening." as the revival just
sketched was called, there were no general revivals
in America till about the year 1800. It was the
period of war, with the consequent demoralisation.
18
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bevivala of Religion
But as the new century drew near, isolated revi-
vals occurred in a number of places. In 1781
there was a revival in Dartmouth Col-
1. College iggg^ extending into the towns twenty
^Jj^8 5 miles around; in 1783 in Yale College,
j>w^h£ which increased the membership of the
college church to a point to which it had
never before attained. Twelve years later, how-
ever, its visible effects had departed. Princeton
College was in a condition quite similar to Yale.
From 1778 to 1787 there had been a revival, under
the lead of a layman, Joseph Patterson, in western
Pennsylvania, and more than 1,000 persons pro-
fessed conversion. In the winter of 1798 there was
a great revival in western New York, and in 1796-
1798 in western Connecticut and Massachusetts.
But in eastern Massachusetts there was no revival
from 1745 till long after 1800. The most important
center of this revival was Yale College under Tim-
othy Dwight. When he came to the presidency in
1795 he found infidelity very prevalent among the
students, while the college church was almost ex-
tinct. Dwight began by discussing the fundamen-
tals of theology with the senior students, and soon
open infidelity passed away. But the " revival "
proper did not break out in Yale College till 1802.
A student destined to play a large part in later re-
vivals, Lyman Beecher, was converted in 1795-96,
but it was a case of solitary religious interest, be-
ginning at home in consequence of a chance remark
of his mother, but kept in progress largely by the
sermons of Dwight in the college pulpit, and gradu-
ally developing into fixity of purpose to serve God.
There were other solitary cases, but the college for
some time went backward rather than forward. In
1799 only four or five undergraduates were members
of the college church. But in 1801 desire for a re-
vival began to be manifested, and in the spring of
1802 the work developed until seventy-five out of
230 students had been converted, of whom about
one-half became ministers. There were later revi-
vals in 1808, in 1812-13 with twenty converts; in
1815 with eighty; in 1831, and so on, so that up
to 1837 there were seventeen distinct revivals in
Yale College.
What Dwight was as a revivalist may be still
more clearly seen from the work of his pupil, Ly-
man Beecher (q.v.). Settled in Easthampton in
1799, his activity in revivals began at
once. Interest was awakened that .
spring, and in 1800 a marked revival,
continuing six weeks, resulted in the conversion of
eighty and the addition of fifty to the church. But
the revival of 1807-08 brought out the principles
upon which Beecher always conducted such work
and showed what manner of man he was. From
the general assembly at Newark he returned with
" fire in his heart/' and began with the young peo-
ple; but when nothing " would take hold/' he
planned a series of sermons on election. He preached
" cut and thrust, hip and thigh," but it was a new
doctrine of election that he taught, under the influ-
ence of Dwight and Taylor, by which its eminent
reasonableness was emphasized. The doctrine of
eternal punishment was also so preached as to pre-
sent " the kingdom of darkness ... as nothing
8. LymAB
but the prison of the universe . . . and small com-
pared to the realms of light and glory.'1 It was the
emancipation of the congregation from the domina-
tion of the instinctive emotion of overpowering fear.
While this early revival at Yale was proceeding
quietly, avoiding excesses of every kind, in Ken-
tucky in the year 1800 there was proceeding a re-
vival which illustrated the dangers
3. Xentuokywhich attend the supreme appeal to
Kevival. fear in a population of a low grade of
intellectual life. The Scotch-Irish im-
migration into America had brought into the moun-
tains of Kentucky and Tennessee a population
which had degenerated in the seclusion of these re-
mote regions. Religion had lost its hold upon them.
The " inhibitions " of both the intellectual and the
moral natures were largely removed, and at the
same time a condition of unstable equilibrium had
been set up in the nervous system. They had to be
ever upon the alert against the savages. Thus they
lived in an environment of apprehension, the power
of " latent fear " was therefore very great, and ex-
cessive emotional manifestations might be counted
upon. This mountain population sent out num-
bers of emigrants as time went on, and about the
year 1800 there had gathered in Logan County, in
southwestern Kentucky, on the Tennessee border,
a large population of this people, intermixed with
numbers of violent and hardened criminals. An
irregular government had been established in the
interest of law and order, and a miniature civil war
had been waged till finally the better elements had
got the upper hand. The ministry of James Mc-
Gready, who came to this region in 1796, was from
the first attended with great power. His preaching
seems to have resembled that of Edwards. " He
would so array hell before the wicked," it was said,
" that they would tremble and quake, imagining a
lake of fire and brimstone yawning to overwhelm
them and the hand of the Almighty thrusting them
down the horrible abyss.5 ' In 1799 he was holding
a meeting at Red River for the purpose of observ-
ing the sacrament when violent physical demonstra-
tions began in the audience so that people fell from
their seats to the floor. This was tie beginning of
a great epoch of nervous excitement in connection
with revivals. The work spread to Pennsylvania
and Ohio, and violent physical phenomena called
" the jerks " prevailed. Great camp-meetings were
gathered, and, like a contagion, excitement would
run through the crowds assembled. People would
continue for hours in an apparently breathless and
motionless state; about one in every six would fall
helpless to the earth, and one man jerked so vio-
lently as to snap his neck and die. It was not till
the summer of 1803 that an end came to such mani-
festations.
3. Theology of these Revivals: Theology had
passed through a regular development since the
time of Edwards. The treatise upon the freedom
of the will, in which the great leader had pronounced
for determinism, had led to a constant discussion
of the whole psychology of revivals, and while this
was conducted upon the universal plan of that day,
the consultation of the individual consciousness, ift
had led to a gradual modification of determinism
Revivals of Beligion
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
14
in favor of a true freedom, till in Nathaniel William
Taylor's teaching the will has always, in every case
of actual choice, a " power to the contrary " (for
the history see New England Theology). As the
outcome of the development of this theology, the
preacher in these revivals felt that he was actually
and powerfully influencing his hearers to repentance,
and they felt that upon them alone lay the respon-
sibility of choosing or refusing the service of God,
since they possessed a perfect ability to choose or
refuse; and yet preacher and convert praised the
grace of God as efficient agent and divine benefac-
tor in every man's salvation (cf. F. H. Foster's
Genetic History of the New England Theology, Chi-
cago, 1907).
4. Later Revivals: Among Congregationalists
and associated denominations revivals went for-
ward up to the point now reached without the help
of any one who was exclusively devoted to this
work. The period of professional revivalists had
not set in. The early educational advantages of
A«Ah i Asahel Nettleton (q.v.) were small,
Nettleton anc*' ^ ^ P*1"611*8 were not professing
* Christians, it was not till his eighteenth
year that he became a Christian. Inclined first to
the foreign missionary work, he was gradually
drawn into revival labors, and was never able to
extricate himself from the responsibilities thus in-
curred. He traversed a large part of Connecticut,
with frequent labors in Massachusetts and New
York, and in the South his journeys carried him as
far as Charleston, S. C. For about twenty-three
years he was one of the most active and conspicu-
ous figures in the service of the churches through
the conduct of revivals. Of his special preparation
for his work, gained by experience in the work itself,
his observers frequently speak. Because of his
familiarity with the experiences of many different
men in many different places, he often seemed to be
describing the experience of his auditors as if he
were personally acquainted with their innermost
thoughts. " When he commenced his labors in any
place, he first attempted to impress the people with
the fact that their help must come from above, and
that they must place no dependence upon an arm
of flesh." So earnest was he in this feeling, that if
he thought they were depending too much upon
him, he would suddenly leave them for a time. He
began his work by seeking to deepen the earnest-
ness of the church and the sense of responsibility.
He would preach upon the sins of Christians, and
by his searching and personal methods of applica-
tion seek to carry conviction home to them first.
Then he was ready to preach to sinners. His style
was simple and impressive. He did not seek to
awaken great emotion, but preferred a quiet re-
vival. Preaching earnestly, following this with
familiar addresses in the lecture room, and adding
to these faithful private conversation and personal
labor, he gathered the fruit " by hand," as some
one has felicitously described the personal method
of labor. His conversation with such was, however,
usually brief, and partook somewhat of the nature
of a physician's prescriptions. One duty and one
only did he press upon anxious inquirers, that
of immediate repentance. He urged this upon them
because they could do nothing short of it which
would in any way improve their condition. Thus
he fell in with the best line of New England teach-
ing. In one respect these revivals were very defect-
ive. To the end, the peculiar path which Nettleton
had had to tread when he came into the kingdom
continued to exercise an influence upon him and
upon the religious experience of his converts. There
was a long period of distress through which most of
them had to pass, and a great degree of dimness
and mystery and uncertainly about the act of con-
version itself. It was the result of bad teaching,
just as was the supreme (and successful!) effort
which one of Edwards' young people went through
with, to repent of her sin in Adam! Nowhere is it
possible to find a clear explanation of the nature of
faith in his sermons. Nowhere does he tell a sinner
exactly what he is to do in terms which possess
clearness because resting upon a clear psychology
of repentance and faith. The day for all this had
not come. He produced true faith because he so
powerfully presented the motives under which it
arises; but just what happened at the decisive
moment in his soul, neither the sinner nor his
teacher really knew.
Charles Grandison Finney (q.v.), living in Central
New York, then a frontier country, was brought up
with meager advantages as to education, and with
religious advantages yet more deficient; so he grew
to young manhood, studied law and
2. Charles entered UDon its practise, in Adams.
Grandison XT v *lu * i • ,~^
pixm N. Y., without any real acquaintance
with the Gospel. He had had some
educational opportunities in his later youth, hav-
ing spent a brief time in a high school in Connecticut;
but the religious privileges which he then enjoyed
had brought little light to his mind. He says of
himself, when he began the study of law, that he
was " almost as ignorant of religion as a heathen."
His first Bible was purchased because of the refer-
ences to it which he found in his law books. There
was a new element in the revival work which Fin-
ney's conversion led him to undertake which goes
back to his own mental processes and spiritual ex-
periences. The day he was converted he gained a
new idea of the nature of faith. He had held it to
be an intellectual belief, but now he understood
that it was a voluntary trust. This he put forth
by the direct act of his will, and upon this his con-
version followed, though he did not at once under-
stand that he was converted, in this particular re-
hearsing the experiences of many converts from the
time of Edwards down. But the application of this
principle to the philosophy and the methods of re-
vivals could not long remain hid from him, nor his
own mode of procedure remain unaffected by it.
The outworking of this principle manifested itself
first in the realm of theology. Finney was a born
theologian. He possessed the interest in abstract
truth, the power of analytical thought, and the love
of cogent proof, which united make the theologian,
and constitute him, at the same time, an original,
investigating, and advancing theologian. He was
therefore soon engaged in further discussions with
his pastor, and was led step by step to substantially
the same positions taken by Nathaniel William
15
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bevivala of Religion
Taylor (see New England Theology, V., § 1), with
whom he afterward had some brief association. He
was soon licensed to preach by the local presbytery
and subsequently ordained, though not without
much criticism of his peculiar views. His labors had,
however, been too fruitful to permit of refusing him
ordination. After his work at Adams, Finney went
to Evans' Mills and began that long series of re-
vival meetings by which he wrought more power-
fully and over a greater territory than any man of
his generation. The story is fascinating as repeated
by himself in his Memoirs, replete with striking in-
cidents and with remarkable successes. From the
first he was apparently fully prepared and entirely
mature. His eloquence was astonishing, his meth-
ods were original and effective, his personal power
was extraordinary, the results were unmatched.
The open secret of his skill in handling men was the
perfect clearness with which he apprehended the
nature of conversion and the nature of man. His
perfect confidence also in the main doctrines of
the Evangelical scheme and the startling vividness
with which he presented them led to the most pro-
found self-examination and personal consecration.
Through it all ran the vein of rationality, for Finney
was always explaining and defending doctrines, and
had the art of making them appear self-evident and
their contradictories inconceivable. It is to be
doubted if anywhere, at any period in the history
of the Christian church, there were more profound
experiences or a firmer and more intelligent grasp
of the essentials of the process of making one's
peace with God.
Opposition was early felt in various ways, but it
was to those features of Finney's methods which
would to-day be regarded as his principal merits,
to his use of homely illustrations, his avoidance of
a stilted rhetoriesFgtyle, and his extemporaneous
address. They were the very reasons
3* r^^^of his success, and had he listened to
°MethodI.S ^ direct*01319 °f those about him, he
would have become as ineffective as
they were. But there was no opposition from those
that knew the work because of any irregularities,
such as were soon to raise the antagonism of the
brethren in New England and involve Asahel Net-
Ueton. Nettleton's objections to Finney's methods
were to the " irreverence " displayed in prayer, to
" the spirit of denunciation " exhibited, especially
against ministers, " the practise of females praying
in promiscuous assemblies," the creation of discord
in churches, and "praying for people by name."
In his own letters nothing is said against the prac-
tise of asking inquirers to come forward to anxious
seats; but this is one of the new measures against
which Nettleton's biographer, Bennet Tyler, repre-
sents him as objecting. On the whole, it appears
that Tyler's representation of the matter is some-
what exaggerated, and that he did not have correct
sources of information; Nettleton also seems to
have obtained his information largely indirectly,
and it appears exaggerated and incorrect. Finney's
work was not open to the charges which both of
these men made so freely against it. The antago-
nism between Finney and Nettleton was a matter of
temperament, for the one was as contained as the
other was unrestrained. It was partly a matter of
civilisation — the settled and staid East against the
newer West; partly a matter of party — conserva-
tive New England against a man who reproduced
in the West the Taylorism against which Tyler and
Nettleton were contending in the East. But at
bottom it was an antagonism of ideas, excited by
the inability of Nettleton and others to think their
way through the consequences and implications of
a new theory of the will.
Finney's revivals covered a wide and interesting
field, which included Philadelphia, New York (where
he founded the Broadway Tabernacle, and made
the acquaintance of the men who sustained him at
Oberlin), Oberlin itself and the intense and wonder-
ful history of its early years, London, England, and
back again among American towns of greater or less
celebrity. The revivals at Rochester were among
his greatest, and long left their mark upon that city.
That in the year 1842 was chiefly among the lawyers
of the city, a large number of whom were converted.
The preaching was argumentative and covered the
range of Christian doctrine. That Finney should
have gained men is not strange when it is remem-
bered that men are gained preeminently by the
ideal, by convictions as to duty, and rational fear.
Were exact statistics present, they would probably
show something like those of Edwards' revival of
, 1734-35, the culmination of conversions lying about
the years of a man's prime, viz., about forty-five.
For the work of Dwight Lyman Moody see the
article on him. The philosophy of revivals under
which this laborer worked was, for the most part,
the philosophy of common sense. He believed in
large assemblies of people, and was anxious to have
Christian people in great numbers. He
4. Dwiffht Jme^^ the dangers of a crowd, and
S^JJJf11 promptly suppressed everything like
undue excitement. To preach the
Gospel as wisely as he could, to gather the interested
together for special instruction and encouragement,
to rely greatly upon prayer, to busy converted men
in various Christian work, these constituted all the
method Mr. Moody had. Perhaps a greater change
from the methods of his predecessors was to be
found in his preaching than anywhere else. His
doctrine was of the old Evangelical type, and he
taught as an essential part of it the eternal future
punishment of the wicked. This position gave
strenuousness to his efforts for the salvation of men;
. but it did not fix that salvation as consisting pri-
marily in rescue from punishment. He preached
the doctrine of atonement by the substitution of
Christ for the sinner before the face of justice; but
this did not make the salvation which Christ brought
an external and merely forensic affair which left
the innermost man untouched. Both of these
doctrines were transfigured by the conception of
the awfiilness of sin as alienation from God, and
the glory of salvation as the restoration of personal
and loving relations between the sinful child and
the heavenly Father. The doctrine of the divine
love had at last come to its rights. Moody urged
predominantly the love of God as the great reason
for repentance. It was preeminently reasonable
that the child should return to his Father, to be
Bevivals of Belifion
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
16
away from him could be nothing but misery, the
love of God constituted a claim upon the man which
could not be ignored — all of which considerations
Moody urged with great power and pathos, guided
by the instincts of a great heart, aflame with love
to God. He preached particularly to despairing
sinners, sinners who knew they were such and who
could not believe that the grace of God was meant
for them. Probably his greatest sermons were
upon this general topic.
5. General View of the Nineteenth and Twen-
tieth Centuries: Besides the revivals of the
year 1800 and the years immediately follow-
ing, it should be noted that the period of
the Unitarian controversy in New
1. In England (1819 sqq.) was also one of
General, revival. During the first thirty years
of the century the Presbyterians in-
creased fourfold in membership, chiefly by revivals,
the Congregationalists twofold, the Baptists three-
fold, and the Methodists sevenfold. In the six
years from 1826 to 1832 it is estimated that 200,000
people united with the leading Evangelical churches,
of whom 60,000 were young men. The financial
panics of 1837 and 1857 were followed by revivals,
the latter of great power. The Millerite excite-
ment of 1843 (see Adventists) produced a reaction
unfavorable to revivals. But after 1857, for two
years there was a general revival all over the coun-
try, conducted for the most part by pastors through
their regular ministrations, having its chief expres-
sion in prayer-meetings, which brought in about
300,000 into the churches. The period of the Civil
War was unfavorable to revivals; and it was not
till 1874 that the current was reversed in connec-
tion with the great revivals under Moody, George
Frederick Pentecost (q.v.), and others. The decade
from 1870 to 1880 saw an increase of 3,392,567 com-
municants in Evangelical churches, among the best
in the history of American Christianity. Nothing
is more remarkable in the whole history than the
revivals in colleges. Among recent prominent re-
vivalists are to be mentioned B. Fay Mills, Sam
Jones, and Sam Small, William A. Sunday, R. A.
Torrey, and J. Wilbur Chapman (qq.v.).
F. H. Foster.
In the perspective of revival history during the
close of the nineteenth and beginning of the twen-
tieth century, three persons, Benjamin Fay Mills,
Reuben Archer Torrey, and J Wilbur Chapman
(qq.v.), all clergymen, appear as leaders in a move-
ment especially noted for the prominent part taken
in it by the laity. They all owe their stimulus in
their special work to Dwight L. Moody (q.v., and
see above), with whom they were early brought
into close touch. They borrowed from him their
message — plain, Scriptural, urgent, made effect-
ive by a fiery conviction, feathered by anec-
dote, incident, and experience, and unfettered by
labored argumentation or the embellishments of
rhetoric.
The first of these, Benjamin Fay Mills (q.v.), was
a classmate at Lake Forest University, 111., of
Chapman, with whom also for a time later he was
associated with marked success in revival cam-
paigns. He began his evangelistic work in 1886,
and for ten years continued in it uninterruptedly,
visiting many of the principal centers of population
in the United States and Canada. His main and
immediate dependence was a popular
2. Benjamin address to the masses assembled, in
Fay Kills, which he was a master; but back of
that, Mills may be said to have been
the first to have " organized success." His one
outstanding method was his " district combination
plan " by which cities were divided into sectionr
over which a network of services was spread. He
was systematic, taking time and pains to prepare
by arousing interest, enlisting support, and form-
ing and multiplying prayer-circles. And then when
the blow was struck in his Gospel appeal he drew
the net by his card-signing device, which he was
the first to introduce, thereby securing immediate
decision. For the time in which Benjamin Fay
Mills gave his fine talents to the work of soul-
saving, few men have been more honored of
God.
Next to him, an evangelist of commanding per-
sonality is Reuben Archer Torrey (q.v.). The rise
of Torrey goes back to the founding
3-^e?ben in 1889 at Chicago of the Moody Bible
r10 Institute, the purpose of it being a
thorough and practical study of the
English Bible. His close, personal connection with
Moody in this Bible work made him, like Moody
himself, a " Bible-man." Torrey is distinguished
above both Mills and Chapman by a thorough
mastery and use in revival work of the Bible in the
vernacular. That Bible Institute, under Moody,
Torrey, and others, became a veritable " power-
house " in the great World's Fair campaign in
Chicago in 1893. And since then, out from its Bible
atmosphere Torrey himself has gone forth on many
a revival enterprise, notably in the instance of his
recent English mission which was marked by such
intense interest, not, however, without much antag-
onism on the part of some non-conforming clergy-
men who took exception to his hyper-orthodoxy.
But the foremost of the three named is J Wilbur
Chapman (q.v.). He is the product of a wider en-
vironment, and therefore reaches out
4. J Wilbur in influence to a larger periphery. He
Chapman, was early associated with Moody both
as vice-president of the Bible Insti-
tute and in evangelistic work. His pastorates were
a gymnasium where he was put in training for the
noblest athletics, that of bringing sinners to God
— in Albany, N. Y.f where in one revival he har-
vested more than 100 souls, including some of the
leading men of the city; and later in a steady re-
vival fire, gathering in more than 500 converts in
five years; in Philadelphia, adding 1,100 to the
membership of the church in three years; and in
New York, when he resigned the pastorate, in 1902,
to become head of the Evangelistic Committee of
the General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church
in the United States of America.
His subsequent record is brilliant. His famous
Boston campaign, for magnitude, power, and per-
manence of results, is without a parallel in this
country. Early in 1910 he returned from evangel-
istic journey around the world, in which he visited
17
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Revivals of Bells-ion
eleven countries, spoke in sixty cities — in Australia,
China, Japan, and England. Late in the winter of
1910-11 he resumed work in Brooklyn, N. Y.
The period of Mills, Torrey, and Chapman has
been the most fruitful in the history of revivals in
American Christianity. Those named have had as
associates and imitators men like A. C. Dixon, H.
M. Wharton, Major Whittle, J. Arthur Smith, and
others; and so their methods have been adopted in
many places with greater or less effect.
S. B. Dunn.
IV. The Welsh Revival of 1904-1906: Wales is
well known as the land of revivals. Owing to the
intense national spirit of the Welsh people these
awakenings possess characteristics
z. The which distinguish them from the gen-
Welsh eral religious movements of Great
People. Britain as a whole. Through the long
centuries of Saxon domination the in-
habitants of Wales — who number, all told, less than
one-half of the population of London — have pre-
served their independence in language, literature,
and national consciousness. A fiery and imagina-
tive race of mountaineers, imbued with a strong
religious spirit, they have from time to time ex-
perienced great spiritual upheavals which have
proved epochal in the life of the nation. Thus the
revival of the eighteenth century under Daniel
Rowlands and Howel Harris was a national renais-
sance which liberated the forces of Christian de-
mocracy in the principality and introduced a new
era of progress and education.
The religious movement known as " The Great
Welsh Revival " is the latest and most widely
known of these national awakenings.
2. The This revival covers a period of two
Revival years — from the early part of 1904 to
Described, the beginning of 1906. During that
time it is estimated that over 100,000
professed conversion. Of this number some 60,000
can be accounted for as being in 1910 members in
good standing in the Protestant churches of Wales.
The immediate ethical results of the movement
were remarkable. A great wave of sobriety over-
swept the country so that the liquor trade suffered
enormous financial losses; the decrease in criminal
cases was no less remarkable; hundreds of out-
lawed debts were settled; goods stolen fifteen or
twenty years before were returned to their owners;
a phenomenal increase was recorded in the demand
for good literature; feuds of long standing were
healed; and sectarianism, a great curse of Welsh
national life, was softened by a larger charity and
a deeper consciousness of an underlying unity.
The movement must not be confused with the or-
ganized missions that were held about this time in
various parts of Great Britain. The genius of the
Welsh revival was quite distinct from that of any
of these missions. It was spontaneous, unconven-
tional, and without organization of any sort. None
of its " leaders " was over thirty years of age, and
none was a great preacher. Most of the workers
were from the humble walks of life and were com-
paratively uneducated. Some of the most success-
ful were young girls, under twenty, who assisted
at the meetings with exhortation and song. In
X.— 2
method— or its absence — the services have been
termed a triumph for Quakerism; " obedience to
the Spirit " was the only condition insisted upon.
Only very rarely was a sermon attempted; the
meetings were devoted to prayer, song, testimony,
and exhortation, and seldom concluded before the
small hours of the morning. They were character-
ized by far less violent demonstrations than previ-
ous revivals in the principality. The burden of the
revival-message was the love of God. As is usually
the case in Wales, there were many apparently
occult phenomena — visions, voices, and signs in
the heavens (see § 6, below).
So far as the origin of the movement can be
traced at all, it appears to have begun in Feb.,
1904, in New Quay, Carmarthenshire, South Wales.
Revival manifestations were first noticed in the
local Calvinistic Methodist Church, of
3. Its which Joseph Jenkins was pastor.
Origin. Later, a convention was held in Blaen-
anerch where there were many indi-
cations of a spiritual awakening. This convention
was attended by a young man who was to ! e known
later as the " leader " of the revival — Evan John
Roberts, at that time a candidate for the Welsh
Presbyterian ministry and student in a prepara-
tory school in Newcastle Emlyn, South Wales. In
the autumn of the same year the revival flame that
had been nickering obscurely in New Quay and
other places, burst forth and quickly spread over
the country, sweeping upward from the South to
the mountainous extremities of northern Wales
and subduing all before it. The remarkable scenes
witnessed were reported in the English press and
presently aroused the interest of the entire civil-
ized world. By this time Evan Roberts had be-
come the central figure of the awakening; still, to
designate him the "leader" of the revival is to
contradict the real genius of the movement, which,
throughout, was without organization or executive
direction. The revival was really begun before
Roberts started upon his apostolate; but undoubt-
edly he became the chief and most honored repre-
sentative of the movement.
Evan John Roberts was born on July 8, 1878.
He is of humble parentage and is the ninth of a
family of fourteen children; of these, two sisters are
living in the United States. His birth-
4. Evan place is Bwlchymynydd, Loughor,
John South Wales, a small mining town of
Roberts; 3,000 or 4,000 inhabitants. He was
Early Life, brought up in the Welsh Calvinistic
Methodist Church (see Presbyterians.
IV.), of which his parents are members and which
he himself joined at the age of thirteen. When
eleven years old Roberts left school and went to
work as door-boy in a local coal mine where his
father also labored. Here he narrowly escaped death
in a coal-truck accident, and, later on, in a colliery
explosion A third narrow escape happened toward
the end of the revival when, a few yards from a steep
precipice, he was thrown from a carriage drawn by
a runaway team. At twenty-four Evan Roberts left
the mines and apprenticed himself to the trade of
his uncle, Evan Edwards, a blacksmith. A year
later he was accepted as candidate for the Welsh
Revivals of Belifion
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
18
Presbyterian ministry and in 1904 entered a pre-
paratory school in Newcastle Emlyn, South Wales.
Before this he had become subject to mystical expe-
riences of a trance-like nature. He devoted many
hours each day to prayer. He heard " voices " and
saw " visions " and felt himself caught up above
the limitations of time and sense into the immediate
presence of God. This last experience came to him
twice a day at regular hours and continued for some
time. He found himself unable to pursue his studies
to his own satisfaction in Newcastle Emlyn. His
text-books would seem, as he has expressed it, to
be aflame in his hand, and he would be seized with
violent physical pain until he would drop the book
and take up his Bible. His friends feared for his
mental condition. On Sept. 29, 1904, in Blaen-
anerch Calvinistic Methodist Chapel he passed
through a spiritual crisis, in which, to use his own
words, " Living Force " entered him with almost
physical violence, imparting to him intense joy,
bodily strength, and mental illumination, as well
as spiritual earnestness and power.
On Oct. 31 he returned to his home in Loughor
and began his work as revivalist — first among his
own family and then in the church of which he was
a member. At the beginning he was
5. Work regarded with suspicion and consid-
in the ered demented, but the power of his
Revival, meetings was irresistible and he quickly
became a national figure as the torch-
bearer of the revival. In his meetings he confined
himself almost exclusively to the Welsh language.
He sometimes gave addresses of an hour or an hour
and a half in duration, but usually he spoke for
less than ten minutes at a time. His style was pithy
and epigrammatic, abounding in quaint metaphor
and homely illustration. He was ready-witted and
often in the meetings indulged in dialogue and quick
repartee. He is possessed of clairvoyant and clair-
audient powers, and occasionally these were exer-
cised in the meetings. Toward the close of the re-
vival he cloistered himself in the home of a friend
and observed a seven-days1 silence, shutting himself
away from the outside world, and refusing to com-
municate with any one except by writing. This he
did, as he believed, in obedience to the divine voice.
He emerged from this strange experience much
stronger physically and in a state of great mental
and spiritual exaltation. His only mission outside
Wales was in Liverpool (where he was accorded a
public banquet by the lord mayor, Apr. 7, 1905).
In this mission he addressed himself mainly to the
Welsh people and rarely spoke in English. When
in Liverpool, in order to silence adverse criticism
which had raised the question of his sanity, he was
examined by five English specialists who issued a
certificate of his mental soundness. In 1906, at the
end of the revival, Roberts suffered a severe nerv-
ous collapse. He passed into retirement in the home
of friends residing in Leicestershire, England, where,
until Nov., 1910, he remained in comparative se-
clusion. His health has improved. From his re-
tirement he has written one or two articles for the
religious press, but they lack the brilliance of his
extempore revival addresses. He is a good musician
and a poet of some ability. Before the revival he
acquired an elementary knowledge of Greek and
Latin and took up as a diversion the study of as-
tronomy and some of the occult sciences.
The religious awakening has brought about in
Wales a quickening of national spirit which is seek-
ing expression in progressive legislation and general
reform, and in this way it is still fulfilling itself.
It has undoubtedly contributed to the movement
for the political independence of Wales — the grant-
ing of a measure of autonomy by which the idealism
of Welsh democracy can be given an adequate organ
of expression.
Concerning the so-called occult phenomena of
the revival much could be written. In almost every
village within the revival zone testimony was given
to the experience of mysterious psychical experi-
ences. In Evan Roberts himself, the
6. Occult occult faculties are strongly developed
Phenomena, (see § 4 above). He is (or was) subject
to trance-like ecstasies. He claimed to
be able to hear the prayers offered for him in far-
distant places; he was quick to detect any spirit
of opposition or skepticism in his meetings and to
trace it to its source; he was continually hearing
" voices " and seeing visions. It must be added
that in these matters the self-restraint of the re-
vivalist was as remarkable as the experiences
themselves. They came to him unsought and were
consistently subordinated to his Evangelical mes-
sage. The Rev. H. Elvet Lewis in his chronicles
of the awakening (With Christ among the Miners,
London, 1906) narrates many instances of signs
and visions, the most noteworthy being the case
of Mrs. Jones, a peasant woman of Egryn, Meri-
onethshire, whose evangelistic work during the re-
vival was largely influenced by the appearance of
phenomenal fights (a record of her experiences is
to be found in the Transactions of the British Psy-
chical Research Society for Dec., 1905). Mr. Lewis
thus describes his meeting with her: " She made no
reference to the signs until my friend and I asked
her. She answered us simply as if she were speak-
ing about the fire on the hearth, that she had seen,
almost from the first, each evening a fire or light
between her and the hills which rise from the rnarshy
shore — a quickly vibrating light, ' as though full of
eyes,' so another described it. It had revealed to
her what to expect at the meetings? Yes, without
fail. One evening she had interpreted the sign to
mean four converts. But only three responded
when the test was made in the crowded little chapeL
' But there must be four,' aha. said. No, there could
not be; all the rest, except the three who had de-
clared themselves that night, were already members.
* But there ought to be four to-night,' she repeated.
No fourth could be found, until the door of the little
vestibule was opened and one stood there halting
between two opinions. The opening of the door
and a kindly word of invitation brought the in-
quirer inside. And the four was completed. She
had seen the light hovering over some houses on
the hilltops; she was puzzled, for she thought there
was no one in those houses unconverted, or at least
out of church membership. But one day she was
told by the Wesleyan minister at Barmouth and
another friend who visited her, that there was one
10
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Revivals of Religion
old woman in one of the houses, not now on Christ's
side. ' Ah, that must be it/ she said. The two
friends went up— found the woman in concern for her
soul. Mrs. Jones herself visited her; she became one
of the fifty-one [converts] in that marvelous fort-
night.
" She had visited several villages near her home
during the dark nights. The light, she said, had
frequently accompanied hex1 — not a terrifying light,
but gentle and calm, just showing her way as she
walked." "The problem," concludes Mr. Lewis,
" still remains unsolved. But there can be no rea-
sonable doubt of the appearance of these lights, at
the time and place. Afterward they grew, no doubt,
into a sort of foolish cult. Some, from mischief,
made lights appear where Mrs. Jones went to con-
duct missions; at other times natural lights were
taken to be extraordinary. But the earlier phe-
nomena stand by themselves— possibly natural,
but in any case abnormal. There still remain to be
explained their association with her movements
and their alleged clairvoyant signs."
It must be said that these phenomena have in
some quarters been exaggerated out of all pro-
portion to their importance in the revival. The
part that they played was comparatively insignifi-
cant. GwiLYif Oswald Griffith.
V. The Roman Catholic Mission: " Mission " is
a term applied by Roman Catholics to efforts which
are the equivalent of the Protestant "revival,"
consisting of efforts directed to reclaiming those
within the territory of the Church who have been
estranged from religious observances. There was no
need for this sort of work until, with the establish-
ment of Christianity as the state religion, large num-
bers of pagans came in, and, with the conversion of
the Teutonic races, the Church was further increased
by multitudes who were only superficially affected
by the Christian spirit. The earlier penitential in-
stitutions no longer sufficed. When, in 1215, the
duty of confession was made universal, the idea of
legal satisfaction, made prominent by the hierarch-
ical tendency, was a hindrance to real pastoral work,
nnA neither the monks nor even the friars found the
right road to successful pastoral influence. Only
small communities, like the Brothers of the Com-
mon Life (see Common Life, Brethren of the) at
the end of the Middle Ages, devoted themselves with
real thoroughness and love to the cultivation of an
fan»r spirit of Christian piety. It was the Reforma-
tion which stirred the Roman Catholic Church to
make strong efforts to confirm the wavering and re-
claim the wanderers. The Jesuits (q.v.) were the
most sealous instruments of this movement for res-
toration among the upper classes, and the Capu-
chins (q.v.) among the lower. The movement first
gained strength in France, where the bishops had
kept up a tradition of personal acquaintance with
the spiritual state of their dioceses. It was fur-
thered by Vincent de Paul, who, in 1616, began his
work in behalf of the galley-slaves, and at Folleville
In the next year preached the desirability of general
confession with such fervor that he was obliged to
call in the Jesuits from Amiens to help him with the
crowds who came. Ultimately he founded the Con-
gregation of the Mission, or Lasarist order (see
Lazaribts), to promote not only education and .
missions among the heathen but also similar efforts
in Christian lands. A new impulse was given by the
congregation of mission-priests founded in 1815 by
the Abbe* Legris-Duval, expressly devoted to this
particular work. After the upheaval of 1848 the
German episcopate made frequent use of missions to
reclaim the estranged masses; they were usually
preached by Jesuits and Redemptorists (qq.v.),
sometimes by Capuchins and Franciscans (qq.v.),
and by the two latter orders from 1872 to 1894,
when the two former were excluded from the Em-
pire. [In the United States missions have become .
a regular part of the ecclesiastical machinery, held
at intervals in most of the larger parishes, by Jesu-
its, Augustinians, Dominicans, Passionists, Paul-
ists (qq.v.), and other orders.] They last two or '
three weeks, after careful preparation of the ground
by the parochial clergy, and consist largely of fre-
quent stirring sermons on sin, repentance, judgment, .
and Christian duties, leading to the reception of the
sacraments of penance and communion, and closing
with the solemn renewal of the baptismal vow by
the whole congregation. There can be no difference
of view between Protestants and Roman Catholics
as to the duty of the Church to preach the Gospel
not only to the heathen but also to lukewarm and
nominal Christians. But there may well be a ques-
tion as to whether this rapid succession of exciting
sermons, accompanied by appeals to the emotions
in external ways, is really calculated to produce
lasting fruits rather than simply to bring the
people into obedience to ecclesiastical precepts,
especially confession. It is doubtful whether the
constant striving after effect, the rhetorical decla-
mation, the exaggerated pictures drawn of the evils
and the punishment of sin, and the appeal to fear
can well be productive of real moral renewal.
(D. STEITZf.)
Bibliography: To be taken into account are (1) the arti-
cles in this work on the men named as revivalists in the
— text, especially those of Edwards, Lyman Beecher, Tyler,
Finney, Spring, Taylor, Wesley, Whitefield, Moody, Tor-
rey, and others; (2) the works by those men which deal
with the subject (e.g., Edwards' Thoughts concerning the —
Present Revival of Religion, and Narrative of the Work of
Ood in Northampton); and (3) the literature under the ar-
ticles on these men, which often discusses the revival activi-
ties of the subjects.
Treatises on the general history of revivals are: W. B.
Sprague, Lecture* on Revivals of Religion, New York, 1833;
G. Q. Finney, Lectures on Revivals of Religion, Boston,*
1835, new ed.t London. 1910; J. Gillies, Historical Collec-
tions Relating to Remarkable Periods of Success of the Gos-
pel. Preface by H. Bonar, London, 1845; B. Tyler, New •
England Revivals, as they Existed at the Close of the 18th
and the Beginning of the 19th Centuries, Boston, 1846; E.
Porter, Letters on the Religious Revivals which Prevailed •
about the Beginning of the Present Century, Boston, 1858;
H. Humphrey, Revival Sketches and Manual, New York,
1859; W. Gibson, The Year of Grace: a Hist, of the Re-
vival in Ireland, 1869 A.D., Boston, 1860; J. H. Vincent,
Hist, of the Camp Meeting and Grounds at Wesleyan Grove,
Boston, 1869; Mrs. M. N. Van Cott, The Harvest and the
Reaper: Reminiscences of Revival Work, New York, 1876;
C. L. Thompson, Times of Refreshing: Hist, of American •
Revivals, Chicago, 1877; W. W. Bennett, Narrative of the
Great Revival in the Southern Armies during the Civil War, %
Philadelphia, 1877; J. Porter, Revivals of Religion, New »
York, 1878: 8. C. Swallow, Camp Meetings: their Origin,
Hist., and Utility; also their Perversion, New York, 1878;
H. Bushnell, Building Eras in Religion, New York, 1881; *
C. F. Jones, From the Forecastle to the Pulpit; fifty Years
Revival* of Religion
Reynold*
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
80
among Sailors; containing an Account of a wonderful Re-
vival upon the Sea; with an Introduction by W. P. Strick-
land, New York, 1884; 8. B. Halliday and D. 8. Gregory,
The Church in America and its Baptisms of Fire, Lon-
don and Toronto, 1896; A. Sims, Remarkable Narratives,
or Records of Powerful Revivals, Kingston, Ont., 1896;
H. Johnson, Stories of Great Revivals, London, 1900; A.
T. Pierson, Forward Movements of the Last Half Century,
New York, 1900; G. C. Morgan, Evangelism: a Study of
Need and Opportunity, London, 1904; W. A. Candler,
Great Revivals and the Great Republic, Atlanta, Ga., 1904;
F. G. Beards ley, Hist, of American Revival*, New York,
1904; J. Page, Great Evangelists and how God has used
them, London, 1905; J. Burns, Revivals; their Laws and
Leaders, London, 1909.
On the " Great Awakening " consult: J. Tracy, The
Great Awakening: a Hist, of the Revival of Religion in the
Time of Edwards and White field, Boston, 1842 (a classic);
E. P. Hood, Vignettes of the Great Revival of the 18th Cen-
tury, London, 1880, reissued With a supplemental De-
scription of the Revival in America, Philadelphia, 1882;
J. H. Overton, Evangelical Revival in the 18th Century,
New York, 1886.
On special recent revivals: D. L. Moody and I. D.
Sankey, Narrative of Labors in Great Britain and Ireland;
with Addresses and Lectures, New York, 1875; R. W. Clark,
The Work of God in Great Britain under Messrs. Moody
and Sankey in 1875-76, New York, 1875; Christian Con-
vention of the Northwest. . . . Union Revival Meetings con-
ducted by B. F. Mills and J. W. Chapman, Minneapolis,
1893; R. Harkness, With the Torrey- Alexander Mission
round the World, London, 1904; J. K.Maclean, Triumphant
Evangelism: the three Years' Missions of Torrey and Alex-
ander in Great Britain, London, 1905; G. T. B. Davis,
Torrey and Alexander; the Story of a World-wide Revival,
London, 1905; T. R. Williams, The True Revival versus
Torreyism, London, 1905.
On the Welsh revival: W. T. Stead, The Coming Re-
vival. What I have seen and hope to see, London, 1905;
idem, The Revival in the West, ib. 1905; Awstin (pseud.).
The Religious Revival in Wales, 1904, Cardiff, 1905; I. W.
Charlton, The Revival in Wales, London, 1905; J. P.
Lewis, The Awakening in Wales and Some of the Hidden
Springs, London, 1905; H. Elvet Lewis, With Christ among
the Miners, ib.. 1907; J. V. Morgan, The Welsh Religious
Revival 1904-06; a Retrospect and a Criticism, London,
1909; The Welsh Revival, in Cambridge Modern History, vi.
81 sqq., New York, 1909.
On the psychology of revivals: E. D. Starbuck, Psy-
chology of Religion; an empirical Study of the Growth of
religious Consciousness, New York, 1899; G. A. Coe, Spir-
itual Life, Studies in the Science of Religion, New York,
1900; W. James, Varieties of Religious Experience, New
York, 1902; F. M. Davenport, Primitive Traits in Relig-
ious Revivals, New York, 1905; Henke, in AJT, 1909, pp.
193 sqq.
On the theory and practise consult: J. W. Alexander,
The Revival and its Lessons, New York, 1861 ; L. T. Town-
send, The Supernatural Factor in Religious Revivals, Bos-
ton, 1877; W. W. Newell. Revivals: how and when, New
York, 1882; W. P. Doe, editor, Revivals; how to promote
them. New York, 1884; G. W. Hervey, Manual of Re-
vivals, New York, 1884; J. O. Peck, The Revival and the
Pastor, New York. 1894; J. E. W. Ditchfield, Fishers of
Men, or how to win the Men, London, 1899; J. W. Chap-
man, Revivals and Mimtions, New York, 1900; idem, Pres-
ent-Day Evangelism, ib.. 1903; J. P. Brushingham, Catching
Men: Studies in vital Evangelism, Cincinnati, 1906; R. A.
Torrey, How to Conduct and Promote a Successful Revival,
Chicago, 1906; J. V. Coombs, Christian Evangelism, Cin-
cinnati, 1907; C. LeR. Goodell, Pastoral and Personal
Evangelism, New York, 1907; W. Hamilton, Sane Evangel-
ism, Philadelphia, 1909; J. Burns, Revivals, their Laws
and Leaders, London, 1909; O. O. Green, Normal Evangel-
ism, New York, 1910.
REWARD: That which is given in recognition
of merit or work performed, or in requital of good
or evil. The Bible frequently employs the concep-
tion of reward to express the certainty that God
guarantees the ultimate success and happiness of
those who obey his law. Such expressions, how-
ever, raise two serious questions: Does not the
promise of a reward vitiate the motive of ethical
conduct by introducing into it an egoistic element,
and does it not contradict the doctrine of salvation
through God's grace as taught by Paul?
On closer examination it will be seen that both
questions can be answered in the negative. In
private life reward is an economic conception, repre-
senting proportionate compensation for work accom-
plished. Here the reward is usually the sole mo-
tive for action. In public life the case may be quite
different. Here altruistic motives come into play,
and reward, in the sense of remuneration, may
cease to form a motive for action, since the service
rendered, the good done the community, may be
its own reward. However, the public official who
neglects his private affairs to serve the community
may reasonably expect to be provided for. Simi-
larly the Christian in the service of God. Since his
work in the moral vineyard leaves mere personal
interest out of account, it, too, can be regarded as a
service rendered to the community, or to the di-
vine power that presides over the moral order; and
it carries with it naturally the expectation of rec-
ompense for the personal sacrifice entailed. Here
there is no thought of an equivalent for service
rendered, as in the case of a laborer in private life,
for the reward has not been the sole motive to ac-
tion. If reward be taken in the strictest sense, it is
clear that no one can make demand of God for rec-
ompense. The expectation of a reward, therefore,
becomes a matter of faith, and the reward itself a
matter of grace. In the last analysis human service
itself is a gift of grace, since it is accomplished
through the spirit of God (Phil. i. 6, ii. 13). In this
view the objections urged by many modern ethical
writers (most strongly by Eduard von Hartmann
and Nietzsche, qq.v.) against reward as a motive
become irrelevant. Both Jesus and Paul taught ex-
pressly that the Christian-ethical life does not spring
from any thought of reward, but from the grace of
God in us and from the love toward God and our
neighbors which it awakens. In the New Testament
the conception of reward is not employed as a motive
for conversion, but as an encouragement to per-
severance in the Christian life; and in the religious
view of the world it serves to express the certainty
that the moral order is not merely a human but a
divine affair.
The idea that God not only gives the law but
also sees to its fulfilment is inseparable from the
religious view of the world. According to the proph-
ets it is an inviolable rule that the righteous are re-
warded and the wicked punished (Isa. ill. 10-11;
Amos v. 14-27; Hos. iv. 1-3). A decision between
obedience and disobedience toward God is a choice
between blessing and curse, between life and death
(Deut. xxviii. 1-68, xxx. 15-20; Lev. xxvi. 3-45;
Josh, xxiii. 14-16). In numerous sayings and para-
bles Jesus promises the goods of his kingdom, or
eternal life, as the reward of his disciples (Matt. v.
2-10, xix. 29, xxiv. 45-51, xxv. 34-46; Luke vi.
22-35, xii. 33-44, xiv. 12-14); but it is clear that
he did not make the expectation of reward the chief
motive of Christian life. In fact, the man who seeks
to gain the reward by his own efforts forfeits it
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
(cf. Matt. vi. 1-6, 16, xviii. 1-4; Mark viii. J
II is duty done without expectation of reward that
is rewarded (cf. Luke xvii. 10). In the writings of
Paul the idea of reward is subordinated to the doc-
trine of salvation by grace. Eternal life ia a gift
of God (Rom. vi. 23), which can not be demanded
as a right (cf. Rom. iv. 4-5); and the basis of eth-
ical conduct is not the hope of reward, but a real-
ization of the mercy of God (Rom. xii. 1), love
toward Christ and a desire to obey him (II Cor.
viii. 8, x. 6-7), and the desire to live in the spirit
(Gal. v. 25; Rom. viii. 13-17). While Paul does
not always reconcile the idea of reward with Ihe
doctrine of salvution by grace, on the whole he
teaches that any divine requital of human activity
is a manifestation of grace; and that such activity
itself can not be dissolved into a series of separate
deeds meriting reward. Rather, Christian conduct
presents itself as a uniform manifestation of faith
working itself out ethically.
The Biblical conception of reward has been ex-
plained away in mysticism, which sees in it a relic
of egoism; or it has been rejected in non-religious
systems of ethics, which, regarding ethical conduct
as a human affair, find Unit tbe idea of an eternal
reward obscures ethical insight; or it has been
coarsened and formalized in legal conceptions of
religion, where the basis of Christian-ethical con-
duct is laid in arbitrary statutes. Here the
striving for a reward, which was only an acces-
sory motive in the Biblical view, becomes the chief
motive.
From the view of Augustine that to cling to God
is both virtue and the reward of virtue (Epist., civ.
12) was developed in the Middle Ages that mystical
love of God in which the self is forgotten. Bernard
of Clairvaux gave this mysticism its classic expres-
sion in his doctrine of the four gradations of love.
Jt may be added that Melanchlhon, in the " Apol-
ogy " of the Augsburg Confession {CR, xxvii. 275
■qq.), opposes the obscuring of the Pauline doc-
trine of grace by the conception of reward. Simi-
larly, the Council of Trent (Session VI., cap. xi.)
characterized the expectation of an eternal reward
as a subsidiary motive beside the chief motive, viz.,
the glorification of God, though Canon XXXI.
seems to make expectation of reward alone a suffi-
cient motive (Schaff, Creeds, ii. 117). While in
modern philosophical ethics reward as a motive has
been severely criticized and generally rejected, it
may be said that any system of ethics which re-
jects the idea of an ultimate divine recompense is
incomplete, in that it neglects to emphasize the
dominant position of the good in the world.
(O. Knot.)
BnUoaBAPBi; R. W. Hamilton, The Rrvtaled Dortrinr of
Rnrardt and PuniiflinrnU. London. IN.5H- [' Mi-hllii.ni.
in Jaktbathet fur pnteuanliKhr Thtotoair. 1878" K. Nt'll-
■BWtcr, Die nrulretamrnllicU Uhrt vom Lahn. Hille, tH80i
W. O. T. Sbedd, Dogmatic Theotami. I 36B. New York.
1880: H. SehulU, in TSK, IB90. J8B4; A. Junplter. Dai
leh imd die Motivation det WiUene im CkrMcntlium. Hnlle.
1S91: B, P. LiddDD. 8emotu on Some Wordi of ChriH.
London. IBM; H H Wendt. Dxe EssM Jan. pp. lHfl
*qq.. 2d ed., Gfttlingan. 1901. Eug. transl. of lot od„ The
Tnochina of Jaw. 2 voti.. London. ISM; E. Ebthurdt.
Dtr Oeundeharatler der E&ik Jrea. Freiburg. 189S: K.
Thiemc. Die witliichc Triebtraft da Giant™. Leipaic.
1S9S; A. Titiua, Die ntulatamcnllithr Lehre tern der Selig-
k-it. parts i.-iv.. Tubingen. 1 *;».">- l;>otl, H. Jftcoby, New
tatamenUiche Elhii-, Knnt-l. iy, IMIi: II. Cmmer. Die
paulinieche RtrhtferliQunorithrt:, pp. 350-368. Gtltoraloh,
rlt. 1904; DCO, ii. I
1 Tropin,
0/J»
1900: C. j
240, New 1
REYNOLDS, ren'elz, EDWARD: Church of Eng-
land bishop; l>. :i( Southampton Nov., 1509; <i. at
Norwich Jan. 16, 1676. He was educated at Mer-
ton College, Oxford (B.A., 1818; fellow, 1620;
M.A., 1624; D.D., 1648); became preacher at
Lincoln's Inn in 1622 and served us royal chaplain;
became vicar of All S:iints, Northamptonshire, HiL'S,
and rector of Bramston, 1631. At the breaking
out of the civil war he was a moderate Anjilienn,
was a member of tin' We-4iiiinMer A>>einhly, liilif,
but did not take the covenant till 1644. He was
one of the committee of twenty-two to examine
and approve ministers, was vicar of St, Lawrence
Jewry, London, 1645-62; dean of Christ Church,
1648-50 and again in 1659; was chosen ricsiOhtP-
cellor in I64S, but ejected from Christ Church in
1659 for not taking the " engagement." At the
Restoration Reynolds conformed, was made war-
den of Merton College and cation of Worcester in
1660, and bishop of Norwich in 1661. In the same
year he took p.irt in the Savoy ( 'i inference (q.v.).
He carried his Puritanic principles intopracti.se
even while a bishop, and lived only for his dloceM.
His Works were first collected and published in
1658; best edition, with Life, by A. Coalmen,
6 vols. (London, 1826).
Lift by A
nmilt:
I. a. Wood, Athena O.
1813-20; DJVfl, ilviil. 40-11.
I, 365, 4
I. P. BUM, Ui.
REYNOLDS, HENRY ROBERT: Congregation-
alist; b. at Romsey (7 m. n.w. of Southampton! ,
Hampshire, England, Feb. 26, 1825; d. at Brox-
bourne (16 ra. n.n.e. of London), Hertford-lure.
Sept. 10, 1896. He was educated at Coward Col-
lege and University College, London (B.A., 1848);
became pastor at Halsted, Li-sex, is-lfi; at Leeds,
1849; president of Countess of Huntingdon's Col-
lege, Cheshunt. Herts, 1S60, from which he retired
in 1894. He was author of Beginnings of the Di-
vine Life (London, 1859); Notes of Ihe Christian
Lift (!-StV>); John the Baptist, Congregational Union
lectures for 1874 (1874); Philosophy of Prayer, and
other Essays (1881); commentary on Hosea and
Amos (1884), in C. J, EHieott's Old -Testament Com-
mentary (1882-84); of exposition, commentary, and
introduction to the Gospel of John (18S7-KS: in the
Pulpit Commentary); Athanasius: hit Life am! Life
Work 11889); Light and Peace. Sermons and Ad-
dresses (1892) ; and Lamps of the Temple, and other
Addresses to Young Men (1895). He was also joint
editor and compiler of Psalms, Hymnn. and Passages
of Scripture for Christian Worship (1853); editor
of Ecrlema: Church Problems, 2 series (1870-71);
Atluinasius (1S89I; and was coeditor of the hritii/h
Quarterly Review (1866-74), and of The Evangelical
Magazine: (1877-82).
elixed to one of hi* public*-
Reynolds
Ricci
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
83
REYNOLDS (RAIHOLDS), JOHN: Puritan di-
vine; b. at Pinhoe (4 m. n.e. of Exeter), Devon-
shire, 1549; d. at Oxford May 21, 1607. He prob-
ably entered Merton College, Oxford, but in 1563
received a scholarship at Corpus Christi (probation-
ary fellow, 1566; full fellow, and B.A., 1568); he
there became tutor to Richard Hooker (q.v.), Greek
reader (an important office), 1572-73-78; resigned
his fellowship in 1586; was then appointed to a
temporary lectureship; became dean of Lincoln,
1593; and president of Corpus Christi, 1598. He
was one of four Puritan representatives (and the
chief one) at the Hampton Court Conference (q.v.),
at which he is credited with suggesting to King
James the desirability of a new translation of the
Bible (see Bible Versions, B, IV., 6). Of this
work he was made a participant, being one of the
committee which had in charge the translation of
the prophets, but he did not live to see the com-
pletion of the task. He was celebrated for his great
learning, remarkable memory, sound judgment,
lofty character, uprightness, piety, and regard for
his students. Among the works published by him
are: Sex theses de sacra Scriptwra et ecclesia (Lon-
don, 1580); The Summe of the Conference between
John Rainolds and John Hart touching the Head and
the Faith of the Church (1584); De Romance ecclesia
idolatria (1586); The Overthrow of Stage-Players
(1599). The following were issued after his death:
Defence of the Judgment of the Reformed Churches
that a Man may lawfuUie not onlie put awaie his Wife
for her Adulterie but also marry another (1609) ; Cen-
sura librorum Apocryphorum Veteris TestamenH
(1611); The Prophecie of Obadiah opened and ex-
plained (1613); The Judgment of Doctor Reignolds
concerning Episcopacy, whether it be Cod's Ordinance
(1641); and Sermons on the Prophecies of Haggai
(1648).
Bibliography: R. Craekanthorpe, Defensio eccUsiw Ang-
licana, chap, lxix., London, 1626; D. Neal, Hist, of the
Puritans, i. 252, ed. J. Toulmin, Bath, 1793; W. H. Frere,
The English Church (1668-16*6), pp. 296 sqq., ib. 1904;
R. G. Usher, The Reconstruction of the English Church,
New York, 1910; DNB, xlvii. 180-182.
RHABANUS MAURUS. See Rabanus Maurus.
RHEES, ris, RUSH: Baptist; b. at Chicago Feb.
8, 1860. He was educated at Amherst (A.B., 1883),
where he was Walker instructor in mathematics in
1883-85, and at Hartford Theological Seminary,
from which he was graduated in 1888. After being
pastor of the Middle Street Baptist Church, Ports-
mouth (1889-92), he was associate professor of New-
Testament interpretation at Newton Theological
Institution (1892-94); professor of the same sub-
ject (1894-1900); and president of the University
of Rochester since 1900. He has written The Life
of Jesus of Nazareth: A Study (New York, 1900).
RHEGIUS, rf'ji-us (RIEGER), URBANUS: Ger-
man Reformer; b. at Langenargen (17 m. e. of
Constance) in the latter half of May, 1489; d. at
Celle (23 m. n.e. of Hanover) May 27, 1541. He
received his first education at Lindau, whence he
went to Freiburg, where he came under strong hu-
manistic influence, also associating much with Eck,
the subsequent opponent of Luther. When Eck
was called to a professorship at Ingolstadt in 1510^
Rhegius followed him. After 1512 he devoted in-
creased attention to theology, still under Eck's
guidance, and in 1518, while visiting Constance, he
wrote his first theological treatise, the De dignitate
sacerdotum, from a strictly orthodox Roman Catho-
lic point of view. In 1519 he was ordained to the
priesthood at Constance, and at the beginning of
the controversy between Luther and Eck took the
side of his teacher. By Mar., 1520, however, his
position had for some unknown reason so veered
that he could be termed a friend of Luther. He
can not, however, at that time have changed his
attitude decidedly, for in the same year he was called
to Augsburg as cathedral preacher in place of (Eco-
lampadius, who had entered the monastery of St.
Brigitta. He was forced to leave late in 1521 for
openly supporting Luther, and he then lived at
Argen and Tetnang, and preached for a time at
Hall in the valley of the Inn. In 1524 he published
his Ob das new testament yetz recht verteutscht sey$ in
reply to the attack of Hieronymus Emser (q.v.)
against Luther's translation of the Bible in his Auss
was grand vnnd ursach Luther's dolmatschung . . .
dem gemeinen man biilig vorbotten sey (Leipsic, 1523),
and in the same year returned to Augsburg as a
private citizen. During his absence friction be-
tween the old faith and the new movement had led
to riot and even to conspiracy, until the demands
laid on the vacillating city council forced it to take
a firm stand and finally to check the uprising.
Rhegius now became pastor of St. Anne's; on Christ-
mas Day, 1524, he administered the Lord's Supper
under both kinds; and in 1526 he married. In the
eucharistic controversy, except for a brief period of
practical subscription to Zwinglianism, Rhegius
adhered to the position of Luther, swayed, no doubt,
by fear of the dangerous radicalism of the Anabap-
tist movement, which both he and his colleagues
vainly sought to check. His feeble efforts to effect
a mediation between Lutheranism and Zwinglian-
ism were equally fruitless; religious dissension of
all kinds steadily increased, and the civil authorities
were timid and wavering.
The diet of 1530 ended the career of Rhegius at
Augsburg. On the day after his arrival (June 17)
the emperor demanded that all Protestant preach-
ing cease at once, and Rhegius was dismissed with
the other preachers. Toward the end of August he
accepted the invitation of Ernest the Confessor
(q.v.), duke of Luneburg, to become pastor at Celle,
and, after having brought about a conference be-
tween Melanchthon and Butzer, he took with him
a series of articles to be submitted to Luther, whom
he met at Coburg in an interview which made a deep
impression upon him. In the territory of Luneburg,
though it was already won for the Lutheran cause
with the exception of the capital, much remained to
be done by Rhegius, who was appointed superin-
tendent in 1531. In this same year he preached at
Luneburg and issued a church order, though it was
not firmly established until Sept., 1532. As super-
intendent Rhegius took special pains to provide the
congregations with efficient preachers and to rouse
those already in office to the proper discharge of
their duties. His activity extended even beyond
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
bruoUi
Biooi
the duchy of Luneburg, especially after the monas-
teries had been reformed by his untiring activity.
The city of Hanover owes to him the renovation of
its religious life after the victory of the Reformation,
for in 1536 he drew up for it the church order which
is still in force. He was also active in the reforma-
tion of the cities of Minden, Soest, and Lemgo, and
be strenuously opposed the Anabaptists who found
warm sympathisers throughout northern Germany.
As the adviser of Duke Ernest, Rhegius was an im-
portant factor in securing the acceptance of the
Formula of Concord. His lost public appearance
Was at the conference of Hagenau in 1540. Among
fais writings special mention may be made of the
following: Dedignitate taccrdotum (Augsburg, 1519);
Vnderricht, Wie ain Christtnmensch Got seinem ker-
ren teglich beichten soil (1521); Wider den newen
irrsal Doctors Andrea von CariktadX des Sacraments
kaib warming (n.p., 1524); Van Uybeygenschafft oder
Knechlheyt (n.p., 1525); Warnung wider den neuen
Tauforden (1527); and Formvlm caute loquendi
(Wittenberg, 1535; Germ, ed., 1536, Celle, 1880).
The works of Rhegius, both Latin and German,
Were almost completely edited by his son, E. Rhe-
gius (2 vols., Nuremberg, 1561-62).
[Rhegius also wrote the following works which
were translated into English: Nova doctrinm ad
veterem coUatio (Augsburg, 1526 [?]), transl. by W.
Turner, A Comparison betwene the Olde learnynge
and the New (Southwark, 1557); Ain Summa
ehristlU-hcr leer (Augsburg, 1527), Usual, by W.
Lynne, A declaration of the twelve articles of the
christen faythe (London, 1548); and Doctrina cer-
titsima (Frankfort, 1545), trans), by J. Pox, An
instruccyon of Christen fayth (London, 1550 [?]); as
well as sermons on Matt. ix. 16-26 (tranal. by W.
Lynne, London, 1548), Luke xxiv. (tranal. by W.
Hilton, London, 1578), and Matt, xviii. 10 (transl.
by R. Robinson, London, 1590), and an exposition
of Ps. Ixxxvii. (transl. by R. Robinson, London,
1591).] (Paul Tschackert.)
Brsuwurnv: H. C. Heiniburger. Urbaiua Rhegius, Gclha,
1841: G. Uhlhom. (/roanu* Rhegius, Leber, und ausge-
MUN Schrifttn, EJberfeld. 1803; O. Seiti. Die fheolnoische
EMirittetuna des Urbanus Rhegius. Goths. 1898: und
literature under LrTiimi, Miitin; and Zwinqli, Hn.ii-
RHEIM3 NEW TESTAMENT. See BlBLB Ver-
sions, B, IV., f 5.
RHODES. See Asia Minob, V.
RHODOK, rt'den: Greek author of the second
eeatury. The sole source of information concerning
him is Eusebius [Hist, ecd., V., xiii.), who states that
he was born in Asia and educated at Rome by
Tatian, so that he would seem to have been con-
verted between 165 and 172. Rhodon, however,
never broke with the Church. According to Euse-
bius, be was the author of a work against Marcion,
and the citations preserved by Eusebius are impor-
tant for a knowledge of Apelles and his doctrine, as
well as other Mareionists. Eusebius likewise states
that Rhodon wrote a commentary on the hexaem-
econ, and that be designed a polemic against an
otherwise unknown work of Tatian entitled " Prob-
lems," in which all difficult passages of the Bible
had been collected. Whether Rhodon ever wrote
this refutation and explained the problems thus
posited is unknown. At Rome Rhodon held a dis-
putation with Apelles, and as the latter died about
180, while Rhodon wrote his anti-Marcionistic trea-
tise during the lifetime of Apelles, the composition
of the work must have been between 170 and 180.
It has been suggested, though without foundation,
that Rhodon was the author of the Canon of Mura-
tori £a. v.; Harnack, Litteratur, i. 599) and of the
anti-Montanistic treatise excerpted by Epiphanius
(Hist, ecd., xlviii. 2-13; H. G. Voigt, Eine verschoL
lent Urkunde des anlimontanistischen Kampfes, pp.
224 sqq., Leipsic, 1891).
(En win Preuhchen.)
Bibuoobafby: The fragments ate oolleoW. with notes, in
M. J. Bouth, Rtiiqvia sacra, i. 435-448, Oxford, 184Q;
MPO. v. 1331-38; Eog. tmnal. in ANF. viii. 766. Con-
sult: A. Galljuidi, Bibliathccn vtttrwm patntm. Li., pp. xvii.,
144-145, Venice, 1786; P. Caspari, UngcdrurJrtt . . .
Qurllen tur Ossehichlt da TaufsyvibtAs. ill. 315. 340-341,
364-365. Chris timiin. 1K71: A. Hiluenfclrt, Dit KeUcrge-
schichte des UrchristenttuTns. 632-533. Leipaiir, 1884; Bnr-
deohewer. Palrologie, pp. 105. 110-111. Eng. transl., at.
Louis, 1908: idem. Geschichle, i. 490-491 ; Kriigrr. Hisloru.
143-144; Haranck, LiUcralur, i. 500. ii. 1. up. 3I3-:)14;
HUH, i
RICCI, rit'chi, LORENZO: General of the Jesuits;
b. at Florence Aug. 2, 1703; d. at Rome Nov. 24,
1775. He entered the order of the Jesuits in 1718,
and became its general in 1758. He was of an ami-
able yet inflexible disposition, and was unalterably
attached to the tenet of obedience. To all proposi-
tions to change the constitution of the order, ema-
nating either from the pope or from the Roman
Catholic princes, he answered " Stnt ut sunt, aut
non sint." (" Let them [the Jesuits] be as they are
or let them cease to exist"). The consequence
was that the pope dissolved the order by the bull
Dominits ac redemptor noster, July 21, 1773. Ricci
pmlf-stf'd emphatically against the action and was
confined in the castle of St. Angelo for- the rest of
his life.
BiBuoaHAPHt: J. J. I. von Dollinger, BritrOge tur politi-
scKen, Urehtkhm, und CuiluraeschieAtr, in. 1-74, Vienna,
188Z: A Circumstantial Account of the Death o/ Abbt
Laurence Ricci. To which is anntitd a Copy of the Pro-
testation which he Uft at his Death. London, 1778; A.
Jtsvs, vol. jvii,, Paris, 1889; L. A. dp C»ni.;ri<'li, I.M
dell' Abati Lorenzo Ricci, n.p.. u.d.; Ranke. Popes, ii. 446-
447; KL.X. 1170-72.
RICCI, HATTEO: Roman Catholic missionary
and astronomer; b. ut Macerata (120 m. e.s.e. of
Florence), Italy, Oct. 6, 1553; d. at Peking, China,
May 11, 1610. Ho first studied law, but, going to
Rome in 1571, entered the Society of Jesus mid gave
especial attention to the study of astronomy; he
was sent to India ns a missionary in 1577, and there
completed his theological studies and was made
priest; thence he was called to Macao, where he
gained the favor of the viceroy of the province of
Kwantung both by his personal characteristics and
by his acquaintance with the Chinese language.
Under the new viceroy he was compelled to leave
Bled
Rloh&rd of St. Victor
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
24
Macao, but had permission to settle at Shaotsao in
the same province, 1590. He had as his object,
which he kept steadily in mind, a mission to Peking;
this he brought about in 1600, where his astronom-
ical instruments aroused the curiosity of the em-
peror; permission to remain was not definitely
gained, however, until 1605, when he was enabled
to gain a settled residence. His further religious ac-
tivities were carried on there, looking to the con-
version of the Chinese; and no less devoted were
his services to astronomy and mathematics, which,
however, he made use of as an introduction to the
truths of Christianity. The esteem which he won
at court paved the way for the success of Roman
Catholic missions in China, and his work was car-
ried on by his successors. He did much in the way
of writing in the Chinese language, producing works
not only in theology, but also in mathematics and
geometry. See China, II., 2, § 2.
Bibliography: Biographies have been written by Pere
D'Orleans, Paris, 1603; C. Sainte-Foi, ib.. 1859; A. Werfer,
Regensburg, 1870; and L. Nocentini, in the " Acts " of the
fourth international congress of orientalists, ii. 273 sqq.,
Florence, 1881.
RICCI, SCIPIONE DE': Bishop of Pis to j a and
one of the few representatives of the Enlightenment
within the Roman Catholic Church in Italy; b. at
Florence Jan. 9, 1741; d. at Rignano (11 m. e.s.e.
of Florence) Jan. 27, 1810. At the age of fifteen he
was placed in a Jesuit school at Rome, but was re-
called on manifesting a tendency to enter the order,
and completed his theological studies at Pisa and
Florence. He was ordained to the priesthood in
1766, and in 1775 became vicar-general to the arch-
bishop of Florence. Five years later, on the death
of the bishop of Pistoja, Ricci was nominated as his
successor by Leopold, grand duke of Tuscany, who
deemed him capable of carrying out proposed re-
forms in the training of the clergy, the improve-
ment of moral conditions, and the introduction of
the Janienistic " Colbert catechism." Ricci was
duly consecrated, only to be confronted by almost
insuperable difficulties in his diocese. Evil condi-
tions in the monasteries could be remedied only by
abrogating their exemption and placing them under
episcopal jurisdiction; and other reform measures
contemplated the improvement of the cure of souls
and of preaching, the protection of the secular
against the regular clergy, the enforcement of the
rules on fasting, the introduction and diffusion of
enlightening literature; the purification of religious
ideals, and the diminution of the cult of saints and
relics and of the Sacred Heart. To these the synod
convened by Ricci at Pistoja in 1786 added the
holding of annual synods, improvement of the brev-
iary, encouragement of Bible reading, and the
strengthening of episcopal power against the Curia.
Only two bishops, however, besides Ricci, took the
decisions of the synod seriously, although the ses-
sions were attended by 233 parish priests and thir-
teen regular clergy. Every effort was made to ob-
viate the charges of Jansenism already made against
the leaders by stressing the articles on sin and orig-
inal sin transmitted by the faculty of Louvain to
Innocent XI. and recognized as orthodox. It was
also affirmed that even the Church had no power to
posit new rules of faith, her sole duty being to pre-
serve in original purity what had been given her by
Christ and the apostles. Indulgences, moreover,
were declared to be simply the remission of the dis-
cipline of the Church; parallel forms for the liturgy
in the vernacular were demanded; processions were
restricted ; the number of saints' days was decreased,
and a decree on the life of the clergy and the con-
ferring of ecclesiastical offices formed the conclu-
sion. A letter was likewise addressed to the grand
duke, containing additional proposed reforms, and
asking that a national council be convened.
With the express sanction of Leopold, the coun-
cil was convened at Florence on Apr. 23, 1787, only
to reject most decidedly the fifty-seven propositions
of the grand duke. The canonists and theologians
deputed to present them were silenced by the epis-
copal authority of the assembled bishops, who, with
the exception of Ricci and the bishops of Chiusi
and Colle, voted unanimously against each of Leo-
pold's proposed reforms. This overwhelming op-
position rendered it impossible for the grand duke
to carry out the changes which he desired, although,
as long as he remained in Italy, he supported Ricci
against the efforts of his opponents to render it im-
possible for him to remain in Pistoja. When, how-
ever, Leopold succeeded his brother, Joseph II., as
emperor of Austria in 1790, Ricci's enemies, aided
by a feeble regency, attained their object, and the
bishop, resigning from his see, retired to private life.
The resolutions of the Synod of Pistoja were con-
demned by the bull Auctorem fidei (Aug. 28, 1794),
which also rejected eighty-five statements in it as
heretical and erroneous, a decision to which Ricci
formally submitted before Pius VII., when the
pontiff was returning from Paris in 1805. Ricci
was the author of a number of episcopal charges as
well as of Istruzione cristiana sopra il sacramento
delta confermazione (3d ed., Pistoja, 1783), a volume
of sermons (1788), and the posthumous Memorie di
Scipione de' Ricci, vescovo di Prato e Pistoja (ed.
A. Gelli, 2 vols., Florence, 1865) and Alcune lettere
inedite di Scipione de' Ricci ad Antonio Marini (ed.
C. Guasti, Prato, 1857). K. Benkath.
Bibliography: The sources are the Memorie and Alcune
lettere noted above. Based on these is L. J. A. de Pot-
ter's Vie de Scipion de Ricci, 3 vols., Brussels, 1825, which
was put on the Index. Consult further: A. von Reu*
mont, Oeachichte Toacanoa, ii. 148 sqq., Gotha, 1877;
KL, x. 34 sqq.; Lichtenberger, ESR, xi. 230-231.
RICE, ED WOT WILBUR: Congregationalist;
b. at Kingsborough, N. Y., July 24, 1831. He was
graduated from Union College (A.B., 1854) and
Union Theological Seminary, New York (1857).
He has been associated with the American Sunday
School Union since 1859, in which he has been a
missionary (1859-64), superintendent of missions
(1864-70), assistant secretary of missions (1870-
1879), and editor of the periodicals and other pub-
lications of the organization (since 1879). He has
prepared the Scholar's Handbooks on the Interna-
tional School Lessons from 1873 to 1889 and written
popular commentaries on Matthew (Philadelphia,
1886; 6th ed., 1910) ; Luke (1889); John (1891), and
Acts (1896; 4th ed., 1909), as well as Organization
and Classification of Sunday Schools (1881); The
Origin of Sunday Schools (1886) ; Stories of Great
Painters: or, Religion in AH (1887); Our Sixty-Six
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Sacred Books: Hole they came to us and What they
are (1892); Handy Helps for Busy Workers (1899);
The Heavenly City (1899); A Century of Sunday
School Progress (1899); and A Short History of the
International Lesson System (1902).
RICE, LUTHER: Baptist; b. at Northborough,
Mass., Mar. 23, 1783; d. at Edgefield, S. C, Sept.
25, 1836. Converted in bis youth, be united with
the Northborough Congregational church in Mar.,
1802. As a student in Williams College he mani-
fested a deep interest in mission* to the heathen
and in association with other students was instru-
mental in bringing about the organization of the
American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Mis-
sions (seC CO \« KM ATI ON' A LISTS, I., 4, j 1 1 J Cf.
Jodson, Adoniram). He offered himself as a mis-
sionary along with J udson, Nott, Mills, and Richards
(1811). The number of applicants being thought
too great, his appointment was made conditional on
Ms first raising the money for outfit and passage.
He accomplished this in a few days and was ready
to go with the rest (Feb. 6, 1S12). He followed
Judson and his wife in adopting Baptist views and
■was immersed in India by the English Baptist mis-
BJonarj- William Ward, Nov. 1, 1812. He returned
to America (Sept., 1SI3) to adjust relations with the
American Board and to interest and organize the
Tluptists for the support of the Burman mission
■which Judson proceeded to inaugurate. Through
his untiring efforts funds were raised for the imme-
diate need, local missionary societies were organ-
iced in many places, and in 1814 the Triennial Con-
vention was formed as a national Baptist society for
the support of missions. largely through his efforts
a theological seminars' to Philadelphia was estab-
lished in 1818, and Columbian I'niversily in Wash-
ington in 1822. Under his leadership the Triennial
Convention undertook home mission work (from
1817), for which a separate society was later con-
stituted. In 1816 he began the publication of a re-
ligious quarterly (Latter Day Lumin<:r</) and in IS-.'
fae began to issue the first Baptist weekly, The
Columbian Star. His multifarious denominational
enterprises soon outgrew the income that he was
able to secure and financial worries probably short-
ened his days. A. H. Newman.
BreuoGfLUtrt: T. Arming*. M* "/ '*'■ BaptiiU, pp. 434,
484.602. New York. 1893; A. H. Ni-wmiui, in Awsriaan
C\urct. Hillary Stria, ii., 390, 392. 399, 405, 427. ib„ 1894:
H. C. Vedder. Tin Baptiitt. pp. IB3-184, (b.. 1902.
RICE, HATHAH LEWIS: Presbyterian; b. in
Garrard County, Ky., Dec. 29, 1807; d. at Chatham,
Bracken County, Ky., June 11, 1877. He studied
at Center College, Danville. Ky., and at Princeton
Theological Seminary, 1829; and was pastor at
Bards town, Ky., 1833-41, where he also established
an academy and a newspaper, the Western Protes-
tant, afterward merged in the Louisville Presby-
terian Herald. He preached at Paris, Ky., 1841-
1844; was pastor at Cincinnati, 1845-53; at St.
Louis, Mo., 1853-58, where he edited the St. Louis
Presbyterian; was pastor at Chicago, 1857-61 ; pro-
fessor of theology at the Chicago Theological Semi-
nary, 1859-61; pastor of the Fifth Avenue Presby-
terian Church, New York, 1861-67; president of
Westminster College, Fulton, Mo., 1869-74; and
professor of theology at Danville, Ky., 1874-77.
An able debater and preacher, he encaged in several
memorable discussions: namely, with Alcsitmler
Campbell (q.v.) at Lexington, Ky., in 1843, on bap-
tism; with J. A. Blanchard in 1845, on slavery;
with E. Pingree the same year, on universal salva-
tion; and with J. B. Pureell (q.v.) in 1851, on Ro-
manism. His publications, besides the debates al-
ratdy referred to, include God Sovereign, and Man
Free (Philadelphia); Romanism not Clirintiuniti/
(How York, 1847); Boptixm, the Design, Mixle, and
Subji-ctx (St. Louis, 1855); and Immortality (I'hila-
delphia, 1871).
RICH, EDMUND. See Edmond, Saint, or
RICHARD FITZRALPH: Archbishop of Armagh
and primate of Ireland; b. at Dundalh (50 m. n. of
Dublin), County of Louth, Ireland, probably in the
last years of the thirteenth century; d. at Avignon,
France, probably Nov. 16, 1360. He waa fellow of
Balliol College, Oxford; became chancellor of the
University of Oxford in 1333; chancellor of Lincoln
ephedra], 1334; soon after archdeacon of Chester;
dean of Lichfield in 1337; and in July. 1347, arch-
bishop of Armagh, from which he was called '■ Arma-
chanus." When negotiations were going on between
the Armenians and Pope Boniface XII., and two of
their number. N'erses. archbishop of Melaggert , anil
John, bishop-elect '.if Kliilat. appeared at Avignon,
Richard, who happened to be on a mission at the
papal court, upon their request, wrote a treatise in
nineteen books, Snmi/ia in t/iivxtionibus Armertarum
(Paris, 1511), in which he examined their doctrines
arn] refuted their heresies. This work won him ivide-
spread fame as defender of Roman orthodoxy. His
visit to Avignon in 1349 marked the opening of a
conflict with the mendicant friars which lasted all
hi- lifetime. A memorial to the pope, presented in
July, 1350, he later elaborated and published as De
pauperie salvatoris in seven books. His attacks
upon mendicancy occasioned great agitation in the
orders which were quietly supported by the pope.
Richard was summoned to appear at Avignon and
there defended himself in a discourse. Nov. 8, 1357,
later published as Defensio curatorum (Lyons. 1495;
also in Fasciculus rerum expetendarum et fugien-
darum, ed. E. Brown, ii. 466-487, London, 1690).
BiFijnoR*PHr: J. Wan, De prarulibvx Hihernin. Dublin,
IBM; J. Prince. Worthies aj Dtvon. Exeter. 1701; H.
Cotton. Patli eccltrin Hibernica:. 5 vols.. Dublin, 1.S1S
I860; T. Netter, Fatcicvii Zitianiorum. ed. W. B. shir
ley. pp. xiii.. liii .. SS4. :i-l'i. MSS. J-.md.m. IH5S; G. Uch-
ler. John W iclif and nil Eolith PrK«r«ir.. i. 7S-8S, 117-
118, London. 1H7B; W. W. Cnpes. Enaluh Chareh in lith
and 16th Centuria. London. 1900; Ci M Trcvclv.-m. Lni-
land in the Aat of Wydiffe, pp. 139. 143. 172. London,
1900.
RICHARD OF ST. VICTOR: French August inian:
b. probably in Scotland ; d. at St. Victor 1 173 (prob-
ably Mar. 10). At an early age he went to Paris and
entered the monastery of canons regular at St. Vic-
tor several years before the death of Hugo of St.
Victor (q.v.), whose pupil he was. In 1150 he
was subprior and in 1162 became prior, although
the incapacity of the abbot caused double responsi-
Biohard of St. Victor
SL&oholien
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
26
bility to devolve on Richard. Richard was an im-
portant figure in the struggle of Thomas a Becket
with Henry II. of England. Together with a
certain abbot of St. Augustine he recommended
Thomas' cause to the pope, and, with Abbot Ervis-
ius, sharply admonished Robert of Melun, bishop
of Hereford, who had deserted his patron Thomas
for the king.
like his teacher Hugo, Richard was one of the
theologians who sought to save traditional dogmas,
imperilled by the dialectic methods of Aristotelian
logic, by recourse to mysticism. Holding the ob-
jects of belief to be partly in accord with reason,
partly transcending reason, and partly contradic-
tory to reason, he taught that truth could be at-
tained only by him who should immerse himself in
them in believing mysticism, so that where reason
failed, meditation and contemplation might lead
to the truth. These views he advanced especially
in his Benjamin miner, or De prceparaHone animi ad
contemplaiionem, and the Benjamin major, or De
gratia contemplationis, with the appendix AUegoria
tabernaculi foederis. These sources are supplemented
by his De exterminatione mali et promotions boni, De
statu interims hominis, De ervdUione interioris
hominis, and De gradibus caritatis, as well as by his
interpretations of Ezekiel and the Apocalypse, the
ExplicaHo aliquorum passuum difficilium (PauK)
apostoli, Dedarationes nonnuUarum difficuUatum
scriptura, De Emmanuele, De superexceUenU bap-
tismo Christi, Mysticce adnotationes in Psalmos, Ex-
positio cantici Habacuc, In cantica canticorum, Quo-
modo Christus ponitur in signum populorum, and
the Easter sermon De missions Spiritus SancH.
In the Benjamin minor Richard traces the psy-
chological development of man from his first dim
longings for purer knowledge to the highest con-
templation by an allegorical exegesis of the family
of Jacob (Gen. xxix. 16 sqq.). The wives of Jacob
represent the basal powers of the soul, Leah typi-
fying affection and Rachel reason, the two opera-
ting through their handmaids sensuality and imag-
ination (Zilpah and Bilhah). The births in Jacob's
house symbolize the progress of the soul to contem-
plation, Leah bearing first because the primal im-
pulse comes from affection. Reuben, the " son of
vision," typifies the fear arising from careful con-
sideration of faults; while the grief following fear
wherein man is heard, is symbolized by Simeon,
" hearing." To fear and grief are added the hope
(represented by Levi, " addition ") which leads to
forgiveness. The hope gained from fear and grief
results in loving praises of God (Judah, " confess-
ing "). Lest, however, one should now whink him-
self at his goal, Leah, or affection, now ceases to
bear, and Rachel, or reason, longs for offspring, since
reason is unable to think through mere intelligence,
but begins with imagination. Bilhah, or imagina-
tion, accordingly bears two sons, Dan typifying the
formation of a mental image on the basis of visible
objects, and Naphthali symbolizing the endeavor
to rise from the visible to a knowledge of the invisi-
ble. The success of reason now rekindles affection,
and when Leah sees that Rachel bears children by
her handmaid, she could not rest until Zilpah also
bore, and from sensuality thus controlled proceeded
temperate life (Gad) and patience in adversity
(Asher). The way is thus prepared for new affec-
tion and Leah herself again bears. After departing
from false joys and idle commotions, affection gives
rise to true joy (Issachar), on which follows hatred
of all evil (Zebulon). The series of virtues is com-
pleted by shame (Dinah), which proceeds from ab-
horrence of sin.
All these affections can not bring man to his goal,
for virtues become vices unless controlled by medi-
tation. God accordingly gives fertility to Rachel,
since only through the interposition of divine grace
can man realize his capabilities. Thus Joseph and
Benjamin typify meditation and contemplation. But
the birth of contemplation is accompanied by the ex-
treme8t pangs, yet reason, though knowing that this
birth transcends her powers, is insatiable in her long-
ing. After the birth of contemplation, therefore,
reason must die. Thus the goal is gained, but the
soul must still press on until at the last all darkness
shall vanish and eternal truth shall be revealed.
In the Benjamin major Richard, restricting him-
self to the intellectual factors, distinguished six
grades of contemplation: imagination alone; im-
agination according to reason; reason according to
imagination; reason alone; above, but not con-
trary to, reason; and above, and apparently con-
trary to, reason. The three first grades can not
dispense with the imaginative faculty, though they
gradually weaken it, so that in the second grade
imagination receives reason, and in the third rea-
son rises to an equality with imagination. The
fourth stage is pure reason, which in the sixth is
entirely transcended by true wisdom.
Richard appears in an absolutely different light
in a series of writings on the Trinity: De Trinitate
with its appendix, De tribus appropriatis personis in
Trinitate; De Verbo incarnato; and Quomodo Spiri-
tus Sanctus est amor Patris et Filii, The argument
of the six books De Trinitate is conventionally scho-
lastic, but there seems to be no reason to doubt its
authenticity. In the philosophy and theology of
the Middle Ages Richard exercised considerable in-
fluence, as on Alexander of Hales, Bonaventura, and
Peter of Ailli (qq.v.), as well as on much later Ger-
man mysticism. He is also interesting for culture
history, as in his accounts of contemporary philoso-
phy and monastic life. (Ferdinand Cohbs.)
Bibliography: The best edition of the Opera is by J.
Berthelin, Rouen* 1050, reproduoed in MPL, exevi.
Earlier eds. were Venice* 1506, 1592. Paris, 1518, 1550.
Lyon, 1534, Cologne, 1621.
A Vita is given in the ed. of Bartholin. Consult fur-
ther: Hiet. litUraire de la France, xiii. 472-488; C. T. A.
Liebner. Richardi a 8. Victore de contemplatione doctrina,
2 parts, Gdttingen, 1837-39; J. Q. V. Engelhardt, Rich-
ard von St. Victor und Johann Ruyebroek, Erlangen. 1838;
M. Laforet, Coup oTaU eur Vhiet. de la theotogie dogmatic**,
Louvain, 1851; W. Kaulich, Die Lehren dee Hugo und
Richard von St. Victor, Prague, 1864; W. Preirer. Qe-
echichte der deutechen Myetik im MiUdaiter, i. 241 sqq.,
Leipsic, 1874; J. Bach, Dogmengeechichte dee MiUHaUers,
ii. 367 sqq., Vienna, 1875; L. Stein, in Archiv fur die
Qeechichte der Philoeophie, ii (1889), 193-245; B. Haureau,
Hist, de la philoeophie ecolaetique, i. 609-614, Paris, 1872;
idem, Notice* et extraite, iv. 256-259, ib. 1892; Harnaek.
Dogma, vi. 100, 103, 179, 182; the works on the history
of philosophy, e.g., by J. E. Erdmann, 3 vols., London*
1893, and W. W. Windelband, ib. 1893; Schaff, Chrietia*
Church, v. 1. pp. 647-648; DNB, xlviii. 188-190.
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
RICHARD, FRANCOIS MARIE BENJAMIN:
Cardinal; b. at Nantes M&r. 9, 1819; d. at Paris
Jan. 28, 1908. He was educated at the chateau of
Lavergne and at the Seminary of St. Sulpice, Paris,
and from 1849 to 1869 was vicar genera! of Nantes.
In 1871 he was consecrated bishop of Belley, and
four years later was made titular archbishop of
Lorissa and coadjutor of the archbishop of Paris,
with the right of succession. In 1886 he succeeded
to this dignity, and in 1889 was created cardinal-
priest of Santa Maria in Via. He wrote Vie de la
bienheureuse Franchise d'Amboise, duchesse de Bre~
tagne el religieuse carmelite (2 vols., Nantes, 1865),
and Lei Saints de 1'tgliae de Nantes (1873).
RICHARD, TIMOTHY: Baptist missionary and
-educator; b. at Ffaldybronin, Carmarthenshire,
Wales, Oct. 10, 1845. He received his education at
Swansea Norma] School and Haverfordwest. Collide ;
went out as missionary for the Baptist Mi~.-ionary
Society to China in 1869, very early traveling in
Manchuria and in Korea; he was located for eight
years in the province of Shantung, then for the
same length of time in Shansi; was in Peking and
Tientsin, 1889-90; in 1890 he was chosen by the
missionaries on the 6eld to make a presentation of
Christianity to the Chinese government, and in the
same year became editor of a daily and a weekly
paper in Chinese, both of which were influential in
wide circles; became secretary in 1891 for The So-
ciety for the Diffusion of Christian and General
Knowledge among the Chinese, now the Christian
Literature Society for China; in 1877-78 he was
chief almoner of the fund raised to relieve the great.
famine in China; in 1901 he was called in to aid in
the negotiations for settling the indemnity for the
massacre of missionaries in Shansi, and through him
a university, of which he was made chancellor,
was established in the capital of the province, the
example of which led to a decree for like colleges in
each of the capitals of the separate provinces; in
1901 he was appointed religious adviser to the
Chinese government; in 1904 he assumed, in addi-
tion to his other duties, the position of secretary to
the International Red Cross Society in Shanghai; he
is in charge of the work for his denomination of
disseminating Christian literature among the Chi-
nese, and is president of the Educational Associa-
tion of China. His theological position is stated in
the words that he " desires to promote everything
■which God has revealed or man discovered for the
progress of the human race in all departments."
He " believes that God has left none of the great
nations without light from Heaven, that those who
divide the religions of the world into true and false,
and go in for destructive criticism and attacks on
the native religions, do incalculable harm." Most
at hie literary work has been done in Chinese (the
number of works rendered by him into Chinese num-
bers over fifty), and his labors have been recognised
by the Chinese government by an appointment as
mandarin of the first rank and religious adviser. In
English he has written Historical Evidences of
Christianity; Conversion by the Million (2 vols.,
published in the East); Guide to Buddahood: being
u standard Manual oj Chinese Buddhism, translated
from the Chinese (London, 1908); and The New
Testament of Higher Buddhism (Edinburgh, 1910).
RICHARDS, WILLIAM ROGERS: Presbyte-
rian; b. at Boston Dec. 20, 1853; d. in New York
City Jan. 7, 1910. He studied at Yale University
(B.A., 1875), Columbia Law School (1875-70), and
Andover Theological Seminary (graduated, 1879);
was pastor of the Central Congregational Church,
Bath, Me., 1879-84; of the Crescent Avenue Pres-
byterian Church, Plainfield, N. J., 1884-1902; and
also of the Brick Presbyterian Church, New York
City, after 1902. He served on the Board of Foreign
Missions of his denomination, on the Board of Di-
rectors of Union Theological Seminary, New York,
and on the Council of the University of the City of
New York. He wrote: Ways of Wisdom (New York,
1886); For Whom Christ died (Philadelphia, 1902;
sermons) ; God's Choice of Men: a Study of Scripture
(New York, 1905); The Apostles' Creed in Modern
Worship (1906); and A Study of the Lord's Prayer
(1910).
RICHARDSON, ERNEST CDSHIBG: Congre-
gationalist; b. at Woburn, Mass., Feb. 9, 1860.
He was graduated from Amherst College (B.A.,
1880) and Hartford Tlieolo.cieal Seminary (1883).
He was librarian of Hartford Theological Seminary
(1883-90); and associate professor (1885-90), and
since 1890 has been librarian of Princeton Univer-
sity. He is prominent in library work, especially it
the American Library Association, in which he has
held many offices. He has also been chairman of
the bibliographical committee of the American His-
torical Association since 1901 and vice-president of
the Bibliographies! Society of America since HHifl
In theology lie deseribes himself as " seieiitifir. inde-
pendent, Biblical. Congregational," and a- hoMini;
" the deity of Christ, the Virgin birth, the uremic
evolution of the Bible, regeneration by the Word, the
survival of the fittest, for eternal life, and the climax
of the evolutionary progress of the universe in the
social and material headship of .lesn- ( hrist in a sub-
stantial resurrected universe." He has revised the
translation of Eusebius' " Life of Constantine " for
the NPNF (New York. 1890) and the " Lives of
Illustrious Men " of Jerome and I iennadius for the
same series (1892), edited the same in Latin (Lcip-
sic, 1896); prepared Bibliographical Synopsis of
the Anle-Nicene Fathers (New York, 1887) and An
Aljiiniiii-lii-iil. Suhj-cl Index and Index Enciirtufniliti
to Periodical Articles on Religion {1890-99) (1908);
and has written Classification, Theoretical and
Practical (1901).
RICHELIEU, rteh-lytr' or ri3h'e-Iu.
Youth; Cat! to Public Office ([ 1).
Conflict with the Protestants (| 2).
Stnimjlc aeaiiis! C-.n-pirn.-y (.; .[.'.
Foreign Alliances (f 71.
Armand-Jean Duplessis, due de Richelieu, French
cardinal and statesman, was born at Paris Sept.
5, 1585, and died there Dec. 4, 1642. He was the
fourth son of a petty noble of Poitou. At first he
Blohelien
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
28
was intended for the army, but his eldest brother,
who was bishop of Lucon, having resigned his
dignity in order to enter a monastery, Richelieu en-
tered the Church in order to preserve this bishopric
in the family. He was educated at the
i. Youth; Sorbonne and then returned, as he said,
Call to "to the poorest bishopric in France."
Public In 1614 he was elected a deputy of
Office. the clergy of Niort to the States-
General, where he attracted the atten-
tion of the queen-mother, Marie de Medici, who
made him almoner to the young queen, Anne of
Austria, in 1616. In the mazes of intrigue that
prevailed at court Richelieu displayed from the
first a keen knowledge of men and great capacity for
dissimulation. Physically half an invalid, his energy
of mind and body was astonishing. It is said that
he required eleven hours' sleep. Nevertheless he
was capable of great physical endurance, as before
La Rochelle in 1628, and in 1630 in the war against
the duke of Savoy. The weakness of Louis XIII.
was Richelieu's opportunity, but the fondness of
Marie de Medici for him was also a factor. In
1622 he was made cardinal and soon after entered
the king's council as secretary of state, of war,
and of foreign affairs (Apr., 1624), becoming prime
minister in Nov., 1629. In assuming office Richelieu
had a clear idea of his own purposes and the needs
of France. As he said: "When your Majesty re-
solved to give me, at the same time, both entrance
into your council and a great part of your con-
fidence in the government of affairs, I can truth-
fully say that the Huguenots divided France with
you; that the nobles conducted themselves as if
they were not subjects, and the powerful provincial
governors as though they were sovereigns in their
offices. ... I promised your Majesty to employ
all my industry and all authority that might be
given me to ruin the Huguenot party, to abase the
pride of the nobles, to reduce all subjects to duty,
and to raise your name among foreign nations to
the point where.it ought to be." To the execution
of these purposes Richelieu brought an inflexible
and fierce energy justified, in his eyes, by the
grandeur of the purposes to be attained. At the
beginning of his ministry Richelieu summoned an
assembly of fifty-five prelates, nobles, magistrates,
financial officials, and others, in Dec., 1626. Fifteen
propositions were laid before them dealing with the
means to suppress corruption in the army, with
the development of commerce, the navy, and the
suppression of crimes against the safety of the state.
Richelieu was the enemy of the factional Hugue-
nots because, as he said, they tended "to form a
state within a state," and set himself "to ruin the
Huguenot party." It was accomplished in two
wars. In 1625 difficulties in connection with the
execution of the Treaty of Mont-
2. Conflict pellier provoked a rising of the Hugue-
with the nots in Brittany, Poitou, and Langue-
Protestants. doc. At the head of the movement
were Henri, duke of Rohan (see
Rohan, Henri), and his brother Soubise. The
latter seized the Isle of Oleron. Richelieu sent
troops into Brittany and Poitou and obtained ships
and seamen from Holland and England. Oleron
was taken; Soubise fled to England. But the car-
dinal was threatened by court intrigues and did
not follow up his advantage, renewing the settle-
ment of Montpellier (February, 1626). The Protes-
tant refugees in England resumed the conflict with
the aid of Buckingham, the favorite of Charles I.
An English fleet disembarked a force on the Island of
Re* in July, 1627. Richelieu displayed a prodigious
activity in collecting vessels of war, munitions, and
provisions, and forced the English to withdraw.
Then began the protracted siege of La Rochelle,
the stronghold of the Huguenots. Rochelle was not
an easy place to take; on the land side it was pro-
tected by marshes and formidable fortifications,
and its harbor enabled it to reach the open sea.
Among the famous Huguenot leaders within the
city were the mayor Guiton, the admiral of the
Protestant fleet, the pastor Salbert, and the intrepid
dowager duchess of Rohan, who despite her eighty
years displayed amazing resolution and activity.
Richelieu, with a force of 25,000 men, blockaded
the place and threw up a line of entrenchments.
The greatest difficulty was to close the port to
outside assistance. In spite of the winter storms a
tremendous mole over 1,400 paces long was built
across the harbor. Two English relief fleets were
unable to force this colossal barrier. When all hope
of deliverance failed and the city was reduced to
starvation, Rochelle surrendered, on Oct. 28, 1628.
The historic city was condemned to lose its munici-
pal privileges and franchises and to have its walls
razed. The war continued in the Cevennes, where
Henri Rohan for a time held out with the moun-
taineer Calvinists and the aid of Spain — a most
anomalous alliance. The Edict of Ntmes (q.v.) fixed
anew the situation of the Huguenots. The Edict
of Nantes (q.v.) was maintained in so far as it
guaranteed liberty of conscience and liberty of wor-
ship, but the Huguenot strongholds were sur-
rendered and their political assemblies forbidden.
The Protestants as a political party ceased to exist.
Since the death of Henry IV. in 1610 the chief
obstacle to the regular exercise of the royal au-
thority had been the factions and the hopes of the
noblesse. The whole ministry of Richelieu was
filled with the conflict against them.
3. Struggle The cardinal has been accused of hav-
Against ing been a bitter enemy of the privi-
Conspiracy. leged order, but this is a mistake.
"It is necessary to consider the no-
blesse as one of the chief sinews of the state," he
wrote in his "Political Testament." What he did
exact was obedience and the abandonment of
political activity by the nobles. Most of the in-
trigues and plots against Richelieu were hatched
at court, and the instigators or accomplices were
often members of the royal family. Gaston of
Orleans, who for a long time had cherished the
hope of succeeding his brother, was the soul of all
these conspiracies; another was the queen-mother,
Marie de Medici, who became an implacable enemy
of the cardinal after his elevation. A third was the
queen herself, Anne of Austria, whose secret cor-
respondence with Spain Richelieu stopped. Mother,
wife, and brother brought all the pressure they
could upon Louis XIII. to dismiss his minister.
29
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Richelieu
The first important conspiracy was that in which
the count of Chalais and Marshal Ornano were the
chief outward factors. It culminated in the death
of both of them. Nov. 11, 1630, was the famous
"Day of Dupes." The king, who never liked, but
who feared the cardinal, had been persuaded to
close his private cabinet to the minister. For a
moment Richelieu thought himself lost. But the
duke of St. Simon, father of the great writer, brought
about an interview between the king and Richelieu
at Versailles, where Louis XIII. had a shooting box.
The great palace was not yet built. In the pres-
ence of the cardinal, Louis XIII. 's opposition oozed
away. Richelieu's enemies paid dear for their short
triumph. Chancellor Marillac was deprived of office ;
his brother, Marshal Marillac, was arrested in Italy
at the head of his command, tried before a com-
mission which sat in the cardinal's own house, and
put to death. Marie de Medici, exiled from court,
fled to Brussels, became a wanderer in Flanders and
England, and died miserably poor and despised at
Cologne. Gaston fled to Duke Charles IV. of Lor-
raine, whose sister he married. He attempted, with
a small army, to reenter France and join the duke
of Montmorency, governor of Languedoc, who had
espoused his cause, but the royal army defeated
the rebels under the walls of Castelnaudary, Sept.
1, 1632. In spite of his wonderful popularity in the
country the duke was executed at Toulouse. Less
important plots were crushed in the ensuing years.
The most important of them was the conspiracy of
Cinq-Mars in 1642.
Similarly, the provincial governors who be-
haved like sovereigns in their governments were
rigorously crushed; e.g., the duke of Venddme in
Brittany, Marshal Vitry in Provence, the duke of
Epernon in Guyenne. Richelieu reduced the
governors to mere military commandants and took
from them the administration of justice and the
finances. The offices of constable and grand ad-
miral, to which was attached a power which might
be dangerous, were suppressed. Two edicts abol-
ished some inveterate abuses; the first, the prac-
tise of dueling, which was remorselessly enforced;
the second required the destruction of the fortifica-
tions of towns, castles, and fortresses, unless situated
upon the frontier. A final step in the destructive
policy of Richelieu was the overcoming of the pro-
vincial parlements, the historic opposition of which
was crushed by an edict of 1641, which required
them to register all acts sent to them without
deliberation and without change.
In his conflict with the Huguenots and the nobles
Richelieu was not content to destroy; he also built
up. In the theory of the law the royal authority
was absolute; Richelieu made it so in fact. Ad-
ministration had become loose during
4- Construct- the wars of religion and the troubles
ive Policy, of the regency. Richelieu resumed
the unfinished monarchical policy of
Francis I. and Henry II. The council of state had
acquired a great importance during the sixteenth
century, but during the regency its organization
fell into confusion. A series of regulations rendered
during the ministry of Richelieu fixed its rank in the
administrative hierarchy, its competence, its com-
position. It became the center of all administra-
tion. The councilors of state no longer purchased
their seats like the officials of justice and finance.
They were chosen and held office at the pleasure of
the king. The secretaries of state, who executed
the decisions of the council, became the agents of
the cardinal and lost much of their independence.
Under Louis XIII. a permanent division began to
be made in their attributes. After 1619 general
affairs of war and correspondence with commanders
of the army corps were entrusted to a single secre-
tary of state. The same change was made in the
administration of foreign affairs in 1626. Before
that time the foreign affairs of each important
country had had each its particular secretary. In
order to execute the king's will in the provinces,
Richelieu made great use of agents chosen from
among the masters of requests (maitres des re-
queues), ordinarily known as intendants. Riche-
lieu was not, as was once almost universally sup-
posed, the creator of the intendants. They first
appeared in the middle of the sixteenth century
as special commissioners of the crown in designated
provinces, but they did not then become a regular
institution, and recourse to them was only occa-
sional. Such as it was the institution went to pieces
during the Huguenot wars and was revived and
made universal for France by the cardinal. The
intendants were employed, sometimes in the gfrtf-
raliUs (revenue districts), sometimes in the armies,
where they were responsible for the commissariat,
the ambulance corps, and the pay of the soldiers,
and were required to suppress pillage and mutiny.
Richelieu found in these functionaries, who were
revocable at will, devoted agents of his policies.
Those who were permanently established in the
gGntralitts took the title of intendants of justice,
police, and finance, and concentrated in their hands
a large part of the provincial administration. Under
Louis XIV. the intendants became the regular and
omnipotent agents of the absolute monarchy.
Every part of the state was the object of Riche-
lieu's activity. He is one of the creators of the
French navy. In his "Political Testament" he
says: "The sea is the heritage over which all
sovereigns claim sovereignty," but that
5. Achieve- " one must be powerful to claim such a
mentsfor heritage." Again he says: "It seems
Marine, In- that nature has wished to offer the
dustry, and empire of the sea to France when we
Commerce, regard the position of its two coasts,
equally provided with harbors on two
seas, the Atlantic and the Mediterranean." Riche-
lieu sought to profit by the natural advantages of
the country to establish ports and arsenals, con-
struct vessels, recruit sailors. He improved the
harbors of Havre and Toulon; he created those of
Brest and Brouage, south of La Rochelle. He made
the French navy a material fact. The king, who in
1621 and in 1626 had been obliged to purchase
or to hire vessels from the Dutch in order to
combat the Huguenots, in 1642 possessed sixty-
three vessels of war and twenty-two galleys. The
French fleets, commanded by the archbishop of
Bordeaux, d'Escoubeau de Sourdis, met victor-
iously those of Spain. In regard to commerce and
Richelieu,
Biohter
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
80
industry Richelieu was the forerunner and model of
Colbert. He outlined his project in his "Political
Testament." He wanted to develop the national
industry to such a point that the French might
become an export nation for cloth, velvet, taffetas,
and silks. His numerous occupations, his con-
tinual conflicts against enemies within and without,
the importance of the foreign politics of France,
prevented Richelieu from realizing all these proj-
ects. But at least he attempted much for French
commerce. He was an advocate of great commercial
companies, such as those of England and Holland.
"In order to become master of the sea/1 he said,
"it is necessary for us, like our neighbors, to form
great companies, to compel the merchants to enter
into them, to give them great privileges." In con-
formity with this idea Richelieu created and favored
various trading companies, notably those of Morbi-
han, of the West Indies (1628), of the American
Isles (1635), and of Africa. They were not suc-
cessful during his life, and failed after his death.
Nevertheless Richelieu was the founder of the
French colonial empire. He created Canada by
sending out Champlain.
In 1624 Richelieu came into power with a well-
formed design "of raising the name of the king
among foreign nations to the point at which it
ought to be." It was shortly after the beginning of
the Thirty-Years' War (q.v.). He found the em-
peror in conflict with the king of Denmark and
some of the German Protestant princes, but he
could not at once profit by the op-
6. Foreign portunity to revive the policy of Henry
Policy. IV. to debase the house of Austria
because of the troubles at home with
the great nobles, and especially with the Hu-
guenots. Nevertheless, he attentively followed
events in Germany and sustained with French
subsidies the enemies of the emperor — Mansfeld,
the king of Denmark, Gustavus Adolphus, and the
Swedes after Lutzen. On two different occasions
he went to war to protect the interests of France.
When he came to power the Valteline, that is to
say, the upper valley of the Adda, had revolted
against the Grisons, and was occupied by papal
troops in alliance with Spain. It was important
not to let the Spaniards, who were masters of the
Milanais, seize the communications between the
upper Adda and the Tyrol, which belonged to
Austria. Richelieu threw an army into the region,
which drove out the papal troops and Spaniards
from the Valteline, and put the country again under
the domination of the Grisons (1626). Some years
later he intervened in upper Italy in the matter of
the succession to the duchy of Mantua. The duke
of Savoy, the Spaniards, and Emperor Ferdinand
sought to prevent the legitimate claimant, the duke
of Nevere, who was a French prince, from entering
into his heritage. Louis XIII., accompanied by
Richelieu, forced the Alps through the Pass of Susa
(1629). The territories of the duke of Savoy were
occupied by a French army and the Spaniards
beaten. At the same time the famous Jesuit diplo-
mat, P6re Joseph, was sent by Richelieu to the
diet of Regensburg, and succeeded in altering the
policy of the emperor. The duke of Nevers ac-
quired the duchy of Mantua and France retained
the important fortress of Pignerol on the eastern
side of the Alps (Treaty of Cherasco, 1631).
At the moment of intervening in Germany after
the death of Gustavus Adolphus in 1632, Richelieu
concluded alliances with the states of Germany
threatened by the fanaticism and ambition of the
house of Austria. To the German
7. Foreign princes in alliance against the emperor
Alliances, he promised men and money, condi-
tional upon the acquirement of Alsace
by France and imperial confirmation of French pos-
session of the "Three Bishoprics,1' which France
had possessed since 1552, but which the empire
had never confirmed. In 1635 he concluded a treaty
with the Dutch Republic for the partition of the
Spanish Netherlands; with the Swiss and the dukes
of Parma and Mantua, for the partition of the Mila-
nais, which Spain possessed. The alliance formed
with Gustavus Adolphus was renewed with Oxen-
8tierna, the Swedish chancellor. Finally Richelieu
took into the pay of France the most famous general
of the Protestants after the death of Gustavus,
the brilliant Bernard of Saxe- Weimar. In pur-
suing these negotiations Richelieu revived the policy
originated by Francis I., actually begun by Henry
II., long interrupted by the wars of religion, re-
vived by Henry IV., and abandoned by Marie de
Medici. The general characteristics of this policy
consist (1) in the alliance of France, though a Roman
Catholic power, with the Protestant powers, as
Holland, Sweden, England, and with the German
Protestant princes and cities. Though a cardinal
of the Roman Church, a zealous Roman Catholic,
and victor over the Huguenots in France, Richelieu
had no. scruples in making common cause with
Protestant powers when the interests of the State
demanded it. He did not confuse spiritual and tem-
poral interests. (2) In the protection accorded by
France to the petty states of Germany and Italy,
oppressed by Austria and Spain. It was not for
conquest that France intervened in Germany,
except in so far as she might realize her "natural
frontiers," that is to say, the Rhine, the Alps,
and the Pyrenees. The realization of these purposes,
in so far as they were realized, is a part of the his-
tory of the Thirty-Years' War, and the consumma-
tion of them came after Richelieu's death.
No better characterization of Richelieu has ever
been made than that of Montesquieu : " He made his
master the first man in Europe and the second man
in France/1 Richelieu kept the promise made to
Louis XIII. when he became minister.
8. Charac- He left the king master within, power-
terization. ful and feared without. The Huguenot
party was ruined, the nobles and pro-
vincial governors obedient, the parlements reduced
to silence. Abroad the two branches of the house of
Hapsburg had been reduced, and the French armies
occupied Artois, Alsace, and Roussillon. In spite
of his immense services to the king and to the State,
Richelieu was hated by his contemporaries, and has
been judged too severely by posterity. It is true
that he was harsh and hypocritical, but though he
may be criticized for the means and methods he
used, the verdict of history is clear as to the value
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Hichter
of the results he achieved. It is not to be forgotten
that in the seventeenth century the French nohilit.y
had long ceased to fulfil the duties corresponding to
their privileges; that tho conduct of officials was too
often influenced by narrow self-interest; that the
position of France both at home and abroad was a
perilous one. The evils of the later monarchy are not
to bo laid to his charge. In fine, Richelieu's great
policy was to unite France at home and make it
powerful and feared abroad. More than any of its
longs, he was the founder of the French monarchy.
Jambs Webtfall Thompson.
Eiblioqufbt: The first plan in authority will be taken
by Mtmoirtt da Cardinal ,!■■ iti.-h-l,. ■„. I'MUt d'aprie lee
monutcrilt originaui pour la toeicle dt Vkutoirt de France,
M let autpictt dt I'acadtmie fransaiee. vol. L. Paris. 1907.
Consult further: M. Topin, Louis Xltt. el Richelieu.
Paris. 1S7B; W. Robaon, life of Richelieu. London. 1878;
H. Cinget. Lt Cardinal dt Richelieu it son minieUre, St.
Denis. 1870; E. de Moniie. Lt Cardinal dt Richelieu,
Touts. 1379; C. Maason, Richelieu, London, 1884; G.
d'Arencl, Richelieu it la ntonarthit abtoluc 4 Tola., Paris.
1884-90; idem. La Sobleme francain taut Richelieu, ib.
1901; L. Duaaieux. Lt Cardinal dt Richelieu, ib. 1S85;
J. B. Perinea. France under Matarin. tcilh a Rtvita of At
Administration of Richelieu, 2 vols.. New York, 1MB]
idem. Richelieu and the Growth of French Power, ib. 1900;
A. Pelliaier, L'Apogle de la monarchic franoaiie. Sludet
hi*oriquet tur Richelieu el Louie XIV., Paris. 1SS9; J.
Miehelet. Richelieu el la Fronde, in vol. xi. of his (Euvrti
complete, ib. 1893-B9; G. Hanotnui, Hietoire du Car-
dinal de Richelieu, vole, i.-ii.. ib. 1893-1903; G. Fagniea.
Lt Pinjoteph a Richelieu (1677-1B38), 2 vols., ib. 1894
(crowned by the Academy); R. Lodge. Richelieu, Lon-
don. 1894; L. Lscroix. Riehtlicu a Luoon: ta jeuncete, ion
tpiteopat, new ed.. Paris. 1SBS; J. D. Perkins. Richelieu.
Grtnrth of French Power, New York. 1900; Comte de Beau-
dinal de Richelieu (igt3-4t). ib. 190 J: L. IWmivnw. I.e.
Pint Jottph tt la tieat dt la RocheOe. lb. 1004; G. Paaaot,
Fancan et Richelieu, It problime proteetant sous Louis
XIII., ib. 1904: Cambridge Modern Hieloru. vol. iv.. chap.
iv., Nerw York. 1906; J. McCabo, The Iran Cardinal. The
Romance of Richelieu, ib. 1909.
RICHER, EDMOHD: French Roman Catholic
and advocate of Gallicanism; b. at Chource, a vil-
lage of Champagne, 1060; d. at Paris 1631. After
completing his education in 1590, he was a parish
priest for four years, and was then made president
of the college of Cardinal Lemoine. Shortly after-
ward, he became a censor of the university, where
he was also professor in the theological faculty. In
1607 he published in three volumes at Paris, after
Borne opposition, an edition of the writings of J.
Gereon, and in the following year he was chosen
syndic of the theological faculty, in this capacity
opposing theses in defense of papal infallibility. In
1611 the brief summary of bis De ecdesiastka et poli-
tic/! potentate. (2 vols., Cologne, 1629), defending the
superiority of councils over the pope and main-
taining the independence of the secular government
in things temporal, brought a storm of attack upon
him. His doctrines were condemned by several
provincial synods and the Curia, he was deposed
from office, and was saved from imprisonment and
being sent to Rome only by the appeal of the uni-
versity. In 1627, after years of struggle, he made a
lorced recantation. Among his works, special men-
tion may be made of tbe posthumous Apologia pro
J.Gertcnio (Leyden, 1674). (C. Schmidt!.)
. . . du mi.'. tittle, 2 vole., Paria, 1876.
RICHMOND, LEGH: Church of England; b. at
Liverpool Jan. 29, 1772; d. atTurvey (50 m. n.w. of
London), Bedfordshire, May 8, 1827. He was gradu-
ated at Trinity College, Cambridge, 1794 (M.A.,
1797). In the latter year ho became a curate on the
Isle of Wight, and in 1805 rector of Turvey. While
a child he was lamed for life. He edited The Fathers
of the English Church (8 vols., London, 1807-12);
and wrote Domestic Portraiture, or the Successful
Application of Religious Principle in the Education of
a Family, exemplified in the Memoirs of Three of the
Deceased Children of the Rev. Legh Richmond (9th
ed., 1861). But the work by which he is best known
is The Annals of the Poor, 2 vols., 1814, which con-
tains tho immortal tracts: The Dairyman s Daughter,
The Negro Servant, and The Young Cottager, pre-
viously published separately, of the first of which
millions of copies have been circulated in StabtMSI
languages.
Biblioohapht: T. S. Grimahawo, Memoir of the Rev. Leigh
Richmond, London, 1828 {many eda. during tho first year
or publication); G. T. Bedell, Life of Leah Richmond,
Philadelphia. 1829; T. Fry and E. Bickerstatb, Domettic
Portraiture, London, 1S33; G. F. I'. Munl.y mid T. WrjK!ii.
Turvev and Legh Richmond, with an Account of the Mar-
daunts. Olney, 1894; DNB, ilviii. 258-259.
HICHTER, rin'ter, £UTLITJS LUDWTG: Prot-
estant canonist; b. at Stolpen (2 m. e. of Dres-
den) Fob. 15, 1808; d. at Berlin May 8, 1864. He
entered the University of Leipsic in 1826, studied
law, became privat-docent and associate profMof
in 1835; and in 1839 regular professor of canon law
and civil procedure at Marburg. His first publica-
tion was Corpus juris eanonici (Leipsic, 1833-39),
followed by Lchrbuch des katholiscken und evan-
gelisclicn Kirchcnrechts mil besondercr Rucksicht auf
deutsche Zust&nde (1842; 8th ed., 1886). Funda-
mental in importance was Die evangelischen Kir-
chenordnungen des IS. Jahrhunderts (2 vols., Weimar,
1846). In 1848 he went to Berlin, where he con-
tinued as teacher in the high school and author,
serving in the mean time in various eecle.-iiu«tio:il
positions, and displaying in all his tasks a deep
spirit uulil y. devotion to the Evangelical church,
erudition, conscientious exercise of duty, and an
irenic reserve. His knowledge and counsel were in
demand in all Germany and Austria, and he served
no less Roman Catholics, by whom bis stand-
point was often acknowledged to be liberal and un-
biased. He recognized in the historical churches
certain ethical quantities distinct from the State, to
be conducted by organs of their own, unhindered
by the sovereign State in the exercise of its function
of securing to the church associations autonomy
within lf-piliniate spheres and defining its limits.
He denied the doctrine of state omnipotence and
vindicated for the Roman Catholic Church auton-
omy and self-administration, without, however,
acceding to the pretension of that church to an
imperium in imperio. Of much concern to him
were the conditions of laissez-faire that arose in
Prussia and continued until 1873, in relation to
the Roman Catholic Church, when a delimitation
of Church and State was attempted by constitu-
tional compliance with the Concordat and the
Bittley
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
necessary supplementary legislation was delayed.
Hichter insisted upon the necessity of enforcing by
repressive means the right of state supervision,
whereby the State insured its own safety, so that the
churches in their functions would confine themselves
within their limits; and, especially, upon the neces-
sity of defining by statute the right of state self-
preservation.
In relation to the canonical sources are the fol-
lowing works: Beitrdge zur Kenntnia der Quelleii
de* canonischen Rechl* (3 parts, Leipsic, 1834), and
De inedita aecretalium (1S36). In relation to the
particular sources of the Roman Catholic canon law
must be mentioned above all Richter and J. F.
Sehuite's edition of Canones et deereta amcilii Triden-
tini ex edUione Romano ab 18S4 repetili (1653).
The social value of this work is the treatment of
the subject in its historic development. Die evan-
fjlllilnftfll Kirchenordnungen des IS. Jahrhunderte (ut
snip.) has become an indispensable basis for the
study of Evangelical canon law. Its advantage con-
sists in the comprehensive appropriation of source-
material from the century of the Reformation.
Richter was imbued with the historical spirit, and
offered a prospective history of the canonical sources.
His labors in this connection are characterized by a
profounder basis, elaborate particularistic develop-
ment, and a broad grasp of the toner connection.
He falls back upon the cardinal principles of the
l{i:fi>rrn:siii!H in hi- furiilnnii'iitii! constructions, hav-
ing in mind to offset the fatal conditions due nut only
to the territorial system (see Tehritohialism) of
Christian Thomasius (q.v.), but to the neglect of
church organization during the Reformation period.
He none the less objected to church government in
the hands of the educational using the sovereigns
as their mere agents. While declaring, in 1848,
church government by the sovereign ruler, as then
<\in-tiiiiK-.|. in l'v incompatible ukli a const i nil iuna!
monarchy, he opposed the error that they were ir-
reconcilable. He countenanced a wpiuaunJatiVa
eynod as an extreme necessity on extraordinary
IKfMwkfflU The recognition of the right of self-
nd ministration was to be followed by the gradual
formation of an ascending organization of congre-
gations and synods to represent the development of
the church constitution, without infringing upon the
historical right of the relation of the king to the
Church. Later he foresaw that the general synod
must occupy a larger sphere; for it became evident
to him that in the conflicts between Church and State
and between riiffercnl churches, the ('(institutional
monarch could not occupy the same position in the
forefront as the former land sovereign. Other works
were, Btitragc inr Gcxrhichlr fir-.* Elirsirhi-idiingwfi-litii
in der evangctisrhrn Kirrh,- (fSerlin, 1858); fli-m-hichti:
der evangeliirltiyi Kiniicvcrf aiming in DeuUcldand
(Leipsic 1S51); and Der Stoat und die Dcutschkatho-
iiken (1845). (R. W. DovEt.)
Bibudoiupht: P. Huuchius. in ZritacKrift far K<rchmgr-
RICHTER, GREGOR: German Roman Catholic;
b. at Grtlsselbach (a village near Cassel) Apr. 29,
1874. He was educated at the philosophical and
theological institute of Fulda and the University of
Freiburg, and after the completion of bis studies was
ordained to the priesthood and was city chaplain at
Fulda until 1899. Since the latter year he has been
professor of church history and canon law at the
philosophical and theological institute in the same
city. In addition to editing the Fuldaer Gesehichta-
btdtter and Que lien und Abhandlungen zur Geschichte
der Abtei und der Didzeae Fulda since 1901, he has
written Die ersten An/dnge der Bait- und Kunst-
thdtigkeU des Kloster* Fulda (Fulda, 1900) and Sta-
tuta majorie ecHesim Fuldensis, ungedruckle Quellen
2ur kirchlichen Rechts- und Vervaasungageachichte
der Benediktinerablei Fulda (1904).
RICKARD, HERBERT: Church of England;
b. at Derby Feb. 23, 18G7. He received his education
at Derby Sell. ml. King's College School, Loudon, and
Jesus College, Oxford (B.A., 1886; M.A., 1889); was
made deacon, 1888, and priest, 1889; was curate
of St. Paul Lozells, Birmingham, 1888-90; assist-
ant organizing secretary of the Assistant Curates
Society, 1S9U-92; citrate of Christ Church, Epsom,
1892-97; vice-principal of Chichester Theological
College, 1897-99; principal in 1899; perpetual cu-
rate of Sennicotta, 1897-1906; rector of St. Peter's
the Less, Chichester, 1903; and prcbendarv of
Chichester, 1905.
RIDDLE, JOSEPH ESMOND: Church of Eng-
land; b. at Bristol Apr. 7, 1804; d. at Cheltenham
Aug. 27, 1859. He was educated at Oxford (B.A.,
1828; M.A., 1831); was ordained priest, 1832, and
was incumbent of Leckhampton. near Cheltenham.
1840-59. In 1852 he was Bampton lecturer. He is
best known for his Latin~Engltih Dictionary, founded
on W. Freund (London, 1849), and (with T. K.
Arnold) English-Latin Lexicon ( 1 849) ; he also
wrote a commentary on I Peter (1834); Luther and
his Timea (18:57); Sermon* Doctrinal and Practical
(1838); the valuable Manual of Christian Antiq-
uities (London, 1839); Ecclesiastical Chronology
(1840); Churchman's Guide to the Use of the En.jl<*h
Liturgy (1848) ; Xatural History of Infidelity (Bamp-
ton lectures, 1852); History of the Papacy to the
Period of the Reformation (1854); Manual of Scrip-
ture History (1857); and Household Prayers (1857).
Bibuoobaphv: D.Vfl. ilviii. 274.
RIDDLE, MATTHEW BR0WH: Presbyterian;
b. at Pittsburg, Pa., Oct. 17, 1836. He was grad-
uated from Jefferson College, Canonsburg, Pa.
(A.B., 1852), and New Brunswick Tb.coloe.ical Semi-
nary, New Brunswick, N. J. (1859). He was ad-
junct professor of Greek in Jefferson College lo
1857-58 and chaplain of the Second New Jersey
Volunteers in the Army of the Potomac in 1861.
He then held Dutch Reformed pastorates in Hobo-
ken, N. J. (1862-65), and ftt Newark, N. J. (1865-
1869), and spent two years (1869-71) in travel and
study in Europe. He was professor of New-Testa-
ment exegesis in Hartford Theological Seminary
(1871-87), and since 1887 has filled a similar posi-
tion in the Western Theological Seminary, Alle-
ghany, Pa. He was a meml>er of the American
Company of New-Testament revisers, and for many
years was an editor of the American standard edi-
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
tion of the Revised Version of the Bible, besides be-
ing a member of the general assembly 'a committee
to revise the proofs of the Westminster Standards.
He translated and edited the sections on Romans
(except chaps, i.-v.), Galatians, Ephesiacs, and Co-
tossians for the American edition of J. P. Lange's
commentary (New York. 1869-70); contributed (in
collaboration with P. Schaff) the portions on Mat-
thew, Hark, and Luke (1879). Romans (1882), and
Epbesdans andl'oloss.iansU.S'S-1; these two indcpcnd-
enlly) to P. Schaff's Illustrated Popular Commen-
tary; and the volumes on Mark (1881), Luke (1883),
and Romans (1884) to the same scholar's Interna-
tional Revision Commentary; edited Mark anil Luke
in the American edition of H. A. W. Meyer's Com-
mentary on the New Testament (New York, 1884) ;
revised E. Robinson's Harmony of the Four Gospels
in Greek (Boston, 1885), Harmony of the Four Gos-
pel* in English (1886); and revised the Didache,
II Clement, Pseudo-Clementine Literature, and the
New-Testament Apocrypha for the American edi-
tion of The Anle-Nicene Fathers (New York, 1888-
1888), as well as Chrysostom's " Homilies on Mat-
thew " and Augustine's " Harmony of the Gospels "
for the first series of The Nicene and Posl-Xtone
Fathers (1888) ; and wrote Story of the Revised New
Testament, American Standard Edition (Philadel-
phia, 1908).
RHJGEWAY, CHARLES JOHN: Church of
England bis- hop of Chichester; b. at High Roding,
near Dunmow (32 m. n.e. of London), July 14, 1841.
He received his education at Trinity College, Cam-
bridge (B.A., 1863; M.A., 1884; D.D., 1905); was
curate of Christ Church, Tunbridge Wells, 1866-
1868; vicar of North Malvern, 1868-75; rector of
Buckhurst Hill, 1875-80, being also diocesan in-
spector at St. Albans, 1876-80; rector of St. Paul's,
Edinburgh, 1880-84; vicar of Christ Church, Lan-
caster Gate, 1SS4-I905, serving also as seine t preach-
er at Cambridge in 1893. to which office lie was again
called in 1905; Golden lecturer at St. Margaret.'*,
Lothbury, 1896-1905; prebendary of St. Paul's,
1899-1905; rural dean of Paddington, 1901-05;
commissioner to the archbishop of Capetown, 1900
1905, to the bishop of North China, 1901-05, and
to the bishop of Shantung, 1904-05; dean of Car-
hale, 1905-08; and was consecrated bishop of Chi-
chester, 1908. He is the author of: Foundation
Truths: a Course of Instructions (Edinburgh, 1884);
Holy Communion. Instructions and Devotions (Lon-
don, 1887); The Mountain of Blessedness (1888);
Is not this the Christ t A Course of Sermons (1889) ;
Confirmation; or, the Lat/ing on of Hands (1898);
What does the Churcii of England Sayt (1899); In
Paradise (1904); Story of the Prayer Book (1906);
The King and his Kingdom, and Otlier Sermons
(1906); Social Life (1907); and Short Family Prayers
(1908).
RIDLEY, NICHOLAS: English Reformer and
martyr; b. near Wulimontswyke (30 m. w. of New-
castle), Northumberland, early in the sixteenth cen-
tury (1500T); d. at the stake at Oxford Oct. 16,
1555. After studying at the grammar-school at
Newcastle-upon-Tyne, be entered Pembroke Hall,
Cambridge, 1518, where he later became fellow.
X.-3
In 1527 he took orders and went for further study
to the Sorbonnc, Paris, and to Louvain. Return-
ing to England, he rose to the position of senior
proctor at Cambridge, 1533. As proctor he signed
the decree against 1 he papal supremacy, 1534. He
was already tnuch sought after as a preacher. Cran-
mer made him his domestic chaplain and vicar of
Heme, East Kent. In 1540 he was appointed king's
chaplain and master of Pembroke Hall, in 1541
canon of Canterbury, in 1545 canon of Westminster,
and in 1547 bishop of Rochester. During the reign
of Kduard Yi., Ridley was active in promulgating
the new views. In 1545, and partly in QOOaaqBfflMM
of l lie perusal of Italramuus' De corpore el Banquine
Domini i. Lng. transl., The Book of Bertram Ihe Priest
Concerning the Body and Blood of Christ in the Sorrn-
ment, London (1549, 1680, and often, latest, 1880)
he publicly renounced the doctrine of transubstan-
tiation. He was deputed to set forth the Reformed
views in York, Durham, and other dioceses, and in
1549 to place Protestantism on a firm basis at. Cam-
bridge. He sat on the commission that deposed
Bonner, bishop of London, and Gardiner, bishop of
Winchester, and in 1550 was promoted to Bonner's
place. Foxe instances, as a sign of his goodness,
that for months he entertained Bonner's mother
at his palace, assigning to her the place of promi-
nence at the table, and contrasts Ridley's spirit
with the severity of Bonner. His deep interest in
the unfavored classes led him to make sitgneslion-i
to King Edward which found ultimate expression
in the foundation of three hospitals in London, St.
Thomas, Christ, and IVthleliem. Ridley's name is)
iii.ii ..-(ihihly associated with the names of Cranmer
and Latimer ns a foremost leader and a martyr of
English Protestantism. Mary, who had taken
offense at a visit Ridley had made her arid his offer
to preach in her presence, on her accession to the
throne quickly ordered his deposition, reinstating
Bonner as bishop oi London, July ■21), 1553. Ridley
was committed to the Toner from which ho waa
removed to Oxford, where he was held a prisoner in
Boeardii jail and the mayor's house. On Apr. 17,
1554, he was called upon to stand trial id the Di-
vinity School. Oxford, and was declared a heretic.
The Spanish friar, Soto, labored in vain to turn him
back to the old faith. After the passage of the new
statutes on heresy, the prisoner was summoned
again, Sept. 30, 1555, by Archbishop Pole, and was
convicted and eondeniuiil to the dames. In com-
pany with Latimer, he was burned in " the ditch "
over against Balliol Hall. The night before his exe-
cution he said to some friends with whom he supped:
" I mean to go to bed, and, by God's will, to Hasp
as quietly as ever I did in my life." Arrived at the
stake, he ran to Latimer, embraced him, and ki.— ed
him, A " scant sermon . in all a quarter of an hour,"
as Foxe puts it, was preached by Dr. Smith, which
Latimer and Ridley were both ready to answer but
they were denied the opportunity. Promised life,
if he would recant, Ridley replied, " So long as
breath is in my body, I will never deny my Lord
Chris! and his known truth." He gave his clothes)
to the bystanders, and was bound to the stake by
an iron chain. When the faggots were being lighted,
Latimer spoke to Ridley the famous words, " Be of
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
good comfort, Master Ridley. Play the man. We
shall this day light such a candle, by God's grace,
in England, as I trust shall never be put out."
The flames were slow in doing their work. Again
and again the martyr cried, " Let the 6re come unto
me. 1 can not burn." His lower members were
first consumed, and the end ciime when the fire
reached a bag of gunpowder which Ridley's brother-
in-law had tied at his neck. Foxe has given the best
account of Ridley's life and martyrdom, and de-
scribes him as " a man beautified with excellent
qualities so ghostly inspired and godly learned and
now written, doubtless, in the Book of Life." In
his account of Ridley's administration of the epis-
copal office, this writer emphasizes his attention
to prayer, as well as his constant industry, relieved
after dinner and supper by a game of chess. His
most famous saying is the one recorded during his
interview with Mary before she became queen.
When the Reformer expressed the hope that she
would not refuse God's Word, the princess replied,
" I can not tell what ye call God's Word. That is not
God's Word now that was God's Word in my father's
days." To this Ridley answered: " God's Word ia
one at al! times, but hath been belter understood
and practised in some ages than in others." Mary
in her response declared, " As for your new books,
1 thank God I never read any of them, I never did,
nor ever will do." Tin- few « ri tings Ridley left be-
hind him have been published by the R.tigious
Tract Soi'iety, Treatise and Letters of Dr. Nicholas
Riilli-;/ (London. 1-S30?), and by the Parker Society.
Works of Nicholas Ridley, D.D. (ed. H. Christmas.
London, 1841). Among the writings are a Brief
Declaration against Transubstantiation, a Treatise
against Image Worship, and A Piteous Lamr<it<iti<>ii
of the Miserable Estate of the Church in England in
the Time of the Late Revolt from the Gospel. The
Parker Sori.'iy volume also contains an account of
lii- di-]»il:it jons Lit Oxford prior to his death and a
reprint of Fox's account of his martyrdom. An
avenue in the yard of Pembroke Hall is still known
as Ridley's Walk. Quaries has a poem on Ridley
in which are the lines:
And in the flames, he sealed it with hia blood."
David S. Schaot.
In 1839 there wan erected at Oxford a '• Martyrs
Memorud," with statues of ('runnier, Latimer, and
Ridley, partly by way of protest against the Trac-
tarian Movement (see Thai tabijmsu], one of the
• ha raf! eristics of which was hostility to the Refor-
mation. A. H. N.
BiBLiooRiPHY: The original source is J. Foi's Acier and
Monumrnti (for editions see under Fox. John). An ex-
cellent memoir appear- in II. Monica ed. of the Brief
Declaration of the Larder Supper. London. 1805. Consult
further: G. Ridley, Life of Dr. Nicholas Ridteu, sometime
Bishop of London, London. 1783; Ihe memoir ie the
volume on KL.l!.-% in I. IS i.-hninn.l'a Fathers of the English
Church. 8 vols.. London. 1S07-12; <i. T, Ridlon, Hist, cf
the Ancient Ruedales and their Descendant,, pp. 419-424.
Manchester, N. H., 1884: W. Clark, The Anali-'in Infor-
mation, New York. 1M)7; J. Goirdner. Ennli.k Churrh in
the teth Century, passim. London, 1903: DNB, xlviii.
2SB-28B; and. in general, the wotks oQ thu history of the
period, secular
RIEGER, ri'ger, GEORG K05RAD: l'ielistie
preacher; b. at Cannstadt (4 m. n.e. of Stuttgart)
Mar. 7, 1687; d. at Stuttgart Apr. 16, 1743. After
studying theology he was private tutor at Tubingen,
1713-15; city vicar at Stuttgart and deacon at
Urac.h, 1715-31; and from that time continued in
■ durational and ministerial work at Stuttgart. He
was one of the most gifted preachers in the Evan-
nrlical Church of Germany, and was of the school
of J. A. Bengel (q.v.). He excelled all other Piet-
iata in eloquence, emotional power, and freshness.
He knew how to employ simple colloquialisms with-
out losing in dignity and force. HiB preaching was
marked by clearness, interest, and fluency. His
imagination served him well in using illustrations.
Dogmatic subjects frequently received painstaking
treatment, though without pedantry. He placed
himself in immediate touch with his hearers, never
losing the thread of his discourse. He published
collections of sermons as follows: HerzenspostiUe
(Zulhchau, 1742; Stutlgart, 1853-54); Hers- und
Hand-Postitte (1746; Berlin. 1852); Decora mini-
morwn in regno gratim (Stuttgart, 1733); and Rich-
tiger und techier Weg ;um Himmel (Stuttgart, 1744,
1844, and after). He published also Die Kraft der
Gotlstiigkeit (1732-36). (Hermann Beck.)
Bin Lion Barn i : Biographic mnterinl is contained in Rieger's
Richtiyrr un.t Irichlcr It',,, i'Sr u I iSufi . IS-I-I'; I .<l. Si-hoiidl,
Gtichichtt der Pradiat in der evanaclischen Kirche Deutsrh-
lands. pp. 196 sou... Gotha. 1872: H. C. Stuckeubcrt.
Lutheran Quarterly llcnru-. lis (ISSO), 504 sqq
RIEGER, EARL HEIHRICH: Son of the
im-erdin«; h. at Stuttgart June 16, 1726; d.
there Jan. 15, 1791. After studying theology,
he was domestic tutor at Augsburg, 1747-49;
vicar, 1749-50; tutor at Tubingen, 1750; deacon
at Ludwigsburg, 1754-57; and until his death
preacher at. Stuttgart. He left the impression
of a strong, firm character; and represented the
traditional teaching of the Lutheran Church in
i h[ i[i. j- : 1 [. it"i to the new rat innalism. Through his in-
llueiH'r the revision of the hymnal was moderate,
and of the old catechism (of 1681 and 1696) conserv-
ative. He was an active member of the Chrit-ten-
tliiiiii-L.-1-.-elLsohaft, founded by J. A. UrUrHTRcr
(q.v.). As a preacher, he was less spirited and
forceful than his father, but possessed rare pene-
tration, emphasis, and spirituality, moral earnest-
ness, a quiet, clear though tfulnesa, and ease, with
true Christian wisdom, and a winning grace and
mildness; but his form and presentation were
clumsy and awkward. After his death appeared
Predigten und Betrachtungen {Stuttgart, 1794);
Betrachtungen tiber das Neue Testament (4 vols.,
1S28; 1875); and Betrachtungen titer die Psalmen
und die zwdlf kleinen Propheten (1835; 1859).
(Hermann Beck.)
Bibliography: Chruten-Bote, ed. J. C. F. Burk. i (1832).
105 sqq.^ C, Uiosse, Die alien Trotter. Wtgwtutr in die
Erbauuneslitlecalur der cvaneetiseh-lutherischen Kirehe da
IS. bis IS. JahrhundeHs, pp. 495 sqq., Hennannsburg.
19IW.
RIEHM, [fen, EDWARD KARL ADGDST: Bib-
licul scholar; h. at Diersburg, near Offenburg (17
m. B.S.W. of Carlsruhe), Baden, Dec. 20. 1830; d.
at Halle Apr. 5, 1888. He studied theology and
philology at Heidelberg, 1848-50; and at Halle,
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
1850-52; and again at Heidelberg, 1852; was ad-
mitted to the ministry in 1853; vicar at Durlach,
1853-54; and garrison chaplain at Mannheim after
1855. In 1858 he entered the theological faculty
at Heidelberg, where he was associate plotaMPj
1861-62; and, 1862-66, associate professor of Old-
Testament exegesis at Halle, and professor, 1866-
1888. He was the author of: Die Gesii'i/ihung
Mosis im Lands Moab (Gotha, 1854); Dcr Lehr-
begriff des Hebraerbriefa (Ludwigshurg, 1S5S-59):
Die besondere Bedeutung des A. T. filr die religiose
Erkennlnis und doe religiose Leben der AtitHiehm
Gtmcind* (Halle, 1864); Die messianische Weis-
tagung (Gotha, 1875); Der Begriff der Stihne im
AUen Testament (1877); and Handle drterbuch den
biHischen AUertums (Bielefeld, 1875-84, and others).
After his death appeared Eirdeitung in das Alte
Testament (Halle, 1889); and Alttestamentliehe
Thealogie (18S9). A pupil and afterward colleague
of H, Hupfeld at Halle, he revised the latter's com-
mentary on Psalms (Gotha, 1867-71); was one of
the editors of the TSK (Gotha), 1866-88; and was
a member of the commission for the revision of
Luther's translation of the Bible, I865-8S. In his
exegetical work he was sejant ilir, thorough, and im-
parlial, and emphasized the religion of the Old
Testament as one of revelation.
(K. H. Pahncke.)
JUESSLER, rfs'ler, PAUL : Old-Testament
scholar; b. at Stuttgart Sept. 16, 1865. He received
his elementary education at Stuttgart and Rottweil,
and his advanced training at the University of Tub-
ingen and the theological seminary at fiottenlmrg;
was vicar at Mergentheim and Ellwangcn, 1889-
1892; taught in the higher gymnasium at Ehingcn,
1892-98; was city preacher at ISlaubeuren, 1889-
1907; became professor of Old-Testament m tg.i«iil
at Tubingen in the Roman Catholic theological
faculty, 1907. He has written a critical commen-
tary on Daniel (Stuttgart, 1899), and another on
the same book in the Kurzgefassler vsissenschaftlirker
Kammentar (Vienna. 1902).
RIETSCHEL, rit'shel, CHRISTIAH GEORG: Ger-
man Protestant, son of the sculptor of the famous.
Luther monument at Worms; b. at Dresden May
10, 1842. He was educated at the universities of
Erlangen, Berlin, and Leipsic from I860 to 1864, and
after being a member of the Domkandidatenslift at
Berlin in 1864-65 and of St. Paul's seminary for
preachers at Leipsic in 1866-67, was pastor at
Rudigedorf, Saxony, in 1868-74, head paster at Zit-
tau in 1874-78, second director of the preachers'
seminary at Wittenberg in 1878-81, and first -director
of the same institution in 1884-87, superintend eal
and district inspector of schools in 1878-87, and
pastor of St. Matthew's, Leipsic, in 1887-89. Since
1S89 he has been professor of practical theology in
the University of Leipsic, and also first university
preacher and director of St. Paul's seminary for
preachers in the same eity, while in 1904-05 he was
rector of the university. He has written Dte Ge-
trdhru'ig der Abendmaldsgcmeinschaft an llefurniii ''■■'
and Vniertt (I-eipsic, 1868); Martin Luther >,nd
Ignatius von Loyola, eine vergleicliendc Charakteris-
iik Hirer inneren Entwicktung (Wittenberg, 1870);
,\b«chiiil/ t.Ur:i:Iin der Kirchcn- und Si/mxhl-Ord-
nung (1885); Luther und sein Hans (Halle, 1888);
Lutlccr und die Ordination (Wittenberg, 1889); Das
Wort vom Glauben (sermons; Leipsic, 1892); Bit
Aufgabe der Orgii im Gottcsdicnxl his ins iieh!;ehnte
Jahrhundert (1893); Der evangelisehe Gottesdienst
unt-r derm Gesichtspunkt dcr Anbetung im Geist und
in der Wahrheit (Halle, 1894); Die Frage des Zu-
iviiriiii' ' uscldusses dcr deutsclicn evaiujelisehen Landcr-
kirr.ht n zur 11 aiming und Fordening Hirer gemein*
samen Annrlegenhnden (Leipsic, 1900); Lchrbucii
derLiturgik (2 vols., Berlin, 1000-0S); Weihnaehten.
in Kirche, Kunst und Volksleben (Bielefeld, 1901);
Die evangdische Kirche und dip tmiiale Frage (Loip-
sic, 1904); and Zur Reform des Rdigionsunler-
richts in der Volksschule (Berlin, 1909).
RIGG, JAMES HARRISON: English Wesleyan
Methodic: t>. at Newest k-on-Tyne Jan. 16, 1821;
d. at London Apr. 17, 1909. He was educated at.
Old Kiugswood School, an. I, after being a teacher
from is:!,") to 1845, entered the Wesleyan ministry.
hi 1S06 he was elected a member of the " Hun-
dred " (a -e Methodists, I., 1, § 6) and two years later
became principal of I lie Wesleyan Training College
for Day School Teacher-, Westminster, London, a
position which he retained until 1903. He was
provident of the Wesleyan Methodist Conference,
and in this capacity was instrumental in .-mi ring
the ri.liriission of laymen to that body in 1878. For
fifteen years he was editor of The London Quarterly
Review and was also on its editorial staff for sever:.]
years longer. He edited E. A. Rumbold's Vindi-
cation of the Character and Administration of Sir T.
Rumbold, Bart,, Governor of Madras in 1778-80
(London, 1868), and was the author of: The
Principles of Wesleyan Methodism (London, 1850);
Congregational Inde^ndiney and Wenlei/an Connex-
innalixm Contrasted I I Sol); Modern Anglican Theol-
ogy (1857); Essays for the Times on Eccltsin'tica!,
and Social Subjects (I860): The Sabbath and Die
Sabbath Law before and after Christ (1869); The
Churchmanship of John Wesley (ISftS); National
FditraH'iii, Enyli.ili. and Foreign (lS7rlj; The Lieing
We sir;/ (is lie was in his Youth and in Ins Prime.
(18751; Canncriona! Eeonomg of Wesieyan Method*
i.im (1S79); Discourses and Addresses on Leading
Truths of Religion and Philosophy (1880]; The
diameter and Life-Work of Dr. Pusey (1883): Wan
Wesley a Hiah Churchman, and is Modern Mcthail-
ism Wesleyan Methodism* or, John Wcslat, the.
Church Of England, and Wcs/egan Mcthotlium (isS.'t);
A Comparative View of Church Organisms, Primi-
tive and Protestant (1SST); Dr.fard High Anglican-
ism and its Leaders (1895); Scenes and Studies in.
the Ministry of Our Lord, with Thoughts on Preach-
ing (1902); and Reminiscences Sixty Years ago
(1904).
Bnuaewm ! J. Telford. Tk, Lilt o) Jamil BerrftK Rwo,
lStl-190B, Londou, 10IB.
RIGGEWBACH, rip'en-I.ilH, CHRISTOPH JO-
HANNES: Swiss Protestant theologian; h. at Basel
Oct. 8. 1818; d. there Sept. 5, 1890. Hu pur-
sued his studies at Ba-cl, Herlin. and Bonn under
IVlomiiOi, N'ilzseh. lilcek. Sack, and others. He
was ordained in 1842, became pastor in Bennwyl,
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
where his affiliations were at first with the radical
school of theology. His position later on became
more moderate. In 1S50, he was called to the the-
ological faculty at the University of Basel, teach-
ing New Testament, pastoral theology, giving pop-
ular lectures on the life of Jesus, and engaging also
in the study of church music and hymcology. He
became an earnest opponent of theological radical-
ism, combated the leaders of the modern school,
and helped to found the Kirehenfreund as the organ
of the conservative group. Even in thin polemical
atmosphere, he never lost the personal friendship
of his opponents. He was one of the founders of
the Evangelirii-h-kirctilii'liiT Vcrein, which worked
in conservative interests, and was interested in the
EaTOngdieal Alliance. He was also a leader in the
extension of missionary work, becoming president
of the Basel missions committee in 1878. He pub-
lished; Vorlesungen fioer das Leben Jesu (Basel,
1858}; Die'mosaische Stiftshutte (1862); Die Zeug-
nisse fur das Evangelism Johannis (1866); Der
Kirchriigcaang in Basel xeit der Reformation (1870);
Hieronymus Annoni (1S70); Der sogenannte Brief
des Barnabas (1873); Eine Reise nach Palastina
(1873); and the commentary upon I and II Thos-
salonians in Lange's commentary.
Bibliography: Deutoch-epangdiiche Kirehmirituntj. iv
(1890), *94-496: P. Worn, in AOetmtiiu .Vinioiienl.
thrift, xvii (1800), 560-585; Oeri, in Bailer KircAcn-
fitund, 1893, DM, 2-5, of. 1890, no. 19.
RIGGS, ALEXANDER BROWS: Presbyterian;
b. at Portsmouth, 0-, June 21, 1842. He was edu-
cated at Jefferson College, Pa. (A.B., 1863), and
after teaching mathematics at Western University,
Pittsburg, Pa., for a year, was admitted to the
Pennsylvania bar. He hod practised only two
years, however, when, giving up law, be entered
Auburn Theological Seminary, where he spent two
years, and completed his theological training at
Union Theological Sminary (1*711), after which he
held pastorale- at the Reformed Church, Fort Plain,
N. Y. (1870-76), the Presbyterian Church, Water-
ford, N. Y. (1876-90), and the Seventh Presbyte-
rian Church, Cincinnati (1891-1902). From 1894
to 1897 he was instructor in Greek in Lane Theo-
logical Seminary, Cincinnati, and since 1897 has
been professor of New-Testament exegesis and in-
troduction in the same institution.
RIGGS, EDWARD: Presbyterian; b. at Smyrna,
Turkey, June 30, 1844. He was graduated from
Princeton College (A.B., 1865) and Union Theo-
logical Seminary. New York City (1869). In 1869
he was appointed a missionary of the American
Board of Commissioners for Foreign Miasions and
went at once to Sivas, Asia Minor, where he re-
mained seven years. Since 1876 he has been sta-
tioned at Marsovan, Turkey, where he has been
chiefly associated with the Theological Seminary of
the Western Turkey Mission, having been pro-
fessor of systematic- theology for a number of years
and president since 1903. He has also been a man-
ager of Anatolia College, Marsovan, since its or-
ganization in 1886, and has given instruction in
various departments as a missionary. In theology
he describes himself as " a broad, progressive con-
servative, holding to the main tenets of the tra-
ditional evangelical theology, adhering strictly to
the Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments, but
subjecting everything to the most rigid tests of
genuine and careful scholarly examination." He
likewise holds " that an honest application of the
most searching criticism results in maintaining the
sound orthodox beliefs in all their essential points."
He prepared the chapter on The Christian Forces
at Work in the Turkish Empire for W. D. Grant's
Christendom Anno Domini MDCCCCI (New York,
1902).
RIGGS, ELI AS: American missionary in Turkey;
b. at New Providence, N. J., Nov. 19, 1810; d. at
Constantinople Jan. 17, 1901. He graduated at
Amherst College, Mass., 1829, and at Andover The-
ological Seminary, Mass., 1832; was missionary of
the American Board at Athens and Argoe, Greece,
1832-38; later at Smyrna, Asia Minor; and at
Constantinople 1853-1901. He visited his native
country once, in 1856, and taught Hebrew in the
Union Theological Seminary, New York, 1857-58.
He was a remarkable philologist, having early ap-
plied himself to a mastery of the Semitic languages
and Greek. In 1844 he was assigned to the Arme-
nian branch of the Turkish mission and was en-
gaged in translating the Scriptures into Armenian,
1845-52. He was one of a committee engaged in
1873 by the American and the British and Foreign
Bible Societies to translate the Bible into Turkish;
and, as a result, the entire Bible was published both
in Armenian and Arabic characters in 1878. He
participated also in a revision of the same issued
in 1886. He is said to have had a working knowl-
edge of twenty languages and the mastery of twelve,
and to have produced either as originals or transla-
tions no less than 478 hymns in the Bulgarian lan-
guage alone. He was the author of A Manual of
the Chaldee Language containing a Grammar, Chres-
tomathy, and a Vocabulary (Andover, 1832; re-
vised ed., New York, 1858); Grammar of the
Modern Armenian Language, with a Vocabulary
(Smyrna, 1847); Grammar of the Turkish Language
an written in the Armenian Character (Constantinople,
1856); and Translation of the Scriptures into the
Bulgarian Language, completed with the aid of na-
tive scholars (Constantinople, 1871); Suggested
Emendations of the A. V. of the Old Testament (An-
dover, 1873); Suggested Modifications of the R. V.
of the New Testament (1883); and Notes on Difficult
Passages of the New Testament (Boston, 1889).
RIGGS, JAMES FORSYTH; Presbyterian; b.
at Boumabat (a village near Smyrna), Turkey, Oct.
4, 1852. He was graduated from Princeton College
(A.B., 1872), where ho was Boudinot fellow in his-
tory in 1872-73. and from Union Theological Semi-
nary, New York City (1878). He was then pastor
of the Presbyterian church at Cranford, N. J., in
1878-84, and of the Dutch Reformed church at
Bergen Point, N. J., in 1884-92; professor of New-
Testament Greek in the New Brunswick Theolog-
ical Seminary (1892-98), and during that time de-
livered lectures on historical subjects under the
auspices of the Rutgers College University Exten-
sion system. Since 1898 be has been pastor of the
Brick Presbyterian Church, East Orange, N. J, In
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
BhjEtoo
theology he is a moderate Calviniat and has no sym-
pathy with revolutionary ideas in Biblical criticism.
RIGGS, JAMES STEVENSON: Presbyterian;
b. at New York July 16, 1853; graduated at the
College of New Jersey, Princeton, 1874; studied at
Leipaic, 1875; graduated at Auburn Theological
Seminary, N. Y., 1880; was pastor at Fulton, N. Y.,
1880-84; adjunct professor of Biblical Greek in
Auburn Theological Seminary, 1884-87; and pro-
fessor since 1887. He is author of a History of the
Jewish People: Maccabean and Roman Periwig
(New York, 1809), and Messages of Jesus according
to the Gospel of John (1907).
RIGGS, STEPHEN RETURN: Presbyterian mis-
sionary to the Indians; b. at Steuben vi lie, O., Mar.
23, 1812; d. at Beloit, Wis., Aug. 24, 1883. He was
graduated at Jefferson College, 1834; studied for a
year in the Western Theological Seminary, Alle-
gheny, Pa.; was licensed in 1836; and was from
1837 till 1883 a missionary among the Dakotas. He
mastered their language and reduced it to writing
and into it translated nearly the entire New Testa-
ment, and also portions of the Old. He also pre-
pared a dictionary of the language and other aids
for its acquisition. He was the author of many
translations into it. In English he wrote hia auto-
biography, Mary and I. Forty years with the Sioux,
Chicago, 1880; also Tah-koo Wah-kan; or, the Gos-
pel among the Dakotas, Boston, 1S69.
RIGHTEOUSNESS, ORIGINAL.
Doctrinal Development till Augustine (I I).
The Scholastic Doctrine (| 3).
Teachinf. of Reformers end Roman Catholic* (| 3).
tMa Protestant Views (} 4).
Cooclusioa (| 6).
The older Protestant theologians designated by
the term juslitia originalis, the Latin equivalent of
original righteousness, the condition of man as
made in the image of God, and before
i. Doctrinal the fall. It is found for the first time
Develop- in the writings of the Schoolmen, hut
ment till the development of the doctrine was
Augustine, begun by Augustine, who uses the term
■prima justitia, " first righteousness "
<De peetatorum merUU et remissions, II., xxxvii.).
While a condition of original integrity of man, and
at a subsequent breach of harmony and deprava-
tion, was generally presupposed in Christian be-
lief, Augustine was the first to bring this condition
into intimate connection with man's creation in the
-divine image, and he arrived at a higher valuation
of both. Irenseus, Theophylact, Justin, and Clem-
cot of Alexandria spoke of the first state as one of
-childlike simplicity and innocence, but Athanasiua
developed the doctrine (De trinitate, iii. 16): " those
who mortify the deeds of the body and have put
on the new man which is created after God are after
his image; for such was Adam before bis disobedi-
ence." The first state was not treated in its rela-
tion to the essential nature of man; prominence
was given, not to what he originally was, but to
what he was by nature, and the image of God was
sought chiefly in man's spiritual endowment with
reason and freedom, through which he is rmnhind
to attain perfection. Thus moral perfection was
denied for the first state, though nothing was said
of the actual condition therein, of a " siipiTiiMi'd
gift," or of the "equilibrium" of PflagilniBITt
With Augustine the iinugc of God is the inalien-
able " rational soul." This includes the will, with a
positive inclination to holiness, though even the
first man u.-cili.t the assistance of grace in order to
reach " full righteousness." At first man willed not
to sin, and by supernatural grace he was able not
to sin. It might seem as if the will not to sin was
not true righteousness, but " good will " in the
first man constituted righteousness in the same de-
gree as concupiscence in man after his fall run.-ti-
tuii- original sin. At the foil the concupiscence of
the flesh took the place of the " good will " and is
itself sin.
After Augustine's death, semi-Pelagiantsm pre-
vailed in the Church. Its opposition to Augustine
directed itself, indeed, against his doctrine of pre-
destination, but not on the basis of tho
i. The conception of sin and salvation. It
Scholastic was really an opposition to inexorable
Doctrine, severity in the valuation of natural
corruption. In this respect, semi-
Pelagianism was successful at the Synod of Orange,
in 5'29, which asserted that " by tho sin of Atiiun
the free will was so inclined and attenuated that no
one was afterwards able to love God as he should,
to believe in God, or to be influenced concerning
God, unless the prevenient grace of the divine
mercy acted upon him." Scholastic theologian?
went further. They dated the discord between
flesh and spirit before the fall. It is true, "original
righteousness" as well as a sinful state resulting
from the fall would be impossible in this case, if
Augustine, had not offered a way of escape in the
llnuiuht that divine grace suhjcct.e'l the lloli In
the spirit in the cose of Adam, and thus a harmony
was effected which is not inherent in man per se.
But this harmony or subjection of concupiscence to
reason or tho will of God is "original righteousness "
which consequently is a "superadded gift." The
proof was found in the alleged difference- between
"likeness" and "image" (Gen. i. 26). The i-sscntiid
attributes of the divine image were reason and will.
By the accidents which belong to it but do not con-
stitute it, and are added as a gift of grace, man is
enabled \<\ acquire eternal life. Thus man after his
fall i- still in his first pure state with the modification
that his senses and lusts are no longer held in check
by the assistant grace, and thus a state of disorder
has taken the place of subjection to reason. Then
original sin becomes a lack of "original righteous-
ness"; it is not, however, sin in the positive sense
of Augustine, but only in a negative sense.
The Reformers, with their deep sense of the gross-
ncss of sin, were utterly unable to assume a naturally
pure condition; for nature was impure. Original
sin is a real and true sin, and not simply
3- Teaching a deficiency or infirmity, but such a
of Reformers sin as condemns and eternally separates
and Roman from God all men that proceed from
Catholics. Adam (cf. Augsburg Confession, ii.),
and thus the first state of man must
have included an opposite operation of the good.
But as this operation is an essential condition of life
Righteousness
Rimmon
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
88
for him, it can not be regarded as a mere accident, it
must be something that originally and necessarily
belongs to man. The Formula of Concord, therefore,
in accordance with the view of the Reformers,
designated original righteousness not simply as
"concreate righteousness/' but as the essential fact
of having been created in the image of God. Thus
the Lutheran Church, as well as the Reformed, ad-
vanced a step beyond Augustine. Scholasticism had
left a number of questions unsettled, such as whether
original righteousness was a " grace making accept-
able " (Thomas Aquinas) or a w grace given to those
acceptable" like the charismata (Duns Scotus).
The Council of Trent avoided pronouncing on this
point, and affirmed that Adam, " when he had trans-
gressed God's commandment in Paradise, immedi-
ately lost the holiness and righteousness in which
he had been placed," with the apparent intention of
excluding not scholastic deductions but the doctrine
of the Reformers. Bellarmine developed the Roman
Catholic doctrine in this opposition clearly and
adroitly. The Lutherans, according to him, agree
with the Pelagians because they deprive the first
man of supernatural gifts, adding the further error
that after the fall man lacks "a natural attribute"
— free will. In contrast to this doctrine, according
to him, the Roman Catholic Church distinguishes
between "image" and "likeness." The former
refers to nature, the latter to the supernatural, and
denotes some " ornaments of wisdom and righteous-
ness" which man received in creation but lacks
now. As man came forth from the creator's hand,
he consisted of flesh and spirit, and stood related
both to the animals and to the angels. On the
latter side he had intelligence and will; on the
former, senses and appetites. A conflict arose, and
from the conflict "a terrible difficulty in doing well."
This was the "disease of nature" which inheres in
matter, hence God added the gift of original right-
eousness. It was this perfection of the divine image,
and not the image itself, which man lost at the fall.
Among later Protestant theologians, the rational-
ists did not essentially change the doctrine concern-
ing the first state. Since the time of Schleiermacher
a certain necessity of original nature
4. Later has been attached to sin. Schleier-
Protestant macher expressly states that an incapac-
Views. ity for good works was in human nature
before the fall, located in the flesh,
that is, "the totality of the lower faculties of the
soul," and that consequently the sin which was
transmitted to his descendants was originally in the
first man. Sin, according to him, is not the first
actual condition; with the awakening of the con-
sciousness of God it was preceded by a state of per-
fection which was not without consequences per-
ceptible even after the fall. Subsequently, however,
a time was bound to come in which sensuousness in-
creased in some direction. Lipsius transformed
the "state of original perfection" as taught by
Schleiermacher into the "primitive form of ethical
religion," that is, into the immediate, but uncon-
scious and only relative, communion with God
which from the consciousness of its opposite ap-
pears as a lost paradise. Rothe considers man the
union of two elements of opposite qualities, bound
to strive after the right proportion between his ego
and his material nature, thus transposing man's
likeness to the image of God into the future. Bieder-
mann sees the basis of sin in the sensual nature of
man, which was created by God intentionally in
order to realise and develop his redeeming grace in
the history of salvation. Ritschl agrees with Bieder-
mann so far as to hold that the doctrine of the first
state should be replaced by that of the destiny of
man.
All these views correctly presuppose the identity
of the present substance of man with the original
substance, but they err in identifying man's present
condition with his original condition. It is an im-
probable assumption that anything lost by sin must
be "superadded" unless the condition is considered
something " superadded " to the substance. A sub-
stance must have its corresponding
5. Conclu- state or condition, it must have attri-
sion. butes ; but the question is whether man's
present condition corresponds to the
human substance. Lutheran theologians teach that
the human essence does not now possess that
condition which it requires; that man's actual con-
dition is not merely in a state of imperfect develop-
ment, it is opposed to the essence. The next ques-
tion is, whether man began with a state of absolute
moral perfection. Against this view, Julius M Oiler
properly brings the objection that it excludes the
possibility of the fall. But neither Luther, the other
Reformers, nor the Lutheran confessions teach a
state of absolute moral perfection. It should be
asked rather, whether man might have begun with
goodness, and this question must be answered in
the affirmative; for it is the conviction of every
justified person that the moral condition must be
good before any good action can be done. The moral
condition must in the first man lie at the basis of his
conduct, and can exist only as an effect wrought by
God in the same way as in the justified and regen-
erate. In this respect there is no difference between
the primitive state of innocence and the restoration
of innocence in justification. The difference between
the first state and that of the redeemed lies rather in
the fact that the latter has reached the point where
the first man should have stood after his temptation;
but the moral quality imparted by God has nothing
to do with this. The assumption of an original in-
difference presupposes a will without content or aim
and at the same time a preponderating capacity
for goodness; thus there would be a capacity which
in its quality would be superior to the will; such an
instinctive desire for goodness, overpowering the
will, would make sinning impossible. Moreover,
indifference annuls freedom; for indifference is not
freedom, but constraint of will; freedom is rather
the capacity for unhampered normal self-activity.
Man's original condition was not without positive in-
clination to goodness. His will had this disposition ;
but while it was in harmony with God's will, it
might sin, and in the possibility of sinning consisted
its freedom. It was man's duty to preserve his
rectitude by voluntary choice, thus confirming God's
work. (H. T. CREMERf.)
Bibliography: The pertinent literature is quite fully given
under Imaok of God. The earlier discussions are well
89
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
BiffhtaousneM
Simmon
represented by Augustine's " City of God," XII., i.-ix.,
xxiii.; Anselm, De caeu diaboli. xii.; Aquinas, Summa,
II., xciii.-xcvii.; Z. Urainus, Summe of Christian Religion,
Ques. 6, London, 1587; J. Edwards, Doctrine of Original
Sin Defended, II., i., in his Works, New York, 1808-09;
J. Howe, Oracle* of God, lectures xvi.-xix., in his Works,
rob. vii.-viii., London, 1822. The subject is usually dis-
cussed under Anthropology in the systems of theology (see
in and under Dogma, Dogmatics), e.g., W. Q. T. Shedd,
Dogmatic Theology, ii. 95-114, cf. the citations from earlier
authorities in iii. 288-302, New York, 1889-94, cf. also
his Hi*, of Doctrine, ii. 54-65, 8th ed.. ib. 1884; C. Hodge,
Syetematic Theology, ii. 92-115. New York, 1871-73; H. B.
Smith. Syetematic Theology, pp. 252-259, New York, 1884;
A. H. Strong, Syetematic Theology, pp. 262-268, Rochester,
1880; H. £. Jacobs, The Book of Concord, consult index
under " Man," Philadelphia. 1893.
RIMING OFFICES: Liturgical offices in which
not only the hymns, but also all antiphons, respon-
8ories, vereiclee, etc., are in rime and meter, the only
prose being the Psalms and lessons. Since the anti-
phons and responsories originally were concerned
with the history of a feast or a saint, these offices
were called histories rhythmica. Some 900 of these
offices, only a small portion of the original number,
have been edited by Clemens Blume and Guido
Maria Dreves in their Analecta hymnica medii ctvi, v.,
xiii., xiv. b, xvii., xviii., xxiv., xxv., xxvi., xxviii.,
xli. a, xlv. a (Leipsic, 1889-1904). First appearing
in the ninth and tenth centuries, the riming offices
reached their zenith between the middle of the
twelfth and the middle of the fourteenth centuries,
though specimens are known as late as the seven-
teenth century. This rich development finds its
explanation in the liturgical liberty allowed in the
Middle Ages, while the distinctly local character of
the riming offices is shown by the fact that the chief
sources are the breviaries of individual dioceses and
orders. On the other hand, wider circulation was
enjoyed by the offices contained in the breviaries of
such orders as the Franciscans and Dominicans; if
a riming office was incorporated in the Roman
Breviary, its wide use was assured; and the popu-
larity of the saint honored by a particular office,
as well as the literary merit of the office in question,
was yet another factor in the extension of its use.
The present Breviary (q.v.) contains no complete
riming office.
From a literary point of view the riming offices
run the entire gamut from perfunctory doggerel to
flights of genuine poetry. Among the best-known
are the offices in honor of Gregory the Great (Ana-
lecta hymnica, v. No. 64), Saints Anne (xxv. No. 18),
Benedict (xxv. No. 52), Elizabeth (xxv. No. 90),
James (xxvi. No. 42) Peter (xxvi. No. 48), and
Catharine (xxvi. No. 69), and the Virgin (xxiv. Nos.
25, 29, 30). The authorship of offices is known in
only a few cases, among these writers being Alfanus,
archbishop of Salerno (d. 1085) ; Goswin of Bossut
(d. after 1229); Origo Scaccabarozzi of Milan (d.
1293); John Peckham, archbishop of Canterbury
(d. 1292); Brinolph I., bishop of Scara (d. 1317);
Christian of Lilienfeld (d. before 1332); Birger,
archbishop of Upsala (d. 1383); and Lippold of
Steinberg (d. 1415). (P. Drews.)
BmuooftArar: Consult the introductions to the offices
printed in the Analecta hymnica medii awi, ut sup.; S.
Bftumer. Qeechichte dee Brevier; pp. 356-304, Freiburg.
1805; Julian's von Speir liturgieche Reimofficien, ed. H.
Fetder, Freiburg in Switaerland, 1001.
RIMMON, rim'en.
I. The Deity.
The Name; Extent of the Cult (f 1).
Ramman in Babylonia (f 2).
In Assyria and Syria (f 3).
Place of Origin (f 4).
II. As a Place Name.
Rimmon is the name given to a deity and to
several places named in the Old Testament.
L The Deity: According to II Kings v. 18,
Rimmon was a Syrian deity who possessed a temple
almost certainly located in Damascus; the name
occurs as an element in the personal name Tabrim-
mon, father of Benhadad (I Kings xv.
i. The 18); cf. also Hadadrimmon. The
Name ; pronunciation indicated by the Masoret-
Extent of ic pointing is certainly mistaken. This
the Cult is suggested (1) by the variant readings
of the texts of the Septuagint (Remman,
Reeman, Remmath, with similar forms for the ele-
ment in Tabrimmon); (2) by the Syriac reading
Ramun; (3) by the fact that a god Ramman, who
is especially identified in the cuneiform writings
with the "Westland" (Syria), is known to have
been worshiped in Assyria and Babylonia from an
early period; (4) by the form Raman used by Philo
Byblius as preserved in a fragment (C. and T.
Mailer, Fragmenta historicorum Grcscorum, iii. 575,
Paris, 1841); (5) the Masoretic pointing is easily
accounted for by the fact that rimmon is the Hebrew
for "pomegranate," which (a) is common in Pales-
tine, probably giving rise to a number of place
names (see below, II.), and (b) has an important
position in religious symbolism (being an emblem
of fertility) and ornamentation (cf. Ex. xxviii.,
xxxix.; I Kings vii.; II Chron. iii. 16, iv. 13), and
this pronunciation might easily be transferred to a
deity by those who fixed the pointing of the text.
Assuming Ramman as the proper vocalization of the
name (derived probably not from rUm or ramam,
"to be high," but from rammanu, "to thunder"), it
appears that the ideograph used in the cuneiform
records is IM, and that this ideograph represents also
a deity Hadad (Adad, Addu, Daddu, Dada; cf.
Pinches in PSBA, 1883, pp. 71-73; Bezold, in
PSBA, 1887, pp. 174 sqq.) whose provenience is the
" Westland," i.e., Syria. It then appears that Ram-
man and Hadad are the same deity, that his cult
was wide-spread, and that other designations are
Ragimu (from ragam, "to cry aloud"), Mer and Bur
(these names being possibly those of earlier or local
deities whose personality and functions Ramman
absorbed and appropriated), Martu (from the name
for "Westland"), and many others; one list alone
is said to apply to him forty-one names. The wor-
ship of this deity can by many references in the cune-
iform documents be traced in Babylonia and Assyria,
also in Syria and Palestine through the Amarna
Tablets (q.v.) and through the discoveries at Taan-
ach (cf. Sellin in the publications of the Vienna
Academy, 1904, pp. 113, 118, 119; Macrobius,
Saturnalia, I., xxiii. 18, makes him chief deity of the
Assyrians), also in Arabia (CIS, ii. 117 gives an in-
scription from North Arabia of fourth or fifth cen-
tury in which appears Rmnnthn, "Rammon has
given" — cf. the Hebrew Jonathan, " Yahweh has
Simmon
Binokart
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
40
given " ; CIS, iv. 140 gives an inscription of c. 24 B.C.
which knows a deity Rmn who is " Lord of Alman " ;
CIS, ii. 73 gives a reading zdkrmn, "Ramman is
just" or "Ramman justifies/' cf. the Hebrew names
Zedekiah and Jehozadak). Attempts to find this
deity in the A vesta are as yet doubtful in their re-
sults. The Rama of Vendidad i. 1 ; Sirozah i. 7, 16,
ii. 7, etc., can be better accounted for on Indo-Aryan
grounds; moreover the extent of the indebtedness
of Zoroastrianism to Babylonian religion has not
been made out. Hence it can not be asserted cate-
gorically that this Rama is equivalent to the Ram-
man of Syria, Assyria, and Babylonia.
In Babylonia about Hammurabi's time Ramman
was associated, in a hymn which may be earlier than
Hammurabi, with Bel (not Marduk), Sin, Ninib,
Ishtar, and Shamash. In Babylonia the
2. Ramman ideograph already referred to is gener-
in Baby- ally used; possibly the deity was
Ionia. known also as Immeru (cf. the name
Mer); but Ramman is well authenti-
cated for Babylonia, especially in the region of
Shirpurla (Telloh). Ramman seems to have come
into prominence in the south in the time of the king
named, and after that period increased in popularity
(with some vicissitudes), especially under the Kas-
shites and later under Nebuchadrezzar I. An in-
scription from the Kasshite period calls him "lord
of justice," and in this function he was associated
with Shamash, with whom he was also consulted
as an oracle god. He was a storm-deity, a syllabary
designates him the god of thunder, and he carries
the thunderbolt and ax (cf . with this the expression
in no. 149 of the Amarna Tablets, Winckler's num-
bering: " he who thunders in the heavens like Addu,
so that the whole land trembles at his voice"); in
the omen tablets he is called the withholder and the
sender of rain. His connection with the rain is dis-
tinct from that with justice ; he has a twofold aspect,
he sends rain to fertilize the fields and produce
crops in order to reward virtue, also to destroy crops
and thus to punish the sin of the impious. In this
latter relation he is brought into causative connec-
tion with the deluge, this being due to his anger.
He is also described as making weeds to grow and
so punishing the wicked. In the pictorial represen-
tations Ramman-Hadad is often accompanied by a
bull, and he at times wears the horns of that animal.
The eleventh month (January-February) was sacred
to him. His consort was Shala ( " woman, ' ' " wife " ) ,
whose part, however, is insignificant, like that of
goddesses generally in the Semitic world.
That in Assyria this deity was early of importance
is shown by the name of the king of c. 1825 B.C.
which may be read either Shamshi-Ramman or
Shamshi-Hadad (see Assyria, VI., 3, §1). For it is
now known that in at least some cases the element
in Assyrian royal names which has
3. In Assyria been transcribed Ramman must be
and Syria, read Hadad (cf., e.g., the Sitzungsbe-
richie of the Berlin Academy, 1899, p.
118). It is demonstrable that in Assyria Hadad
and Ramman were current as names for this deity
along with other designations as in Babylonia. He
appears to have been more popular in Assyria than
in the south. He shared with Ami in Asshur a
temple dedicated to him alone by Shamshi-Ram-
man, so that the connection with Ami seems later
than the dedication, Ami being received as a sort of
guest. The statues of Ramman and Shala were
carried away from Ekallate (a city— or temple? —
represented as in the south of Assyria) and restored
by Sennacherib. Tiglath-Pileser I. calls this god
Martu, and the connection with storms is still held,
his weapons being lightning, hunger, and death.
For Syria and Palestine the worship is indicated
by the personal names (probably not by the names
of places; see below, II.) compounded with Hadad.
Biblical passages are: (1) I Kings xv. 18, 20; II
Chron. xvi. 2, 4, Benhadad a king of Syria contem-
porary with Asa; (2) I Kings xx.; H Kings vi.
24, viii. 7, 9, another king of the same name con-
temporary with Ahab; (3) II Kings xiii. 3, 24, 25,
a son of Hazael; probably Amos i. 4 and Jer. xlix.
27 use the name as a title of the Syrian kings. The
name Adadi-rimani appears in an .inscription of
the seventh century in Haran. The forms Addu
and the like occur frequently in the Amarna Tablets.
The origin of Ramman is still a matter of doubt.
Incidental expressions in the cuneiform records,
such as that which names him Martu, seem to in-
dicate that the Assyrians assigned to him an Ara-
mean origin. The resulting supposition
4. Place long was that contact of Assyria with
of Origen. Aram brought the god into the Assyrian
pantheon, and that Aramean immi-
gration carried him also into Babylonia, the result
being his adoption by the priests and people of the
two regions. But the early evidence of his worship
in both Babylonia and Assyria, his mention under
the ideograph IM, and a multiplicity of minor items
have raised at least the possibility that he was of
Sumerian origin, emerging into prominence only
in the period named. His character as a storm-god
is general and uniform. Dr. William Hayes Ward
presents the theory that Hadad was the prototype
out of which Yahweh developed. A Hittite deity
carried the same emblems as Hadad-Ramman, as did
Jupiter Dolichenus; in these cases the probability
is in favor of a borrowing.
n. As a Place Name: In this sense Rimmon oc-
curs frequently in the Old Testament: (1) a city in
Judah or Simeon (Josh. xv. 32; Zech. xiv. 10), prob-
ably to be read En-rimmon (Neh. xi. 29), the present
Um al-Ramamim; (2) a rock in Benjamin (Judges
xx. 45, 47, xxi. 13), the modern Rammun, four
miles east of Bethel; (3) a city in Simeon possibly
identical with (1) above (I Chron. iv. 32); (4) a
city in Zebulon (I Chron. vi. 77; cf. Josh. xix. 13
R.V.), the modern Rummaneh, north of Nazareth;
(5) a station on the exodus, Rimmon-parez (Num.
xxxiii. 19-20); (6) Gath-rimmon, a city of Dan
(Josh. xix. 45; cf. the GiH-rimmu of the Amarna
Tablets, no. 164 in Winckler's edition). In these
cases the probability is against any connection with
the deity, the name being better taken from rimmon,
"pomegranate." Geo. W. Gilmore.
Bibliography: Consult, besides the references given in the
text, the literature on the religion given under Assyria
and Babylonia, especially: M.'Jastrow, Jr., Religion of
Babylonia and Assyria, Boston, 1889, Germ, ed., G lessen,
1905 (best); W. von Baudissin, Sludien eur semitischen
Retiffionsgeschichtt, i. 294 sqq., 306, sqq., Leipsic, 1876;
41
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bimmon
Binckart
P. Scholts, Gotzendienst und Zauberwesen bei den alien
Hebraern, pp. 244-247, Regensburg, 1877; J. Halevy, in
Melanges de critique et histoire, p. 424, Paris, 1883; F.
Baethgen, Beitrage zur semitischen Rdigionsgeschichte, pp.
69, 75, 84. 255. Berlin 1889; P. D. Chantepie de la Saus-
■aye, Rdigionsgeschichte, i. 287-288, Tubingen, 1905. For
epjgraphic and other illustrative material consult: H. C.
Rawlinson, Inscriptions, iv. 28, no. 2, London, 1861; E.
Glaser, Die Abeseinier in Arobien, p. 35, Munich, 1889;
P. Jensen, Koemologie der Bobylonier, pp. 488-489, Stras-
burg, 1890; idem. Die Hittiter und Armenier, pp. 171-173,
ib. 1898; A. H. Sayce, Higher Criticism and the Verdict of
the Monuments, London, 1894; H. Winckler, Tel-el- Amarna
Letter*, New York, 1896; idem, Der Thontafdfund, Berlin,
1896; C. W. H. Johns, Doomsday Book, Leipsic, 1901 ; idem,
Babylonian and Assyrian Laws, Contracts, and Letters,
Edinburgh, 1904; and the following magazine literature:
ZDMO, xxix (1875), 237 sqq., xzxi (1877), 734-736;
Gazette archeologique, ii (1876), 78-82; ZA. ii (1887), 331-
332, ix (1894), 310-314; J A, 1887, p. 461, 1895, p. 386;
American Journal of Semitic Languages, xii (1895-96),
159-162.
RIHALDI, rt-nal'di, 0D0RIC0 (0DERICUS
RAYlf ALDUS): Italian Oratorian and church
historian; b. at Treviso (18 m. n. by w. of Venice)
1595; d. at Rome Jan. 22, 1671. He was educated
in his native city, the Jesuit college at Parma, and
Padua; and in 1618 went to Rome, where he en-
tered the Oratorian order, of which he was twice
general superior. A diligent Thomist, such was his
learning that he was chosen by his order to continue
the annals of Caesar Baronius (q.v.), beginning with
1 198. Taking as his sources the notes of his prede-
cessor and the documents contained in the archives
and libraries of Rome, he completed a history of the
Church from the pontificate of Innocent III. to the
Reformation. His work is the best of all the con-
tinuations of Baronius, though not free from errors
and prejudices. His history, the last volume edited
and supplemented after his death by other Orato-
rians, appeared under the title Annates ecdesiastici
ab anno 1198 . . . ad annum 1565 (9 vols., Rome,
1646-77), and he also made an abridgment of both
Baronius' annals and his own in Latin (3 vols.,
Rome, 1667) and Italian (3 vols., 1670). In recogni-
tion of his services Innocent X. offered to place him
at the head of the Vatican library, but Rinaldi de-
clined the honor. A complete edition of the annals
of Baronius and Rinaldi was edited by J. D. and
D. G. Mansi (38 vols., Lucca, 1738-59), and, with the
continuation of Giacomo Laderchi and an extension
to modern times, by A. Theiner (23 vols., Bar-le-
Duc, 1864-73). (O. Z6ckler1\)
Bibuogkaphy: The preface to Maori's ed. of the Annales,
vol. i., Lucca, 1747; Q. Tiraboachi, Storia delta Letteratura
Italiana, vol. viii., 10 vols., Home, 1782-97; H. Laemmer,
De Casaris Baronii literarum eommercio, Freiburg, 1003;
KL, x. 842-843.
RUfCKART (RIHKART), rink'Ort, MARTIN:
German dramatist and hymnist; b. at Eilenburg
(12 m. n.w. of Leipsic) Apr. 24, 1586; d. there Dec.
8, 1649. He was educated at the University of
Leipsic (1608-10), and in 1610-11 taught at Mans-
feld, besides being choirmaster at the church of
St. Nicholas. He was then called to be deacon
of St. Ann's at Eisleben, and there wrote in
1613 the Luther drama Der eislebische christliche
Hitter, in which the fable of the three rings, later
used by Leasing, is used to typify the contest of the
three confessions for the inheritance of lmmanuel.
In the same year Rinckart was called to the pas-
torate of Erdeborn, where he remained four years
and wrote his second drama, Lutherus desideratum,
in which he treated the concepts and tendencies to
reform which prevailed from 1300 to 1500. A third
drama, the Indulgentiarius confusus, was written to
celebrate the jubilee of the Reformation, forming
the third part of the author's intended heptalogy on
Luther. In 1617 Rinckart was called to his native
city as archdeacon, and there until his death he
delivered weekly sermons on the catechism, the
result being his Die Katechismuswohlthaten (Leipsic,
1645). In 1621 he wrote his fourth drama, of which
the manuscript is lost, entitled Lutherus magnani-
mus. This was followed in 1624 by the fifth drama,
Monetarius sedUiosus oder der mUnUerische Bauern-
krieg. During this period, when the land was devas-
tated by the hosts of Tilly, Wallenstein, and Gus-
tavus Adolphus, and when Rinckart himself was
afflicted with domestic grief, he wrote Jobs christ-
liche, wirhliche und umnderbare Kreuzschule (1619),
Christbeschreibung an die herzliebste Mutter (1619),
and the brief Kreuz-Schule. Never losing courage,
however, he wrote in 1628 the comforting Der
evangelischen Pilgrim guldener Wander stab. This was
preceded in 1627 by the Novantiqua Eilenbergica, a
history of Eilenburg in Latin and German verse from
its foundation to 1545. To the same period of exile
belongs his Zehnfacher bibtischer LokaU und Gedenk-
ring oder Gedenkzirkel.
In 1630 Rinckart wrote the sixth drama of his
heptalogy, Lutherus Augustus, based on the proph-
ecy of Cardinal Cusanus that in 1630 John the
Baptist would rise again and show the lamb of God
to all the world. To this same period belong Rinck-
art *s four "parodies," or remodelings of older
poems. The first of these is the song of the " Luther-
an Deborah1' of 1636; the second the "extract from
Martin Rinckart's jubilee comedy" of 1630, the
third the Latin-German poem Fera arundinis I fer-
arumferocissimarumferocissiTna, and the fourth the
hymn by which Rinckart is best known, the " Nun
danket alle Gott," apparently written in its briefer
form in 1630 and expanded in its author's Jesu
Herzbuchlein (Leipsic, 1636). This hymn has been
called, not inaptly, "the German Te Deum." The
melody also is by Rinckart, who derived it from
an older composition by Lucas Maurentius, master
of the chapel at Rome (1 581-99) . During the famine
of 1638 Rinckart composed the Deutscher Jeremias
und sein geist- und leibliches Hungerlied aus dem
vierzehnten und funfzehnien Kapitel.
With the meeting of the envoys of the powers at
Munster and Osnabruck in 1643 came hopes of peace,
marked by Rinckart in his Des teutschen Friedens-
Her olden guldenes Pacem und uberschdnes Freuden-
Kleinod (written about 1644). Rinckart himself,
the ardent lover of peace, was fortunately spared to
enjoy for a brief space the Peace of Westphalia.
(A. Pretbe.)
Bibliography: The biographical work which uses in espe-
cially full and worthful manner a wealth of sources is
W. B denting, Martin Rinckart, ein LebensbUd, G6ttingen,
1003. Other noteworthy sketches are: L. Plato, Martin
Rinckart nach seinem ausseren Leben und Wirken, Leipsic,
1830; J. D. Vdrkel, Martin Rinckart, ein evangdisches
Bildaus der Zeit des 90-jtihrigcn Krieges, Eilenburg. 1857;
J. Linke, M. Rinckarts GeisUiche Lieder nebst einer Dar-
steaung dee Lebens und der Werke des Dichters, Gotha,
THE NEW 8CHAFF-HERZ0G
1888; Onubner, Km Btilrae mr I^bnugrirhirhie M.
Hinekari-t. Iwsuauraliliitrrtatxon. Balle, 1SST. Consult
also: C. MUJlor, lirr fuffhueAr Ritttr, tin Rtformaliojit-
tpitl. Halle. 1884; S. W. Duffirld. B*bM Hyntu, pp.
:tu3-304. New York. 1888: E. Michael. Martin ffinetnrf
alt Dramalikrr. Lcipsic. 1804; W Noll*. Martin ffimJarl.
Hamburg. 1004; Julian. Hymnoltwt. P]>- 962-063.
KING, EPISCOPAL. See Vk.-tmlv!- AND In-
signia, Ecclesiastic AI-
RINGS. See Dress and Ornament, Hebrew.
RINK, MELCHIOR: German Anabaptist; b.
in Hesse in 1493 or 1484; d. after 1540. Hematric-
u la ted at the University of Leipsic in 1516, and in
1523 was teaching in a sehoo! at Hersfeld, where he
helped introduce the Reformation, taking an open
stand in its favor in 1524. Soon afterward he came
under the influence of Thomas Mllnser (q.v.) and
removed to Thuringia, where he labored first at
Oberhausen (near Eisenach) and later at Eckardt-
hausen. He took part in the Peasants' War, acting
as leader in the battle near Frankenhausen. Neither
the defeat of the Anabaptists in this engagement nor
the death of M tinier could change his course; and he
now proceeded to work for the propagation of Ana-
baptist tenets, and hem.Tt'i.irt 1 1 I'd tin- life of a wan-
derer. In 1527 he was at Worms, where, with other
Anabaptists, be challenged the Evangelical clergy
to a debate. In the following year he was again in
Hesse, where he gathered some adherents in the
vicinity of Herafeld and attracted the attention of
the authorities. Landgrave Philip, though enfor-
cing no coercive measures, directed the theological
faculty of Marburg (o confer with Rink, but the
negotiations, which were held on Aug. 17-18, 1528,
led to no result, and the landgrave merely dis-
ciplined Kink uith public ecclesiastical penance.
It was not until this period of his career that
Rink's ability as an agitator was fully developed.
He now formed Bmall communities in Hesse and
Tljiiriiisriit. and saturated them so tliorMiiiihly with
Anabaptist doctrines that only in rare instances do
they seem to have recanted when brought to trial
for their beliefs before the civil magistracy. In
1531, Rink and twelve other Anabaptists gathered
for worship were discovered in the course of a
domiciliary visit at the village of Vacha on the
Werra. Henceforth the Anahaptist leader seems to
have lieen held in custody. Butzer interceded with
the landgrave in his behalf (Mar. 17, 1540), but since
he refused to recant, he probably did not recover
his fivedom. The year of his death is unknown.
Rink was an opponent of infant liaptism, and of
the doctrines <>f original sin. the real presence, and
the vicarious atonement, as well as of the literal in-
terpretation of Scripture; and stood for u mystical
and spiritualistic type of Christianity. At the out-
net, like M (Inzer, he contested the legitimacy of civil
authority; but after the Peasants' War he re-
stricted himself to denying the Christian's right to
occupy a civil position and to demanding that the
churches have authority to elect civil magistrates.
The propaganda for these ideas met with great suc-
cess. Rink personally evinced the courage to stand
loyal to his convictions amid the gravest obstacles;
while his strict morality and his learning were
acknowledged. Caul Mirbt.
. N. Krohn. Getthidtte dtr fanalitehm und
mthuriaMimchtn Witdtrtamftr, pp. 18 sqq.. Leipjic. IT Vs.
J. Hial. aetcKichle dtr WioterMufrr. pp. 254-256. Milli-
liter. 1830; K. W. H. Bocbbutb. in ZBT. xxviii (1858).
541-653. HI (I860). 372; L. Keller, OttcKicklt da Wif
drrtauftr und i/ira BaeAa n> Maiuttr. pp. 127-12S. Slun-
iter, 1880; M. Lena. Briefwc\itt Laxdoraf PkUippt da
Cn-HmlOiotn m> Bent mil flu.-", i. 158. 161. 164, 325,
Leipaic 1880; F. H. Reuwb. Dtr ladtx dtr rrrbotrntn
Bother, p. 120. Bonn. 1SS3; F. O. aur Linden. JftJcAun-
Rofmann. pp. 171-188, Leipaic. 1885; A. B. Newman.
Hi* of Anti-Patobaptitm, pp. 274-276. Philadelphia.
1897; K. Rembert. Die " WiedtrUlu/rr " in Btnogtvn
Jvtich, pp. 170. 108. 453, Berlin. ISH9: O. Clemen, in
MimatHchrifl dtr Co-ttniuf-GatUtchafl, a. 113-116. ib.
1000.
RIPHATH. See Table of the Nations, j 4.
RIPPON, JOHN: English BaptiHt bymcologist;
b. at Tiverton (47 m. n.e. of Plymouth), Devon,
Apr. 29, 1751 ; d. at London Dec. 17, 1836. He was
pastor at London, 1773-1836; and he edited the
Baptist Annual Register, 1790-1802. He is best
known as the compiler of Selections of Hymns from
the Best Authors (London, 1787; new ed. after the
30th, 1840; Comprehensive Edition, known as "The
Comprehensive Rippon," 1844). The earliest edi-
tion was intended as an appendix to Isaac Watts'
Psalms and Hymns. His final work has stood as one
of the first half-doien of hymn-books of historical
importance, as a basis for subsequent compilation,
and through its immense sale is said to have gained
wealth for him. Among the few hymns of his own
was, "The day has dawned, Jehovah comes."
Bibliodbafht: J. Ivimey, Hiti. of Enotith BaptitU. ill. 482,
4 vols.. London. 1811-30; J. A. Jonea. BvrJiitl Memorial,,
pp. 232-239, lb, 1849; Julian, Bvmnoioay, pp. S03-004;
DSB, ilviii. 318-318.
RISHELL, CHARLES WESLEY: Methodist
Epi-i -npalian; b. near Williamsport, Pa., Mar. 9.
1850; d. at Newburyport, Mass., Sept. 27. 1908. He
was educated at Drew Theological Seminary (1874-
1875), Wittenberg College, Springfield, III. (A.B.,
HJ7B), and the University of Berlin (1889-91).
In 1876 he entered the ministry of his denomi-
nation and held Ohio pastorates at Finley Church,
Cincinnati (1876-78), Winton Place (1878-80).
Delhi (1880-83), Avondale (1883-86), First Church,
Urtiana (1886-S'J). Anbury Church, Cincinnati (1S91-
1894), and Central Church, Springfield (1894-95).
After 1S95 he was professor of historical the-
ology in the School of Theology of Boston University
and assistant dean after 1904. In theology he was
a progressive conservative. He wrote A lli\loni
of Christianity (Chicago, 1891; based on R. Mini's
kirr-lf-iigrzr-hiehlr); Tltc Higlwr Criticism (1892);
The. OffirUd Kicn-jnition of Women in the Church
(1894); The Foundations of the Christian Faith (New
York, 1899); and The Child as God's Child (1905).
RIST, J0HANN: Herman iiyniiiist ami dramatist;
li at < llteuseu, a suburb of Hani burg. Mar. S. 1607;
d. at Wedel (13 m. w. of Hamburg), Aug. 31, 1667.
He was educated at the universities of Fiinteln and
Rostock, anil is also said to have studied at Leyden,
Utrecht, and Leipsic, though during this latter
period he seems actually to have lived at Ham-
burg and Ottensen. In 1633-35 he was private tutor
at Heide, but in 1635 accepted the pastorate of
Wedel, where he spent the remainder of his life.
43
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Rinff
Ritschl
Here he lived quietly, beloved by his people, and
attending to their physical ills by his knowledge of
medicine, until 1643, when Wedel was sacked by
Torstenson in the Thirty Years' War. These melan-
choly events he described in his Holsteina Klag-
und Jammerlicd; another poem addressed to the
emperor in the following year, when the peace en-
voys convened at Munster, gained him the laureate-
ship. In 1653 he received a patent of nobility, and
later the title of imperial court- and palsgrave, thus
having the right to crown poets and to create doc-
tors, licentiates, masters, and bachelors. In 1656
he founded the Elb-Schwanenorden, and also en-
joyed the favor of princes, especially of Duke
Christian of Mecklenburg, who created him eccle-
siastical and consistorial councilor. Shortly before
his death he composed his Christliche Sterbekunst
(Hamburg, 1667) and AUeredelste Zeitverkurzung
(1667).
Rist published his hymns, which number 659,
in ten collections from 1642 to 1664. Though some
of the hymns are mechanical and of inordinate
length, Rist still remains, next to P. Gebhardt,
both the most prolific German writer of hymns and
the one who has done most for Lutheran hymnol-
ogy. At tho same time, he designed his com-
position*; to serve for private worship as well as for
public services. The faults of tediousness and
pedantry appear prominently in * his " historical
poems " and his eulogies. The former he collected in
his Musa TeuUmica (1634) and Poetischer Lustgarten.
His short lyrics are in higher vein, being conceived
with true depth of feeling, though not entirely free
from mythological pedantry.
As a dramatist Rist is also important. He him-
self states that he wrote more than thirty dramas,
though only five were ever printed. These are as
follows: Irmaromachia, oder Friede und Krieg (pub-
lished under the name of his friend Stapel, 1630) ;
Perseus (1634) ; Das FriedexvUnschende Teutschland
(1647, and often); Das friedejauchtzende Teutsch-
land (1653); and Dispositio Cornuti typographici
(1654, and often). Rist likewise states that he pub-
lished a tragedy entitled, H erodes. The Friedejaucht-
zendes Teutschland is written entirely in High Ger-
man, but the other four dramas are of value for a
knowledge of Low German, especially in their comic
interludes, as well as for contemporary records of
the period. At the same time he made a plea for
pure German in his Rettung der edlen teutschen
Hauptsprache (Hamburg, 1642). (A. Freybe.)
Among English translations of parts of his hymns
may be named "Lord Jesus Christ, the living
bread, " by A. T. Russell; li Praise and thanks to
thee be sung," by Miss Winkworth ; " O Jesu ! wel-
come, gracious name!" by A. T. Russell; " Now
God be praised, and God alone," by Miss Wink-
worth; and " Rise, O Salem, rise and shine," also
by Miss Winkworth.
Bibuookapht: T. Hansen, Johann Rist und seine Zeit,
Halle. 1872; K. Goedeke and J. Tittmann, Deutsche
Dichter des 17. Jahrhunderts, vol. xv., Leipsic. 1885 (the
introduction valuable, corrects Hansen); K. T. Gaedertz,
in Jahrbueh des Vereins fUr niederdeutsche Sprachforschuna,
vii (1881). 104 »qq. Leas important are H. A. Fick, Jo-
hann Rial, der P fairer van Wedel, Hamburg, 1907; and
Julian. Hymnoloay, pp. 064-066.
RITSCHL, ritsh'l, ALBRECHT BENJAMIN.
I. Life.
II. Theology.
Attitude toward Dogmatics and Philosophy (f 1).
Theological Position and Biblical Theory (f 2).
Faith's Relation to Justification and Atonement (f 3).
Theory of the Church ({4).
The Work of Christ ($5).
Doctrine of God and Sin (f 6).
I. Life: Albrecht Benjamin Ritschl, one of the
foremost German Protestant theologians of the
nineteenth century, was born at Berlin Mar. 25,
1822; d. at Gottingen Mar. 20, 1889. He was edu-
cated at the universities of Bonn (1839-41) and
Halle (1841-43), and during this period gradually
passed from Biblical supranaturalism to a critical
and speculative position, to the distress of his
father, Georg Karl Benjamin Ritschl (q.v.). Mean-
while he had also become interested in Hegelian-
ism and in the study of the doctrine of the atone-
ment, and his dissertation for the doctorate bore the
title ExpasiHo doctrines AugusHni de creations
mundi, peccato, gratia (Halle, 1843). After leaving
Halle, Ritschl passed the winter in Berlin and then
spent almost a year with his parents at Stettin.
Desiring, however, to fit himself for the career of a
teacher, he studied for six months at Heidelberg in
1845, and then went to Tubingen, where he became
an enthusiastic follower of Ferdinand Christian
Baur (q.v.), seeking to prove that the apocryphal
gospel of Marcion, mentioned by Tertullian, was
the source of Luke, this theory being advanced in
his Das Evangelium Marcions und das kanonische
Evangelium des Lukas (Tubingen, 1846).
In 1846 Ritschl became privat-docent for. New-
Testament theology at Bonn. Here independent
study led him further and further from the position
of the Tubingen school, although his monograph
entitled Die Entstehung der altkatholischen Kirche
(Bonn, 1850) as yet marked no decisive break.
Soon, however, he rejected his own theory concern-
ing Luke, now maintaining the priority of Mark
over the other Synoptic Gospels; and in 1856 came
the open breach between him and Baur. In the fol-
lowing year Ritschl issued a complete revision of his
history of the early Church, in which he denied the
hypotheses of the Tubingen school, and maintained
that the alleged delimitation between Paul and the
original apostles (who were not to be considered
Jewish Christians) was non-existent. He likewise
held that Jewish Christianity was not a factor in
the development of the early Church, but that, on
the contrary, it was a specifically determined phase
of gentile Christianity, which must, however, be dis-
tinguished from the system of Paul. In 1852 Ritschl,
whose theological development was bringing him
back to close intellectual sympathy with his father,
was appointed associate professor, his work now
including systematic theology, even as he had al-
ready been permitted to lecture on church history
and the history of dogma since 1848.
In 1859 Ritschl was promoted to a full profes-
sorship at Bonn, but in 1864 accepted a call to the
University of Gottingen. Here he lectured not only
on the New Testament, but also on all branches of
systematic theology, and here, after years of pre-
liminary study and writing, he produced his great
Ritschl
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
44
work, Die christliche Lehre von der Rechtfertigung
und Ver8dhnung (3 vols., Bonn, 1870-74; 4th ed.,
1895-1902; Eng. transl. of vol. i., Critical History
of the Christian Doctrine of Justification and Recon-
ciliation, Edinburgh, 1872, of vol. iii., The Christian
Doctrine of Justification and Reconciliation, New
York, 1900). A brief summary of the basal con-
cepts of this work was given by Ritschl in Ueber die
christliche Volkommenheit (Gottingen, 1874; 3d ed.,
1902); his judgment of the theological tendencies
of the nineteenth century was set forth in Schleier-
machers Reden uber die Religion und ihre Nach-
wirkungen auf die evangelische Kirche Deutschlands
(Bonn, 1874) ; and he prepared a compend of his
theological system in Unterricht in der christlichen
Religion (1875; 6th ed., 1903). His only impor-
tant later contribution to systematic theology was
the Theologie und Metaphysik (Bonn, 1881 ; 3d ed.,
1902). After 1876 he turned again to historical
problems, as in the Geschichte des Pietismus (3 vols.,
Bonn, 1880-86).
Between 1870 and 1874 Ritschl declined a call
to Strasburg and four calls to Berlin, as well as an
invitation to become a member of the supreme
ecclesiastical council of the State Church of Prussia.
In 1876-77 and in 1886-87 he was prorector of the
university, and in 1878 was elected a member of
the national consistory of Hanover, although he
seldom attended its sessions. After his death his
briefer contributions were collected under the title
of Gesammelte Aufsdtze (Freiburg, 1893).
IL Theology: Although Ritschl exercised a
profound influence at Bonn, the so-called " Ritsch-
lian school " did not rise till nearly a decade after
he had gone to Gottingen; and the movement was
led less by his students than by those who had been
impressed by his writings, especially by his study
of the atonement. Ritschl himself,
i. Attitude however, was opposed to all forms of
toward Dog- partizanship, nor did he construct a
matics and formal system of dogmatics, the near-
Philosophy, est approach to this being the Un-
terricht mentioned above. At the
same time, in the middle portion of the third vol-
ume of his work on the atonement he found him-
self compelled to give an almost complete outline
of dogmatics to furnish the setting for the cardinal
doctrine of Protestant Christianity, though he felt
himself at liberty to omit some topics and to treat
others briefly. To the latter category belong the
questions of general methodology and of the prin-
ciples of dogmatics, which border on the sphere of
philosophy. Later, however, in the Theologie und
Metaphysik he devoted attention to the problems
of epistemology as expounded by Kant and Lotze,
in so far as they were pertinent to theology, al-
though the science of epistemology always remained
to him one of subordinate importance. This very
attitude, however, led to many misinterpretations
of his system. Since he appealed to epistemology,
he was charged with making his dogmatics depend
on the solution of problems involved in the theory
of knowledge; and since in his later years he held
that religious knowledge finds expression in inde-
pendent or direct value-judgments, some of his
critics accused him of constructing a quasi-Feuer-
bachian theology. As a matter of fact, however,
RitschTs " direct or independent value-judgment "
meant nothing more than that theoretical religious
knowledge is differentiated from the theoretical
knowledge of science simply by the fact that the
former is conditioned by the inherent practical in-
terests of the soul rather than by the impersonal
endeavor to offer an objective explanation of the
problem of existence. It is, therefore, entirely in-
correct to charge Ritschl with the constructive use
of a philosophy which he excluded on principle.
His entire system of thought was centered in, and
conditioned by, Christian revelation; and it applied
the interpretation of a distinctively Christian relig-
ion to all the great phenomena of the soul and of
the history of Christianity. It was quite charac-
teristic, then, that, in his work on the atonement,
Ritschl should proceed from the history of the de-
velopment of the dogma in question back to the
Biblical teachings on the theme, thus reversing
the customary procedure. Maintaining that the
final revelation of God was given in the person
and works of Christ, and at the same time postu-
lating the inadequacy of the mere facts recorded
concerning him in the New Testament, Ritschl held
that the foundation of theological doctrines must be
sought in the primal consciousness of the Christian
community, the sole source here being the New
Testament.
While the position just outlined implies that
Ritschl was essentially a Biblicist, his attitude was
materially conditioned by the ecclesiastical charac-
ter which he ascribed to dogmatics. Like Luther,
moreover, he held that the Bible is the word of God
only in so far as it emphasizes Christ,
2. Theolog- so that, while all ordinances and be-
ical Position lief s of primitive Christianity are not
and Biblical binding on Christian theology and on
Theory, the Christian Church, every doctrine
of the salvation won through Christ
must be based in substance on the Bible. In addi-
tion, he maintained that the Pauline doctrine of
justification by faith was binding on theology; and,
unlike most modern theologians, who stress the new
and distinctive character of New-Testament con-
cepts, he maintained that, unless there is direct
proof to the contrary, the Biblical writers must be
supposed to be capable of expressing their thoughts
in orderly and methodical fashion. This theory,
however, presupposed an essentially modern type
of interpretation, which excluded sympathy with
the ancient modes of thought and feeling that are
evidently present in the New Testament; and
Ritschl' s Biblical theology, developed early in his
career and changed but little in the course of his
life, represents the point of view of the middle of
the nineteenth century, and has been in great part
superseded by the results of the historical studies
of primitive Christianity. In addition to all this,
Ritschl came to appeal more and more to the ideal
of life of the Reformers and to the creeds of Lu-
theranism, ascribing more importance to the latter
than to the symbols of the early Church, which he
valued only in so far as they maintained religious
positions, especially the divinity of Christ. The
authority of the Protestant concept of religion con-
46
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Ritschl
stated, in his opinion, in its maintenance of the doc-
trine of justification by faith, lacking in the Eastern
Church, but established in the West by Augustine
and defended by the medieval representatives of
classical Roman Catholicism. On the other hand,
this very position led him to depreciate the work
of the " Reformers before the Reformation " and
of the mediating theology. Like the Reformers,
Hitachi made justification and atonement the car-
dinal doctrines of Christianity, and this fact is the
key to his chief theological teachings. So strongly,
moreover, did he consider that the sole basis for a
knowledge of God is in the divine revelation in the
works and person of Christ, that he rejected all nat-
ural theology and ignored its proofs for God's exist-
ence. Since, however, such an estimate of Christ
presupposes Christian belief, and since this belief
can arise in the Christian community only through
experience of justification and atonement, religious
comprehension of God and Christ necessarily has as
its sole foundation the personal faith which arises
through justification. In accordance with this posi-
tion, he reversed the usual method, and placed
the subjective elements of Christianity first, disre-
garding the ontology of the object of faith as a basis
of a religiously conditioned theological knowledge.
It thus becomes clear that Ritschl's concept of the
Bible was not one of a mere external standard, but
rather implied that the revelation of God in Christ,
in so far as drawn from the New Testament, pos-
the character of revelation only for a faith
which comprehends and recognizes it as such.
Faith, according to Ritschl, is not a mere passive
service of man, but an active trust in God and di-
vine providence, directly displayed in humility,
patience, and prayer, and influencing
3. Faith's the development of the moral life.
Relation to The reconciliation of this religious and
Justification ethical independence of the Christian
and Atone- with his sense of absolute dependence
ment on God was the cardinal problem of
Ritschl's theory of justification and
atonement. To solve the difficulty Ritschl advanced
the theory that the sinner who becomes a believer
is first passively placed by God in a state of justi-
fication, justification in turn being practically real-
ised in the atonement which perfects it, and the
atonement constituting the basis of Christian activ-
ity. Justification, which is synonymous with for-
giveness of sins, frees the sinner from the guilt that
separates him from God; the mistrust of God ari-
sing from consciousness of sin vanishes before the
promise of divine grace; and the old active oppo-
sition to the divine will gives place to an equally
active obedience to the commandments of God.
Though good works may be imperfect even when
the will of man has been renewed, yet, on the whole,
the exercise of trust, humility, patience, and prayer,
and the fulfilment of moral requirements in the
spirit of Christian love, constitute what was under-
stood and required by the New Testament and by
the Reformers as Christian perfection, though this
must be understood qualitatively, not quantita-
tively. Justification and atonement lay the foun-
dation for the transformed sinner's new status as a
child of God; but at the same time justification,
which finds its practical realization in the atone-
ment, is a creative act of the divine will, condi-
tioned by no human merits or circumstances, but
due to the fact that the sinner who comes to be-
lieve is held by God to be righteous despite his sin,
so that the Father takes the initiative by establish-
ing religious fellowship between himself and man,
the basis of this being, not the sinner, but the work
of Christ and its efficacy.
Like Luther, Ritschl made the concept of the re-
ligious community bear directly upon his theory of
justification, this religious community in question
connoting, not the Church as a visible
4. Theory organization, but the complex of all
of the justified believers and the permanent
Church, result of its lord and founder, Christ,
whose influence it ever preserves and
perpetuates. The agency which produces belief in
justification in the individual, and thus leads to re-
generation and divine sonship, is preaching; and
through this proclamation of the word of God
or of the Gospel the religious community comes
to be the mother of the individual believers.
Thus Ritschl was able to avoid the sectarian
theory of the Church as a voluntary association
of individual believers; and he could, on the con-
trary, maintain that the Church traces her origin
back to her founder Christ, and that her members
receive from a preexisting organization those powers
of the Holy Ghost within her which call forth their
faith and influence their subsequent lives. To es-
tablish the genetic bond between individual be-
lievers within the Church and Christ as its head,
Ritschl maintained that the Church, which is not
subject to the limitations of empiricism or time, is
an organic whole which, though visibly existing
only in its parts, logically posits the preexistence of
the whole. Accordingly, the Church was the object
of divine love before the individuals who belong to
it. At the same time, the experience of justifica-
tion and atonement is individual, not collective;
especially as the consciousness of guilt and the mis-
trust of God, which are removed by justification,
are considered by him to be individual defects.
These empirical personal experiences, however, do
not conflict with the logical construction of the
ideal relation of the Church to Christ (who founded
it for the salvation of its individual members) and
God (who chose it as the body of all future believers
and as the means for the realization of his kingdom
on earth). Only thus could he establish the prior-
ity of justification, as a supra temporal creative act
of God, to regeneration, as a personal experience of
the believer.
In conformity with this theory of the Church
Ritschl construed the work of Christ under the two
aspects of royal prophet and royal priest, the royalty
of both phases being derived from the
5. The spiritual kingship exercised by Christ
Work of throughout his life. The prophetic
Christ office of Christ is exercised from God to
man, the priestly from man to God.
In the priestly function, which logically presup-
poses the achievement of his prophetic mission, is
found the essential reason why, for Christ's sake,
God grants regeneration to sinners — the fact that
Ritschl
Bitter
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
46
through faith they are united with Christ as mem-
bers of his Church. Christ does not, however, rep-
resent the believer in a juristic sense which sepa-
rates his righteousness from himself to impute it to
the believer, but in an inclusive sense, so that, with-
out being himself dispensed from the obligation of
righteousness, the believer has imputed to him the
relation of Christ to the love of God. From this
estimate of the work of Christ Ritschl sought to
deduce his view of the person of Christ. He
taught an ideal preexistence of Christ as the ful-
filler of the divine plan of salvation in a world
which, like mankind, had been created for this
very end; and although the earthly Christ lacks
the traits of divine omnipotence, omniscience, and
omnipresence, he is recognized and honored as God
by the faithful.
Ritschl 's Christology forms the transition to his
doctrine of God, who must be known not from meta-
physical speculations of natural religion or theology
but solely in religious faith from the works and the
person of Christ. Accordingly, God can be con-
ceived only as the Father, whose es-
6. Doctrine sence is love, the quality which all
of God other divine qualities serve merely to
and Sin. prove. Only those who sin against the
Holy Ghost by obstinately opposing
the good which God desires for them are doomed to
final destruction. All others are objects of the
fatherly training of God, so that the punishments
which he visits upon them are intended solely for
their correction and religious progress. All evil,
however, is not to be considered divine punishment
of sin, for the concept of evil is not theological and
is subjectively conditioned in each specific case.
The Christian must, through his faith in divine
providence, transform into good the evils which
beset him, regarding them as means whereby God
advances what is really best for him. The true
punishment of sin is guilt, which is removed by
justification, or the forgiveness of sins. From the
divine point of view sin is ignorance, but from the
human point of view it is guilt and rebellion against
God. The doctrine of original sin is, therefore, to
be rejected for the theory of a kingdom of sin which
impedes the freedom of the individual toward good,
and which is strengthened by the evil-doing of each
one. It is impossible to prove the general necessity
of sin, but its empirical probability is self-evident.
The kingdom of sin is, however, opposed by the
kingdom of God, which is distinguished from the
Church in that it promotes the moral welfare of the
believer, while the Church furthers his capacity for
worship. From this point of view Ritschl draws
an antithesis between the ethical duties of the
Church (prayer, profession of faith, and teaching)
and her religious functions (preaching and the sacra-
ments), the visible organization of the Church be-
ing but a means to these ends. In this the concept
of the kingdom of God has no immediate part, but
it enters vitally into Ritschl's interpretation of the
Christian ideal of life, which embraces, on the one
hand, all Christian duties and virtues, and, on the
other, the obligation to mutual love, to be mani-
fested in the conscientious discharge of the moral
calling. (0, Ritschl.)
Bibliography: The one biography is by O. Hitachi, 2 vols.,
Freiburg, 1892-96. On the theology consult: £. Luthardt,
in ZeiUchrift fur kirchliche Wisaenachaft und Leben, 1881,
pp. 617-643; H. Weiss, in TSK, 1881, pp. 377-417; G.
A. Fricke, Metaphyeik und Dogmatik in ihren gegeneeitigen
Verhaltnieae, unter besond. Beziehung auf die RitechTeche
Theologie, Leipsic, 1882; L. Hang. DareteUung und Beur-
theilung der RitachVechen Theologie, Ludwigsburg, 1885;
O. Flugel, A. Ritechl* a phUoaophieche Aneichten, Langen-
salxa, 1886; M. Reiachle, Ein Wort zur Kontroverse uber
die Mystik in der Theologie, Freiburg, 1886; J. Thikdtter,
DareteUung und Beurtheilung der Theologie Albrechi Ritachle,
2d ed., Bonn, 1887; F. H. R. Frank, Ueber die kirchliche
Bedeutung der Theologie Albrechi Ritachle, Leipsic, 1888;
T. Haring, Zu RitechVa Veraohnungalehre, Zurich. 1888;
F. Lichtenberger, German Theology in the 19th Century,
Edinburgh, 1889; £. Bert rand, Une NouveUe Conception
de la redemption. La doctrine . . . done le eyeteme thl-
ologique de Ritschl, Paris, 1891; O. Pfleiderer, Die RitechT-
eche Theologie kritiech beleuchtet, Brunswick, 1891; H.
Schoen, Lee Originee hietoriquee de la theologie de Ritechl,
Paris, 1893; R. Favre, Lea Principea philoaophiquea de la
theologie de Ritechl, ib. 1894; G. Mielke, Dae System Al-
brecht Ritachle, Bonn, 1894; G. Ecke, Die theologiache
Schule A. Rilachla und die evangelieche Kirche der Gegen-
wart, 2 vols., Berlin, 1897-1904; R. Wegener, Albrechi
Ritachle Idee dea Reichea Gottea im Licht der Geachichte,
Leipsic, 1897; A. E. Garvie, The Ritachlian Theology,
Edinburgh, 1899; J. Wendland, Albrecht Ritechl undaeine
Schuler, Berlin, 1899; F. Nippold, Handbuch der neuesten
Theologie, iii. 439 sqq., ib. 1901; A. T. Swing, The Theol-
ogy of Albert Ritechl, New York, 1901; F. Kattenbusch,
Von Schleiermacher zu Ritechl, 3d ed., Giessen, 1903; C.
von KQgelgen. Grundriss der RitachVachen Dogmatik, 2d
ed., Gdttingen, 1903; J. Orr, RUechlianiam: Exposition
and critical Essays, London, 1903; W Herrmann, Faith
and Morale, London and New York, 1904; C. Stange,
Der dogmatieche Ertrag der Ritechrechen Theologie nach
Julius Kaftan, Leipsic, 1906; C. Fabricius, Die Entxcick-
lung in Albrecht Ritachle Theologie von 1874 oia 1889 noch
Werke dorgeateUt und beurleilt, Tubingen, 1909; J. K.
Mozley, RilacJdianism: An Essay, London, 1909; and
C. Fabricius, Die Enttmcklung in A. Ritachle Theologie,
1874-89, Tubingen, 1909; E. A. Edghill, Faith and Fact;
a Study of Ritschlianiam, London and New York, 1910.
An important periodical literature is indicated in Rich-
ardson, Encyclopaedia, pp. 939-940.
RITSCHL, GE0RG KARL BENJAMIN: Ger-
man Lutheran, father of the preceding; b. at
Erfurt Nov. 1, 1783; d. at Berlin June 18, 1858.
He was educated at the universities of Erfurt (1799-
1801) and Jena (1801-02), where he came under
rationalistic influences, though later he returned to
positive Christianity. In 1804 he settled in Berlin
as a private tutor, also acting as an instructor at the
Gymnasium zum grauen Kloster, where he grad-
ually rose to be subrector. He also preached after
1807, and in 1810 was chosen third pastor of St.
Mary's, Berlin, where his simple and direct style of
preaching, based on the Bible only, made a deep
impression on all classes. On the reestablishment
of the consistories in the Prussian provinces in 1816,
Ritschl was appointed assessor for Brandenburg,
and in the following year was made a councilor.
Here his duties were practically restricted to the
examination of theological candidates, but in 1818
he collaborated in the preparation of the Berlin
hymnal which appeared in 1829. In 1827 he was
appointed bishop of the Evangelical Church, gen-
eral superintendent of Pomerania, director of the
consistory, and first preacher at the castle church
of Stettin. These positions he filled for many year3,
his service being interrupted only in 1829-30, when
he was sent to St. Petersburg to collaborate on the
agenda for the Russian Lutherans which was pub-
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
lishcd in 1832. As general superintendent ililsebl
had to encounter much less opposition than as a
member of the consistory, although his coming had
been the signal for a general improvement in
religious and ecclesiastical conditions throughout
Pomerania. After 1847 he had new problems to con-
front, for while he was in sympathy with the intro-
duction of the union into his province, the measure
had resulted in the scparatistic movement of Old
Lutheranism (see Lutheha.vs, II. J, the difficulty
being complicated by the revival sermons of indi-
vidual preachers. The attempt to obviate schism
brought about the counter-evil of Neo-Luthcran-
jsm, which determinedly resisted union, especially
after 1848. These troubles embittered the closing
years of Hitachi's administration, despite his marked
success as general superintendent. Feeling himself
unable to cope, by reason of his age, with the new
(juestions which were now arising, he resigned his
offices in 1852 and retired to Berlin, and then.' lie
passed the remainder of his life. In 1355 ho was
made an honorary member of (he supreme ecclesi-
astical council, where his ripe experience pro veil to
be of the greatest value. (0. Ritbchl.)
Bibuoobafht: 0. Ritechl, Albrtcht RiUehli Lrbrn, chaps.
Srndimt d't Bitcholi Rilnchl
1819. Bonn. 18B0; H. ~ '
•cAen Kircht in ftiml
1-35. Lei
RITSCHL, OTTO KARL ALBRECHT: German
Protestant; b. at Bonn June 26, 1860. He was ed-
ucated at the unive.rail.ies of Gotlingen, Bonn, and
Giesaonfrom 1878 to 1884 (lie. theol., Halle, 18S5),
and in 1885 became privat-docent for church his-
tory at the University of Halle. Four years later
tie was called to Kiel as associate professor, whence
he went, in 1894, to Bonn in a similar capacity, where
he became full professor of systematic theology in
1897. He has written: De epislutis Cypriatiicix
(Halle, 1885); Cyprian von Karthago und die Ver-
Jaaming der Kirche (Gottingen, 1885); Schleiermach-
tr» Stellung turn Chrittentum in zeinen Itatm iiUr
die Religion (Gotha, 1888); Da* chriatliche Leben$-
ideol in Luther* Auffassung (Halle, 1889); Al-
brtcht RilechU Leben (2 vols., Freiburg, lSlL'-Wi;
Ueber Wdturteik (1895); Nietiachea Welt- und
Lebentantchauuiig in ihrer Entstehung und Ent-
tcieklung (1897); Die Causatbetrachtung in der
Cei*tetun**enachajt (Bonn, 1901); Wissenschaft-
lithe Eillik und moralUehe Oeactaji'himii iTiihinficri,
1903); Die frcie Wi**en*chaft und der TdaaKtMu
aitf den dettlxcbcn Universiteien (Bonn, 1905); Sys-
tem und sgstematUehe Methods in der Gcsrhirhlr 4t9
tnnenacnaf!lirl„n Sprnc/ir/f-hraucht und der philono-
phitchen M tiliodotogie (1906); and Dogmcngenehichte
da Protextantiermts, vol. i., Prolegomena, Biblii
t der aUprotestantischen
mm und Traditionolii
Theologie (Leipsic. 1908).
RITTER, ERASMUS: Reformer; d. at Bern
Aug. 1, 1546. The place and date of his birth,
like the details of his education, arc unknown.
He had, however, acquired distinction as a preacher
nt Rottweil, and in 1523 was invited to SehafF-
hausen to counteract the influence of the Franciscan
Sebastian Hofmeister (q.v.), whom Zwingli had
converted to Reformed doctrines. Though received
with great honor and made preacher at the Bene-
dictine abbey of All Saints, he met with no success,
and becoming convinced that he must meet Hof-
meister on his own ground, he began the ntllrftti
which resulted in his own conversion to Protestant-
ism. This remarkable change conspicuously ad-
vanced the Protestant cause, and Ritter and Hof-
meister were delegated by the council to accompany
the Baden deputation in 1526 and ably seconded
Oicolrimpadius. In 1524, moreover, Michael Fg-
Ceiistorlcr, I lie last iililn.it of All .Saint.-, changed the
abbey into a provostship and applied its revenues
to education and charity, as well as to the payment
of the clergy.
In 1525, however, conditions changed. In con-
sequence of a petty insurrection, Hofmeister was
dismissed, and his place was taken by the Roman
Catholic Gall us Sieiger. The position of Kit (<-r mm
became more difficult. Though the nascent Refor-
mation was not forcibly suppressed, extreme cau-
tion became necessary. Nevertheless, the friendfl
of Ritter, who was ably counseled by Zwingli, stead-
ily increased in the great council, and they were
aided by the council of Zurich. With the triumph
of Protestantism in Bern (1,528) and Basel (1529),
all opposition vanished, and in 1529 an embassy
from Zurich, Bern, Basel, and St. Gall, coming tn
>.liatTl:.iu«c]i at Hitter's instigation, was cordially
welcomed, so that on Sept. 29 both councils unani-
mously voted to accept the Reformation. With the
abolition of the mass celibacy was renounced, and
within the year Ritter had married an ex-nun, the
sister of Michael Eggenstorfer.
The years following mm unfavorable to the fur-
therance of the work. Ritter was involved in futile
controversies with the Anabaptists, and, as an ad-
herent of Zwingli's views, he was in open coiilliet.
with his colleague, Bcnedikt Burgauer of St. Gall,
who was as pronouncedly Lutheran in his eucharistie.
doctrines. The struggle between the two dragged
on, nor could either the appeal of (Fcolampadius to
Burgauer or the envoys from Zurich, Bern, and
Basel to the council produce any lasting peace.
Finally futile was the appointment of a committee
of three in Dec, 1530, to hear both sides, fur though
Burgauer expressed himself as in error, and thuugh
both he and Ritter signed a formula drawn up by
Butzer and agr 1 to keep peace, Burgauer's word
was quickly broken. Hitter desired to found a the-
ologieal school and advised the council to secure
Leo Jud as instructor, but the appointment was
never made, probably because Jud was from the
suspected city of Zurich. Burgauer and Ritter
were accordingly obliged, despite their differences,
to combine in their Biblical lectures for the instruc-
tion of the young, Ritter interpreting the Old Tes-
tament, and Burgauer the New.
In view of the complications arising from the re-
tention of certain usages of the old faith, and in
consideration of the decay of moral discipline, the
clergy, in 1532, presented to the council n memorial,
probably drawn up by Ritter, urging the necessity
of action. Burgauer alone refused to sign the me-
morial, which was without result. In the following
year, with the arrival of new assistance in the per-
son of Beat Gerung, the clergy of Schaffhauson de-
THE NEW 8CHAFF-HERZ0G
ined to introduce a uniform liturgy, and their
is outline for such a liturgy was approved
by the council. Burgauer now objected to some
unessential details and refused to yield, even
■when urged by Bullinger and Blaurer. The clergy,
weaned by his obstinacy, finally requested the
council to remove him from his position; and the
council, after some hesitation, acquiesced. Bur-
gauer's partisans, in their turn, insisted on Hitter's
dismissal, and on Whitsunday, 1536, both received
their cong£.
On May 8, 1536, Ritter was called to Bern, where
he soon became chief dean. Yet here again he was
involved in controversy. The rigid Zwiiiglianism
which had formerly prevailed in Bern had been dis-
turbed by the call to the city of two advocates of
the union urged by Butzcr, Peter Kuiijs, and Sebas-
tian Meyer. The unionistic faction was now headed
by Kunz and the Zwinglians by Kawpar Megander
<q.v.). Id the following year, however, Megander
3eft Bern on account of certain changes made with-
out his knowledge by Bulzer in a catechism which
lie had been commissioned by the council to frame,
Butzer seeing in the original draft obstacles to the
union between the Lutherans and the Reformed.
Ritter, having taken no active part in the affair,
felt able to obey the command of the council to sub-
scribe to the catechism under pain of dismissal,
but Megander, deeply offended by the successful
ii|ijn>;-:tinn of Butzer, left Bern for Zurich, soon
followed by his friend Johannes Milller (Rhclli-
canus). The compliance of Ritter, though sincere,
especially in view of the needs of the church
at Bern, was disapproved by his partisans; and
clerical dissatisfaction with the action and attitude
of the council led to violent demonstrations. At
this crisis Ritter labored successfully to secure
peace, rind at the wna timu regained the confi-
dence he had forfeited.
In Mar., 1538, Ritter and Kunz were delegates
to the Synod at Lausanne, where the former formed
ties of friendship with Calvin, Farel, and Viret. He
was the only one of the Bernese clergy to welcome
the exiles from Geneva, later accompanying them
to Zurich, where their case was to be considered in
May; and when the council of Bern sent a delega-
tion to Geneva to bring the exiles back, Ritter was
one of the number at the special request of Calvin.
The places of Megander and R belli canus at Bern
■were filled by the unionistic Thomas Grynicus and
Simon Sulzcr, but Ritter, though now the only
Zwinglian among the city clergy, rapidly regained
his wonted sure footing, especially as he was sup-
ported by the majority of the dissatisfied clergy
of the countryside, and until his death he held his
position, unwearied in his polemics.
(G. KlRCHHOFER.)
Bi Bijou HApnr; J. Slrickler, Attmnammlung tur tchetittri-
K-hm Rr!ormaliimrti"rhichlr, Zgrich, 1878-84; M. Kirch-
l,..r.-r. .-. .'..- .-.lu'.r, II, „-,..,,■.<,,. il. hi«; i.l,,,,. s,!,„:n;,.,,,. i
•rile Jahrbiithrr S&IO-tB, FniuPnfelri, 1838; C. B. HundM-
hicen, bit Htm/Okir ,1, >. 7,'i-iaijtianiiimiut, L-alhtrtvmt und
Calviniimut in der hrmitrhtn Landeikirche IB.tBSS, Br.tn.
1842; J. J. Meiinr, Grtchirhtr iter drulxhen Hibrluberittl-
tinge* i» der trhiceiteriach-rrformierten Kirche, pp. 160
gqq.. Bwl, 1876; K. Schmiier. in Theotogiiehe Zeit-
KhriSt iu der Schaeii, 1891; E. Blflsch, Garhirhtt dtr
Khweizeritch-Teformierten Kirche, vol. i., Bern, 1898.
RITTER, KARL: German geographer; b. at
Quedlinburg (31 m. s.w. of Magdeburg) Aug. 7,
1779; d. at Berlin Sept. 28, 1859. He received his
education at Halle; served as pr'vate tutor; be-
came professor of history in the Gymnasium at
Frankfort, 1819; and was appointed professor of
geography in the University of Berlin in 1820, and
gave a new and powerful impulse to that branch of
study. Those of his works which arc of interest for
the student of the Bible are Dcr Jordan und die
Beschiffnng det Todten Meerea (Berlin, 1850); Ein
Blick auf PauUtina (Berlin, 1852); and Die Erd-
kunde in nineteen parts (1822-59; in part trans-
lated by W. L. Gage and entitled The Compara-
tive Geography of Palestine and the Sinailic Penin-
sula, i vols., Edinburgh, 1866).
DiBuooa*FHr: W. L. dago. The Life of Carl Killer, 1867;
A. Guyot, Carl Kilter. Prince Ion. N. J„ 1860; G. Kramer.
Carl Miter, Ein LtbctubUd. Hiille, 1S75; F. Murine. (Fo*
bedrnut Carl Hitter S»t die G/oamphitt Berlin. IWtO; F.
Ratiel, Brilrae u K. Kilt en lOO-jahriacn Gtburlttaoe. ia
Kleine Schriflen. vol. i., Munich. 1906.
RITUAL: A form of worship or other solemn
service, prescribed and established by law, precept,
or custom, in contrast with a more or less extem-
poraneous mode of worship that depends on the
discretion of the leader or the impulse of the wor-
shipers. Also the office-book of a ritualistic body.
See RrruALBSM.
RITUAL-EXAMIHATIOH (GebetsvcrhOr). From
the time when the Christian Church first developed
into an objective organized institution, certain
proofs of a knowledge of the faith have licen exacted
from those accepted into its membership. The
Church has endeavored to guard, confirm, and
cherish the Christian life of ils members, by preach-
ing, instruction, and the other inslrumen tali ties of
the care of souls, but also by formal tests, and
admission to its honors and privileges, and even par-
ticipation in tht sacraments have lii-en conditioned
upon (In* result of such examination. Thus during
the Middle Ages sponsors hud to show that th.y
knew at least the creed and the Lord's Prayer.
!Vo|ile gatliirivi] for confession before the Holy
Communion were examined, and even bride and
bridegroom had to undergo a test iBrautexame-n;
see Wedding Customs). The Protestant church
rituals of the second half of the sixteenth century
prescribe :i puiiiic examination for all you til; people
and servants, which was in no way identical with
(lie catechetical tests for confirmation. The Pom-
eranian church ritual of 1593 appointed one Sundav
afternoon in each quarter for this purpose. Similar
orders and regulations are contained in the Branden-
burg ecclesiastical order (1572) and in that of the
electorate of Saxony (1580). The Thirty Years'
War abolished these catechetical institutions, and it
was not easy to restore them after the return of
peace. But with the advent of Pietism (q.v.) under
Spcner they were revived.
These catechetical institutions underwent a pe-
culiar development in Sweden and East Prussia.
The Swedish ecclesiastical order of ] fiSf> appoint,, i
examinations on a lame scale. There was (I) an
examination on the sermon on Sundays when the
Holy Communion was not celebrated; (2) of persona
49
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bitter
Ritualism
engaged to be married, covering the smaller cate-
chism of Luther; (3) church examinations consist-
ing of questions on the catechism and in the season
of Lent on the passion of Christ; (4) in the home,
in which the entire family participated, and lasting
for from five to eight hours. The subject was
usually the catechism, some passages of the Bible, or
the conduct of the people present. At the end a
simple meal was served. These home-examinations
were highly appreciated by the peasants, while in the
cities they were not always well attended, the well-
to-do especially keeping aloof. In East Prussia
the development of catechetical examination un-
derwent several phases. The first is characterized
by the order of Margrave Albert (1543), according
to which it was the duty of every pastor to examine
and instruct all his parishioners in every place of
his parish at least once a quarter. The order of
1633 marks a second phase according to which the
examination was to take place once a year in the
home of the burgomaster or village mayor. In the
course of time the institution was frequently dropped
altogether or maintained itself only sporadically.
After the middle of the nineteenth century these
examinations again came into vogue. The pastor
visited once a year, usually in the fall, every village
and hamlet of his parish. The parishioners pro-
vided for his conveyance and paid other expenses.
Each family had the conference held in the home in
turn and provided for a common meal. The pastor
also usually received a contribution in money and
products of the field. Later the people began to
refuse to provide the pastor with the facilities for
travel, and the conferences sometimes degenerated
into carousals. So they have in large part taken
the form of church services in places where there
is no church. (H. Jacobt.)
Bibliography: H. F. Jakobson, in Deutsche Zeitechrift fUr
chruttiche Wieeeneehaft und chrisUiches Leben, vi (1855),
oos. 43-45; idem, Dae evangelieche Kirchenrecht dee
preueeieehen Staatee, ii. 608. Halle, 1866.
RITUALS ROM AHUM: A Roman Catholic
liturgical book containing the prayers and forms
for the administration of the sacraments, together
with directions for pastoral care, compiled for the
special assistance of parish priests. Books of this
type were drawn up as early as the twelfth century,
primarily for the monasteries, the secular clergy
having none until the fourteenth century. There
were at first no diocesan ritualia, but each parish
priest might compile his own according to local
usage. A book of the type in question was called
Manuale in the thirteenth century, Rituale or Liber
benedictionum in the fourteenth, and Agenda, Liber
obsequiorum, Parochiale, Pastorale, etc., in the fif-
teenth. The name Rituale, however, came into
general use through the introduction of the Rituale
Romanum, when the attempt was made to obviate
the wide divergencies of local usages and at least to
secure harmony in each diocese. It was not, how-
ever, until the Council of Trent that real headway
was made in securing liturgical uniformity; and
even then, though the Roman breviary, missal,
pontifical, and ceremonial were officially sanctioned,
there was no single rituale. Paul V. (1605-21),
however, appointed a committee of cardinals who,
on the basis of the rituale of Cardinal Sanctorio
(1584), the Sacerdotale Romanum of the Dominican
Castellani (1537), and the Sacerdotale of the Lateran
canon Samarino (1579), drew up the Rituale Ro-
manum, which was officially confirmed by the con-
stitution Apo8tolicce sedis of Paul V. (June 17, 1614).
So great, however, was the tenacity of local usages
that this rituale, based on the Roman use, made
slow progress, though it ultimately prevailed.
The Rituale Romanum of Paul V. was revised in
1752 by Benedict XIV., who added two formularies
for the papal blessing, and Leo XIII. had a definite
edition prepared (Regensburg, 1884). It is divided
into ten " titles," subdivided into chapters. The
first title contains general directions for the ad-
ministration of the sacraments; the second treats
of baptism; the third of penance; the fourth of
the Eucharist (the liturgy for which is given in the
missal); the fifth of extreme unction and all pas-
toral care of the sick and dying; the sixth of burial;
the seventh of marriage and churching; the eighth
of the various benedictions; the ninth of proces-
sions; and the tenth of exorcism, and the keeping
of parish records; the whole being concluded by an
appendix containing instructions for missionaries
with various benedictions. (P. Drews.)
Bibliooraphy: On ritualia in general consult A. Frans,
Dae Rituale von St. Florian aue dem IB. Jahrhundert, pp.
3-12, Freiburg, 1904 (contains useful bibliography). On
the Roman Rituale consult: G. Catalani, Rituale Romanum
. . . perpetuie commentariie exornatum, Rome, 1757; H.
Baruffaldi, Ad rituale Romanum commentarii, Venice,
1731; V. Thalhofer, Handbuch der katholieehen Liturotit,
ed. A. Ebner, i. 1, pp. 51-62, 59-60, Freiburg, 1894; KL,
x. 1217-18.
RITUALISM, ANGLICAN.
Origin in Tractarianism (§ 1).
Logical Character of Transition (f 2).
Parallel Movements ({3).
Legal Questions and the Source (f 4).
Decision Favorable to Ritualism (f 5).
Decision Adverse to Ritualism (§ 6).
Attempts to Relieve the Stress (| 7).
The Work of the Commission ({8).
The Archbishop's Decision (f 9).
Definitive Settlement not yet Reached (J 10).
The New Commission's Report (f 11).
Results; Present Status (f 12).
" Ritualism " is used as a popular catchword to
describe the second stage of that movement in the
English Church which in its earlier condition had
been named Tractarianism (q.v.). The name first
appears, probably, in connection with the riots in
London at St. George's-in-the-East in 1859 (cf.
quotation from East London Observer of May, 1859,
in Bryan King, Sacrilege and its Encouragement
... a Letter . . . to the Lord Bishop of London,
London, I860).
The revival of interest in Roman dogma, effected
by the Oxford writers of the Tracts for the Times,
was naturally suceeded by a revival of interest in
Roman observances. This practical
i. Origin revival carried the movement into
inTractari- novel circumstances and situations;
anism. for the earner detection and exhibition
of that sacerdotal structure of the
church which had been secured to it by struggles of
the Elizabethan divines, was carried on, of neces-
sity, in the intellectual, academic region. The claim
Ritualism
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
60
asserted had, first, to make good its doctrinal status:
it had to begin by working its way into the mind
and the imagination. The Tractarian writers recog-
nized this necessary order; they anxiously held
aloof from precipitating those effects, which they,
nevertheless, distinctly anticipated from this teach-
ing. " We the old Tractarians," wrote Dr. Pusey
in the Daily Express, May 21, 1877, " deliberately
abstained from innovating in externals." " We
understood the ' Ornaments Rubric ' in its most
obvious meaning, — that certain ornaments were
to be used which were used in the second year of
King Edward VI.; we were fully conscious that we
were disobeying it; but we were employed in teach-
ing the faith to a forgetful generation, and we
thought it injurious to distract men's minds by
questions about externals. We left it for the church
to revive " (Letter of Dr. Pusey to English Church
Union). Also, Letter to the Times, Mar. 28, 1874:
" There was a contemporary movement for a very
moderate ritual in a London congregation. We
(the Tractarians) were united with it in friendship,
but the movements were unconnected."
As soon as their teaching had secured believers,
it set itself to apply its principles in action; and
this active application of recovered belief in a
sacerdotal church inevitably took the form of re-
covering and reasserting that litur-
2. Logical gical structure which still underlay the
Character of Book of Common Prayer. The move-
Transition, ment, in making this fresh effort,
passed from the study to the street;
it became practical, missionary, evangelistic. It
insisted that its work upon the masses, in their
dreary poverty, demanded the bright attraction
and relief of outward ornament and the effective
teaching of the eye. This change from the univer-
sity to the town was signalized by the establish-
ment of, e.g., St. Saviour's, Leeds (to which the
Tractarian leaders lent- all their authority), and of
the Margaret Street Chapel, under F. Oakeley, a de-
voted companion of J. H. Newman.
The transition to ritual was not only a practical
expediency, it was also the logical outcome of the
new position; for the doctrinal revival lay in its
emphatic assertion of the conception of mediation,
of mediatorial offering. This mediation was, it
taught, effected by the taking of flesh; i.e., of the
outward to become the offering, the instrument of
worship. The body of the Lord was the one ac-
ceptable offering, sanctified by the Spirit; and in
and through that mediatorial body all human na-
ture won its right to sanctification, to holy use.
The spirit needs, according to this teaching, an out-
ward expression to symbolize its inward devotion.
Its natural mode of approach to God is through
sacramental signs; and the use of special sacra-
ments justifies, of necessity, the general use of visi-
ble symbols. If grace comes through outward
pledges, then devotion will obviously be right in
using for its realization forms and signs and ges-
tures; love will be right in showing itself through
beauty; and prayer and praise will instinctively
resort to ceremonial.
Nor was the pressure toward ritual merely doc-
trinal. The double movement in the church had
its parallel in the secular world. The spiritual re-
vival of Wordsworth had its reflex in the emotional
revival of Walter Scott. The set of
3. Parallel things was running counter to Puritan
Movements, bareness. The force and reality of
imagination in the shaping of life's in-
terests were recognized with the glad welcome of a
recovered joy. A touch of kindliness repeopled the
earth with fancies and suggestions, and visions and
dreams. This world was no longer a naked factory,
housing the machinery of a precise and unyielding
dogma; nor was it the bare and square hall in which
reason lectured on the perils of a morbid enthusiasm;
it was a garden once more, rich with juicy life, and
warm with color. This literary warmth mixed itself
in with the doctrinal movement toward the enrich-
ment of the churches. The emotions were making
new demands upon outward things; they required
more satisfaction. They had been taught by the
novelists to turn to the past, whether of cavaliers
with plumes and chivalry, or of the Middle Ages
with wild castles and belted knights, and praying
monks and cloistered nuns. All this world of strange
mystery and artistic charm had become alive again
to them, and the revival made them discontented
with the prosy flatness of common life. The churches
were responding to a real and wide need when they
offered a refuge and a relief to the distressed imag-
ination. Everywhere began the Gothic revival.
The restoration of the disgraced and destitute par-
ish churches, which had become practically neces-
sary, was taken up by men full of admiration for
the architecture which had first built them. They
were passionately set on bringing them back as far
as possible into their original condition. The archi-
tects thus were, indirectly, ardent workers on the
side of the ecclesiastical revival. They eagerly
studied liturgical correctness in restoring the beauty
of the chancels, in placing the altar at its proper
height and distance, in arranging the screen and
the stalls, the altar-rails and credence-table. This
combination of ecclesiastical and architectural sen-
timent was greatly furthered by the Cambridge
Ecclesiological Society, which did much to foster
antiquarian exactness, and to promote active efforts
at restoration (A. J. B. Hope, Worship in the Church
of England, London, 1874). This architectural
movement, which dated its earliest impulses from
J. H. Newman's church, built at Littlemore amid
much ferment and anxiety, culminated in the vast
achievements of Gilbert Scott and George Street,
whose handiwork has been left in restored churches
throughout the length and breadth of England.
[Worthy of mention here is the new Roman Catho-
lic cathedral of London, consecrated 1910. Even
though it does not belong to the Anglicans, it ema-
nates from the same source as that named in the
text and the aim was to make it primitive Byzan-
tine in style.] This general restoration of order and
fairness into the public services, which ran level
with the renewal of church fabrics, roused much
popular hostility, which made itself known in riot-
ous disturbances, chiefly directed against the use
of the surplice in the pulpit, following a direction
for its use given in a charge by Bishop Blomfield in
1842.
61
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Ritualism
But just as the artistic movement deepened from
the external ornamentation of the Waverley novels
into the impassioned mysticism of Dante Gabriel
Roesetti and the pre-Raffaelite brothers, so the
architectural revival deepened into
4. Legal the symbolism of a more rapt sacra-
Questions, mentalism. This it was which pro-
and the duced the historical crisis; and this
Source, crisis became yet more critical by
forcing into sharp antagonism the civil
and ecclesiastical jurisdictions which were called
upon to deal with the renovating ministers. The
story of the movements turns around the various
legal judgments given to determine the sense of the
" Ornaments Rubric," i.e., the rubric inserted, in
its first form, into the Prayer-Book of Elizabeth,
and reinserted, in a slightly changed form, in the
Prayer-Book of the Restoration, prescribing the
ornaments of the minister and of the chancel during
all offices (see Ornaments). The aim of the Eliz-
abethan divines had been to secure the main work
of the Reformation, and yet to protect the liturgy
from the " loose and licentious handling " of the
more eager of the Marian exiles. They had therefore
accepted, with some important alterations, the sec-
ond of the two Prayer-Books of Edward VI. as
the standard of the Reformed services; but, owing
to the strong pressure of the queen, they refused
to adopt it also as the standard of the ornaments;
and for this they went back to an earlier date, the
second year of King Edward VI., when much
ritual remained which the first Prayer-Book of Ed-
ward VI. had accepted, but which the second book
had rejected. There is no doubt that this in-
cluded and intended chasubles and copes, albs
and tunicles (see Vestments and Insignia, Ec-
clesiastical), with other details of altar fur-
niture. The question that arose was as to how
far this rubric, when reenacted in the Act of
Uniformity (see Uniformity, Acts of), was in-
tended by the divines of the Restoration to retain
its full original sense. In its earlier form it was
prescribed " until the queen should take further
order." Was that " further order " ever taken;
and, if so, does the later condition of the rubric, in
omitting any reference to this " further order,"
assume that order, or ignore it? If it ignored it,
why was it never acted upon? For certainly these
ornaments have never been in full use. But, if it
assumed it, how was it possible not to define what
the " order " was, or to prescribe still the second
year of Edward VI. as the standard, without a hint
of any qualification? Around this main issue a
swarm of complicated historical, legal, and litur-
gical arguments arose ; and who was to decide among
them? Here started up a new difficulty.
The juridical relations between Church and State
were the result of a long and intricate history, which
at the Reformation had finally assumed this gen-
eral form. The old machinery of ecclesiastical
courts remained entire — consisting of the bishop's
courts of first instance, in which the bishop's
chancellor adjudicated; and the archbishop's court
of appeal, in which the dean of arches gave judg-
ment, as the embodiment of the archbishop.
But from this, again, there was to be an appeal to
the king; and for hearing such appeals a com-
posite court had been erected by Henry VIII.,
the court of delegates, the exact
5. Decision jurisdiction of which had never been
Favorable clearly defined. This had continued,
to Ritualism, rarely used, dimly considered, until,
without anybody's notice, a great legal
reform, carried out by Lord Brougham, was discov-
ered to have transferred, without intending it, all
the power of this court of delegates to a certain
committee of privy council, composed and defined
for other general purposes. When suddenly there
was need of a final adjudication on anxious and agi-
tating spiritual questions, it was this committee of
privy council which the rival parties found them-
selves facing. It dealt with the question of bap-
tism, in the case of George Cornelius Gorham (see
Gohham Case); and Bishop Blomfield of London
had in consequence, speaking in the house of lords,
protested against the nature and character of the
committee as a court of final appeal in ecclesiastical
questions. No change, however, had been effected;
and in Mar., 1857, the question of ritual was brought
before it, on appeal, in the case of " Westerton vs.
Liddell," in which case the ritualistic practises of
St. Barnabas, Pimlico, had been condemned in the
consistory court of London and in the court of
arches. Amid great excitement, the committee
pronounced that the rubric permitted generally the
use of those articles which were prescribed under
the first Prayer-Book, and therefore sanctioned the
use of credence-table, altar-cross, altar-lights, col-
ored altar-cloths, etc. From that moment the Rit-
ualists have acted steadily in the belief that this
legal decision was but affirming that which is the
plain, historical sense of the words in the rubric,
and have pressed, often with rashness, sometimes
with insolence, for the revival of all the ritual which
this interpretation justified. In accomplishing this,
they have been aided, advised, and sustained by
the elaborate organization of the English Church
Union, numbering now over 20,000 members,
formed for the defense and protection of those who,
in carrying out the rubric so understood, were men-
aced by perils and penalties. For however favor-
able single congregations might be, yet the work of
revival had to be carried on, (1) in defiance of the
long unbroken usage, which had never attempted
anything beyond that simpler ritual which had
been adopted and allowed as the practicable mini-
mum under Elizabeth and Charles II.; (2) in de-
fiance of the bishops, whose paternal authority was
generally exercised to suppress, by any pressure in
their power, any sharp conflict with this common
custom; (3) in defiance of fierce popular suspicion,
roused by dread of Romish uses, such as broke out,
e.g., in the hideous rioting at St. George's-in-the-
East (1858-60), which the weakness of the bishop
of London and the apathy of the government al-
lowed to continue for months, and finally to suc-
ceed in expelling the rector, Bryan King, and in
wrecking his service; (4) in defiance of the court of
final appeal, which in a series of fluctuating, doubt-
ful, and conflicting judgments, had created a deep
distrust of its capacity to decide judicially questions
so rife with agitated feelings and popular prejudices.
Bltualism
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
62
This distrust — strongly roused by the Mackon-
ochie judgment (1868) and the Purchas judgment
(see Purchas, John), in which it was supposed, in
spite of obvious paradox, that everything not men-
tioned in the Prayer-Book was disallowed and illegal
—culminated in the Ridsdale judgment (1877), in
which it was declared that the " fur-
6. Decision ther order " allowed by the queen had
Adverse to been taken in the issuing of the adver-
Ritualism. tisements under Archbishop Parker
(see Advertisements of Elizabeth),
and that the divines of Charles II. therefore,
when they permitted the ritual of the second
year of Edward VI., really intended only so
much of it as was required in the Elizabethan ad-
vertisements. This startling decision the main block
of High-church clergy found it impossible to respect
or accept; and this repudiation of its verdict brought
to a head the protest that had been made ever since
the Gorham judgment against the validity of the
court itself as an ecclesiastical tribunal. This last
problem had been made critical by the famous Pub-
lic-Worship Regulation Act (1874), introduced in
the house of lords by the archbishop of Canterbury,
in disregard of the protests of the lower house of
convocation, and declared in the house of commons
to be a " bill to put down ritualism " by Disraeli,
then prime-minister, who, in spite of Gladstone's
impetuous opposition, carried it, amid intense ex-
citement, in an almost unanimous house. This bill
swept away all the process in the diocesan courts;
it allowed any three aggrieved parishioners to lodge
a complaint, which, unless stayed by the bishop's
veto, was carried before an officer nominated nor-
mally by the two archbishops to succeed to the
post of dean of arches on its next vacancy. From
him the appeal would be, as before, to the privy
council. Thus the scanty fragments of ecclesiastical
jurisdiction, which, under existent conditions, might
be supposed to balance the civil character of the
court of appeal, were all but wholly abolished. The
attempt to enforce this bill by the bishops was met
by absolute resistance, ending, after being chal-
lenged at every turn by technical objections, in the
imprisonment of four priests. In this collision with
the courts, the Ritualists had the steady support of
the mass of High-church clergy, who had held aloof
from their more advanced and dubious ritual. This
support evidenced itself in the " Declaration " of
over 4,000 clergy, headed by the deans of St.
Paul's, York, Durham, Manchester, and others
(1881).
The condition of things had become intolerable;
and in 1881 a royal commission was issued to con-
sider the whole position of ecclesiastical jurisdiction.
A similar mode of relief had been attempted in 1867,
when a royal commission on ritual had been ap-
pointed, which under the chairmanship of Arch-
bishop Longley, — after taking an im-
7. Attempts mense mass of evidence, and after
to Relieve prolonged discussions — had issued a
the Stress, report on the crucial point of the " Or-
naments Rubric/' which recommended
the " restraint " of the use of vestments, " by pro-
viding some effectual process for complaint and
redress," but which, by the use of the word " re-
strain," declined to declare their illegality, and then
had found itself unable to attain anything like
unanimous agreement on the nature of the legal
process which it proposed to recommend. The inner
history of the commission will be found in A. R.
Ashwell and R. G. Wilberforce, Life of ... S.
WUberforce, vol. iii. (London, 1882). No legislation
on the main subject followed this divided report.
But convocation in 1879, and the Pan- Anglican
Synod in 1880, had come to resolutions more or less
in accord with the commissioners' report, in the
sense of recommending a prohibitory discretion to
the bishop in any case where a change of vesture
was attempted. Such a recommendation seemed
naturally to allow and assume the abstract legality
of the change. Yet the courts of law had finally
decreed vestments illegal, and the majority of bish-
ops were prepared to accept their interpretation;
and, as long as they did so, no terms of peace could
be found on the basis of the proposal in convoca-
tion. For even though the bishops were willing to
abstain, in favorable cases, from pressing the legal
decisions, they were forced to set the law in motion
by the action of a society called the " Church As-
sociation," which exerted itself to assert and sup-
port the rights of any parishioners who might be
aggrieved by the ritual used in any church. Thus
the exercise of discretion was made all but impos-
sible to a bishop, who could only veto proceedings
brought against a clergyman by giving a valid rea-
son, and yet was forbidden to offer as a valid rea-
son the possible legality of the vestments.
The commission on ritual, therefore, had left the
conflict still severe and unappeased. Only the sig-
nal to relieve its stress had been given. For the last
act of Archbishop Tait, on his death-
8. The Work bed, was to suggest a truce to the fierce
of the legal prosecutions which had embit-
Com mission, tered the long controversy, by bring-
ing about an arrangement which would
terminate the historic case of Martin vs. Mackon-
ochie, round which the contest had turned for eight-
een years. Thus the tension slackened; the pos-
sibility of peace seemed to have become conceivable.
The question had widened from the consideration
of ritual to the problem of the permanent adjust-
ment of Church and State. A wiser temper had
come over the public, which had, by the appoint-
ment of the commission, allowed that the problem
of ecclesiastical jurisdiction was open to historical
examination. Bishop Temple had come to London
and was determined to avoid all legal measures. A
time for consideration was then secured, pending
the report of the commission. It did not report
until 1883. The report included the historic papers
prepared by Bishop Stubbs and Dean Church.
Under the weight of their authority it decided against
retaining the existing judicial committee of privy
council as the court of final appeal. It proposed a
reconstructed court which should obviously exhibit
its primary character, as a court of the crown and
not of the church, while, on all matters affecting
doctrine and discipline, it should act on the ad-
vise of the spirituality, which for this purpose is
represented by the bishops. No action was taken
on the recommendation of this report — a fatal in-
63
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Ritualism
action, for the report had decisively confirmed the
protest of churchmen against the jurisdiction of the
privy council. The existing judgments, which con-
stituted the actual law, now, therefore, lost all
moral authority. No one could expect them to be
obeyed, when the case against the authority which
promulgated them had been formally justified.
This is the heart of all the difficulties that followed.
The appeal to the bishops to make the law obeyed
and the appeal to the clerical conscience to repudi-
ate breaches of law lost all force when once it was
allowed that the law itself was the chief matter in
question.
It was obvious that the bishops must secure obe-
dience by other methods than prosecution in court.
They must discover some basis of agreement other
than that provided by privy council
o> The judgment. At the crisis, providence
Archbishop's gave them the opportunity of finding
Decision, such a basis — an opportunity bravely
seised by the chief authority con-
cerned. In 1888, the Church Association instituted
legal proceedings against Dr. King, Bishop of Lin-
coln, in order to test the legality of certain usages.
The archbishop, after prolonged discussion as to
the legitimacy of his action, decided to hear the
case himself with the episcopal assessors. He gave
his judgment Nov. 29, 1890, sanctioning under de-
fined conditions the use of the mixed chalice, of
altar lights, the adoption of the eastward position,
and the singing of the Agnus Dei; and he forbade
the signing of the cross in giving the absolution and
the benediction. An appeal was made to the privy
council, but that judicial body was far too wise to
traverse a judgment of such intrinsic weight backed
by knowledge superior to their own. They con-
firmed it, even where it was against their former
decision.
Here, then, was a basis provided, on which a gen-
eral conciliation could take effect. The judgment
stood on its own merits as an ecclesiastical pro-
nouncement delivered by the highest authority in
the church. The clergy could afford to accept it, if
the bishops would limit their claims
xo. Deflni- within its lines. Under the broad as-
tive sumption of theee'terms, ten years f ol-
Settlement lowed of steady peace. Bishop Temple
not yet had resolutely used his power of veto
Reached, to prohibit legal measures being taken
against the reredos of St. Paul's cathe-
dral, and had been supported in his right by the
highest court of appeal. It was understood that he
had set his face against any appeal to force. He
honored good pastoral work in whatever form he
found it; and he trusted to his own personal influ-
ence to do the rest. It was a noble hope, and in-
deed it ought to have been met by a spontaneous
determination not to take advantage of his confi-
dence. But a great diocese like' London can not,
ultimately, be expected to work on delicate under-
standings of this kind. New men come in who have
had no part in the understanding. The extreme
pressure of local work compels even the best men
to concentrate upon its immediate needs, as they
feel them, without regard to the wider political sit-
uation. The situation develops of itself without
anyone exactly intending it. So it was that while
Bishop Temple absorbed himself in the labors of
the diocese and left his clergy to themselves over
ritual, trusting to their honor to keep the terms, a
very wide license was gradually taken, and the in-
dividual divergences of use became perilous and
alarming. The leaders of the movement themselves
became aware that things were getting out of hand;
and, at a sudden crisis over some practises in a city
church, they refused to defend them, drew up a
statement which recognised the necessity for a
stricter supervision of special services, and expressed
their desire for a greater measure of submission to
authority as the first principle of Catholicism. The
bishops were prepared to take action, and they met
with signs of loyal response. Unluckily a storm
broke out, and swept away the opportunity for con-
ciliatory action. A Protestant speaker of the name
of Kensit aroused the passion of the crowd against
illicit practises, and Sir William Harcourt kindled
the flame in parliament by letters to The Times in
the summer of 1898. From this moment reasonable
treatment of a delicate and complicated situation
became impossible. In 1899 Archbishop Temple
made one notable attempt to rescue the cause of
reason and peace from the welter of passion. He
requested the bishop of London to bring before him
as supreme ordinary certain vexed questions about
the use of the incense, of portable lights, of the
practise of reservation, that he might give them a
" hearing "; not as before a court, but as a matter
f or " an opinion." He and the archbishop of York
delivered a joint " opinion " on the first two points
and concurred in forbidding any form of reserva-
tion of the consecrated elements. This " opinion "
failed to secure complete compliance. The arch-
bishop, who had been driven back on the law, which
he had done his utmost to avoid, took a singularly
limited and unelastic view of what the law was;
and in the mean time Mr. Kensit, in town and coun-
try, and Sir William Harcourt, in parliament, had
made a peaceable solution impossible. A series of
church discipline bills introduced by Mr. McArthur
in the house of commons, even though they never
got beyond second readings, and not always so far
as that, nevertheless, raised the ultimate issues be-
tween Church and State; and these issues had to
be met. The result was a new royal commission on
ecclesiastical discipline, very strongly manned,
which was authorized to " inquire into the alleged
prevalence of breaches or neglect of the law, relating
to the conduct of divine service, and to the orna-
ments and fittings of the churches; and to consider
the existing power and procedure applicable to such
irregularities." It was appointed in Apr., 1904, and
reported in 1906. It will be noticed that it was to
consider " neglect " as well as disorder, and also to
report on the problem of the jurisdiction of the
courts. By including the last point it confessed
that the key to the ritual disorder lay in the doubt-
ful condition of the authoritative law. Obedience
to the law is possible only when moral confidence
in the law had first been secured.
The commission was faithful to its conception
of the task committed to it, and after taking an
enormous amount of evidence dealing with neglect
Bitualism
Kiviufl
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
54
and omissions, as well as with the excesses and
irregularities, it accepted the verdict given by
the earlier commission on the con-
ii. The stitution of the present court of final
New Com- appeal. It declared that " the present
mission's structure of the ecclesiastical jurisdic-
Report tion is, in our view, one chief cause of
the growth of ritual irregularities." It
pronounced the present court of final appeal to be
a civil court of the crown, not exercising any au-
thority from the church. It desires this character
to be made clear in a newly constituted court, which
should be obviously secular, and should be required
to refer any matter of doctrine or discipline to the
spirituality, in the persons of the bishops. Until
this new court of appeal has been secured, with its
correspondent church courts, it considers it inex-
pedient to press for coercive measures, excepting
in certain specified cases of special gravity, which
are inconsistent with the teaching of the Church,
and the illegality of which can not be held to de-
pend upon judgments of the privy council. These
include reservation of the sacrament, with a view
to its adoration; benediction with the sacrament;
hymns, prayers, etc., involving invocation of the
Blessed Virgin; the observance of the festival of
the Assumption of the Virgin; the veneration of
images and roods. These practises are to receive
no toleration. But for the other matters it is pro-
nounced desirable " to postpone proceedings until
the reforms recommended in connection with the
final court of appeal and the diocesan and provin-
cial courts can be carried into effect." The com-
mission, therefore, admits the case against the
courts, on which the ritualists have insisted. But
it considers that certain specified acts can be dealt
with as illegal because their illegality is separable
from any judgment of the existing court of appeal.
But the commission did more. It recognized
frankly the impossibility and the inexpediency of
the rigid uniformity of worship implied under the
Elizabethan settlement. Such a uniformity has
never been actually carried out in practise. It be-
longs as an ideal to a time when the ideas of relig-
ious liberty and toleration in Church
ia. Results; and State were unknown. " In Church
Present and State alike, these ideas have now
Status. seen their way to undisputed preva-
lence. It is incongruous that the pre-
cise and uniform requirements which were in har-
mony with the Elizabethan ideas of administration
should still stand as the rule for the public worship
of the Church under altered conditions and amid
altered ways of thought." " A large comprehen-
siveness in matters of doctrine has grown up, while
it is sought to maintain a severe rigidity in rites
and ceremonies." This is inconsistent and incon-
ceivable. " It has proved impracticable to obtain
complete obedience to the acts of uniformity in one
direction, because it is not now, and never has been,
demanded in other directions." By these pronounce-
ments the commission has opened a new era. It
has abandoned the ideal of Elizabethan uniformity,
on which an appeal to coercion had rested. It asks
for elasticity or variety within the limits of the
church order, and under the direction of the ordi-
nary. It advises that letters of business be issued
to the convocations to consider (a) a new rubric
regulating the vesture of the ministers, and (b) to
frame modifications in the existing law which will
secure greater elasticity in the conduct of divine
service. It would give the bishops power to au-
thorize special services, etc. So the verdict stands.
The letters of business have been issued, the con-
vocations are engaged in the task of revision. No
action has as yet been taken on the matter of the
final court of appeal. Until this is done the ritual
details under dispute (other than the specified ille-
galities singled out for independent condemnation)
should, according to the report, be held over in sus-
pended judgment. On these lines a conciliatory
policy is made possible, and it is this which the
bishops are now attempting to work. If they are
hurried into immediate coercive measures by popu-
lar passion, at this juncture, they will be defying
the serious and wise conclusion of this powerful
commission. This consideration of the evidence
leads to two conclusions: first, the law of public
worship is too narrow for the religious life of the
present generation. Secondly, the machinery for
discipline has broken down.
Henby Scott Holland.
Bibliography: W. H. Frere, The Principle* of Religious
Ceremonial, London, 1906; History of Ritualism, by Vox
Claxnantis, London, 1907; P. Martin, Anglican-Ritualism
at teen by a Catholic and a Foreigner, ib. 1881; J. G. Nor-
ton, A Plea for the Toleration of Ritualists, ib. 1881; S. D.
White, Ritualism, ib. 1881; C. Wordsworth, On the Pres-
ent Disquietude in the Church, ib. 1881; Oxoniensis, Ro-
manism, Protestantism, Anglicanism, ib. 1882; Z. H.
Turton, High Churchmen and their Church, ib. 1888; W.
Nicholas, Ritualism, ib. 1890; J. C. Ryle, The Present
Crisis, London, 1892; Romanism and the Ritualism in
Great Britain and Ireland, .Edinburgh, 1895; W. M. Sin-
clair, Words to the Laity on Contemporary Ecclesiastical
Controversy, London, 1895; Pere Ragey, La Crise reti-
gieute en Angleterre, Paris, 1896; F. Peek, The English
Church and the Altar, London, 1897; J. Brown, The Pres-
ent Crisis in the Church of England, ib. 1899; H. W. Clarke.
Romanism without the Pope in the Church of England,
Beckenham, 1899; P. T. Forsyth, Rome, Reform and Re-
action: four Lectures, London, 1899; K. I re ton, Ritualism
Abandoned: or, a Priest redeemed, ib. 1899; A. W. Jolifife.
What is Ritualism t and who are Ritualists t Shanklin,
1899; J. Meldrum, Lawbreaks in the Church, Singapore*
1899; H. H. Henson, Church Problems. A View of mod-
ern Anglicanism, London, 1900; F. Meyrick, Old Anglican-
ism and Modern Ritualism, ib. 1901; V. Staley, Studies in
Ceremonial, Oxford, 1901; J. Wenn, The Priestly Letter »:
or, the Priest that is the Enemy, London, 1902; L. Heitland,
Ritualism in Town and Country, ib. 1903; £. W. Leach-
man, The Church't Object Lessons. Lessons on the Struc-
ture, Symbolism, and outward Worship of the Church, Ox-
ford, 1904; F. Meyrick, An Appeal from the Twentieth
to the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries, London. 1905;
W. P. Swain, History and Meaning of the Ornaments Ru-
bric, Bath, 1905; H. Wace, An Appeal to the First Six Cen-
turies, London, 1905; J. Warren, Ritualism, its Leading
Tenets, ib. 1906; C. Walker, The Ritual Reason why, ed.
T. I. Ball, London, 1908; W. Preston, Anti-Ritualism. A
Catechism for Protestant Communicants, new ed., by C.
Neil, ib. 1910.
RIVER BRETHREN: A denomination of
Mennonite origin and peculiarities, dating from a
revival in Pennsylvania in 1770. The name is sup-
posed to be due to the fact that the original mem-
bers were baptized in the Susquehanna River, or,
because living near that stream, came to be known
to others as the " Brethren by the River." Jacob
Engle, the first minister among them, came with
55
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Ritualism
Riviu»
thirty Mennonite families from Canton Basel, Swit-
zerland, on account of long persecution. The voy-
age was disastrous, one of the ships with the goods
of the emigrants being lost. One company, inclu-
ding Jacob Engle and his brother John, settled near
the Susquehanna River in the southeastern part of
Lancaster County, Pa. A revival in 1770, conducted
by Lutherans, Mennonites, and Baptists, including
Philip William Otterbein (q.v.), Boehm, and the
Engles, resulted in many conversions. Differences
arose among the converts respecting the mode of
baptism and separate movements were the result.
The Engles held to trine immersion and those who
were of the same mind formed the denomination
known simply as the River Brethren, which grad-
ually spread to Ohio, Indiana, Kansas, New York,
and other states, and to Canada. In 1862 the de-
nomination sought a legal status as a body holding
to the principle of non-resistance. Some of its mem-
bers had been drafted for the army in the Civil War,
and a legal status was needed to protect them from
a violation of their principles. At the same time
they adopted the name " Brethren in Christ," which
is also claimed by a small Mennonite body. The
River Brethren have suffered division. Differences
on minor points led to the withdrawal of the Yorker
Brethren in 1843 and in 1852 of the " Brinsers " or
United Zion's Children.
The River Brethren have no formulated creed.
They accept the doctrines known as Evangelical, and
hold to Trine Immersion (q.v.) as the only proper
form of baptism, to confession of sins to God and
man, and to the ceremony of foot-washing in connec-
tion with the eucharist. Non-resistance is one of
their cardinal principles. There are bishops, minis-
ters, and deacons. The deacons have charge of the
business of the churches, serve at the communion
table, and do some pastoral visiting. Ministers are
the teaching body, do parish work, and in the absence
of the bishop administer the communion. The
bishops preside at all council meetings and exercise
all the functions of the ministry. District councils
and the general conference are composed of ministers
and laymen. The latter meets annually and has
charge of the missionary work of the Church. The
denominational headquarters are at Harrisburg, Pa.
The differences between the three bodies are
slight. In the United Zion's Children in the cere-
mony of foot-washing one person both washes and
wipes; in the other branches one person washes and
another wipes. The three bodies in 1908 reported
201 ministers, 98 churches, and 4,114 communicants.
The Brethren in Christ, the main body, has 174
ministers, 65 churches, and 3,675 communicants.
H. K. Carroll.
Bnuoo&APHT: Consult the literature under Mennonites.
RIVET, rt-ve', ANDRE (ANDREAS RIVETUS) :
Huguenot; b. at Maixent (27 m. s.w. of Poitiers),
France, Aug., 1572; d. at Breda (28 m. s.e. of
Rotterdam), Holland, Jan. 7, 1651. After com-
pleting his education at Bern, he studied theology
privately at Bern and La Rochelle, and from 1595
to 1620 was at Thouars, first as chaplain of the duke
of La Tremouille and later as pastor; in 1617 he
was elected president of the Synod at Vitrei and
in 1620 he was called to Leyden as professor of the-
ology. In 1632 Frederick Henry appointed Rivet
tutor of his son, later William II., while the univer-
sity made him honorary professor. In 1641 he at-
tended the prince on his visit to England, and in
1646 was appointed curator of the educational in-
stitution in Breda, where he passed the remainder
of his life.
A rigid Calvinist and an uncompromising enemy
of the Roman Catholic Church, Rivet was in his
day the most influential member of the theological
faculty of Leyden; and together with his colleagues
he drew up, in 1625, the Synopsis purioris theologies,
which discussed the entire jield of Reformed dog-
matics in fifty-two disputations. At Leyden Rivet
labored also in Old-Testament exegesis. His nu-
merous writings are divided among the provinces
of polemics, exegesis, dogmatics, and edification.
They were collected in three volumes (Rotterdam,
1651-53), the most important being the Isagoge ad
scripturam sacram Veteris et Novi Testamenti (Dort,
1616). (S. D. van Veen.)
Bibliography: J. Meursius, Athena Balavct, pp. 315 aqq.,
Leyden, 1625; Lee Derni&rcs H cures de M. Rivet, Delft,
1651, Eng. tranal., The Last Hotter* of . . . Andrew Rivet,
The Hague, 1652; B. Clasius, Oodgeleerd Nederland, ill.
180-186, 's Hertogenbosch, 1851-56; E. and E. Haag, La
France protestante, ed. H. L. Bordier, viii. 444-449, Paris.
1877 sqq.; Lichtenberger, ESR, xi. 238-241.
RIVIUS, riv't-us, JOHANNES: German humanist
and theologian; b. at Attendorn (42 m. n.e. of
Cologne) Aug. 1, 1500; d. at Meissen (15 m. n.w.
of Dresden) Jan. 1, 1553. In 1516 he entered the
University of Cologne, and later, after studying
manuscripts in Rhenish monasteries, went to Leip-
sic, where he found friendly reception with Kaspar
Borner. After teaching at Zwickau for a short time,
he went to Annaberg, Marienberg, and Schneeberg,
and in 1537 was called to Freiberg as director of the
Latin school and tutor to Duke August. With the
latter, in 1540, he visited the University of Leipsic,
and he also accompanied his pupil to Dresden after
the death of Duke Henry. In the latter city Rivius
was employed in church and school administration,
and when Duke Maurice departed for the Turkish
war in 1542, he was made a member of the bureau
of spiritual affairs. In 1544 he was appointed in-
spector of schools at Meissen, where he evinced ex-
cellent administrative gifts. In 1545 he was made
assessor in the newly established consistory of Meis-
sen, and occupied this position until his death.
The literary activity of Rivius was directed pri-
marily to the humanistic sphere. Here belong col-
lections of notes on Terence, Cicero, and Sallust,
and an edition of the last-named, as well as the
long popular De iis disciplinis qua de sermone agunt,
ut sunt grammcUica, dialectica, rhetorica libri duo-
deviginti (Leipsic, 1539). Far more important, how-
ever, were his theological writings, in which the
elegant diction, Biblical and ecclesiastical learning,
and hilosophic training make him appear a pupil
of Erasmus. He was sometimes regarded with sus-
picion by Luther. His polemic writings in behalf of
the new doctrines show an honorable and exact
mode of discussion of the problems involved, and
he did not hesitate to quote from his opponents in
the course of his arguments. To this class of works
belong his De instaurata et renovata doctrina ecde-
tolMrtaon
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
siastica (Leipsic, 1541); De abusibus ecclesiasticis
sive crrorihus pontificiorum (1546); De admirabili
Dei consilio in celando mysierio redemptionis hit-
mana (Basel, 1545); De fiducia salutis propter
Chrirtum (1552); and De religione el qua potto se in
Miet UtriUtt gerere inventus debeat. Some of his
ethical works ure still worth reading, among them
De conscientia bona mentis (Leipsic, 1541); De per-
petuo in tenia gaudio piorum (Basel, 1550); De
vita et maribus Christianorum (1552); and De ttul-
titia mortalium in procrantinonda vita) eorrectione
(n.d.; Eng. trans! . by J. Bankes, London [15507],
and T. Rogers, London [15S2]}. To the department
of practical theology, finally, belong hia De eon-
solondix ayrotuntibus (Basel, 1546) and De officio
pastorali (1549). One of hi3 writings was translated
into English by W. G(aee) as A Guide unto Godli-
nesse, moste worthy to bee followed of all true Chris-
tians (London, 1579). Gross Muli.f.r.
BiBLioaRiPHT; The Opera, vol. i., pp. a> to b>. contain a
Vila by Qeorfc Fubriciua, Basel, 1562. pt»d„ 181*, and
ROBBER COUNCIL. See Eutycbianism, } 3.
ROBBINS, WILFORD LASH: Protestant Epis-
copalian; b. at Boston Aug. 7, 1859. He was grad-
uated from Amherst College (A.B., 1861) and the
Cambridge- Episcopal Theological School (1884).
He was ordered deacon in the same year and priested
in 1885. He was rector of the Church of Our Re-
deemer, Lexington, Mass. (1883-87), and dean of
All Saints' Cathedral, Albany, N. Y. (1887-1903).
Since 1903 he has been dean of the General Theo-
logical Seminary, New York City. He has written
An Essay toward Faith (New York, 1900) and A
Christian Apologetic (1902).
ROBERT D' ARBISSEL. See Font6vraui.t, Or-
ROBERT OF CITEAUX. See Cisteecians, | I.
ROBERTS, WILLIAM HENRY: Presbyterian;
b. at Holyhead (67 m. w. of Liverpool), Wales,
Jan. 31, 1844. He was educated at the College of
the City of New York (A.B., 1863); was statistician
in the United States Treasury Department (1863-
1865) and assistant librarian of Congress, Washing-
ton, D. C. (1866-71); graduated from Princeton
Theological Seminary (1873). He was then pastor
of Hie Presbyterian church at Cranford, N. J. (1873-
1877); librarian at Princeton Theological Seminary
(1878-86); professor of practical theology at Lane
Theological Seminary, Cincinnati, O. (1886-93);
acting pastor of the Fourth Presbyterian Church,
Trenton, N. J. (1895-1900); and since 1884 stated
■clerk and treasurer of the General Assembly of the
Presbyterian Church in the United States of Amer-
ica. He has been American secretary of the Alli-
ance of the Reformed Churches throughout the
World since 1888, chairman of the Committee on
Church Cooperation and Union of the General As-
sembly since 1903, and secretary of the Inter-
Church Conference on Marriage and Divorce since
■the same year. In addition to editing the Minutes
of the General Assembly (27 vols., Philadelphia.
1884-1910) and Addresses at the Two Hundred and
Fiftieth Anniversary of the Westminster Assembly
(1898), he has written, History of the Presbyterian
Church (Philadelphia, 1888); The Presbyterian
System (1895); Lows relating to Religious Corpora-
tions (1896); and Manual /or Ruling Elders (1897).
ROBERTSON, ALEXANDER: Presbyterian; b.
at Edinburgh, Scotland, Nov. 30, 1846. He was
educated at the University of Edinburgh and has
held pastorates at South Ronaldshay, Orkney
(1875-81), San Remo, Italy (1881-90), and Venice,
Italy (since 1890). He has lectured extensively in
Great Britain on the religious condition of Italy,
the ancient republic of Venice, and similar topics,
and has written Count CampobcUo and Calltolic Re-
form in Italy (London, 1891); Fra Paolo Sarpi, 0,e
Greatest of the Venetians (1894); Through the Dolo-
mites from Venice to Toblach (1896); The Bible of
St. Mark: St. Mark's Church, the. Altar and Throne
of Venice (1898); The Roman Catholic Church in
Italy (1902); Venetian Sermons (1905); and The
Papal Conquest: Italy's Warning — " tl'aic up, John
Bull " (1909).
ROBERTSON, ARCHIBALD: Church of England,
bishop of Exeter; b. at Sywell (6 m. n.e. of North-
ampton), Northamptonshire, June 29, 1853. He
was educated at Trinity College, Oxford (B.A.,
1876), where he was fellow from 1876 to 1886 and
dean from 1879 to 1883, and honorary fellow since
1903. He was ordered deacon in 1878 and ordained
priest in 1882. He was principal of Bishop Hat-
field's Hall, Durham (1883-97); principal of King's
College, London (1897-1903); fellow of the same
institution after 1899; member of the Senate of the
University of London (1899-1903); and vice-
chancellor of the same (1902-03). In 1903 he waa
consecrated bishop of Exeter. He was examining
chaplain to the bishop of Bristol in 1897, Boyle
lecturer in 1900, and Bampton lecturer in the fol-
lowing year. Besides performing his duties as editor
of Handbooks of Theology from 1896 to 1903. he has
edited and translated the De Incarnatione of Atha-
nasius (2 vols., London, 1884-93); prepared Select
Works of St. Athanasius for The Nicene and Post-
Nicene Fathers, 2d series, vii. (London, 1892); and
written Regnum Dei (Bampton lectures; 1901) and
The Roman Claims to Supremacy (1902).
ROBERTSON, ARCHIBALD THOMAS: Baptist;
b. near Chatham, Va., Nov. 6, 1863. He was edu-
cated at Wake Forest College, Wake Forest, N. C.
(A.M., 1885), and Southern Baptist Theological
Seminary, Louisville, Ky. (Th.M., 1888). Since
1888 he has been connected with the latter institu-
tion, where he has been instructor in New-
Testament interpretation (1888-92), professor of
BibUeal introduction (1892-95), and professor of
New-Testament interpretation (since 1895). He has
written Critical Notes to Broadus's Harmony of the
Gospels (New York, 1893); Life and Letters of John
A. Broadus (Philadelphia, 1900); Syllabus of New
Testament Greek Syntax (Louisville, 1900); Bibliog-
raphy of New Testament Greek (1903); Teaching of
Jesus concerning God the Father (New York, 1904);
Students' Chronological New Testament (1904); Key-
words in the Teaching of Jesus (Philadelphia, 100*5) :
Syllabus for New Testament Study (Louisville, 1 9'M) ;
57
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bobber Council
Robertson
Epochs in the Life of Jems (New York, 1907); Short
Grammar of the Greek New Testament (1908; 2d
ed., 1909); and Epochs in the Life of Paid; A Study
of Development in St. Paul's Career (1909).
ROBERTSON, FREDERICK WILLIAM: Eng-
lish preacher; b. at London Feb. 3, 1816; d. at
Brighton Aug. 15, 1853. He was the descendant
of a family of soldiers whose traditions afterward
became of decisive influence upon his inner life.
He was brought up under the strong Evangelical
impressions of his home, then studied at Beversley
grammar-school, the gymnasium of Tours, the New
Academy of Edinburgh, and the university of the
same place. His father had intended him for the
ministry, but he himself desired to become a sol-
dier. He was finally articled to a solicitor, but the
sedentary habits of his calling broke down his health.
He was then placed upon the list of dragoons in
India and prepared himself for that service in the
usual manner, but as he had to wait more than two
years for a call, the desires of his father became
urgent so that with self-sacrifice — a characteristic
trait — he entered, in 1837, Brazenose College, Ox-
ford (B.A., 1841; M.A., 1844), to study theology.
He occupied himself for a time with Platonic meta-
physics and Aristotle. As a theologian he clung at
that time to the Evangelical party in its strict Cal-
vinistic expression. The theological ferment at
Oxford impelled him to the study of the Bible, es-
pecially of the Greek New Testament, the most im-
portant portions of which he memorized. In 1840
he took orders and the curacy of the parish of St.
Mary Kalendar, Winchester. Breaking down under
the pressure of hard work and nervous affection, he
was compelled in 1841 to seek relaxation, and went
to Switzerland, meeting there Helen, a daughter of
Sir William Denys, whom he married the same year.
After his return to England he accepted, in 1843, a
position as curate at Christ Church, Cheltenham.
Discouraged by ill success in his official life, he
resigned his position and in 1846 sought rest in
Heidelberg. After a short rest he accepted the
charge at St. Ebbe's in Oxford, and, in 1847, the
incumbency of Trinity Chapel, Brighton, which he
held until his death.
Robertson's character was marked by great in-
tensity of feeling, which led him into an emphasis
of expression that sometimes partook of over-state-
ment. He was broad in his feelings, realizing some-
thing in each of the schools of theology in the An-
glican communion with which he was in sympathy.
He was especially successful in winning the con-
fidence of the working classes. His usefulness was
limited and his own life shortened by the absolute
seriousness of his temperament, which did not per-
mit the soothing and quieting influences of humor to
have their effect in the bearing of petty annoyances.
He was one of the foremost pulpit orators of his
people, excelling less in depth and learning than in
the power of his pathos, warm feeling, dignity, and
beauty of language. Most of his published works,
principally sermons, were issued posthumously.
The most important are: Sermons preached at Trin-
ity Chapel, Brighton (5 series, London, 1855-74,
often reprinted, e.g., 1906, in the later editions with
sketch of the life prefixed. This is one of the most
remarkable and influential series of sermons ever
issued, and is marked by a fresh, strenuous, and
burning piety and a hunger for souls. They were
written out after delivery, and are much condensed);
Literary Remains (1876) among them Lectures on
the Influence of Poetry on the Working Classes. Less
influential were Expository Lectures on St. Paul's
Epistles to the Corinthians (1859), and Notes on
Genesis (1877).
Bibliography: S. A. Brooke, Life and Letters of F. W.
Robertson, new ed., 2 vols., London, 1873 (thorough, sym-
pathetic); W. Sawyer, Memoir of Rev. F. W. Robertson,
Brighton, 1853; G. Sutton, Faith and Science, and a
Critique upon Mr. Robertson of Brighton, London, 1868;
F. A. Noble, A Lecture on F. W. Robertson, ib. 1872; G.
MacCrie, The Religion of our Literature, ib. 1875; F. Arnold,
Robertson of Brighton, with some Notices of his Times and
Contemporaries, ib. 1886 (contains many interesting no-
tices of friends of Robertson); J. P. Edgar, Robertson of
Brighton, Edinburgh, 1887; L. Dumas, Un pridicateur
anglais, Montauban, 18Q4; DNB, xlviii. 404-407; and
the list of literature in Richardson, Encyclopaedia, p. 941.
ROBERTSON, JAMES: The name of three Pres-
byterian divines.
1. Church of Scotland; b. at Ardlaw (36 m. n.
of Aberdeen), Aberdeenshire, Jan. 2, 1803; d. in
Edinburgh Dec. 2, 1860. After a brilliant career
at Aberdeen University (M.A., 1820) and study in
the divinity hall there from 1821 to 1824, he was
licensed by the presbytery of Deer and appointed
schoolmaster of Piteligo, 1825, tutor and librarian
at Gordon Castle, the seat of the duke of Gordon,
headmaster of Gordon's hospital in Aberdeen, 1829,
and at last given a parochial charge, that of Ellon,
1832. In the troubles preceding the disruption of
the Church of Scotland, he took a prominent part on
the side of the moderates who opposed the rupture.
He also sided with the ministers of Strathbogie
presbytery who had been deposed by the general
assembly because they, constituting the majority
of presbytery, had acted contrary to the order
of the assembly in taking a presentee on trial, 1842.
When the disruption came the next year he stayed
in the Kirk, and was made professor of divinity
and church history in the University of Edinburgh,
and so remained till his death. In 1844 he demitted
his parochial charge.
He is remembered for two things, that in 1841
he advised the farmers, in accordance with Liebig's
suggestion, to use bones dissolved in sulphuric acid as
a manure; and second, that he was the remarkably
efficient chairman of the committee in the Kirk on
the endowment of chapels of ease. In recognition
of his services he was elected moderator of the gen-
eral assembly in 1856.
His publications embrace Exposition of the Prin-
ciples, Operation, and Prospects of the Church of
Scotland's Indian Mission (Edinburgh, 1835); On
the Power of the Civil Magistrate in Matters of Re-
ligion (1835); Observations on the Veto Act (1840);
Statement for the Presbytery of Strathbogie (London,
1841); Answers to the Remonstrance (1841); Ap-
peal for the Advancement of Female Education in
India (Edinburgh, 1846); Remarks and Suggestions
relative to the Proposed Endowment Scheme (1846);
Letters to the Editor of the Northern Standard (1854) ;
Old Truths and Modern Speculations (1860).
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
2. Canadian Presbyterian; b. at Dull (25 m. n.w.
of Perth), Scotland, Apr. 24, 183S; d. in Toronto,
Ontdl, Jan. 4, 1902. He was bom in poverty, at-
ti'iUi'i] the school at. Dull, but in 1855 removed to
East Oxford, Ontario, Canada, with the family and
then attended school at Woodstock, a neighboring
village; passed the teacher's examination and re-
turned to teach at Woodstock (1857), later near
Innerskip USfiO), but in 1803 he matriculated at
the University of Toronto, from which hi- passed
to Princeton Theulogical Seminary in 1806 and after
two years entered Union Theological Seminary, New
York ( 'ily, whence he graduated in 18(19. For the
next six years lie was pastor of Norwich, Windham.
and East Oxford in the Presbyterian Church of
Canada; in 1871 lie became pastor of Knox Church,
Winnipeg, Manitoba, and in 1S77 lecturer in Mani-
toba college in the same place. In 1881 he became
cnjierini f-iidtrit (if missions of his church for Mani-
toba and the Northwest, and so continued till hia
death. In 1895 he was moderator of the general
assembly.
While a student in the university he belonged So
the Queen's Rifles and saw service in connection
with the Fenian raid of I860. Thus early did he
tslinw his courage and his fidelity to duty. When his
church called him to wateh over and promote her
mi— inns in (he wilds of Canada he addressed liiin-
oelf to his task with a skill, devotion, boldness, and
tact which have seldom been equalled, and so he
passes into history as one of (he master missionaries.
Those who would know what kind of a life he led
Jiavc but to read the talcs of Ralph Connor (Charles
William Gordon, '(.v.) for he was the " sky pilot "
who moves through them as the great friend of God
and man.
S. Church of Scotland; b. at Alyth (14 m. n.w.
of Dundee), Perthshire, Mar. 2, 1840. He was ed-
ucated at University and King's College, Aberdeen
(M.A., 1850), and St.. Mary's College, St. Andrews;
W'as a missionary of the < 'hureh of Scotland at Con-
stantinople in 1862-64 and at Beirut in 1864-75;
minister of Maylield Church, Edinburgh (1875-77);
and since 1877 has been professor of Hebrew and
Semitic languages in the University of Glasgow.
In 1904 he was Murtle lecturer at the University of
Aberdeen. Theologically he is " Calvinistic by tem-
perament, anil generally described (by others) as a
(■onservative theologian or conservative critic." He
prefers, however, " to be regarded as a critic of the
modern school of Old -Test a men!, criticism." He
has edited Sabbath School Teachers' Book, Third
Grade (Edinburgh, 1800). translated the syntactic
portion of A. M Oiler's Helirriitclic Srlinlgrammatik
(Halle, 1878) under the title Outlines ofHrhrew Syn-
tnx (London, 1882); and written The Early Religion
of Israel (Edinburgh, 18921; The Old Testament and
its Contents (]8°:s); The Poetry and the Rtligion of
the Psalm* (1898); The First and Second Books of
the Kings in the Temple Bible (London, 1902); and
Fire a/id Twenty Years in a Hebrew Chair {Edin-
burgh. 1903).
Btsooompni: On 1 : A. H, Chnrteris. Life of Bn. Jamei
PobcrUon, Profcmar of Diti'iil'i, Uimlnii. I-S63; idem, A
Faithful Churchman: Skth-h of the Life and Work of Pro-
fmor Jama Robtrtoon, ih. 1807; DA'fl. xJv-iti. 410-111.
On 2: C. W. Gordon (Ralph Connor). Tht Life of Jama
ROBERTSON, JAMES CRA1GIE: Church of
England; b. at Aberdeen 1813; d. at Canterbury
July 9, 1882. He was graduated at Trinity College.
Cambridge (B.A., 1834; M.A., 1838); was vicar of
Heckesbourne, near Canterbury, 1846-59; canon
of Canterbury, 1859-82; and professor of ecclesias-
tical history, Kings College, London, 1804-74. His
historical works lake high rank. He wrote: How
find! we Conform to the Liturgy of (he Church of Eng-
land f (London. 1843); History of the Christian
Church to the Reformation (4 vols., 1854-73; new
ed., 8 vols., 1874-75); Sketches of Churcli History
(1S55-7S); Becket, Archbishop of Canterbury (1859);
and Plain Lectures on the Growth of the Papal Power
(1876). He edited P. Heylyn's History of the Refor-
mation (2 vols., 18-19); John Uargravo's Aleiandir
VII. and his Cardinals (1807); and Material; for the
History of Tliomas Becket, in the Rolls Series (8
vols., 1875-S3).
BiBuooHirer: DNB, ilviii. 412-413.
ROBERTSON, WILLIAM: Church of Scotland;
b. at Bort-hwick (10 m. b.b.c. of Edinburgh) Sept
19, 1721; d. in Edinburgh June 11, 1793. After
studying at the University of Edinburgh, he was
licensed and settled at GLulsmuir, 1713; was set-
tled over Lady Yester's Chapel, Edinburgh, 1758;
was translated to the Old Gruyfriars Church, 1701.
He was reputed the most eloquent preacher in Scot-
land, but he published only one sermon, the one he
preached before the Society in Scotland for Propa-
gating Christian Knowledge, upon the state of the
world at the coming of Christ (1755). From 1763
till 1780 he was moderator of the general assembly;
from 1762 till 1792 principal of Edinburgh Univer-
sity. His fame with posterity does not come from
his pulpit or administrative ability, but from three
historical works which are now superseded because
later writers have had access to much better infor-
mation than he, but. are noteworthy for (heir style
and their impartiality: The History of Scotland dur-
iiulth,- Reigns of Quern Mary and of King James VI.
tilt his Accession to the Crown of England. With a
Hrriett' of the Scotch Hi*l»ry previous to thai Period,
and on Append ir ,-iriitainiiig original Papers (Lon-
don, 2 vols., 1758-59) ; The History of the Reign of
the Emperor Charles V,, with a View of the Progress
nf Society in Europe from the Subversion of tlie Ra-
mon Empire to the Begin iiing of the Sixteenth Cen-
tury (3 vols., 1769); and The History of America
(4 vols., 1777-96, going down to 1652 for Virginia
and to 1688 for New England). There are numer-
ous collected editions of his [Forts (most of them
containing the Life by Dugald Stewart), e.g.. 11
vols., London, 1800-02, 12 vols., 1812; 6 vols.,
Edinburgh, 1813; best, 8 vols., Oxford, 1825, re-
prints often, e.g., 1865.
B i a uo cut a phi: Bmidcs the life by Stewart, lit sup.. then
a An Account of Hie Life and Writing of William ttobrrt-
«on, by fi. Gleig. Edinburgh. I S 1 Li ; nn<i one in Lord
Brougham's Liett of Men of LcUert and .Srienra, 2 vob..
London. 1845-46. References lo scattered notices an
given in D.Vfl, ilviii. 425-430.
ROBINS, HENRY EPHRAIM: Baptist; b. at
Hartford, Conn., Sept. 30, 1827. He was educated
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
at the Literary Institute, SufHeld, Conn., Fsirmount
Theological Seminary, and Newton Theological
Institution, from which he was graduated in lSlil.
He held Baptist pastorates at the Central Baptist
Church, Newport, R. I. (1861-67), and the First
Baptist Church, Rochester, N. Y. (1867-73); was
president of Colby University (1873-82); and
professor of Christian ethic, in Rochester "I'l logical
Seminary (1882-1904). He lias written Harmony
of Ethics u-ith Theology (New York, 1891); The
Christian Idea of Education n.< dlxtiiujuiaheu' frmn
Secular Education (Philadelphia, 1805); and
Ethic* in Christian Life (19(H).
ROBIHSON, CHARLES HENRY: Church of
England; b. at Kevnsham (5 m. s.e. of Brist.nl),
Somerset, I'eli. 27, 18(11 . He wan educated at Trinity
College, Cambridge (B.A., 18S3), and was ordered
deacon in ISM and ordained priest in 1 NS'i. He was
curate of Putetev Bridge. Yorkshire (18M-S6) and of
St. Johns, Darhnghurst, Sydney, N. B. W. (1886-
1887). He became fellow and tutor of St. Augus-
tine's College. Canterbury (1880), and was vice-
chancellor of Truro Cathedral and vice-principal of
the Chancellors School at Truro (1890-93). In 1892
he visited Armenia to report to the archbishop of
Canterbury on the condition of the Armenian
Church. He was engaged in a first expedition fo
Kano, the commercial capital of central Soudan
( 1 STO-!i o |, and since 189fi has been lecturer in Hausa
in the University of Cambridge, honorary canon of
Hipon since 1897, and in 1902 was made editorial
secretary to the Society for the Propagation of the
Gospel. He has written The Church and her Teach-
itig (London, 1893); Hausaland: or, Fifteen Hun-
dred Miles through the Central Soudan (1890)
Specimens of Hausa Literature (Cambridge, 1896)
Grammar of the Hausa Language (London, 1SH7)
Mohammedanism, has it any Future? (1897); Dic-
tionary of 'the Hau.iii Fjinijiiii'fi- (ill collaboration with
W. H. Brooks; 2 vols., London, 1S99); Studies
in the Character of Christ (1900) ; Nigeria, our latest
Protectorate ( 1900) ; Human Nature a Ilevelalwn of the
ZXrin*{1902); Siudifs in Christian Worship [1008);
and Studies in the Resurrection of Christ (1909).
ROBINSON, CHARLES SEYMOUR: Presbyte-
rian; b. at Bennington, Vt., Mar. 31, 1829; d. at
New York Feb. 1, 1899. He graduated at Williams
College, 1849; studied at Union (New York) and
Princeton Theological Seminaries; was pastor at,
Troy. N. Y., 1855-00; Brooklyn, N. Y., 18604$
the American Chapel at Paris, France, 1868-71;
Madison Ave. Church, New York, 1871-88; and
of other churches at New York, 1890-92, and after.
He has published volumes of sermons entitled,
Christian Work (New York, 1874) and Bethel and
Penuel (1874); Studies of Neglected SPrafa (188:1):
Sermons in Songs (1855); and Simon Peter: His
Early Life and Times (2 vols., 1889). He is espe-
cially famous as the compiler of books of hymns and
tune?, some of which are, Songs of the Church (New
York. 1862): Songs for the Sanctuary (18C5, 1889);
Psalms, Hymns, and Spiritual Songs (1874); and
Laudes Domini (1884-90).
BiauaaKArsT: 8. W. Duffield, finpluA ffymiu, pp. 472-
473, New York, 1884: Julian, Bumnolmn, p. 9flB.
ROBIHSOH, EDWARD: Biblical scholar, and
pioneer In modern explorations in Palestine; b.
ut Sout hiugton, Conn., Apr. 10, 1794; d. in New
York City Jan. 27, 1863. Ho was graduated from
Hamilton College 1 1S10), and after studying law at
Hudson, X. V., returned to his alma mater as tutor
in mathematics and Greek (1817-18). In 1818, he
married Mis.- Lli/.a Kirk hind, d milliter of the < )iuiil,'i
missionary, who died the next year. From his mar-
riage until 1S21, he worked his wife's farm, but also
pursued his studies. In IS21 he went to Andover to
si i p^ 'i in tend tlie printing of his edition of part of the
Iliad (liks, i.-i\.. xviii., xxii.l, which apjwared in
1 822, and while there . under Moses St Hurt's inlluonre,
begun his career as a Biblical scholar and teacher.
I'rom 1S23 (o 1820 he was instructor in tlie Hebrew
language and literature at Andover Theological
Seminary, meanwhile being busily oecupied with
literary lal'ors. He assisted I 'lofcssor Stuart in the
2d ed. of his Hebrew Grammar (Andover, 1523, 1st
ed., 1813), and in his translation of Winer's Gram-
mar of the New-Testament Greek (1825), and alone
translated Waal's Claris philologies Novi Testa-
ment* (1825). In 1826 he went to Europe, and
studied at (iottingen, Halte, and Berlin, making the
acquaintance, ale! winning the praise.-, of t.losenius.
Tholuck, and Kodigcr in Halle, and Neander and
Iiitter in Berlin. In 1828 he married the youngest
daughter of L. A. von Jacob, professor of philosophy
and political science at the university of Halle, a
highly gifted woman of thorough culture, well known
Iw'fore her marriage by her pseudonym of "Talvi."
In ISiiO he returned to America, mid from 1830 to
1833 was professor-extraordinary of Biblical litera-
ture, and librarian at Andover. In 1831 he founded
the Biblical Itepntitory. subsequently (1851) United
with the Bibliotheca Sacra, to which he contributed
numerous translations and original articles. In
IKA'2 lie issued an improved edition of Taylor's trans-
lation of Calmet's Dictionary of the Bible, and in
1833 a smaller Dictionary of the Holy Bible, and a
translation of Buttmnnn's Greet Grammar (exten-
sively used as a text-book). In 1833 ill-health, in-
duced by his severe labors, compelled him loro.-,ign
his professorship, and he removed to Boston. In
1834 he brought out a revised edition of New-come's
Greek Harmony of the Gon/uin; in 1S3G, a translation
of Gesenius' Hebrew Lexicon (5th edition, the last
in which liobinson made any changes. 1854), and the
independent Greek and Eitali.ih Lcricon of the Neie
Testament (revised ed.. 1S50). In 1837 he was called
to be professor of Biblical literature in Union
T!i' ological Seminary, New York City. Prior to
entering upon his duties, he sailed in July, 1837, for
the Holy Land, and in conjunction with Rev. Dr. Eli
Smith, the accomplished Arabic scholar and faithful
missionary of the American Board in Syria, explored
all the important places in Palestine and Syria.
In Oct., 1838, he returned to Berlin; and there for
two years worked upon Ins liihlica! Researches in
Palestine, Mount Sinai, and Arabia Pctrtca. This
great work, which at once established the author's
reputation as a geographer and Biblical student of
the first rank, appeared simultaneously in London,
Boston, and in a German translation carefully re-
vised by Mrs. Robinson, and carried through the
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
press in Halle by Professor Rodiger (3 vols., 1841).
In recognition of his eminent sendees, he received
in 1842 the Patron's Gold Medal from the Royal
ideographical Koeietv of London, and the degree
of D.D. from the university of Halle, while in 1844
Yale College gave him that of LL.D. In 1852 he
visited Palestine again, and published the results of
this second visit in 1856, in the second edition of his
ililii;,::! Hi srnrehi:*, and in a supplemental volume,
Later Biblical Researches in Palestine and the Adjacent
Regions (3d. ed. of the whole work, 3 vols., 1867).
Dr. Robinson regarded the work as only a prepara-
tion for a complete physical!, historical, and topo-
graphieul geography of the Holy Land. But re-
peated attacks nl' illness: undermined Ids cunsl i( i it ion
and an incurable disease of the eyes obliged him in
!So2 to lay down his pen. After his death, the first
part <if the projected work, the Physical Geography
of the Hiily Land, which was all he had prepared,
was published in English (London ami Boston, 1-Sti.i)
and in German translation by his wife (Berlin).
He also prepared a Greet Harmony of the Gospels
(1K1.V), which was far superior to anything of the
kind which had then appeared, and in 1846 an
English Harmony.
In May, 1863, ha made his fifth and last visit to
Kuro|K', litit failed to receive liny permanent lienefit
to his eyesight. In Nov. he returned, and resumed
his lectures, but died after a brief illness.
Dr. Robinson was a man of athletic form and im-
posing I is; i ij'-. i hough -oinewhal bent in later years;
or st rone, sound, good sense; reserved, though when
in congenial company often entertaining and humor-
ous. He was thorough and indefatigable in his
im estigal ion-, iski'iitieal nf iill monastic legends.
reverent to God's revelation. Outwardly cold, his
heart was warm, and his sympathies tender. He ia
probably the most distinguished Biblical scholar
whom America lias produced, indeed, one of the most
distinguished of the nineteenth century. The
original manuscript of Dr. Robinson's Bihliarf A'. -
searches and a part of his library are in the posses-
sion of the Union Theological Seminary.
P. SCHAFFt- D, S. SCHAFF.
: Thi
w™
HMDOrinl address™ by H. D, Hiich-
Smilh nre in Lift. Writings, and Ctitmuttr
, New York. 1883; A. P. Stanley. Ad-
in America, pp. 23-34. ib. 1SV9; G. L.
i Theological Seminary in tht Cili/ o
ROBINSON, GEORGE LIVINGSTONE: Presby-
terian; b. at West Hebron, N.Y., Aug. 19. 1854. He
was graduated from Princeton College (A.B.. 18S7),
Princeton Tlieologieal Seminary lINWl). and sluilicd
at the universities of Berlin (18(13-94) and Leipsie
(Ph.D., 1895). He was an instructor in the Syrian
Protestant College. Beirut, Syria (1887-90); pastor
of the Presbyterian church at Roxbury, Mass.
(1890); professor of Old-Testament literature and
exegesis at Knox College. Toronto (1890-98); held
a similar position in McCormick Theological Semi-
nary, Chicago (1898-19001; and was appointed pro-
fessor in the American School of Archeology at
Jerusalem (1900). He has made extensive explora-
tions in Palestine, particularly in the peninsula of
Binai and Kadesh-Barnea. In theology he is a con-
liberal. He has written The Origin and
Date; of Ztchariah ix.-xix,. (Chicago, 1896); The
Biblical Docirine of Holiness (1904); and Leaders of
Israel: History of the Hebrews from the Earliest
Times to the Downfall of Jerusalem, A.D. 70 (New
York, 1906).
ROBINSON, HENRY DODGLAS: Protestant
r'j'L-inpal missionary bishop of Nevada; b. at
Lowell, Mass., Mar. 15, 1800. He was educated at
K urine College (B.A., 1884), and was assistant rec-
tor of the grammar-school of the same institution in
1S!S I-S5, and instruct or in mathematics in San Male,..
Military Academy, San Mateo, Cal., in 1885-89.
Having been ordered deacon in ISSOand priested in
1888, he was also curate of St. Matthew's in the same
city until 1889, after which he was rector (1889-99)
and warden (1899-1908) of the grammar-school of
Racine College. In 1908 he was consecrated mis-
sionary bishop of Nevada.
ROBINSON, JOHN: English Separatist, the min-
ister of the Pilgrim Fathers ; b. probably at Lincoln,
about 1575; d. at Leyden Mar. 1, 1625. He entered
Corpus Christi (or Benct) College, t amb ridge, in
1592 (B.A., 1590; fellow, 1598; M.A., 1599); was
curate of St. Andrew's, Norwich, 1602; married
1604; was compelled to leave his charge because
lie had criticized prelacy and the ceremonies of
the Church or England, 1606; then is heard of in
many places anxiously endeavoring to find out
his duty as to leaving the church. Finally he
decided to leave and in 1606 Iwcame an officer
of the Separatist congregation meeting at William
Brewster's house, Scrooby, Nottinghamshire; he
went with the congregation to Amsterdam in NiOS
and in May. 1009, settled in Leyden, where he was
publicly ordained as pastor and Brewster became
ruling elder. In Jan., 1611, Robinson and throe
others bought a house for 8,000 guilders, but, probn-
My owing to difficulty in raising the money, did not
obtain possession till May. 1612; the building was
then used as a church and dwelling, and a score of
small houses were erected on the property for the
poorer members. In Sept., 1615, Robinson was
admitted a member of the university as a student of
theology and attended the lectures of Episcopius
and Polyander (Jan Kerckhoven). He is said to
have entered actively into the Arminian controver-
sies, taking the Calvinistic side. The determina-
tion to emigrate to America was formed as early as
1617, when John Carver, a deacon, and Robert
Cushman, a man of business experience, were sent
to London to negotiate with the London- Virginia
Company, carrying with them seven articles of be-
lief subscribed by Robinson and Brewster as evi-
dence of their orthodoxy and loyalty. The first
company of emigrants crossed the Atlantic in the
Mtit/jlHwer and landed at Plymouth, Dec. 21, 1620,
under Brewster's guidance. Robinson remained in
Holland with the majority of the congregation, who
chose to defer their departure, and he died before
he was able to unite his divided dock. He was
buried Mar. 4, 1625, in St. Peter's Church, Leyden.
His congregation was broken up. some going to New
England and others to Amsterdam. In 1865 a
marble slab was placed on the building occupying the
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
site of Robinson's bouse in Leyden (taken down
about 1650), and in 1891 a bronze tablet was dedi-
cated on St. Peter's Church. Robinson was a man
of amiable character, of sound judgment and good
sense, and exercised a good influence over all the
English in Holland. See Congregationalists,
I-. 1. Si 5-7. His Works (nearly complete), with
memoir by Robert Ashton, appeared in 3 vols.,
London, 1851. The most important are A Justifica-
tion of Separation from the Church of England [Li v-
den, 1610); Of Religious Comunion, Private and
Public (1614), a reply to Thomas Helwys and John
Smyth; Apologia justa et neeesxaria qimrumiltrn
Christianorum dictorttm Brownislnrum aire Barrowis-
tarum (1619; in Kng., 1625); Observations, Divine
and Moral, essays on moral and religious topics
(1625; 1628; 1638).
Bibuooupbt: The first source for a life b Robinson's own
writings, and next to tint is W. Bradford. Hint, of Plym-
outh Plantation, in Collections of Maine huidU Historical
Society, * tehee, vol. iii.. lojfl. et A. Young, Chronicle*
of the Pilgrim Father: 2d ed.. Boston, 1844, The prin-
cipal eitemal sourcw nrn ooni-eniently and compactly
brought together by E. Arber in The Story of the Pilgrim
Father, 1806-13 . . . at Told h„ themaetve*. their Friend*.
and their Encmice, London. 1SU7. Consult further: O. S.
D.i-i, John Rebiiuem, the Pilgrim Parlor, Boston. 1003;
H. M. Dexter, CongregaHonalitm of the Uet Three Hun-
dred yearn, pp. U7-4I0 01 passim. New York, 1SM0; D.
Campbell. The Puritan in Holland, England, and America,
ii. 340 »qq.. ib. 1803; W. Walker, in American Church
HiMorn Sena, iii. 57-72. ib. LMM; idem. Ten New Eng-
land Leader: pp. 17-30 et passim, ib. 1901; A. E. Dun-
ning, Cangregatianaliet* in America, iii. 1894 i John Brown,
The Pilgrim Father* of fine England and their Puritan
Sucetntott. ib. 1897; C. Burmge, New Faett concerning
John Robinson, Patter of the Pilgrim Father*. Oxford. 1910
(used in the (ongoing sketch); DNB. xlix. 18-22 (where
literal
found to rouUin nutlerinl oi
ROBINSON, JOHN EDWARD: Methodist Epis-
copal bishop in Southern Asia; b. at Gort (28 m.
n. of Limerick), County Gal way, Ireland, Feb. 12,
1849. He was graduated at Drew Theological
Seminary (1874), and in that year went to India as
a missionary. He was presiding elder of the Bur-
mah District (1884-88), the Bombay District (1888-
1896), the Asansol District (1896-1900), and the Cal-
cutta District (1900-04). He was elected bishop
in 1904. In theology he is a liberal evangelical. In
addition to editing the Burmah Evangelist from
1884 to 1887 and the Indian Witness from 1896 to
1904, he ha* written .-1 /»«'/>/ !> Siirmmiiin Refuted
(Rangoon, 1884) and The Rise and Progress of
Methodism (1899).
ROBINSON, JOSEPH ARHITAGE: Church of
England; b. at Keynsham (5 m. s.e. of Bristol),
Somerset, Jan. 9, 1858. He was educated at Christ's
College. Cambridge (B.A., 1881), and was ordered
deacon in 1881 and advanced to the priesthood in
the following year. He was then domestic chaplain
to the bishop of Durham (1883-84), curate of Great
St. Mary's, Cambridge (1885-86). Cambridge While-
hall preacher (1886-88), vicar of All Saints', Cam-
bridge (1888-92), Nom'sian professor of divinity at
Cambridge (1893-99), and canon of Westminster
(1899-1902). Since 1902 he has been dean of West-
minster. He was likewise fellow of bis college in
1881-99, of which he has been honorary folk™ since
1904, and was dean of the same college in 1884-90.
He was examining chaplain to (he hip-hop of Bath
and Wells in 1888-92, a prebendary in Weill t.'athe-
dral in 1894-99, select preacher at Oxford in 1899,
and rector of St. Margaret's, Westminster, in 1899-
1900, while since 1902 he has been a chaplain-in-
ordinary to the king. He prepared the English
translation, with a preface and appendices, of 8.
Lampros's Collation of the Athm t 'oiler of the Shepherd
of Hernias (Cambridge, 1888); and edited the larger ■
portion of the Greek text of the " Apology " of Aria-
tides for J. R. Harris's edition of the Syria u version
of the same document (1891); The Passion of Saint
Perpetua (1891); and The Philocalia of Origcn (IS'J3);
besides editing Texts and Studies: CoiilrH/ittintiii
to Biblical and Patristic Literature (Cambridge,
1891 sqqO; and An Unrecognized Westminster
Chronicler, 1S81-IS94 (1907). As independent
works ho has written The Gospel BMKfdbtQ to
Peter and the Revelation of Peter (Cambridge, 1892;
in collaboration with M. R. James); EirfhnH-ain:
Studies of Euthalius (1895); Unity in Christ, and
other Sermons (London, 1901); Study of the
Gospels (1902); Some Thoughts on the Incarna-
tion (1903); St. Paul's Epistle to the Ephesians:
Revised Text and Translation, with Exposition mid
Notes (1903); Son* Thoughts on Inspiration (irK)ii);
Some Thoughts on the Athanasian Creed (1905); The
Vision of Unity (1908; sermons); The Historical
Character of St. John's Gospel (1908); .Sf. Paul's
Epistle to the Ephesians, an Exposition (1909);
The Manuscripts of Westminster Abbey (1909; with
SI. R. James).
ROBINSON, ROBERT: Baptist; b. at Swaff-
ham (25 m. w. of Norfolk), Norfolk, Sept. 27, 1735;
d. at Birmingham June 8, 1790. From 1701 he was
prist or of a society at ( 'am bridge, acquired consider-
able land, ami engaged at. the .same lime in business
as a corn and coal merchant; and, besides preach-
ing on Sundays at t ambri' Ige. did Eva nae Meal work
in as many as fifteen neighboring .stations during
week-days. In his Plea fur the Dieiniti) of our ford
Jesus Christ (Cambridge 1776; new ed., 1813) he
represented Sabellian views, was influenced by
Joseph Hriestlcy ('|.v.),and in a letter (17WS) scouted
the idea of the doctrine of the Trinity and of the
personality of the Spirit. Deficient in training, he
taught hi tu. -I'll" four or live languages, possessed great
powers of speech, and hi:s History of Baptism (Lon-
don, 17!W) was strongly written, minute in learning,
mid abounding in rustic witticism. His I'nslh'inin'is
IForfcs were issued in 1792; a volume ft Sermons, in
1804; his Miscellaneous Works, ed. B. Flower, in
4 vols., in 1807; and Select Works, ed. W. Robinson,
1861. Ho wrote the two popular hymns "Come
thou Fount of even' blessing" (1758) and "Mighty
God, while angels bless thee " (1774).
Bihliooiiapht; The funeral aennons by Joseph Priestley.
Abraham Reea. and J,whn- Tonlmiri were nil vnUi-L,..!
in 1790. The monograph is by <i. Dyer, ,V.>,ieir< „/ the
Life and Writings of Rol-ert H,.*in..,.n, I_.ii.lmi. 11W-.
Memoir* by the editors wen prefined to the MUcetta-
nrou* Work* and Select Work: utsup. Consult furihi r
9. W. Ouffield, Englith Humn,, pp. 110-11.. :io2-iblt
New York, 1US0; Julian, Hvmnotagv. pp. 969-070.
Rode
THE NEW SCHAFF-HEEZOG
ROBIKSOH, STUART: Presbyterian; b. at
Strabane (13 m. s.s.w. of Londonderry), Ireland,
Nov. 26, 1816; d. at Louisville, Ky., Oct. 5, 1881.
He was graduated at Amherst College, 1836; studied
theology at Union Theological Seminary, Va., and
at Princeton; was ordained, 1842; pastor at Kan-
siwha Salines, W. Va., 1841-47; at Frankfort, Ky.,
1847-52; at Baltimore, 1852-56; was professor of
church polity and pastoral theology in the Presbyte-
rian theological seminary' at Danville, Ky., 1856-57;
and pastor at Louisville, Ky., 1858-81. He was one
of the most, prominent clergymen of the South, and
published The True Presbyterian; but, hi- loyalty
being doubted, the paper was suppressed by the
[military in 1862, and he removed to Canada, preach-
ing at Toronto, hi 1866 lie returned to his pastorate
at Louisville Mid resumed his journal under the title
Free Christian Commonwealth. Expelled from the
general assembly in IS66 lor signing the " Declara-
tion and Testimony " (a protest against political
deliverances by the official bodies of the church), he
induced the synod of Kentucky to unite with the
general assembly of the Southern Presbyterian
Church in 1869, Among his published works are,
The Church o/Godnn Exsrittwl Element of the Gospel
(Philadelphia, 18581; Slavery as Recognized by the
Mosaic Low (Toronto, 1865); and Discourses of
Redemption (New York, 1866; Edinburgh, 1869).
ROBSOH, GEORGE: United Free Church of
Scotland; b. at Glasgow May 8, 1842. He was edu-
cated at the university of his native city (M.A.,
1861), the universities of Erlangen, Berlin, Tu-
bingen, and Geneva (1862-65), and United Presby-
terian Hall, Edinburgh (1866). In 1866 he was o'r-
dained minister of Union Street Church. Inverness,
•where he remained until IMl.'i. when he accepted a
call to the pastorate of Bridgend Church, Perth.
He retired from the active ministry in IfMV.i, and
Bince that time has resided in Edinburgh, although
he still remains senior pastor of Bridgend. He has
taken a prominent part in educational movements
and was one of the founders of the Northern Coun-
ties Institute for the Blind. In 1874 he visited
Norway to investigate recent religious movements
in that country, and fifteen years later paid a similar
visit, to the Church missions in the West Indies. He
has been the editor of The M issionnrt/ l,ee<-rd since
1891. His theological pohitinn is essentially con-
servative, andhchas a strong desire for union among
evangelical churches and for their cooperation in
cvarigeli.-tic work. In addition to translating and
editing the first, volume of the English version of
I. A. Corner's Geschichle Hit pralentaiitixchen Thai-
ogie, besondcrs in Deuinehlnnd (.Munich, 1867) under
the title History of Protestant Theology, particu-
larlu in Germany (Edinburgh, 1871) and pre-
paring the English translation of the seventh edition
of G. A. Warneck's Abris* finer Ge&chiehte derproUs-
iniili.irlifii M'.fsionrii fin d-r Rrf,.rm<dinn bis nuf die
Gegeitwort under the title Outline of the History
ii/' Protestant .\f ittKiniis (Edinburgh, 1901), he has
written The Story of the Jamaica Mission (Edin-
burgh, 1894).
ROCHELLE: A city on the west coast of France
in the department of lie Charente-Inferieure,
having a population of about 28,000. It is a suf-
fragan bishopric of Bordeaux and a fortress of the
first class. Its origin dates from the tenth century
when the town grew up around a feudal castle built
upon a rocky escarpment {Rupella, Rochelh) in the
midst of the marshes of the lower Cbarente. In the
twelfth century it became the chief place of the feu-
dal county of Aunis. The city and territory passed
to England with the marriage of Eleanor of Aqui-
taine to Henry II. (1151), and remained under Eng-
lish rule until 1224 when it was captured by Louis
VIII. During the Hundred Years' War, it was
taken by the English and formally ceded by France
in the Treaty of Bretigny (1360). But it continued
to remain French in spirit. In 1372 the Rochellois
refused to help the fleet of the Earl of Pembroke
which was destroyed by a Castilian licet in the serv-
ice of France in the Bay of Biscay. In recognition
of this service Charles V. confirmed anew the city's
ancient municipal privileges. Its harbor became
an important roadstead of the French marine and
it was from Roehclle that the French discoverer
Bothencourt sailed in 1403 for the conquest of the
Canary Isles. The chief interest in La Rochelle,
however, is religions, in connection with the Hugue-
not wars. About 1534 Calvinism acquired an im-
portant following in the region round about, and
when the wars of religion began in 1562, Roehclle
became an important Protestant, stronghold in the
west of France, rivaling Montauban and Mont-
pellier in the south. lis peculiar importance lay
in the fact that it was open to the sea and bad ready
communication with its coreligionists in England
and Holland. During the third civil war (1572-74).
which was precipitated by the Massacre of St.
Bartholomew, Koehclle was ineffectually besieged by
the Roman Catholic forces tinder command of the
duke of Anjoii, brother of Charles IX. The peace
which terminated this war had an important part in
shaping the ultimate settlement of the Huguenot
'Hii'stinn by the Edict of Nantes. In 1624, when
the Huguenot troubles broke out anew, but under
radically changed conditions i.see Richemei:),
Roehclle again was their chief stronghold. The situ-
ation was all the more dangerous to France because
the Huguenots were operating in connection with
tlie English under the duke of Buckingham, whose
fleet had captured the Island of R6. Fortunately
for the king Cardinal Richelieu was at the helm. On
Aug. 15, 1627, the royal army invested the city.
The difficulties of the siege were great. The walls
were so strong that with the means which siege-
craft possessed at that time it seemed impossible to
force them. The chief difficulty, however, was the
ready assistance of England. Richelieu did not lay
siege to (he place in regular form at once. He at-
tempted one or two surprises, but sapping and
mining were not effective and no assault was made.
Instead a long line of redouts, some three leagues
in length and connected by forts, wa9 thrown up
from one side of the bay to the other. It was then
decided to clow the bay. In accordance with the
plans of an Italian engineer and a Parisian architect.
an enormous dike was built. The work was be-
gun at the end of November, with a spur of masonry
from each side of the bay, which when completed
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
was over 1,400 paces long. By Hay, 1628, the con-
struction of the mole was so well advanced that an
Fwgliah relief fleet was unable to enter the harbor.
Meantime Rochelle was famishing. Everything
edible was devoured, even boiled parchment.
Finally, on Oct. 28, 1628, the city surrendered. Ito
privileges were abolished, its property was attached
to the royal domain, its walls were leveled, and the
Roman Catholic religion was restored within it.
But Richelieu's opposition had been purely political.
Freedom of worship was still left to the Protestants.
Under the active commercial policy of Colbert
Rochelle shared with all the Huguenots of France in
the prosperity of the times. It had important com-
mercial connection with the French colonies in
America, with Santo Domingo, and the West African
coast. But the revocation of the Edict of Nantes
(q.v. ; also see NtMBs, Edict of) in 1685 was a blow
from which it never recovered. It is estimated then
to have lost 5,000 inhabitants. So low did it sink
that even during the French Revolution and Napole-
onic wars it had almost no history. To-day it is a
dull provincial town engaged in the fisheries and
having some South American trade. See Hugue-
nots; Richelieu; and Rohan, Henri, Due db.
Jaues Westfall Thompson.
Bibuoouprt: J. W. Thompson, Wart of Religion in France,
1SS9-78. Chicago, 1000 (with extensive bibliography; re-
ulUh to the uece of 1573-74); A. Burbot, Hit. it la
RoekatU, Piii, 1880; T. E. Kimmim, Hit. dt rOt dt
Rt, L» Rochelle, 1888; 0. Uuaset, La RoeluUt tt mm ports,
ill. 1890; P. Sunnne. La RoduUt piUoraaut. ib, 1003;
Cambridge Modern Hitter?, u\. 10-11, 20-26. 32, Now York.
ROCHET. See Vestments and Insignia, Ecclb-
ROCtt, DAHIEL: Roman Catholic; b. at Liver-
pool Aug. 31, 1799; d. at Kensington, London, Nov.
28, 1871. He was educated in the English College,
Rome; was ordained priest in 1824; served at St.
Mary's, Moorfields, London, 1825-26, then at the
Bavarian Chapel in Warwick St., 1826-27; was
domestic chaplain to the earl of Shrewsbury, 1827-
1840; then pastor at Buckland, near Farringdon;
and, on the rein trod uction of the Roman Catholic
hierarchy, canon of South wark, 1852-54. He was
an eminent antiquarian, and wrote, Hierwgia, or
0k Sacrifice of the Mast Expounded (2 vols., London,
1833); Did the Early Church in Ireland acknowledge
the Pope's Supremacy/ (1844); and The Church of
our Fathers, as teen in St. Osmond'* Rite for the
Cathedral of Salisbury (3 vols., 1849-54).
BlBLIiwmPHT : J. Qillow. I.ittrary and Biographical Hit-
tary ■ ■ ■ °i Englith Calholict. v. 436-437. London and
Hew York, n.d.; DNB. xlix. 75-70
RODAHUf. SeeDoDANiw.
RODE, rfl'de, HIHNIJ (JOHAHHES RHODIDS):
B. tn Friesland c. 1490; d. in East Friesland c. 1535.
He belonged to the Brethren of the Common Life (see
Common Life, Brethren of the) as their most
eminent member and the most conspicuous per-
sonal force, and was connected with the school they
had established under the patronage of St, Jerome.
Nothing is known of his early life, neither the exact
time nor place of his birth. He first comes into pub-
lic note as rector of the school named above, and
was held in high esteem for piety and learning. He
was no stranger to humanistic efforts, nor to the
movements that preceded the Reformation, espe-
cially as exemplified by Wessel. Whether Rode
made the acquaintance of Wessel, who died in 1489,
and so received some incitation from him directly,
is not ascertainable. At all events he was acquaint-
ed with Weasel's widely diffused, much read and
esteemed, influential writings. In this situation
Luther's advent was hailed with joy. His theses
were circulating in that region as early as 1518,
while his books found ready sale despite of or
perhaps because of much vehement zeal on the
opposing side (Erasmus, Epist., ccexvii., May 18).
The contest was also greatly reinforced by Lu-
ther's pupils, as by Henry of Zittphen (see
Molleh, Hi: in rich).
The Lutheran movement at Utrecht had begun
in 1520, through the efforts of a Dominican, Worte
(Walther), who preached in Delft against the indul-
gence bestowed by the pope in favor of St. Law-
rence's Church at Rotterdam. He was joined by
Master Friedrich Hondebeke (Canirivus); Georgius
Saganus, a scholastically cultivated man, with whom
Rode subsequently journeyed to Germany; and
the youthful Johannes Sartorius, or Snijders. Their
most important fellow-combatant was Come lis
Henriks (Hinrichson) Hoen (Honius), advocate in
the court of justice at The Hague; but Rode was
the movement's leading spirit. Hoen objected
to the Roman doctrine, deviating, however, from
Wessel in construing the words of institution, which
Hoen explained : " this is a pledge, the symbol of my
body; it signifies my body." On all sides, how-
ever, there was a desire for Luther's view, upon
which rested all decisions as to Scripture. Rode
was sent to ask from Luther a decision upon this
matter and to request him to edit the writings of
Wessel. In spite of all researches, there is still de-
bate as to the year when Rode was at Wittenberg.
The majority favor 1520-21; Mbller and Loofs,
1522. After visiting Luther, Rode made a journey
by way of Basel to Zurich, to confer with Zwingli.
In 1522 he was condemned at home on the ground
of his Lutheran doctrine.
Leaving the Netherlands, Rode returned to Basel
some time before Sept. 1, 1522, his immediate pur-
pose being to supervise the issue of Weasel's Farrago,
which appeared in Sept., 1522. Rode could not
continue at home by reason of the hostile state of
mind there. So early as 1523, two Augustinians
were executed; also two young lads, Henricus Voes
and Johannes Esch. The new bishop, Henry of
Bavaria, continued the persecution with greater
vehemence, Johannes Pistorius, a pupil of Rode's,
was executed Sept 8, 1525.
At this period Rode was in Strasburg with Butser,
as witness the latter's letter to Martin Frecht, a
document of much significance in connection with
Butler's attitude toward Rode and with the contro-
versy over the Lord's Supper. In this- th« follow-
ing passage occurs:
Bode
THE NEW 8CHAFF-HERZ0G
64
" Meanwhile, after Carlstadt's tract had appeared, pre-
senting his revised interpretation down to 1624, . . . there
came to me a strange man, Joh. Rodius, a heart so de-
vout, so illumined in deeds and words, that I know of no
one, not even excepting Luther, . . . whom I could prefer
to this man in insight and judgment. . . . He is a native of
the Netherlands, where he follows the same calling as
Paul among the Greeks. Although recognising Luther as
his teacher, he owes more, in certain articles, to Weasel.
Moreover, I can note ease wondering that we profit so little
by this man. This Rodius was my guest (in the autumn
of 1624); and, Bible in hand, he conversed at much length
with me on the question of the Lord's Supper, wherein I
defended Luther's opinion against him with all my might.
But I then discerned that I was no peer to this man's mind,
nor equal to all his arguments; and that one can not con-
sistently maintain, by the Scripture, what I desired to
affirm. I had to waive the corporeal presence of Christ in the
bread; albeit I still hesitated concerning the certain ex-
planation of the words."
The foregoing sketch by a contemporary discloses
the significance of Rode, and likewise his influence
upon the Swiss Reformed theology. The Eucharis-
tic dispute emanated from Rode; Luther gaged
him correctly, and hence Luther's vigorous opposi-
tion. Just as the Strasburg and Swiss theologians
proved susceptible to Rede's influence in the doc-
trine as to the Lord's Supper, it was also due to him
that the Netherlands Church, and afterward the
East Frisian Church, became estranged from the
Lutheran trend. Rode later returned to Deventer,
in his home country, where Gerhard Geldenhauer
(Noviomagus) met him in 1525. From data con-
cerning Rode in the letters of Butser and Capito,
dated July 9 and Sept. 26, 1526, it appears that
he married in 1526. This was why, to escape
constant persecutions, he accepted a teacher's
position at Norden, in Ostfriesland. Owing to
Rode's aggressive intervention in the East Frisian
movement, the previously Lutheran sentiment now
took on a Reformed complexion. Rode, when de-
posed on account of his opposition to Luther, went
to Wolfhusen, protected by Count Enno.
Rode's widow died in 1557; the year of his own
death is not known. While nothing is certainly ex-
tant in the way of his writings, that he produced
none is hardly probable; it is not beyond reason
to suppose Rode the possible author of a work with
the title (Economia Christiana. Rode is still men-
tioned along with Gnapheus and Honius in connec-
tion with the translation of Luther's New Testament
into Dutch (Amsterdam, 1525). Yet there are
serious doubts in the matter. L. Schulze.
Bibliography: The first source is the Doesburg Chronicle,
in part published by W. Moll, in Kerkhistorisch Archie f,
iii. 108-115, Amsterdam, 1862; then A. R. Hardenberg's
Vita Wessdii, prefixed to the Opera of Weasel, Groningen,
1014 (of. the literature under Wbsskl); and D. Gerdes,
Introductio in hi*. Evangdii seculo XVI., i. 228-331,
Groningen, 1744. Consult A. J. Van der Aa, Bio-
graphisch Woordenboek van der Nederlanden, xvi. 302,
Haarlem, 1852 sqq.; W. Moll, Kerkgeschiedenis van Neder-
land, 2 vols., Amhem and Utrecht, 1864-71; J. G. de
Hoop-Scheffer, Oeschiedenis der Kerkhervorming in Neder-
land, pp. 30, 90-91, 105-106, 263, 316 et passim, Amster-
dam, 1873; T. Kolde, Martin Luther, ii. 557-578, Gotha,
1884; O. Clemen, Hinne Rode in Wittenberg, Basd, Zu-
rich in ZKO, xviii (1898), 346 sqq.; J. Kostlin,
Martin Luther, ed. Kawerau, Berlin, 1903; ADB, vol.
RODGERS, JOHN: Presbyterian; b. at Boston
Aug. 5, 1727; d. at New York May 7, 1811. He
received his education under Samuel Blair and
Gilbert Tennent (qq.v.); was licensed Oct., 1747;
pastor at St. George's, Del, 1749-65; and at New
York, 1705-76, and from the the close of the Revo-
lutionary War till his death. In 1789 he was
elected moderator of the first general assembly
of the Presbyterian Church, at Philadelphia. He
was a stanch patriot during the Revolution, and
served as chaplain in the continental army in 1776,
of the provincial congress of New York, of the
council of safety, and of the first legislature in 1777.
He was a prominent character in church and city life.
Bibliography: 8. Miller, Memoirs of the Rev. J. Rodger;
Lot* Pastor of the Wall Street and Brick Churches in the
City of New York, New York, 1813; W. B. Sprague. An-
nals of the American Pulpit, iii. 154-165, ib. 1858; £. H.
Gillett, Hist, of the Presbyterian Church, vol. i. passim,
Philadelphia, 1864; R. £. Thompson, in American Church
History Series, vol. vi. passim, New York, 1895.
ROBHM, rtroi, JOHANN BAPTIST: German
Roman Catholic; b. at Lauingen (26 m. n.e. of Ulm)
Jan. 6, 1841. He was educated at the University of
Munich, after which he was curate in Ettringen,
Thannhausen, and Oettingen in the diocese of Augs-
burg, and then an instructor in religion at Augsburg,
and curate and professor at the royal theological
seminary in Munich. Since 1899 he has been canon
of the cathedral at Passau.
He has written: AusgewahUe Reden des heiligen Oregor von
Nations (Kempten, 1874); AusgewahUe Schriften des Ori-
genes (1876); Predigten auf dem Feste der Heiligen (Augs-
burg, 1876); Das Glaubensprinzip der katholischen Kirche
(Vienna, 1877); Predigten auf dem Feste der sdigsten Jung-
frau (Passau, 1879); Aufgabe der protestantischen Theoiogen
(Augsburg, 1882); Oedanken fiber die Union (Hildesheim,
1883); Confessiondle Lehrgegensatze (1883); Grebe Un-
wahrheUen von und Dber Luther (1884); Der erste Brief an
die Thessaloniker (Passau, 1885); Ein Wort uoer die deutsche
protestantischs Schule (5 parts, Hildesheim, 1887); Zur
Charakteristik der protestantischen Polemik der Oegenwart
(1889); Zur TeUeUegende (1889); Protestantischs Lehre vom
Antichrist (1891); Zur Charakteristik des Protestantismus in
VergangenheU und Oegenwart (1892); Sendschreiben eines
katholischen an einen orthodoxen Theoiogen (Augsburg, 1895) ;
Der Protestantismus unserer Tags (Munich, 1897) ; Die Wie-
dervereinigung der christlichen Konfessionen (Mains, 1900).
ROEHR, rftr, JOHANN FRIEDRICH: German
Lutheran of the rationalistic school; b. at Ross-
bach (24 m. s.w. of Leipsic) July 30, 1777; d. at
Weimar June 15, 1848. After completing his educa-
tion at the University of Leipsic, he was appointed
assistant preacher at the university church of the
same city, and then taught for two years at Pforta
(1802-04). He was then pastor at Ostrau, near
Zeitz, until 1820, when he was called to become
chief pastor at Weimar, where he passed the re-
mainder of his life. He was likewise chief court
preacher, supreme consistorial and ecclesiastical
councilor, and general superintendent for the
principality of Weimar.
The importance of Rdhr lies in his defense of pop-
ular rationalism, a position first consciously set
forth in his Brief e aber den Rationali&mus (Aachen,
1813). This system was essentially the blending of
two religious truths, revealed and non-revealed
(reason), the final end of religion being pure moral-
ity; the divinity of Christ was categorically denied.
Rohr's views were received with so little favor
that in the second and third editions of his Qrund-
und Otaubenssdtze der evangelisch-protestantischen
Kirche (Neustadt-on-the-Oder, 1834, 1844) he was
65
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bode
forced to modify the radicalism of his theories.
He continued his advocacy of rationalism in the
journal published by him under the successive
names of Predigerlitteratur (1810-14), Neue und
neueete Predigerlittcratw (1815-19), and KriUsche
Prediger-BiMiothek (1820-48). He was at the
same time involved in polemics with all who dif-
fered from him, until the untenability of the posi-
tion of popular rationalism was effectually shown
by Hase after a bitter controversy. Rdhr likewise
savagely assailed the school of Scheiermacher
after the death of its founder. The character of
Rdhr, both as a theologian and as a man, is mir-
rored in his sermons, which appeared in several
collections, as in his ChrUtologUche Predigten (2
vols., Weimar, 1831-37), as well as in the Magazin
fur chrietliche Prediger, which he edited after 1828.
He also wrote Lehrbuch der Anthropologic fur
Volksschulen und den Selbstunterrichi (Zeitz, 1815);
Paldstina oder historisch-geographische Beschreibung
dee judischen Landes zur Zeit Jesu (1816); Luthers
Leben und Wirken (1818); Kleine theologische
Sckriften (Schleusingen, 1841); and Die gute Sache
dee Protestantiemus (Leipsic, 1842).
(G. FRANKf.)
Bibuographt: B. Hain, Neue Nekrolog der DeuUchen,
xxvi 1 (1848), 451; G. Frank, GeeehichU der proteetanti-
ecken Theologi*, iii. 368, Leipaio, 1875; ADB, xxx. 92.
ROELL, rtl, HERMANN ALEXANDER: Dutch
Reformed; b. at Dolbergh, Westphalia, 1653;
d. at Amsterdam July 12, 1718. He was edu-
cated at Hamm (1660-70), Utrecht (1670-71),
and Groningen (1671-72), but he was forced by the
siege to leave the latter city, and remained in Ger-
many and Switzerland until 1674, when he resumed
his studies at Hamm (1674-75), completing them
at Utrecht. He then lived for a time at Leyden,
after which he was chaplain of the Princess Pala-
tine Elizabeth (1679-80) and of Albertina Agnes,
widow of William Frederick, stadtholder of Fries-
land (1680-82). For four years he was pastor at
Deventer, but in 1686 was appointed professor of
theology at Franeker, where he remained until 1704,
when he accepted a similar appointment at Utrecht.
Toward the end of his life he resided in Amsterdam.
Roell belonged to the school of Cocceius and Des-
cartes, and as a rigid critic, holding that reason
could not be in conflict with revelation, he sought
to harmonise the two, maintaining that revelation
had been given to supplement the inadequacy of
reason. Working along the lines of his inaugural
address at Franeker, De religione naturali (Franeker,
1686), Roell became the object of severe criticism,
particularly from the rigidly Calvinistic Ulrich
Huber, professor of jurisprudence. Before the con-
troversy was ended by the command of the estates
of Friesland, Roell, who was supported by his
Franeker colleagues J. van der Waeyen and R. ab
Andala, had written, in reply to the critiques of
Huber, his Kort ondenoek over de ttoaalf steUingen
van Ulr. Huber (Franeker, 1687) and Vindiciat
examinis brevie duodecim positionum Ulr. Hubert
(1687). Meanwhile his deference to the importance
of reason and his non-Calvinistic views on the eternal
generation of the Son had aroused suspicion. He
taught that "generation" here implied merely that
X— 5
the second person of the Trinity possessed the same
nature and essence as the first, coexisting with the
Father from eternity, appearing in the flesh, and
revealing the glory of the Father in his works. The
terms "Father" and "Son," moreover, connoted
simply an extremely close association of the two,
the relation between the divine sender and the divine
envoy. He also taught that the earthly death of tho
righteous satisfies divine justice and is sufficient to
obtain forgiveness; and at the same time he was
suspected of entertaining heretical views on the eter-
nity of the divine decree and the divine obligation to
punish sin, as well as on satisfaction, justification,
and other doctrines.
These views were assailed by RoelTs colleague, C.
Vitringa, in 1689, whereupon Ro€ll defended a series
of Theses theological de generatione Filii et morie
fidelium (Franeker, 1689), following this up with
the publication of his own two dissertations De
generatione Filii (1689) in answer to the strictures
of Vitringa. The controversy was finally ended in
1691 and Roell, to prevent any further misunder-
standing, wrote the Kort en eenvoudig berigt van
het versch.il over de geboorte des Soons (Amsterdam,
1691), while the senate forbade all professors, pas-
tors, and ecclesiastical bodies to occupy themselves
longer with the matter. Despite all this, the Synod
of South Holland condemned the teachings of
Ro€ll in 1691, similar courses being pursued by the
synods of North Holland, Utrecht, and Groningen.
Even with Roell's death bitterness against him did
not disappear, for until the end of the eighteenth
century some synods issued an annual warning
against his doctrines. At the same time, though
condemned by his church, Roell enjoyed the support
of the civil authorities, and, thanks to his gentle
disposition, had an honorable career as a teacher.
Among his works not already mentioned, special
allusion may be made to his De theologian et theologies
supranaturalis prcB naturali prcestantia (Utrecht,
1704); Commentarius in epistolam ad Ephesios (2
parts, 1715-31); and Explicatio cathecheseos HeideU
bergensis (1728), as well as to his editions of the
writings of A. Gulichius, A. Rouze, and T. Nemethi.
(S. D. van Veen.)
Bibuographt: A Vita is in Bibliotheca Bremensis, Class
II., pp. 707-723, Bremen, 1760-66; the Judicium eccle-
eiasticum was published at Leyden, 1723; B. Glasius,
GodgeUerd Nederland, iii. 189-197, Bois-le-Duc, 1851-
1856; W. B. S. Boeles, Friesland* Hoogeschool en het
Rijks Athenaum ie Franeker, ii. 309-318, Leeu warden,
1889.
ROERDAM, rOrtKlm, THOMAS SKAT: Danish
bishop; b. at Laastrup (15 m. n. of Viborg) Feb. 11,
1832; d. at Copenhagen Sept. 25, 1909. Having
acquired the degree of B.A. in 1848, he continued
study under his father and at the University of
Copenhagen (candidate in theology, 1855), speciali-
zing in the Semitic languages; as a result he pub-
lished Paul of Telia's Judges and Ruth in the Syriac
from the Septuagint (Libri Judicum et Ruth secun-
dum versionem Syriaco-Hexaplarem, Copenhagen,
1859-61), with Greek translation, notes, and disser-
tation. During 1858-69 he resided in Copenhagen,
studying and teaching, in 1866 publishing Historisk
Oplyening om den hellige Skrift, and in 1868 Den
kristelige Lwrt fremstiUet i Sammenhceng. He was
THE NEW 8CHAFF-HERZOG
minister in S6nderup and Nordrup (1869-73), in
Ronnebsk and Oistrup (1873-80), at Helligaands-
kirken in Copenhagen (1880-86); provost at Hol-
men (1865-95); and in 1895 was appointed bishop
of Zealand, being primus inter pares among the
Danish bishops, and having after 1900 the title of
Ordensbiskop. As a preacher hia influence was
wide, especially among the younger clergy, and his
sermons are widely read. As bishop he worked
indelatigably for the building of churches, did much
for the hymnal, and also influenced legal provisions
for Denmark. He translated the Now Testament,
with explanatory notes (1887-1892).
John O. Evjen.
ROEDBLI, WILHELM. See Reublin.
ROGATION DAYS: Days appointed for public
Mjjiu.lr.j! 'ii t<i i "«i for* Undag on the fruits of the
earth and oilier benefit.*. Surh s|*'eml supplicsiiHui.-i,
known as litania rogationcs, are found in the Church
at an early period (Sosomen, Hist, ted., viii. 8).
Processions with litanies of two kinds took place, the
regular on St- Mark's Day (April 25) and in the
week before Ascension Day, and others on special
occasions for extraordinary needs. Sidonius de-
scribes the solemnities as consisting of fasting,
prcai'liinji. ringing, and weeping. In the Frankish
kingdom the rogations before Ascension Day were
made of universal obligation by the first Synod of
Orleans (511); in Spain there were peculiar observ-
Ktsta (second Synod of Braga, 563, can. )tvi., cf.
Hefele. ContUirngefchichU, iii- 17-18, Eng. transl.,
iv. 383-384, Fr. transl., iii. 1, p. 178; fifth of
Toledo, can. i„ cf. Hefele, ut sup., iii. 88, Eng.
transl., iv. 459, Fr. transl., iii. 1, pp. 277-278;
sixth, can. ii., Hefete, ut sup., iii. 90 [merely re-
affirms the finding of the fifth synod]). Those who
took part to the St. Mark's Day procession in Rome
were divided, according to the pattern set by
Gregory the Great, into seven classes, clergy, lay-
men, monks, virgins, married women, widows, the
poor, and cliildren, and from this arose the "seven-
fold litany." The seventeenth Council of Toledo,
694 (can. vi.), decreed monthly rogations for the
Visigolhit' kingdom, and the same were ordered by
the lateran Council under Innocent III. for the
deliverance of the Holy Land. In the Evangelical
Lutheran Church the ancient "week offpraycr"
before Pentecost has been retained in a number of
places, sometimes with the processions, as in Pom-
erania and Brandenburg. Even to-day solemn pro-
■ cessions are made through the fields for u blessing
on the fruits of the earth in the month of May or at
other times, on which occasions the ancient solemn
litanies (the Litania communis) in responsive form
are usually used. [In the Anglican communion the
Monday, Tuesday, and Wednesday before Ascension
Day are counted as fast-days, " on which the Church
requires such a measure of abstinence as is more
eapariafty suited to extraordinary acts and exercises
of devotion."] M. Hebold.
BiauoaHAFBT* Bioghun. Origin**, XTTI.. i. 10. XXI.. ii.
8; A. J. Binterim, DnkvGrdigkeitm. to. 555 *j<t . Maini,
1827; J. C. W. Auputi. Dmiauediglreitrn. i. 7-7:', Ij-i[.-
*io. 1823: T. F. D. Ktiefoth. LOmffistis Abhandtungen,
ri. 155. 8 vol.., 2d ed.. Schwerin. 1858-88; F. Procter
and W. B. Fare, .WcviluL oftht Boat of Common Pro**,
ROGERS, HEHRY: Essayist and apologist; b.
at St. Albans (19 m. n.n.w. of London) Oct. 18, 1800;
d. at Pcnnal Tower, Machynlleth (53 m. n.e. of Car-
digan), North Wales, Aug. 20, 1877. He was edu-
cated at Highbury College, 1826-29; was Independ-
ent minister at Poole, Dorset, 1829-32; lecturer
on rhetoric and logic at Highbury College, 1832-36;
professor of the English language and literature,
1'niversity College, London, 1836-39; of English
literature and language, mathematics, and mental
philosophy, Spring Hill College, Birmingham, 1839-
1858; and principal of the Independent Collage,
Mniii'lu-'fitor, from 1858 until a few years before his
death. An incurable throat trouble compelled him
to abandon preaching so that he devoted himself to
literary pursuits. From 1839 to 1859 he was con-
nected with the Edinburgh Review, in the columns
of which he published much of his best work. He
particularly distinguished himself by his oppositioa
to the Tractarian movement. His reputation mainly
rests upon his Eclipse of Fuith, or a Visit to a religious
Sceptic (London, 1852) and Defence (1854). Hisother
writings embrace, Essay on the Life and Genius of
Jonathan Edwards (prefaced to Edwards's Works,
1834); Life of John How (1836); Essays from
the Edinburgh Review (3 vols., 1850-55); Essay
on the Life and Genius of Thomas Fuller (1856);
Selections from the Correspandenee of R. E. H. Grey-
son, the name Greyson being an anagram for Rogers
(2 vols,, 1857); and The Superhuman Origin of the
liiiih inp.rriil from ihilf. Congregational Lectures
(1873).
BiDiJunaAj-Br: A Memoir by H. W. Dale prefaces the 8th
ed. of The Superhuman. Origin of the Bible, 1883; Congrega-
tional Year Book. 1878, p. 347; O.VB, ill*. 121-123.
ROGERS, JOHN: 1. English Protestant martyr;
b.atDeritendin the parish of Aston (2 m. n. of Birm-
ingham) about 1500; burned at Smithfield. London.
Feb. 4, 1555. He was graduated at Cambridge
(B.A., 1526); received an invitation to Christ
Church, Oxford; about 1534 became chaplain to
the Merchant Adventurers at Antwerp, and there
made the acquaintance of Tyndale and 1>ecamc a
Protestant. In 1537 he issued (probably at Witten-
berg), under the pseudonym of "Thomas Mnlr-
thewe," a skilful combination of the Bible transla-
tion of Tyndale and Coverdale with preface and
notes, which has since been known as Matthew's
Bible. (See Bible Versions, B, IV., { 4.) He re-
moved to Wittenberg, where be was pastor until the
accession of Edward VI., when he returned to Eng'
land (1548). He was in 1550 provided by Bishop
Ridley with settlements in London, and in 1551
made prebendary of St. Paul's. On the succession
of Queen Mary (1553) he was arrested for his vigor-
ous denunciation of Romanism, and after months of
imprisonment was burnt — the first Marian martyr.
Bi I uoo rum t; J. L. Cheater, John Raven, the Compiler of
the Fir* Authorited Bngiuh BMe. London. 1801; C. An-
deroon. Annals of the Englith Bible, Qd, Hutch Annerwo.
pp. 268, 294. 295. 429-438. ib. 1862: J. I. MomLen. Hand-
Book to the English Version, of the Bible, pp. 178 8qq, New
York, 188.1: H. W. Honre. Evolution of the EngtM Bible,
PP. 180-183, ib. 1902: I. W. Price. Ancestry of our Eng-
lish BibU. pp. 260-253. 202, Philadelphia, 1907.
67
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Boeubli
Borers
9. English Fifth-monarchy man; b. at Messing
(43 m. n.e. of London) in 1627; d. probably in Lon-
don in 1665. His father Nehemiah was a devout
Anglican minister, loyal to Charles I. and Arch-
bishop Laud. Religiously awakened when ten years
of age by the terrific preaching of the Puritan Will-
iam Fenner and later by Stephen Marshall, one of
the Presbyterian preachers to the Long Parliament,
and by the reading of H. Drexelius' Considerations
upon Eternity (in Latin, Cologne, 1631), his reason
was dethroned so that he had to be tied hand and
foot in bed where his continuous cry was, " I am
damned! I am damned! I am sure I can not be
saved! It is impossible! Oh, hell I hell! fire about
me! The devils are at me! " As dreams of torment
drove him mad, so a dream of heavenly mercy and
comfort restored his reason. After he had associa-
ted himself with the Roundheads (1642), his father
cast him off in the midst of winter. He made his
way by begging to Cambridge, where he had studied
for awhile before, hoping to support himself by
labor or to secure a scholarship. Failing in this he
came near starving, subsisting for some time on
refuse, and even eating leather, feathers, and grass.
He was sorely tempted to eat his own flesh and to
commit suicide. Just in the nick of time a position
as tutor in a gentleman's family was offered him
(1643). Soon afterward he felt called to preach
and realised that he possessed the necessary gifts
and graces in multiplied abundance. He was* or-
dained as a Presbyterian minister (1647 or 1648)
and became rector of Burleigh. In less than a year
he renounced Presbyterianism and became Inde-
pendent lecturer at St. Thomas Apostle's in London.
In 1650 he was chosen by parliament one of six
ministers to preach in Dublin at a salary of £200
a year. Christ Church cathedral was assigned to
him and Governor Hewson was a member of his
congregation. He did not hesitate to join with
Hewson in military service when there was need.
His ministerial work was seriously disturbed by
Tnomas Patient, also a parliamentary preacher,
who convinced many of Rogers' parishioners of the
unscripturalnesB of infant baptism and the duty of
believers' baptism. Rogers' defense of infant bap-
tism alienated half of bis constituents and his ad-
vocacy of toleration and the rights of women the
other half. His position having thus become un-
tenable he returned to London after six months in
Dublin and resumed his lectureship. In his Beth-
shemish: Epistle to the Churches (London, 1653) he
gives a highly colored account of the annoyances
and persecutions that he suffered in Dublin and re-
veals much of the spirit of his ministry. He also
polemises sharply against the Presbyterian clergy,
whom he compares with Romanist priests in point
of bigotry and intolerance. In his Sagrir: or Domes-
day Drawing Nigh, with Thunder and Lightning to
Lawyers (1654), he denounces the lawyers as the
archenemies of true Christianity and sets forth his
views respecting the approaching end of the Fourth
Monarchy with its laws and lawyers and the inaugu-
ration of the Fifth Monarchy " with those godly
laws, officers, and ordinances that belong to the
legislative power of the Lord Jesus." The Sagrir
contains a letter " to the Right Honorable the Lord
General Cromwell, the People's Victorious Champion
in England, Ireland, and Scotland." He seeks to
convince Cromwell that he has been chosen by the
Lord to lead the hosts of the redeemed against the
Roman Catholic and Protestant persecutors of the
continent, " to break in pieces the oppressor and to
deliver the poor and needy." In the " Epistle to
the Reader " he declares himself the champion of
Christ against Antichrist and polemizes fiercely
against the tithing-law and any connection of Church
and State. He claims recently to have been treated
contemptuously and violently by a committee of
parliament while presenting his objections to tithing
and State-Churchism. He predicts that the Fifth
Monarchy, " where Christ and his saints shall rule
the world," will begin in 1656. "As in Noah's flood,
after the doors were shut up there was no mercy,
though they came wading middle-deep, so let this
be an alarum to all men to make haste while the
door of the ark is open. In a few years they will
find it shut, and then though they wade through
and through much danger, whether Parliament
men, Army men, Merchant men, Clergy men, Law-
yers, or others, they may find it too late." His de-
mand was that Cromwell first of all lead an English
army into France for the overthrow of the Bourbon
dynasty and the relief of the persecuted Huguenots.
Germany and Austria were to be conquered by the
English with the help of the Huguenots and the per-
secuted in those countries. Last of all Rome should
be taken and the hierarchy destroyed. He assures
the English army and statesmen that " if they will
not take their work abroad they shall have it at
home, as sure as God lives and is righteous. For
when the kingdom of Christ comes there is no such
thing as bounds, or limits, or rivers, or seas, that
shall cap up or confine the fervent seal and flaming
affections of an Army, Representative, or People
spirited for the work of Christ." His exhortations
are based upon the most sanguinary passages in
the Old Testament and the Apocalypse. The forci-
ble dissolution of the Barebones Parliament by
Cromwell (Dec., 1653) because of its abolition of
tithes and of the court of chancery and other rad-
ical measures infuriated the Fifth-monarchy men,
one of whose leaders, Major-general Harrison, was
highly influential in this legislation. Harrison,
Rich, and Carew, lay members of the party, were
imprisoned or sent into involuntary retirement.
Rogers, Feak, Vavasor Powell, and Simpson, Fifth-
monarchy preachers, violently denounced Crom-
well and his supporters and were one by one on
various pretexts imprisoned, Rogers at Lambeth
in July, 1654. In February preceding he had pub-
lished his Fifth Epistle to Cromwell, entitled Mene,
Tekel, Perez: or a Little Appearance of the Hand-
writing . . . against the Powers and Apostles of the
Times. While in prison at Lambeth Rogers pub-
lished Morning Beams: or the Vision of the Prison
Pathmos (1654). This writing throws much light
on the spirit of the Fifth-monarchy movement. An
interview with Cromwell Feb. 6, 1655, resulted in
no better understanding. Two months later he
was removed to Windsor Castle. His sufferings pt
Windsor he recorded in J agar Sahadutha: An Oiled
Pillar. Released in Jan., 1657, he returned to Lon-
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
don and soon became involved in a Fifth-monarchy
eotttjpinoy against Cromwell's government and was
sent with Harrison and others to the Tower. Crom-
well died the following September and was succeeded
by his son Richard. Rogers and other Fifth-mon-
archy men cooperated with Sir Henry Vane for the
overthrow of Richard Cromwell and enjoyed great
favor under the restored Long Parliament. At tbe
restoration of the Stuart dynasty (1660) Rogers
retired to Holland and studied medicine at Leyden
and Utrecht, proceeding to the degree of M.D. in
the University of Utrecht Oct. 17, 1662. Return-
on; to KndanJ soon afterward he practised medicine
at Berinondsey and was admitted ad cundem gra-
dum at Oxford June 13, 1664. He published med-
ical theses in 1662 and 1664, in connection with the
reserving of his degree. He seems to have taken no
further interest in religious questions after he be-
came interested in medicine. He is lost sight of after
1665 and probably died of the plague that prevailed
in London and its suburbs that year. See Fhth-
Monahchy Men. A. H. Newman.
Hut n M'in: E. RoKen. .5ditib Account of Oie Life and Opin-
ion* of a Fifth-Mimarrnu-Man. Chieltv extract*! from the
Writing of John Roger,. Preacher, London, 1687. J. L.
Cheater, The Life of John Raoere. Iht Compiler of Ihe firit
Authorised Enaliih Bible, ib., 1881 (contains sketch of the
HRh-ruonarchy man. who according to family tradition
was a descendant of tbe martyr); DNB, xlii. 130-132.
ROGERS, ROBERT WILLIAM: Methodist Epis-
copal, orientalist; b. at Philadelphia Feb. 14, 1864.
He studied at the high school of his native city, the
University of Pennsylvania (18S2-84), Johns Hop-
kins University, Baltimore (graduated, 1887),
where he took post-graduate courses, the University
of Leipsic (Ph.D., 1895), and Haverford College, Pa.
(Ph.D., 1890): was instructor in Hebrew in Haver-
ford College, 1890; professor of English Bible and
Semitic History, Dickinson College, Pa., 1890-92;
and has been professor of Hebrew and Old-Testa-
ment exegesis in Drew Theological Seminary since
1893, also non-resident lecturer at the Woman's
College, Baltimore, 1896-1900. In the interest of
oriental studies ho anervicl the eon presses of orien-
talists at London in 1892. where he was honorary
eecretary, Geneva in 1894, Paris in 1897, Hamburg
in 1902, and Copenhagen in 1908. He has prepared
Two Texts of Enarhaddon (Cambridge, Eng., 1889);
Catalogue of Manuscripts, chiefly Oriental (1890);
I 'nta i pj Stmt of Sennacherib (London, 1893); Outline*
of Ike History of Early Babylonia. (Leipsic, 1895);
History of Babylonia and Assyria (2 vols., New York,
1900); and Religion of Babylonia and Assyria,
especially in Us Relation to Israel (1909).
ROGGE, reg'e. BERJIARD FRTEDRICH WIL-
HELM: German Protestant; b. at Grosstins (a
-village near Liegnilz, 40 m. w.n.w. of Breslau),
Silesia, Oct. 22, 1831. He was educated at the uni-
versity ■-■■ of Halle and Bonn, after which he was a
teacher in a high school for girls at Coblenz and a
vicar in Vollenden in 1854-56, a pastor at Stollberg
near Aachen in 1856-59, and a divisional pastor at
Oobtatf in 1859-62. Since 1862 he has been court
chaplain at Potsdam, serving also as army chaplain
in the campaigns of IS66 and 1870-71. In theology
lie belongs to tbe mediating school of Lutheranism.
Among his numerous writings, special mention may
be made of his Die evangelisehen Geistlichen im
Fddmgvon 1866 (Berlin, 1867; Eng. tranal., The
Chaplain in the Field of War, London, 1870); Die
friingelixrken Feld- und Lalarelhgeistlickcnderkdnig-
lichen preussischen Armee jm Feldzuge von 1S70-T1
(1872); Gottwar mil una, Predigten und Rcden im
Feldzugexon 1870-71 (1872); LutherbQchlein (Leip-
sic, 1883); Feldmarsekall Prim Friedrich Carl
(Berlin, 1885); Kuixirtturlilein ;ur Erinnerutig an
D^itscUandsHeldenkaiserWUIielml.llBSS): Fried-
rich III., deutseher A'aiser (1888); Kaiser Wilhtlm
der Siegreiche (Bielefeld. 1889); AUeteit im Herrn
(collected hymns and poems; Leipsic, 1890; newed.,
1939); ChrisUiehe CharakterbUder aus dem House
Hohemollern (Hanover, 1890); Vom Kurhut zur
Kaiserkrone (2 vols., 1891-92) ; Gcneralfeldmarsehati
Graf Moltke (Wittenberg, 1891); Theodor Korner
(1891); Pfortnerleben (Leipsic. 1893); Furst Bismark
(Hanover, 1895); Sedanbuchlein (Dresden, 1895);
Bet der Garde, Erinnerungcn aus dem Feldzuge
1870-71 (Hanover, 1895), Aus sieben Jahnehnkn
(autobiography; 2 vols., Hanover, 1895-99); Eine
Osterreise nach Jerusalem (1896); Illustrierte Ge-
schichte der Reformation in, Dcutxehland (Leipsic,
1899); Johann Friedrich der Grossmutige- (Halle,
1902); GeneralftMmarschall Roon (Hanover, 1903);
and Unser Kaiserpaar (Goslar, 1906); BUdersaal
der christliehen Welt (1907 q<|.); Religidse Charak-
tere aus dem 19. Jahrhundert (1908); and Das
Eroiigtli'im in der Verfolgung. BUder aus den
Zeiten der Gegenreformation (Cologne, 1910).
ROHAN, ro"iln', HENRI, DUC DE: Huguenot
leader; b. at the chateau of Blain (23 m. n.w. of
Nantes) Aug. 21, 1579; d. on the battlefield of
Rheinfelden (10 m. e. of Basel) Feb. 28, 1638. He
1 rl i in t;ci t to a famous Breton family which espoused
Protestantism in the sixteenth century, of which he
and his brother Benjamin, prince of Soubise, were
tlio most celebrated luemtxrs. Each owed Ins a I ■ill-
ties to his mother, Catherine de Parthcnay, who
educated them. At the age of sixteen under Henry
IV. Henri fought against the Spaniards and was
present at the siege of Amiens (1597). In the years
following he traveled through Italy, Germany, Hol-
land, iaiejand, and Scotland. He married a daughter
of Sully. I Ik- groat minister of Henry IV. When the
troubles of the Huguenots (q.v.) broke out early in
the reign of Louis XIII., Rohan became their
leader. He commanded their forces in Upper Lan-
guedoc and L'pper Ouienne. and checkmated Mar-
shal Luynes at Montauban. As a result of the peace
of Oct. 9, 1623, in which the Edict of Nantes (q.v.)
was confirmed. Rohan was made a marshal of France
and invested with the governments of Ntmes and
Uses, with a compensation of 800,000 livres for the
loss of the government of Poitou and St. Jean
d'Angely. This peace was merely a truce, and in 1627
the Huguenots, rebel ling anew, made their last stand
at La Rochelle, in the defense of which Rohan and
his lirot.her took part (see Roi'helle). With the fall
of the Huguenot power tn France Henri retired to
Italy, where he wrote his celebrated he parfaict
Capitaine (1636; Eng. transl.. The Complete Captain,
London, 1640). But Richelieu was loath to lose his
69
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bomaine
abilities, and in 1633 he took part in the war in the
Valteline (see Richelieu). He was also made com-
mander of the Swiss mercenaries in France, but the
cardinal, growing suspicious of his influence with the
Protestants, sent him into exile, and he retired to
Baden. Again he returned to France and for a
time fought against the Spaniards in the Alpine
passes, but soon fell out with the cardinal and
offered his sword to Bernard of Saxe- Weimar, the
greatest Protestant leader in the Thirty Years' War
(q.v.) after the death of Gustavus Adolphus. He
fell in the first engagement (at Rheinfelden) in
which he took part. Among other works he wrote
M&noires sur les choses odvenues en France depute
la mart de Henri IV jusqu'a la paix de Juin, 1629
(Paris 1630; 8th ed., 2 vols., Amsterdam, 1756;
Eng. transl., London, 1660); and M&moires et lettres
sur la guerre de la Valteline, ed. Zurlauben (3 vols.,
Geneva, 1758). James Westfall Thompson.
Bibliography: Fauvelet du Tor, Hiet. de Henry Due de
Rohan, Paris, 1667; A. Laugel, in Revue dee deux mondee,
1879; idem, Henry de Rohan, eon rdle politique et mUitaire
•one Louie XIII., ib. 1889; M. O. Schybergson, he Due de
Rohan et la chute du parti protectant en France, ib. 1880;
H. de La Garde, Le Due de Rohan et lee proteetante eoue
Louie XIII.. ib. 1884; J. BOhring, Venedio, Guetaf Adolf ,
und Rohan, Halle, 1885; F. Guillermet, Rohan et lee Qene-
voie, Paris, 1891; J. de Bouffard-Madiane, Memoir et eur
lee guerree civile* du due de Rohan, 1610-29, ed. C. Pradel,
ib. 1889; F. Pieth, Die Fddzuge dee Hertoge Rohan in
Vel&in und in Oraubunden, Bern, 1905; Lichtenberger,
ESR, zi. 255-257.
ROHR, r6r, IGNATZ: German Roman Catholic;
b. at HochmOsslngen (a village near Oberndorf,
43 m. s.w. of Stuttgart) June 29, 1866. He was edu-
cated at the University of Tubingen (Ph.D., 1894;
D.D., 1899), where he was a lecturer on philosophy
from 1894 to 1899 and on dogmatics from 1899 to
1903. In 1903 he was appointed professor of New-
Testament exegesis at the University of Breslau,
where he remained until 1906, when he went in a
similar capacity to Strasburg. He assists in editing
BiMische Zeiifragen (Monster, 1908 sqq.); and has
written Paulus und die Gemeinde von Corinth auf
Orund der beiden Corintherbriefe (Freiburg, 1899);
Der Vernichtungskampf gegen das biblische Chris-
tusbild (Munster, 1908); and Die Glaubvmrdigkeit
de* Markusevangeliums (1909).
ROIJAARDS, rey'yOrds, HERMAN JOHAU:
Dutch Reformed; b. at Utrecht Oct. 3, 1794; d.
there Jan. 2, 1854. After completing his education
at the University of Utrecht in 1818, he became
pastor of the church at Meerkerk, and in 1823 was
appointed professor of theology at Utrecht. He was
one of the founders in 1839 of the Arckief voor kerke-
lijke Gesckiedenis, a journal, in which he began his
history of the Church in Holland, by an account of
the Reformation in Utrecht (1845). He published
Invoering en vestiging van het Christendom in Neder-
land (Utrecht, 1842), which was supplemented by
Gesckiedenis van het gevestigde Christendom en de
chrutclijke kerk in Nederland gedurende de mid-
deleeuwen (2 parts, 1849-53), which as a principal
work is of permanent value. He also furthered the
study of canon law in Holland, by his Hedendaagsch
Kerkregt bxj de Hervormden in Nederland (2 parts,
1834-37). (J. J. Van OosTERZEst.)
ROKYCAN A, rec"is-a'na, JOHN: Bohemian priest,
who was the central figure in the ecclesiastical his-
tory of Bohemia, 1430-70; d. 1471. He first became
prominent in 1427, by denouncing, in a sermon, the
policy of Sigismund Korybut, who was attempting
to bring about a reconciliation between Bohemia
and the pope, which led to the expulsion of Korybut.
After a temporary success at arms, Bohemia was in-
duced, from exhaustion, to enter the negotiations
of the Council of Basel (q.v.), which ended in the
acceptance of the compacts by the Bohemians,
Rokycana taking a chief part. Before the compacts
were signed (1435), the Bohemians secretly elected
Rokycana archbishop of Prague, with two suffra-
gans; but Sigismund did not recognize him as arch-
bishop without the consent of the council of Basel.
The Roman Catholic reaction in 1437 obliged
Rokycana to flee from Prague, but he resumed
his office when the influence of George of Podiebrad
(q.v.) became supreme, in 1444.
Bibliography: Monumenta conciliorum generalium eaculi,
xv., vol. i., Vienna, 1857; F. Palacky, Beitr&ge tur Oe-
echichte dee Huesitenkriegee, 2 vols., Prague, 1872-73;
Creighton, Papacy, ii. 189, 238-246, 255 et passim, iii.
130, iv. 35-38; Hefele, Conciliengeechichte, vol. vii.
passim; and the literature under Basel, Council op;
Huss, John, Hussites; and Podiebrad and Kunstatt,
George of.
ROLLS. See Canon of Scbipttjrb, I., 6.
ROMAINE, ro-men', WILLIAM: English Evan-
gelical divine; b. at Hartlepool (17 m. s.e. of Dur-
ham), England, Sept. 25, 1714; d. at London July
26, 1795. He was educated at Hart Hall and Christ
Church, Oxford (B.A., 1734; M.A., 1737); was
ordained deacon, 1736, and priest, 1738; and was
curate for many years at Baustead, Surrey, and
Horton, Middlesex. While yet a deacon he made an
attack upon William Warburton's Divine Legation,
pursuing the subject in his first two sermons at the
University of Oxford (1739, 1741). To critical study
he made the contribution of a Hebrew Concord-
ance, 1747-48, being an edition of that of Marius
de Calasso. Drawn into the Evangelical revival, he
first adhered to John Wesley, but in 1755 passed to
the side of George Whitefield; and remained the
ablest exponent among the Evangelicals of the
highest Calvinistic doctrine. He was appointed to a
lectureship at the united parishes of St. George's,
Botolph's Lane, and St. Botolph's, Billingsgate,
London, 1748; and to a double lectureship at St.
Dunstan's-in-the-West, 1749, in addition to which
he became morning preacher at St. George's, Han-
over Square. His extreme Calvinism and radical
manner, though popular with the masses, resulted
in turbulence; and he was limited to an evening
service at St. Dunstan's and deprived of St.
George's. In 1756 he became curate at St. Olave's,
Southwark; of St. Bartholomew the Great, in 1759;
and at Westminster Chapel, 1761. After a turbu-
lent career, he obtained the living at St. Anne's,
Blackfriars, and St. Andrew of the Wardrobe in
1764, where he continued as a great popular at-
traction till his death. As a preacher he exercised
great power, and his theology and views on the
spiritual life are best contained in the long-popu-
lar works: The Life of Faith (London, 1764); The
Boman Catholics
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
70
Walk of Faith (1771); and The Triumph of Faith
(1795).
Bibliography: W- B. Cadogan, Life of W. Romaine, pre-
fixed to Romaine's Work*, 8 vols., London, 1796; C. £.
De Coetlogon, Life of the Just Exemplified in the Character
of ... W. Romaine, ib. 1795; T. Haweis. Life of W.
Romaine, ib. 1797; J. C. Ryle, Christian Leaders of the
La$t Century* ib. 1868; O. T. Fox, Life and Doctrine of
Romaine, ib. 1876; DNB, xlix. 175-177.
I. In General. •
1. Doctrine.
2. Government and Discipline.
3. Worship and Ceremonies.
4. History.
The Foundation (| 1).
Greco-Latin Catholicism (| 2).
Medieval Latin Christendom (| 3).
Modern Romanism (| 4).
Tridentine and Vatican Romanism
(§5).
Pius IX.; Leo XIII.; Pius X. (I 6).
II. Uniate Churches.
1. In General.
ROMAN CATHOLICS.
Basis of Union (| 1).
Acts of Union, 1267-1596 (| 2).
Acts of Union after 1596 (| 3).
2. The Individual Uniate Churches.
In Europe; Ruthenians, Ruma-
nians, Armenians (| 1).
In Russia and Turkey (| 2).
In Asia and Africa (f 3).
HI. In America.
Early Work in Greenland and Ice-
land (| 1).
In Bnuil (| 2).
In Other Parts of South America
(§3).
Exploration (f 4).
The Colonies of North America
(§5).
Accession by Immigration (| 6).
Services to Indians and Negroes
(§7).
Attitude of the American Govern-
ment and People (| 8).
Charities, Architecture, and Schools
(§9).
Achievements of Roman Catholics
(I 10).
Administration (| 11).
I. In General: The Roman Catholic Church is
the largest of the three grand divisions of Christen-
dom (Greek, Latin, and Protestant), and in its own
estimation the only church founded by Christ on
earth. Bellarmin, one of its standard divines, de-
fines the Church as consisting of all who (1) profess
the true faith, (2) partake of the true sacraments,
and (3) are subject to the rule of the pope as the
head of the Church. The first mark excludes all
heretics, as well as Jews, heathen, and Mohamme-
dans; the second excludes the catechumens and
the excommunicated; the third, the schismatics
(i.e., the Greeks and Oriental Christians, who hold
substantially " the true faith " and the seven sacra-
ments, but refuse ooedience to the pope). The
Protestants, without distinction, are excluded as
being both heretical and schismatical. The mem-
bers of the Anglican communion and of the Protes-
tant Episcopal Church of the United States also
belong in this category of heretics by the decision
of Leo XIII., in an Apostolical Letter of Sept. 13,
1896, pronouncing Anglican orders invalid (Eng.
transl. is given in The Great Encyclical Letters of
Pope Leo XIII., New York, 1903). But all who
hold those three points belong to the church mili-
tant on earth, without regard to their moral charac-
ter (eliamsi reprobi, scelesti et impii sint), though
only the good members will be saved. Thus de-
fined, the Church, says Bellarmin, is as visible and
palpable as the (quondam) republic of Venice or the
(quondam) kingdom of France. He denies the dis-
tinction between the visible and invisible Church
altogether.* A recent Roman Catholic writer on
canon law, Philipp Hergenrother (Lehrbuch dee
kathoUechen Rechts, p. 2, Freiburg, 1905), defines
the Church as " the communion of those who are
united under one Head, Christ, and his visible vice-
gerent for the confession of one faith and the par-
ticipation in the same means of grace." One of the
fundamental qualities of the Church is visibility (p.
* De conciliis et ecclesio, lib. iii. c. 2: " Professio verm
fidei, socramentorum communio, et subjectio ad legitimum
pastorem Romanum pontificem. . . . Ecclesia eat ccetus homir
nwn ita vieQnlis et palpabilis, %d est ccetus poptdi Romani,
vel Regnum Gallia aid Respublica Venetorum " (the text is
given by Mirbt, Quellen, pp. 274 sqq.).
22). The full name of the Roman communion is the
" Holy, Catholic, Apostolic, and Roman Church."
It numbers over two hundred millions of souls, or
about one-half of the entire Christian population of
the globe.* It is found in all continents and among
all nations, but is strongest in southern countries,
and among the Latin and Celtic races in Italy,
Spain, France, Austria, Ireland, and South America.
It agrees in all essential doctrines and usages with
the Greek Church (except the papacy), but has
more vitality and energy; while it is behind the
Protestant communions in general culture, intelli-
gence, and freedom. The Roman Church has a rich
and most remarkable history, and still exercises a
greater power over the masses of the people than
any other body of Christians. It stretches in un-
broken succession back to the palmy days of heathen
Rome, has outlived all the governments of Europe,
and is likely to live when Macaulay's New-Zea-
lander, " in the midst of a vast solitude, shall take
his stand on a broken arch of London Bridge to
sketch the ruins of St. Paul's."
1. Doctrine: The Roman Catholic system of
doctrine is contained in the ecumenical creeds (the
Apostles', the Nicene with the Filioque, and the
Athanasian, qq.v., and also see Symbolics), in the
dogmatic decisions of the ecumenical councils
(twenty in number, from 325 to 1870), and in the
ex cathedra deliverances of the popes. The principal
authorities are the canons and decrees of the Coun-
cil of Trent (see Trent, Council of), the Profession
of the Tridentine Faith, commonly called the " Creed
of Pius IV." (see Tridentine Profession of
Faith), the Roman Catechism (1566), the decree of
the immaculate conception (1854), and the Vatican
decrees on the Catholic faith and the infallibility of
the pope (1870). A thesaurus of decisions on all
sorts of doctrinal and disciplinary questions is af-
* According to the statistics of 1907, the proportion stood
thus:
Roman Catholics 230,866,533
Protestants 143,237,625
Greeks 98,016,000
The number of Roman Catholics assigned to the United
States is 10,879,950, the enumeration being of the total
Catholic constituency, while the Protestant denominations
count only their communicants.
71
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Soman Catholics
forded in the books of the canon law beginning with
the " Concordance " of Evatian (c. 1150), but this
has never been pronounced a final authority. The
best summary of the leading articles of the Roman
faith is contained in the Creed of Pius IV., which is
binding upon all priests and public teachers, and
which must be confessed by all converts. It con-
sists of the Nicene Creed and eleven articles. To
these must now be added the two additional Vatican
dogmas of the Immaculate Conception (q.v.), of the
Virgin Mary and the Infallibility of the Pope (q.v.).
The Roman Catholic system of doctrine was pre-
pared as to matter by the Fathers (especially Ire-
iueus, Cyprian, Augustine, Jerome, Leo I., Gregory
I., qq.v.), logically analyzed, denned, and defended
by the medieval schoolmen (Anselm, Alexander
Hales, Peter the Lombard, Thomas Aquinas, Duns
Scotus, qq.v.), and vindicated, in opposition to
Protestantism, by Bellarmin, Bossuet, and Mohler
(qq.v.), and completed in the Vatican dogma of
papal infallibility, which excludes all possibility of
doctrinal reformation. A question once settled by
infallible authority is settled forever, and can not
be reopened. But the same authority may add new
dogmas, such as the assumption of the Virgin Mary,
which still remains only a " pious opinion " of a
large number of Catholics, as the immaculate con-
ception was before 1854.
2. Government and Discipline: The Roman
Church has reared up the grandest governmental
fabric known in history. It is an absolute spiritual
monarchy, culminating in the pope, who claims to
be the successor of Peter, and the vicar of Christ
and God on earth, and hence the supreme and in-
fallible head of the Church. The laity are excluded
from all participation even in matters of temporal
administration; they must obey the priest; the
priests must obey the bishop; and the bishops, the
pope, to whom they are bound by the most solemn
oath. This system is the growth of ages, and
reached its final statement at the Vatican Council
(q.v.). The claim of the bishop of Rome to univer-
sal dominion over the Christian Church, and even
over the temporal kingdoms professing the Roman
Catholic faith, goes back to the days of Leo I. (440-
461), and was renewed by Nicholas I., Gregory VII.,
Innocent III., Boniface VIII., Leo X., and by
other less prominent pontiffs. But this claim has
always been resisted by the Greek Church, which
has claimed equal rights for the Eastern patriarchs,
and by the German emperors and other princes,
who were jealous of the independent rights of their
sovereignty. The conflict between the pope and
the emperor, between priestcraft and statecraft,
runs through the whole Middle Ages, and was re-
vived under a new aspect by the papal syllabus of
1864, which reasserted the most extravagant claims
of the medieval papacy, and provoked the so-called
KuUurkampf in Germany and France (see Ultra-
montanism), and the recent movements in France
(q.v.) culminating in the complete separation of
Church and State.
The pope is aided in the exercise of his functions
by a college of cardinals limited to seventy. Arch-
bishop McCloakey (q.v.) of New York was the first
American cardinal, appointed in 1875, and Arch-
bishop Gibbons (q.v.) of Baltimore the second (1882).
The pope was at first chosen by the Roman clergy
and people; but since the time of Gregory VII. he
has been elected by the cardinals (for method of
election see Pope, Papacy, Papal System, II.).
The pope with the cardinals together form the
Consistory (q.v.). The various departments of ad-
ministration are assigned to Congregations (q.v.),
under the presidency of a cardinal, such as the Con-
gregation of the Index librorum prohibitorum, the
Congregation of Sacred Rites, the Congregation of
Indulgences, and the Congregation de propaganda
fide. The pope has regular nuncios in the princi-
pal Roman Catholic capitals of Europe except Paris,
namely, in Munich, Vienna, Lisbon, Madrid, and
Brussels. The greatest public display of the Roman
hierarchy was made in the Lateran Council of 1214
under Innocent III., and in the Vatican Council of
1870 under Pius IX.
8. Worship and Ceremonies: These are embodied
in the Roman Missal, the Roman Breviary, and
other liturgical books for public and private devo-
tion (see Breviary; Missal). The Roman Church '
accompanies its members from the cradle to the
grave, receiving them into life by baptism, dismis-
sing them into the other world by extreme unction,
and consecrating all their important acts by the
sacramental mysteries and blessings. The worship
is a most elaborate system of ritualism, which ad-
dresses itself chiefly to the eye and the ear, and
draws all the fine arts into its service. Cathedrals,
altars, crucifixes, madonnas, pictures, statues, and
relics of saints, rich decorations, solemn processions,
operatic music, combine to lend to it great attrac-
tions for the common people and for cultured per-
sons of prevailing esthetic tastes, especially among
the Latin races. Yet it must be noted that con-
verts from Rome often swing to the opposite ex-
treme of utmost simplicity. In this communion
every day of the calendar is devoted to the memory
of one or more saints. The leading festivals are
Christmas, Easter, Pentecost, the feast of the Im-
maculate Conception, the Annunciation (Mar. 25),
Purification (Feb. 2), Assumption of the Virgin
Mary, All Saints, and All Souls (Nov. 1, 2; see
Feasts and Festivals). The weekly Sabbath is
not nearly as strictly observed in Roman Catholic
countries as in Great Britain and the United States.
Roman Catholic worship is the same all over the
world, even in language, the Latin being its sacred
organ, and the vernacular being used only for ser-
mons, which are subordinate. Its throne is the
altar, not the pulpit (which is usually built at one
side). It centers in the Mass (q.v.), and this is re-
garded as a real though unbloody repetition of the
atoning sacrifice of Christ on the cross. At the mo-
ment when the officiating priest pronounces the
words, " This is my body," the elements of bread
and wine are believed to be changed into the very
substance of the body and blood of our Savior; and
these are offered to God the Father for the sins of
the living and the dead in purgatory. The Reform-
ers saw in the mass a relapse into Judaism, a re-
fined form of idolatry, and a virtual denial of the
one sacrifice of Christ, who, " by one offering hath
perfected forever them that are sanctified " (Heb.
Roman Catholic*
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
72
1. The
Founda-
tion.
z. 14). But Roman Catholics deny the charge, and
reverently regard the mass as a dramatic com-
memoration and renewed application of the great
mystery of redemption, and the daily food of the
devout believer (on the Roman Catholic worship,
cf. the literature under Breviary; Mass; and
Missal).
4. History. The earliest record of a Christian
Church in Rome is given in Paul's Epistle to the
Romans (58 a.d). Though not founded by Peter or
Paul, it may possibly be traced to those " strangers
of Rome, Jews, and proselytes," who
witnessed the Pentecostal miracle on
the birthday of the Christian Church
(Acts ii. 10). It is probably the oldest
church in the West, and acquired great distinction
by the martyrdom of Peter and Paul. The Vatican
Hill, where the chief of the apostles was crucified,
became the Calvary, and Rome the Jerusalem, of
Latin Christendom. The Roman martyrdom of
Paul is universally conceded. The sojourn of Peter
in Rome has been doubted by eminent Protestant
scholars, and it can not be proved from the New
Testament (unless " Babylon " in I Pet. v. 13 be
understood figuratively of Rome) ; but it is so gen-
erally attested by the early Fathers, Greek as well
as Latin, that it must be admitted as a historical
fact, though Peter probably did not reach Rome
before 63 a.d., as there is no mention made of him
in the Epistle to the Romans, or in Paul's Epistles
of the Roman captivity, written between 61 and 63.
The metropolitan position of the city, whose very
name means " power," and which for so many cen-
turies had been the mistress of the world, together
with the wide-spread belief that Christ (Matt. xvi.
18) had instituted a perpetual primacy of the
Church in the person of Peter and his successors in
office, supposed to be the bishops of Rome, are the
chief secondary causes of the rapid growth of that
congregation to the highest influence. It inherited
the ambition and prestige of empire, and simply
substituted the cross for the sword as the symbol of
power. For fifteen centuries the fortunes of West-
ern Christendom were bound up with the Roman
Church; and even now, in its old age, it is full of
activity everywhere, but especially in Protestant
countries, where it is stimulated by opposition.
Three stages may be distinguished in the develop-
ment of Roman Catholicism.
The age of ancient Greco-Latin Catholicism, from
the second to the eighth century, before the final
rupture of the Greek and Latin communions. This
is the common inheritance of all
Utin*" churches. It is the age of the Fathers,
Catholicism.0^ ^e ecumenical creeds and councils,
and of Christian emperors. Many of
the leading features of Roman Catholicism, as dis-
tinct from Protestantism, are already found in the
second and third centuries, and have their roots in
the Judaizing tendencies combated by St. Paul.
The spirit of traditionalism, sacerdotalism, prelacy,
ceremonialism, asceticism, monasticism, was power-
fully at work in the East and the West, in the Ni-
cene and post-Nicene ages, and produced most of
those doctrines, rites, and institutions which are to
this day held in common by the Greek and Roman
churches. There are few dogmas and usages of
Romanism which may not be traced in embryo to
the Greek and Latin Fathers: hence the close re-
semblance of the Greek and Roman churches, not-
withstanding their rivalry and antagonism. But,
alongside of these Romanizing tendencies, there are
found also, in the school of St. Augustine, the Evan-
gelical doctrines of sin and grace, which were, next
to the Bible, the chief propelling force of the Refor-
mation.
The age of Medieval Latin Catholicism, as dis-
tinct and separated from the Greek, extends from
Gregory I. (or from Charlemagne) to the Reforma-
tion (590-1517). It is the missionary age of Ca-
tholicism among the Celtic and Teutonic races in
northern and central Europe. Here
t/Sl^ belong the conversion of the barbarians
Christen- °* Europe, under the fostering care of
dom. " tne bishops of Rome; the growth of
papal absolutism, though in constant
conflict with the secular power, especially the Ger-
man empire; the scholastic theology, culminating
in the discussions of Anselm and the system of
Thomas Aquinas, and also the various forms of
mysticism, represented by St. Bernard, Richard and
Hugo of St. Victor (qq.v.), and Eckhart, Tauler
(qq.v.), and other German mystics (see Mysticism) ;
an imposing theocracy, binding all the nations of
Europe together, yet with strong elements of op-
position in its own communion, urging forward
toward a reformation in head and members. Here
occurred the Crusades (q.v.), lasting for two hun-
dred years (1096-1292), and here was born the
Gothic type of architecture and were reared the im-
posing cathedrals of the continent and Great Brit-
ain. In this period belongs the revival of monas-
ticism in the rise of the mendicant orders, with
Francis of Assisi and Dominic of Spain (qq.v.) as
their founders; and also the papal schism with
rival popes reigning in Rome and Avignon (1377-
1417). The Middle Ages cradled the Protestant
Reformation as well as the papal Counter-Reforma-
tion. Wyclif in England, Hus in Bohemia, Wessel
in Germany, Savonarola in Italy, the Waldenses,
the Bohemian Brethren, the Councils of Pisa, Con-
stance, and Basel (qq.v.), and the revival of letters
(see Humanism), prepared the way for the great
movement of the sixteenth century, which emanci-
pated Christendom from the spiritual bondage of
Rome.
The age of modern Romanism, dating from the
Reformation, or from the Council of Trent (1563).
This is Roman Catholicism, in opposition not only
4 Mod to tne Greek Church, but to Evangel-
Bomaniam. *ca* Protestantism- In some respects
*it was an advance upon the Middle
Ages, and experienced great benefit from the Ref-
ormation. No Alexander VI., who was a monster
of wickedness, nor Julius II., who preferred the
sword to the staff, nor Leo X., who had more inter-
est in classical literature and art than in the Church,
could now be elected to the chair of St. Peter. No
such scandal as the papal schism, with two or three
rival popes cursing and excommunicating each
other, has disgraced the Church since the sixteenth
century. On the other hand, the papacy has given
78
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Roman Catholics
formal sanction to those scholastic theories and
ecclesiastical traditions against which the Reform-
ers protested. It has also again and again expressly
condemned their doctrines, and, by claiming to be
infallible, made itself doctrinally irreformable. In
1816 the first condemnation of Bible societies was
issued by Pins VII., who declared them " a most
subtle invention for the destruction of the very
foundations of religion " (Mirbt, QueUen, p. 347).
Pius IV. in 1564 expressly condemned all versions
of the Scriptures by heretical authors, i.e., Luther-
ans, Zwinglians, Calvinists, and the like.
In modern Romanism, again, two periods must
be distinguished, which are divided by the reign of
Pope Pius IX. (a) Tridentine Romanism is di-
rected against the principles of the Protestant Ref-
ormation, and fixed the dogmas of the rule of faith
(Scripture and tradition), original sin, justification
by faith and works, the seven sacra-
5. Trlden- ments ^he sacrifice of the mass, purga-
tine and , / .. - . . .u
Vatican ^^^ invocation of saints, the venera-
Bomaniim. ^on of relics, and indulgences. The
" Old Catholics " (q.v.), who seceded
in 1870 and were excommunicated, took their stand
first on the Council of Trent, in opposition to the
Council of the Vatican, and charged the latter with
apostasy and corruption; although in fact, and as
viewed from the Protestant standpoint, the one is
only a legitimate, logical development of the other.
(6) Vatican Romanism is directed against modern
infidelity (rationalism), and against liberal Catholi-
cism (Gallicanism) within the Roman Church itself.
It created, or rather brought to full maturity and
exclusive authority, two new dogmas and two cor-
responding heresies, — concerning the Virgin Mary,
and the power and infallibility of the Roman pon-
tiff, questions left unsettled by the Council of Trent.
Gallicanism flourished in France during the golden
age of its literature, and was formulated by Bos-
suet in the famous articles of Gallican liberties; but,
since the restoration of the order of Jesuits in 1814,
the Ultramontane school, which defends papal ab-
solutism, has gradually gained the ascendency, and
secured a complete triumph — first in 1854, when
Pius IX. proclaimed the immaculate conception of
the Virgin Mary to be a dogma of faith; and in the
Vatican Council in 1870, which declared the pope
to be infallible. The same pope, in 1864, issued the
" Syllabus of Errors," — an infallible official docu-
ment, which arrays the papacy in open war against
modern civilization and civil and religious freedom.
The reign of Pius IX. (q.v.) was very eventful in
the history of the papacy: it marked the height of
_ __ m its pretensions and the logical comple-
Leo^m.-' t*on °* *** doctrinal system, but also
Ptai 2L ' the loss of its temporal power. On the
very day after the passage of the papal
infallibility dogma (July 18, 1870), Napoleon III.,
the chief political and military supporter of the
pope, declared war against Protestant Prussia (July
19), withdrew his troops from Rome, and brought
upon imperial France utter defeat and contributed
to the rise of the new German Empire with a Prot-
estant head, and the downfall of the temporal power
of the papacy. Victor Emmanuel, supported by
the vote of the people, marched into Rome, fulfilled
the dream of centuries by making it the capital of
free and united Italy, and confined the pope to the
Vatican and to a purely ecclesiastical jurisdiction
(Sept. 20, 1870). History has never seen a more
sudden and remarkable revulsion. The rule of Pius
IX., lasting thirty-one years, broke the tradition
that no pontificate would exceed that of Peter, said
to have lasted twenty-five years. His successor,
Leo XIII. (q.v.), who gained the respect of all West-
ern Christendom by his culture and character,
walked in the way of his predecessors in again de-
nouncing Protestantism as the " Lutheran rebel-
lion, whose evil virus goes wandering about in al-
most all the nations " (Encyclical, Aug. 1, 1897)
and in exalting the scholastic theology by formally
pronouncing Thomas Aquinas the standard theo-
logian of the Roman Catholic Church and the pa-
tron of Roman Catholic schools (Mterni patris,
Aug. 4, 1879). He also took an almost impossible
position against Biblical scholarship in pronouncing
the passage about the three witnesses, I John v. 7,
genuine (Jan. 15, 1897). His successor, Pius X.
(q.v.), in his encyclical Pascendi gregis, 1907, has
taken a position against all freedom of Biblical and
theological discussion by condemning Modernism
(q.v.), forbidding all meetings of the clergy for the-
ological discussion except in rarest cases and under
severe restrictions, and ordering the appointment of
" councils of vigilance " in every diocese to condemn,
without giving reasons, all writings and teachings
containing the scent of " Modernism." He has
also shown his retrograde policy by forbidding
women to sing in churches and limiting church
music to the Gregorian chant. Both these popes
have been as emphatic as was Pius IX., who made
Alphonso da Liguori a doctor of the Church, in as-
cribing to the invocation of Mary infinite efficacy,
and in calling upon the Roman Catholic world to
pray to her.
The history of the Roman Church during the
nineteenth century shows the remarkable fact that
it has lost on its own ground, especially in Italy,
France, and Spain, but gained large accessions on
foreign soil, especially in England, by the secession
of Cardinal Newman, Cardinal Manning, and 400
Anglican clergymen, and, by immigration, from Ire-
land, in the United States, and, to mention a small
district, Geneva. Pius IX. reestablished the Ro-
man Catholic hierarchy in England in 1850 and in
Holland in 1853, and Leo XIII. in Scotland, 1878.
On the other hand, this gain has been more than
neutralized by the Old Catholic secession in Germany
and Switzerland, under the lead of Drs. Dollinger,
Reinkens, and von Schulte, and other eminent
Catholic scholars, whose learning and conscience
did not permit them to submit to the Vati-
can decrees of 1870 (see Old Catholics), and the
Los von Rom (q.v.) movement in Austria, and by a
growing spirit of enlightened Biblical discussion
within the church by such men as Loisy of France
and Father Tyrrell of England.
P. SCHAFFt- D. S. SCHAFF.
For the Roman Catholic Church in different lands
apart from the United States and the Uniates (for
which see below) see the articles on the separate
countries.
Roman Catholics
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOQ
74
n. Uniate Churches. — 1. In General: Rome has
been successful in winning away from all the
churches of the orient greater or (more generally)
smaller fragments and subjecting them to obedience
to itself. In corporate form, though
"CTttf6* m ^^^dual cases under circumstances
on* which it is not profitable to follow out
in detail, native churches in Europe, Asia, and
Africa have submitted to affiliation with Rome, and
so in the peculiar sense which that church attaches
to the word " Catholic " have gained the right to
apply the term to themselves. Officially these
churches are spoken of as having their own " rite."
As opposed to the " Latin " rite the rites of the
Uniates are said to be four in number, the Greek,
Armenian, Syrian, and Coptic. But there are with-
in these divisions, apart from the Armenian, sub-
divisions which are made partly upon national
grounds and partly upon the bases of customs of
cultus or of speech. The term " rite " is according
to Latin usage broader than in common accepta-
tion. Commonly the word denotes the form of
cultus, the usages of the church in its celebrations,
while the Latin sense includes every kind of eccle-
siastical custom and also descent or derivation.
Everywhere it may be said that a rite is " intro-
duced/' so that a " rite " may spring up anywhere;
but ecclesiastically a rite must represent a tradi-
tion. The expression is akin to that conveyed by
" discipline," and so may include the idea of or-
ganization, but must exclude that of theory. The
Roman Church distinguishes between ordinances
of divine right and those of human right. What
is not of divine right is freer in its nature, over it
the Church exercises jurisdiction. To the sphere
of divine right belong dogma and the sacrament.
Hence every dogmatic teaching, everything that
belongs to the " essentials," must be taken into rec-
ognition where the " Catholic " church is. " Rite "
includes the external usages, customs, ordinances,
and institutions which are in the sphere of " human
right " and are consequently not necessarily uni-
form throughout the Church. Even in the sacra-
ment what is not of its essence is " rite." Hence
Rome suffers as a condition of affiliation, where in-
sistence upon the Latin rite would raise serious op-
position, the waiving of externals, provided that
submission is made to its dogma and " all " the
sacraments are admitted. Since 1870 one of the
requirements is acceptance of papal infallibility.
In the orient dogma lives in the celebration; what
is not liturgically expressed is dogmatically irrele-
vant; conversely, there is seen in the permission of
individual mysterious usages a cheapening of the
customary special teachings. The oriental churches
are generally ready to grant that other churches
may have a charism. Their demands in the matter
of propaganda and union are small. Having due
regard to the protection of their forms of cultus,
they are easily able to make approach to other
churches and therefrom receive leadership. Forms
of jurisdiction vary among oriental Christians.
The same councils which established " divine eccle-
siastical law " are recognized as ecumenical in the
East as in Rome. These churches even concede a
kind of primacy to the Roman bishop, according to
2. Acta of
Union,
their own definition of it. Hence a sort of superi-
ority may be conceded by the orientals to the
Latin Church, which the latter may wield in a
way not to displease. Again, the latter may
waive the Latin rite in virtue of its own reception
as ruler and of the pope as the highest " regent."
Until 1870 illusions might be cherished respecting
the character of the Roman primacy. Since then
no union has been effected, nor is any likely to
occur.
A certain measure of theological, though not of
juristic, importance attaches still to the confession
of faith submitted, in accordance with the proposal
of Clement VI. in 1267, to Gregory X. (q.v.) at the
Council of Lyons in 1274 by the Em-
peror Michael Palseologus (cf. H. Den-
1267^1696. zm8er> Enchiridion symbolorum et de-
finitionum . . . , no. LIX., Wttrz-
burg, 1900). It agreed to the filioque, the Roman
doctrine of the sacraments and purgatory, and,
above all, in blunt form, to the papal primacy.
Over against this document is to be noted the reser-
vation of the Decretum unionis of Florence in 1439,
proclaimed in the bull Lcetentur cadi of Eugenius
IV. In this latter there appears as assured to the
Roman Church only the recognition of the " right "
of its dogmatic position, particularly so far as litur-
gical forms were concerned; the filioque was recog-
nized as lawfully and rationally added to the creed,
but the Greeks were not obligated to embody it;
transubstantiation was practically admitted, though
not in explicit terms, and the controversy over
leavened or unleavened bread was regarded as deal-
ing with non-essentials, each church being per-
mitted to follow its own custom. The matter of
purgatory and of the value of masses for the dead
was " denned," as was the papal power of ruling
and governing the whole Church universal (Den-
zinger, ut sup., no. LXXIIL; A. Hefele, Concilien-
geschichte, vii. 724; see also Ferrara-Florence,
Council of). With the bull Lcetentur cceli as the
basis of the expected union of the whole Greek
Church, or at least of certain fragments of it,
Eugenius could issue two further decrees of union,
the Exultate Deo of 1439 having reference to the
Armenians, and the Cantate Domino concerning the
Jacobites (Denzinger, ut sup., LXXIIL, B and C).
The result of these last was only partial success, as
in the case of the Greeks. A brief of Leo X. (q.v.)
issued in 1521 confirmed to the Greeks not only
their cultic forms and usages, but also their hier-
archy. The bull Magnus Dominus of 1595 of Clem-
ent VIII. simply renewed the formula of Ferrara-
Florence and laid the basis for the Ruthenian union,
and the bull Decet Romanos pontifices of 1596 fol-
lowed, having relation to the hierarchy of the new
church.
The relation of Benedict XIV. to union is of espe-
cial importance; through the bull Etsi pastor alls of
1742 he regulated the connection of the so-called
Italo-Greeks in Italy, and through the
Unton buU Demand(Uam C€ditu8 he dealt with
after 1596. ^°e Patriarchs anc^ bishops of the
* Melchites (q.v.). By the bull Inter
plures of 1744 he extended the conditions of the
preceding bull to the Ruthenians, a process carried
75
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Boman Catholics
still farther, to the " oriental Church," by Leo XIII.
in the bull Orientalium dignitas of Nov., 1894. In
1755 Benedict XIV. confirmed formally the cor-
rectness of certain " rites." Pius IX. also has sig-
nificance here because of his two briefs of 1862,
Romani pontifices and AmanHssimus, creating a
central institution to deal with the churches of the
oriental rite, viz., the Congregatio de propaganda
fide pro negotiis ritus orientalis. He thought it time
to go farther into the matter of introducing " re-
forms " and organic changes in the hierarchical re-
lations of the oriental churches; hence there issued
the bull Reverswras in 1867 referring to the Arme-
nians and the Cum ecdesiaetica of 1869 to the
" Chaldeans." But of all the popes Leo XIII. was
most earnest in his efforts for union. He wooed the
orientals incessantly, and employed to the full
measures of organization in order to strengthen the
Uniate churches and to enlarge them by accessions
(cf. L. K. Goetz, Leo XIII., pp. 221 sqq., Gotha,
1899). He followed the example of certain of his
predecessors in establishing colleges for the educa-
tion of the priesthood to serve among the Uniates,
carrying this movement out not only in Rome but
also in Constantinople and Athens. Among the
subjects which appeared in the encyclical Prcedara
gratulatianis, issued at his episcopal jubilee in 1894,
which he said lay near to his heart, appeared that
of union. He promised the orientals both for him-
self and his successors that there should be no de-
duction from the rights, patriarchal privileges, or
the ritual customs of each church, and this was in
legal form confirmed by the bull Orientalium dig-
nitas already mentioned. He listened with patience
to the complaints of the orientals concerning the
persecutions which they had suffered, notwithstand-
ing the consideration due them because of their
long-established freedom. He was clever enough
and great enough to censure the attempts at Latin-
ization which were made; while he did not recall
the Latin patriarchates of the orient, he limited
the seal which was being exercised in making
" Latins " of the orientals.
Were these intentions carried out fully in papal
policy, the essential aspect of the Uniates would by
no means be that of Roman Catholicism. It is well
remarked by Loofs (Symbolik, vol. i., Tubingen,
1902) that the non-use of Latin is not the only
privilege left to the Uniates. They have their own
liturgies and a series of festivals peculiar to them-
selves; while they must recognize the saints of the
Roman Church they do not celebrate the days sa-
cred to these saints, and of the celebrations of the
Western Church they have actually taken in only
Corpus Christi; their monasticism has not the great
diversity of that of the West, there being in most
regions only the Basilian and the Antonian orders,
to which may be added that of the Mekhitarists
(q.v.) in Venice and Vienna; and above all they
retain in slightly modified form their own ecclesias-
tical law and church discipline. Indeed, it may be
said that the Western-Roman type of piety could
not in any case be made to grow in these churches;
for eastern piety is dependent upon other factors
than sheer dogma and external connection with
Rome.
3. The Individual Uniate Churches: The entire
number of Uniates may amount to five and a half
millions. Varied groupings may be made according
to the principle employed. One method has al-
ready been given above (1, § 1), depending upon the
" rite." Another is based upon the method of or-
ganization, resulting in three groups: (1) those
which have their own " rite " only in a subordinate
sense, and have not a separate hierarchy, being
under Latin bishops, of whom are the Greeks in
Italy, the few Bulgarians and Abyssinians, a part
of the Armenians, and the so-called Thomas Chris-
tians (see Nestorians) ; (2) those which have their
own bishops and sometimes a metropolitan, espe-
cially in Austria-Hungary; (3) the patriarchates
of the East. It must always be borne in mind that
there is a difference in the conception of ecclesias-
tical law in the Roman Church as applied to " prov-
inces of the apostolic see " and " mission lands,"
making it necessary to have in mind the organiza-
tion in force in the latter. The details regarding
the Uniate churches are under the Congregation de
propaganda fide. A practical method which will be
followed in this article is to consider the churches
in their geographical order.
In Europe the Uniate churches are oldest in their
connection with the Roman Catholic Church and
have attained the closest union. The Italo- Greeks
(cf. KL, vi. 1133-41) consist of isolated
1. In groups scattered throughout the king-
Europe; Bu- jJqjq There are more compact groups
nth*£Z£*' in Calabria and Sicily, and the total
Armenian»!,number *8 aDOut SO*000- A source of
'knowledge is the bull Etsi pastoralis,
referred to above. Though these Greeks are under
Latin bishops as ordinaries, yet there are special
bishops who administer consecration to the priests.
The Uniate churches of Austria-Hungary include
Rutnenians, Rumanians, and Armenians. The first
two belong to the Greek rite. Of the Buthenians
there are now only remnants, comparatively speak-
ing, though they are still the most numerous of all
the Uniates, three millions in Galicia and half a
million in Hungary. The churches which use the
Old Slavic have a complete independent organiza-
tion in Galicia with archbishopric (established 1807),
with Halicz as see city, and two suffragan bishop-
rics, PrzemyBl and Stanislau. In Hungary there
are two bishoprics, Munkacs and Eperies, these
being under the Latin primate, the archbishop of
Gran. There is also an affiliated Servian bishopric
in Hungary, that of Kreutz in Croatia under the
Latin archbishop of Agram, representing about
25,000. This was an independent eparchy under
Maria Theresa. It may be classed under the Ru-
thenians, since all the Slavic churches use the same
ecclesiastical language, and the Uniates use this
written in the same alphabet, the Glagolitic; the
" Orthodox," or, as the Roman Catholics express
it, the non-Catholic or " schismatic " churches use
this language, but written with a different alphabet
called the Cyrillian. The Ruthenians are among the
peoples who have not yet come into their rights in
history. They first bore the name " Russian," and
in Kief possessed the first metropolis of the East
Slavs; even yet in Russia they are known as
Boman Catholic*
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
76
Ukrains or Little Russians, and altogether they
number about 30,000,000. After the Tatar inva-
sion in the thirteenth century, their land fell partly
to the Poles and partly to the Lithuanians, and
after the union of the two kingdoms (1385) to the
Poles. They were an unsafe element in this king-
dom so long as they remained " orthodox." Par-
ticularly after " Great Russia " had won in Moscow,
by the elevation of the metropolitanate into a pa-
triarchate, a new center and new eclat, there existed
a great danger for the Poles. So there arose from
political motives a movement for a union between
the Ruthenians and Rome. The metropolitan of
Kief, Michael Rahosa (Ragoza), found them only
externally pliant; his successors, Hypatius Pociej
(1600-13) and Velamin Rutski (1613-37), were the
more eager; though in fact the negotiations had
been completed at the Synod of Brest in 1596, yet
actual union did not eventuate till the middle of
the seventeenth century, the dioceses of Lemberg
and Luzk, however, not coming in till 1700 and
1702. This union affected essentially that part .of
the kingdom which eventually fell to Austria. The
Ruthenians have often complained of what they
have had to endure at the hands of Latin bishops,
and in Galicia complaints continue on both political
and ecclesiastical grounds. Even in Russia the
Ruthenians suffer under disabilities as a separate
nationality, and consequently the Orthodox Church
has little real attraction for them.
The church of the Rumanians exists only in Hun-
gary, especially in Transylvania, and it may be
traced back into the seventeenth century. The in-
cidents of its changing history are not without in-
terest. It was in connection with the Rumanians
that the idea of " personal dioceses " first arose,
under which it is possible to have several bishops
(for the separate " rites ") at the same place, and
of course the occasion was the existence in the same
region of churches having separate rites, etc. This
church came to possess its own ecclesiastical lan-
guage first in the seventeenth century. At present
it possesses an independent metropolitan at Fo-
garas in Transylvania, and three suffragans at
Lugos, Grosswardein, and Szamos-Uvjar, and its ad-
herents number about a million. For the church
of the Armenians there is an archbishopric at Lem-
berg, and a very large community at Vienna, and the
Armenians of Venice belong in this communion also.
The adherents number only about 5,000. The Mek-
hitarists (q. v.) are an important order of this branch.
The changes in fortune in the Ruthenian Church
were, as already seen, closely connected with the
Polish kingdom. At times it seemed as though this
church would be coextensive with the
3. In BusBia ^^0111. The Polish Latin clergy
_*n~ was exceedingly zealous to transform
ey" the union into annexation and to re-
duce the independent hierarchy to complete de-
pendence; on the other hand, the Poles were po-
litically too strong to permit the quashing of the
independence attained. But in Kief there was
established alongside of the Ruthenian or Latin an
" Orthodox " (i.e., Greek) metropolitanate as early
as 1620, and the political power of the Poles could
not hinder the perpetuation of this " schismatic "
series of bishops, the most noted of whom was Pe-
trus Mogilas (q.v.). After a great part of the re-
gion had been absorbed by Russia, Kief remaining
in Poland but becoming ecclesiastically insignifi-
cant, this place was established firmly as a Uniate
metropolitanate. Meanwhile, in 1775, 1793, 1795,
and 1815 successive parts of Poland were incorpo-
rated in Russia, and in Prussia there was absorbed
the Uniate diocese of Suprasl (1807). It became a
settled policy of Russia to recover the Ruthenians
for the Greek Church; the measures of Catharine
II. were direct and restrained by no scruples, and
she endeavored to have the see of Kief done away
with entirely. It is reported that she recovered for
the Greek Church no less than 8,000,000 Ruthe-
nians, though she still suffered the archbishopric of
Polotsk to continue. The next rulers, Paul I. and
Alexander I., were in comparison tolerant, and the
Uniates, especially in the northern Lithuanian dis-
tricts, were reorganized. But Nicholas I. resumed
the policy of Catharine, and by 1839 brought it
about that the Uniates in Russia proper " volun-
tarily " asked to be received into the Greek Church.
In 1875 the relatively small diocese of Chelm, which
until then remained in the ranks of the Uniates,
was also received into the national church, and this
ended the existence of a Uniate Church in Russia.
The " Easter decree " of 1905 issued by Nicholas
II., which proclaimed freedom as to worship in the
empire, apparently put it within the power of those
who have secretly remained Uniates in sentiment
to go over to Rome; but as yet there is no recog-
nition of a Roman Catholic Church with the Greek
rite in Russia. There are, however, scattered Uni-
ates in Russia, belonging to the Armenian rite, and
these are under a Latin vicariate.
The only Uniates to be considered in Turkey in
Europe are those in the Balkan peninsula, and they
are in small groups, considered as belonging to the
" missions." There appeared to be hope for union
so long as they were politically under an alien gov-
ernment and ecclesiastically dependent upon the
ecumenical patriarchate. In 1860 a movement
toward union was begun, but it was too energetically
pushed by Pius IX., and it died out, especially after
the foundation of the " Bulgarian exarchate " in
1872. Bulgarians have been ever since their con-
version (see Bulgarians, Conversion of the) an
object of hope to the Roman Catholic Church, and
as continually a disappointment. Leo XIII. in
1883 divided the " United Church of the Bulga-
rians " into three apostolic vicariates; but the adher-
ents do not exceed in number 15,000. In Constan-
tinople there are a number of Uniate Armenians
and Melchites.
The Uniate churches in Asia and Africa have
especial historical and legal interest owing to the
fact that they are organized as patriarchates. But
the measure of independence of the
8. In ***** Uniate patriarchs with reference to
AfWna.T *he pope tie* m obscurity. The Ro-
man Church is prepared to protect the
old ecclesiastical rank and rights in definite meas-
ure so far as they are involved in the title of patri-
arch. The chief characteristic of this ecclesiastical
order is that the patriarchs have the right to name
77
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Roman Catholic*
their suffragans and may call specific synods (cf.
P. Hinschius, Das Kirchenrecht, i. 538 sqq., 562
sqq., Berlin, 1869). There are six Uniate patri-
archates as follows: (1) Patriarchatus Cilicue Ar-
menorom. This has had its home in Constantinople
since 1862, and claims fourteen churches and about
16,000 adherents; the Armenian-Catholic communi-
ties in Russian Armenia and in the non-European
dominions of the Sultan belong to this patriarchate.
The title indicates the origin of the church among
Cilician and Syrian Armenians (until 1867 the
patriarch resided in the Lebanon). Under the
patriarch are nineteen dioceses, but the total num-
ber of souls in his jurisdiction can not much exceed
100,000. (2) There are three Antiochian patri-
archates: (a) Patriarchatus Antiochenus Grteco-
Melchitarum. This includes the Uniate Greek na-
tionals of the Turkish empire. The largest number
are in Syria. The Melchites are organized in fifteen
dioceses and number about 120,000 souls, (b)
Patriarchatus Antiochenus Syro-Maronitarum. This
represents the most compact Uniate church of
the orient, most of its adherents living in Leba-
non. It is organized with eight or nine dioceses,
and the number of adherents is about 250,000.
(c) The Patriarchatus Antiochenus Syrorum con-
sists of a fragment of the Jacobites (q.v.). The
patriarch resides in Mardin (near Diarbekr on the
upper Tigris), and governs nine dioceses with per-
haps 20,000 adherents. The inclusion of the name
of Antioch in the title of these three patriarchates
probably indicates a historical tradition of connec-
tion with that city. (3) The Patriarchatus Chal-
dsBorum Babylonensis represents a Uniate church
won from the Nestorians (q.v.). The patriarch,
with Mosul as see city, is at the head of eleven
dioceses, and the estimates of adherents range from
40,000 to 70,000. They present an attractive sub-
ject for the historian on account of their past. The
erection of a sixth Uniate patriarchate is due to
the measures of Leo XIII., and is known as Patri-
archatus Alexandrinus Coptorum. The seat of
the patriarch is Cairo, and he has two dioceses; the
number of adherents is in doubt, but does not ex-
ceed 21,000. In addition to the foregoing there are
to be taken into account the Abyssinians and
Thomas Christians (see Nestorians). The number
of the first who are in affiliation with Rome is very
small and they are under a resident vicar. Leo
XIII. in 1887 established for the Thomas Christians
three Vicariatus apostolici Syro-Malabarorum, the
vicars using the Syrian rite, and the vicar-general
having a council from the people to act as his ad-
visers. The number of Thomas Christians involved
here is about 100,000. (F. Kattenbusch.)
HL In America: By the conversion of the in-
habitants of Greenland early in the eleventh cen-
tury (see Eoede, Hans, § 2), Christian-
i. Early ity was first established in the western
Work in hemisphere. To the people of Iceland
Greenland (q.v.), which is situated in both hemi-
and spheres, the Gospel had been preached
Iceland, long before. The first incumbent of the
bishopric of Gardar, in Greenland, was
appointed in the year 1112, and thereafter, until
1492, there was a succession of bishops of Greenland
and Vineland (cf. Gams, Series episcoporum, p. 334).
As shown by the sagas, one of those ecclesiastics,
Bishop Eric, sailed in quest of Vineland in the year
1121, but of his having found it there is no mention.
In the sagas now extant there is no evidence that
any church was ever built in Vineland. It is only
known that the Norsemen who visited that country
were Christians. It is almost certain that the region
in which they traded for centuries was within the
present limits of the Atlantic States. No memorials
of Norse activity have ever been found in America,
and the discovery of any is hardly to be expected, for
those intrepid mariners were simply traders or at
most but the sojourners of a few seasons. The
akraelings or natives appear not to have been influ-
enced by the religion or the civilization of their visi-
tors. In the very year that Columbus discovered
America, Pope Alexander VI. confirmed the last
bishop appointed to the see of Gardar. After a long
struggle for existence that lonely outpost of Chris-
tianity was abandoned.
When Spain discovered the New World, her pop-
ulation, diminished by centuries of warfare, could
not have exceeded 6,500,000. Never-
2. In theless, she endeavored to achieve what
Brazil* no nation has ever attempted. Amid
the wildernesses of mighty continents
and in vast archipelagos the Spaniards sought to
civilize innumerable races of whom even the most
advanced had scarcely attained to the upper stages
of barbarism. In Brazil (q.v.), where the Jesuits
and other Portuguese missionaries engaged in work
similar to that undertaken by the Spanish friars,
the aborigines were, if possible, still more degraded.
In many parts of that vast country the practise of
cannibalism was common. It was on this foundation
that the first Christian missionaries were compelled
to begin the civilization of two continents. For
more than 2,000 miles along the Brazilian coast all
the natives were brought under the superintendence
of missionaries. They were taught to know God,
to comprehend something of the universal laws of
morality, and in many other ways prepared for civil-
ization. Joseph Anchieta, who labored among them
for forty-four years, composed a Brazilian grammar
and also a dictionary of that dialect. The canticles
prepared by him replaced the indecent songs of the
natives. Antonio Vieyra, an author and statesman,
continued in the succeeding century the splendid
work of Anchieta. In districts from which Portu-
guese soldiers had been expelled the zealous mis-
sionaries established themselves. In this noble work
the Franciscans and the Dominicans were also en-
gaged. At one time the Jesuits in South America
numbered 1,700. Their number is not to be ascribed,
however, to the pleasures of an apostolic career.
In his History of Brazil (part I., 2d ed., pp. 320,
321, London, 1810), Robert Southey states that in
the year 1570 sixty-nine missionaries set sail for
South America in Portuguese vessels, and encoun-
tered the British and French (Huguenot) pirates
off the coast of Brazil and were put to death. Mis-
sionaries had also been attacked by the Dutch.
Even Portuguese merchants, with whose slave-trade
they interfered, misrepresented the missionaries in
Lisbon and in 1573 hundreds of them were deported
Roman Oatholies
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
78
and for eighteen years were allowed to languish in
Portuguese prisons. After the expulsion of the mis-
sionaries the industries established by them were
soon in ruins. The prosperity of the country was
destroyed, slavery was easily revived, and vice and
drunkenness became general. Notwithstanding this
succession of calamities it was estimated that in
1856 there were 800,000 domesticated Indians in
Brazil.
With some modifications this outline of mission-
ary activity in Brazil will serve for a sketch of early
Spanish America. Everywhere there
3. In Other was the same apostolic zeal, the same
Parts of enlightened missionary methods, the
South same miraculous success, and the same
America, fatal interference by government. In
the Cordilleras, where no Spanish army
had ever penetrated, a successful college was estab-
lished by the missionaries. Indeed, the educational
progress of Spanish America was remarkable. The
late Prof. Edward Gaylord Bourne, of Yale, says that
the efficiency of Spanish colonial academies in the
sixteenth century was not equaled in the United
States until the nineteenth century was well ad-
vanced (Spain in America, p. 310, New York, 1906).
Long before the humane Quakers, of Pennsylvania,
began their agitation for the abolition of slavery a
South American Jesuit had denounced it. When
guilty traders brought their human cargoes from
Guinea or Angola, Blessed Peter Claver consoled the
wretched negroes on their arrival in Cartagena.
From the experience of Brazil the Due de Choiseul
had learned nothing. He, too, attempted to get
along without missionaries and endeavored to de-
velop Guiana along economic lines of his own. Per-
haps no political philosopher has ever surpassed
this particular act in stupidity. When he had ban-
ished the priests, the Indians fled to the forests and
his colony was practically destroyed. Prosperity
returned with the restoration of the missionaries.
The economist Rae, quoted by John Stuart Mill, gives
an interesting account of the celebrated Jesuit mis-
sions of Paraguay. For winning savages to the ways
of civilization they appear to have been ideal, but,
like those established elsewhere in South America,
they, too, were destroyed by government interfer-
ence. After the conqueror came the missionary.
Everywhere civilization was sustained by the priests,
and when they were expelled it began everywhere
to decline. The political science of a later day seems
to have regarded as antiquated the custom of adopt-
ing an enlightened system of taxation to obtain a
revenue for government and instead to have relied
chiefly upon confiscation. From the effects of this
new system of economics and from the selfish oppo-
sition to religion many parts of South America have
never completely recovered. In favored regions,
however, it is even now in the vanguard of civiliza-
tion, and almost everywhere there are evidences of
improvement. So rapid is the succession of changes
in that part of the globe that descriptions written
a decade ago are no longer correct.
It has already been stated that the contact of
Norse Roman Catholics with the natives of Vine-
land had no lasting consequences. Roman Catho-
lics did not revisit that country until 1497, when
John Cabot's expedition traced the eastern out-
line of North America. In the knowledge of the
New World brought to Europe by these Englishmen
there is something of the vagueness of
4. Explore- the sagas. When England resumed the
tion. work of exploration, her rulers had be-
come Protestant. Her claims to this
continent were based, however, upon the discovery
and exploration encouraged by Henry VII., her last
great Roman Catholic king. After the Cabots the
Spanish navigators explored the Atlantic seaboard
from Nova Scotia to Cape Horn and from Magellan's
Strait northward to the Oregon country. They also
explored Mexico and much of what is now the south-
western part of the United States. In the extension
of geographical knowledge the Portuguese had few
rivals; even in the New World they were distin-
guished explorers. The French, too, were interested
in discovery, exploration, and settlement. That
nation, however, confined its activity chiefly
to the country of the St. Lawrence, the region
of the Great Lakes, and the great basin of the
Mississippi.
From the preceding it is clear that with the dis-
covery and the larger exploration of America, the
Protestant states of Europe had nothing whatever
to do. With the settlement and development of
the northern continent the matter is quite different.
In the territory now comprised in the United States
so great was the activity and success of the people
of non-Catholic nations that Roman Catholics are
not popularly regarded as having been among the
founders of this republic.
Of those colonies that were destined to form the
United States, Maryland alone was settled by Roman
Catholics. Though they were in a minority at the
outset and in every later stage of its
5. The development, they shaped its policy as
Colonies completely as if they had been the only
of North people in that part of our planet. From
America, the beginning all its inhabitants en-
joyed religious liberty. It was not,
however, until Apr., 1649, that there was passed the
famous act of toleration. William Claiborne had
already invaded the province and it then seemed
necessary to enact into law the objective fact of free-
dom of worship. When religious strife had once
begun, it was not easy to restore tranquillity. In-
deed, until the era of independence Roman Catho-
lics were the victims of gross discrimination. On
the subject of the first establishment of religious
toleration in the United States, controversy may
wax and wane, but it is not probable that there will
ever be found for that honor any person with a
title so clear as that of George Calvert. In Penn-
sylvania and in other communities Roman Catholics
were also to be found. However, they formed only
a very small part of the population, and the chron-
icles of the time tell little concerning their numbers,
their social status, or their contributions to the in-
tellectual life of the colonies. It has been estimated
that at the time of the Revolution they numbered
about 25,000. Though the Roman Catholic popula-
tion of the United States was small at the time of
the War of the Revolution, members of that faith
were numerous on ail its borders and everywhere
70
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Roman Catholics
they were either neutral or friendly. When Colonel
George Rogers Clark was engaged in the winning of
the West, two Roman Catholic companies from the
Illinois country joined his gallant battalion of Vir-
ginians; a priest, Pierre Gibault, acted as his recruit-
ing officer at Kaskaskia and his treasury was
strengthened by the loan of one Francois Vigo. In
case of disaster Clark knew that he could find a haven
of refuge with the Spaniards beyond the Mississippi.
The Spaniards of New Orleans, too, were friendly
from the beginning of the war for independence.
This friendship was confirmed when, in 1779, Spain
declared an independent war on England. Though
the policy of Spain seemed hesitant, she finally
loaned a considerable sum to the young republic.
In the United Provinces were elements friendly to
America, but none more so than the Roman Catho-
lics. The friendship of Spain and of the United
Provinces, however, was completely overshadowed
by the generous assistance of France. So much so,
indeed, that their services are not popularly known.
A very few Roman Catholics took sides with Eng-
land, but there was probably no Christian church
unrepresented in the ranks of the American loyalists.
Roman Catholics were to be found in the army, in
the navy, and in the halls of legislation. In all the
later wars they have not been less loyal than in the
struggle for independence. Those who were not
qualified for military or naval service, the faithful
and patient sisters, rendered services not less useful
in a multitude of hospitals. In vain might
one scan the pages of our history for any
complete narrative of the nurses of the Civil War.
The veterans of that conflict, however, cherish
a vivid recollection of the fine services of those
gentle heroines.
At an early date the Roman Catholic Church in
the United States began to receive accessions from
immigration. These came chiefly from
6. Accession Europe and because of the operation
by Immi- of a variety of causes. Multitudes have
gration. come from Germany, Ireland, Poland,
Austria, Italy, Portugal, and Canada.
In some instances they were driven hither by op-
pressive laws; in others they came to escape relig-
ious discrimination, and in many cases to avoid
military service. The expectation of enjoying po-
litical liberty and industrial prosperity was not
the least powerful of the causes that have attracted
settlers to this favored nation. In shaping these
multitudes for citizenship many forces have op-
erated. One of the most important agencies in
making homogeneous this variety of ethnical ele-
ments has been the Roman Catholic Church. To
this end the influence of priests and prelates has
tended constantly. The services in this field of such
leaders as Archbishops Carroll and Hughes, Bishop
FnglnnH and Father Hecker, Archbishop Ireland
and Cardinal Gibbons (qq.v.), is a matter of com-
mon knowledge. The list of patriotic clergymen,
from the Revolution to the Civil War, could be ex-
tended indefinitely. Only typical examples will be
given.
To the political institutions that they assisted
hi founding, Roman Catholics have been zealously
attached. Indeed, Charles Carroll of Carrollton, the
public representative of their faith whom they hold
in highest esteem, was an honored signer of the Dec-
laration of Independence. They also cherish the
memory of Daniel Carroll, one of the framers of the
Constitution. Of that instrument Chief Justice
Taney was one of the ablest expounders. In a de-
mocracy an exponent of social authority is needed,
and the Roman Catholic Church supplies that need.
To regard Roman Catholicism as a sort of police
power, however, is puerile. It is infinitely more
than that.
It is greatly to be regretted that, as yet, no satis-
factory narrative exists of the services rendered by
the Roman Catholic Church to the
7. Services Indians of the United States. In its
to Indians nature that work is not spectacular
and and many a noble deed has passed
Negroes, without observation. This is a phase
of activity for which it will never be
necessary to apologize and a theme that is likely
some day to attract some competent historical
scholar. Few achievements of the Roman Catholic
Church or, for that matter, of any other church,
are more praiseworthy than the services to the
Indians. The Roman Catholic Church has been criti-
cized for alleged indifference to the negro. Doubt-
less more could have been done for him. Neverthe-
less, the negro had friends among Roman Catholics,
and a scrutiny of the list of anti-slavery men would
discover the name of an occasional priest. In the
Nashville diocese, situated in the very heart of the
slave states, Bishop Whalen and, except the poet,
Father Ryan, all his priests were anti-slavery men.
Notwithstanding the existence of the " black code,"
Roman Catholic masters very commonly taught
their negroes to read the catechism and the prayer-
book. Macaulay affirms that in Roman Catholic
countries slavery has always worn a milder aspect
than elsewhere. It should be remembered that in
the South, where slavery was established, Roman
Catholics were and still are few in numbers. The
utmost activity on their part could have accom-
plished little in the way of changing public opinion
in communities where they were themselves only
tolerated.
Toward the Roman Catholic Church the Federal
government has always maintained a friendly atti-
tude. In the beginning this was demanded both by
the sentiments of gratitude and the
8. Attitude teachings of political science. How-
of the ever, after the republic became great
American and powerful, it continued and there-
Govern- by proved the sincerity of its friend-
ment and ship. It has not always been so with
People, the American people. In the long in-
tervals of peace there have been a few
anti-Roman Catholic outbreaks. In the early
thirties the opposition to Roman Catholicism was
marked; again, in 1844, and thereafter till the Civil
War, the Know-Nothing party (see Know-Noth-
ino Movement) developed considerable strength.
The latest of these agitations was that organized by
those who were popularly known as A. P. A.'s. Not-
withstanding these symptoms of religious intoler-
ance, the American people are the most tolerant
and the most fair-minded on the globe. The con*
Boman Oatholioa
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
80
stant stream of Roman Catholic immigrants is suf-
ficient proof of this statement, if, indeed, any proof
is required.
The charity work of this church is immense.
Hospitals, orphan asylums, houses of the Good
Shepherd, and similar eleemosynary
o> Charities, institutions cover the face of the con-
Architec- tinent, and their administration is both
ture, and efficient and enlightened. For the
Schools, general absence of beauty in their
ecclesiastical structures American Ro-
man Catholics have been criticized with severity.
From this general censure, it is true, certain cathe-
drals, which are triumphs of architectural skill, are
commonly excepted. In contrasting Protestant
Episcopal churches with Roman Catholic churches
it should be remembered that many entire Roman
Catholic congregations are composed of the indus-
trial classes. The nature of their employments
leaves little leisure for the cultivation of esthetics.
Though American Roman Catholics are in advance
of European Roman Catholics in many things,
it may be admitted that in music, painting,
sculpture, and architecture their triumphs are yet
to come.
One of the grandest achievements of American
Roman Catholics is the fine system of parochial
schools (see Roman Catholic Parochial Schools)
that they have established. In good part this has
been accomplished during the past thirty years and,
of course, without assistance from any of the states,
as the latter have public schools of their own. In
these schools the instruction is even now efficient,
and when their organization and unification are
further perfected, it will be still more so. From the
earliest times academies, ecclesiastical seminaries,
and colleges have been in existence, and these have
long been sending forth cultured men and women.
The demand for higher education led later to the
establishment of a number of universities. These
are already doing scholarly work and are contrib-
uting rapidly to improve both secondary and
primary education. The appearance of Roman
Catholic pedagogical journals, the establishment of
summer courses, and the institution of normal and
other schools for the training of teachers are the
present evidences of Roman Catholic activity in
this important field.
What has been said of apostolic labors in South
America is equally true of the northern continent.
There was scarcely an achievement of
10. Achieve-Brazil or Paraguay that was not par-
ments of alleled by the Jesuits of North America.
Roman The nature of the task was the same
Catholics, and the training of those who at-
tempted it was similar. In those vivid
narratives known as the Jesuit Relations (see bib-
liography) there exists an early and an exceedingly
valuable contribution to American scholarship. As
historical documents they have great worth. There
is also contained in them a vast mass of facts of the
highest linguistic and anthropological value. In-
deed, there were few phases of human activity un-
touched by those trained observers. Since the
seventeenth century American Roman Catholics
have been contributors to pure as well as applied
literature. In the literature of power they are
creditably represented in poetry, fiction, oratory,
and criticism. It is true that there have been among
them no great poets. Indeed, in this country there
have been none of the first class among the mem-
bers of any creed. For the entertainment of the
reader, and that is a legitimate object for the poet,
John Boyle O'Reilly, Father Ryan, Maurice Francis
Egan, Father Tabb, Miss Eleanor Donnelly, and
Miss Guiney take high rank. As in the case of poets,
there have been no American Roman Catholics in
the first class among orators. A few, such as Daniel
Dougherty and William Bourke Cockran, have been
successful in political oratory, and many, like the
late Archbishop Ryan, were pulpit orators of rare
eloquence. In essay writing and in criticism Ro-
man Catholic names are familiar. In this depart-
ment are found Richard Malcom Johnston, Agnes
Repplier, and Bishop John Lancaster Spalding
(q.v.). Except to say that he was a prose writer
of ability it is not easy to classify the convert Orestes
Brownson. He was active in many fields. In the
literature of knowledge Roman Catholics have been
creditably represented. To say nothing of histor-
ical essays and monographs, of which many of ex-
cellence have appeared, Hughes, Shahan, and Shea
rank with the first historians of America. On the
subject of law, Dr. W. C. Robinson is an authority
of considerable reputation, and Dr. Murphy is not
unknown in the science of medicine. In economics
Roman Catholics have been interested from the
days of Matthew Carey to the time of Rev. John
A. Ryan, the author of A Living Wage. Perhaps
the best notion of the standing of Roman Catholics
in applied literature will be obtained from an ex-
amination of The Catholic Encyclopedia, a publica-
tion covering, if not the entire realm of knowledge,
at least many of its important provinces. In di-
dactic literature also American Roman Catholics
are well represented. In the ranks of translators
and prose stylists there are authors of the type of
Rev. Dr. Hugh T. Henry. There is not space even
to enumerate those who have been distinguished
in journalism. Many Roman Catholics may be
found in the medical and in the legal professions.
In a word, they are very rapidly rising into
those classes that may be considered the natural
leaders of society.
In the United States the affairs of the Roman
Catholic Church are administered by an apostolic
delegate, by fourteen archbishops, of
zz. Admin- whom one has the rank of cardinal,
istration. and by upwards of eighty bishops.
These ecclesiastical superiors, acting
in perfect harmony with the Holy See, are assisted
by more than 16,550 priests in attending to the
spiritual needs of, perhaps, 15,000,000 Roman
Catholics. Frequent reports furnish the Holy See
with accurate information concerning American
conditions and needs. If Rome were not very
exactly acquainted with the institutions of America,
Pope Leo XIII. could never have obtained so firm
a grasp of its current problems and he never could
have manifested for the entire American nation so
enlightened and so profound a sympathy. His affec-
tion for this republic will be evident to even a casual
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Mamma Catholics
reader of his great en cyclicals. The attitude of his
illustrious successor is the same.
In the minds of many non-Catholic Americana
there exists a distrust of Catholicism, but for this
suspicion there is no foundation in American his-
tory; it was imported, and it is about as old as the
Reformation in England. The privilege of living
in an enlightened state under a constitution of gov-
ernment such as the world has never seen, is appre-
ciated by Roman Catholics as fully as it is by men
of other creeds, and that fact begets as high a
degree of loyalty. If our Federal state is
ever menaced by socialism, one of its greatest
resources will be found in the patriotism of ita
millions of Roman Catholics.
Charles H. McCarthy.
Bibliookatst: The literature on the Ramon Catholic
Church prior la the Reformation is that on IheClmrrh :,i
large apart from that on the oriental churches, ami [he
Blsmisnr. lluch relevant material is to he found in the
bibliographies to tl
aotnblas and ecclesiastics fou
L nfan
vol. i.. p
literature, historical, apologetic, and polemic, ia so vast
that only a comparatively ainoll Detection can he given
here. The history, dogma, and apologetics of the church
in all their branches are set forth in the KL, end in Tht
Catholic Encyclopedia. New York. 1907 sqq. A very large
list of books is given in G. K. Forteaeues Subject Index
. . . of tht British M uitum. under " Roman Catholics."
London. 1903-08. Other lists of literature are: J. M.
Finotti, BMioaraphia Catholiea Americana; Lull of Workt
by Catholic* Author* and Publishers in ike V. 8.. 1784-
1810, New York, 1872: D. Gla. Systematise* atordnetes
Repertorium drr Kalholiseh-lhcolooischen Litterotur . . .
1700-ieOO. a vols., rsjierbom, 1806-1004; A Complete
Catalog** of Catholic Literature: containing all Catholic
Book* puhlishtd in (Ac United Statu loetlher with a Selec-
tion from tht Catalogues of the Catholic Pubtuher* of Eng-
land and Ireland, Boston, 1910.
Among works to be named on Roman Catholic apolo-
getics and dogmatics ia the fullest repository of Roman
Calholio theological learning, vis., Migne'a NouveUe ency-
doptdie thecJouiouc. 62 vols.. Paris, 1851) sqq., to which are
to be added the KL, aod the Catholic Eni^d.-in.iia, m
■up. Consult further: it. F. R. Bellarmiu, Disputation**
de amtroversii* Christiana fidei. 4 vol*., lngolatadt, 1581-
1593 (standard; often republished): J. B. Bosouel, £1-
pontim de la doctrine da I'tglisc cotholique stir fat moliiret
de controvert, Paris. 1671 {standard): B. J. Hilgers. Sum-
baiitche Thtoloaie oaer die Lchrgegensiltic dee Kalholicis-
mus wild Prottetanlitmut. Bonn. 1841; J. L. Buhner. EI
Pnnestantismo eamparado can el Catolieismo en sue reii
eirilisa
ions. 1844-45. Eng. trans].. Protestantism and Catholicity
Co-pared in their Effects on IA* Civilisation of Europe.
London, 1S4B, 10th ed.. Baltimore, 18(38: J. J. I, von
DdllmgeT. Eircl-c und Kirchen, Papstthum and Kirehrn-
staat. Munich. 1S01: J. Gibbons (cardinal). The Faith of
nr Father: New York. 1871, Baltimore. 1890. and often
(the circulation has run up into the hundreds of thou-
sands); J. Perrone, Prsrleetunus theoUioita. 36th ed.. Rc-
genabnrg, 1881; R. Soeder, Der Beariff der Knlh.A\.-;t B
dor Kirch*, WQnburg. 1831; J- P. Oury, Comnmdi™
theelogim morali*. New York, 1884; N. A. Perujo. El
ApoUuruta eof-Hico. 2 vols., Valencia, 18K4: E. Sain. La
Retigio-v cattctico. etpotta tdifesa, Milano. 1884; G. Balufli.
The CAoritv of the Church a Proof of her Divinity, Dublin,
1884; Faith of Catholic*: confirmed bv Scripture and a%-
tteted by the Father, of the Firm Five Ccntur.es of the
Church. 3 vols., New York, 188S. 4th od.. 1910 (J. Hoc
mgluo and J. Kirk, compilers): J. J. Moriarty, The Keys
of the Kingdom: or, the unfailing Promise, ib. 1886; C. P.
B AUnalt. The Church and the Sect: 2 set., London, 1887-
1890; P. Sohuu, Christian Apology, 3 vols.. New York,
1891; W. Byrne. The Catholic Doctrine of Faith and
Morale, Boston, 1892; D. Lyons. Christianity and Infalli-
bility: both or neither, London and New York, 1892; J. D.
G. Shea and R. H. Clarke, Our Foil* and its Defender*,
New York. 1892; J. A. Mohler. Symbocik odet Darslrlluna
der dogmatischen Oegentatse der Katholiken und Protes-
(anlen. Oth ed., Ragensburg. 1894. Eng. transl., Stmiiol-
ism; or, Exposition of the doctrinal Difference* betuieen
Catholic* and Protestant* a* evidenced in their symbolical
Writing*. 3th oil., London. 1900 (standard); L. Riving-
toa, Tht Primitive Church and the Set af Peter, New York.
1894; C. Pesch. Prattciiona Dogmatical, 9 vols., St. Louis.
1895-99; P. Bold, Catholic Doctrine and Discipline limply
Explained. London, ISUtS: W. V. . Pounch. The Cotholie
Chvrch. An Explanation of her Faith, her Ministry n«d
Der Sacraments. New York, 1898; G. Tyrrell, External
Religion; it* Use and Abuse, St. Louis. 18S9; A. de Sains y
Gilavert, Influence of Catholicism on the Sciences and Arts,
Bt. Louis. 1901; A. Ehrhiird, Der Kathotixiamas und dot
twansigst* Jahrhundert im Lichte der kirchlirhsn Eni-
vrichelune der Neuseit, 12th ed.. Stuttgart. 1902; W. De-
vivicr. Christian Apologetic*: Defense of the Cotholie
Faith, 2 vols., Now York. IMS; K. Merry del Val. Truth
of the Papal Claim*. St. Louis, 190.1; M. J. Schoeben.
hfandoue* der iaJfiofiscAen Daomalik, 4 vols.. Freiburg,
1903; C. M. Schneider, Die fundamenlalc Glauhenslehr*
der katholi*chcn Kirche, Au* den papMtichen Kundgeb.
Die konfts*ioncllen Slreitfroocn ticischen Katholiken und
Prateuanten, EsstinRcn. 1905 (combats Koblschmidt);
J. Chapman, Bishop Gore and the Catholic Claims, London,
1905: M. Hebert. L'Eoolutian de la foi calholioue, Paris.
1905; J, H. Newman, Addresses to Cardinal Newman with
his Replies, 1879-81, London, 1905; G. Reinhold. Der
all* and der neue Gtaubc. Ein Beitrag tut Verteidigung
des halholilchen Christcntum* oooen seine modemm G to-
ner. Vienna, 1008 i H. E. S.mpson. Prooressius Redemp-
tion. The Catholic Church. Us Function* and Office in
the World. London. 1909: especially the works of
Cardinals Newman and Wiseman (named in the articles
Some examples of anti-Roman polemics are: M. Chem-
nits, £iamen concifii Tridemtini, 1X5-73, new ed., by
E. Preuss, Berlin, 1861, there was an Eng. transl., Lon-
don, 1682 (damaging to papal dnitnal; I. Borrow, Trfa-
tise on tht Pope's Supremacy, ib. 1880. new ed.. 1881:
P. K. Marhcincko. Da* Sustem des Kalholicismus, 3 vols.,
Heidelberg. 1810-13; II. Wbately, The Errors of Roman-
ism Traced to their Origin in Human S'aturc. London.
1830; F, C. Baur. Drr Geaensat* des Kalholicismus und
Protestantism us, Tubingen. 1836 (against Mohler): P.
Behafl, Das Princip de* ProtestantUmu*. Chambersburg,
Ps-. 1845: idom, Creeds, i. 83-191. ii. 77-274: C. Words-
worth, Letter* to Mr. Gor-lnn on tht llcMrurlu-r Character
of the Church of Rome, bath in AVIioion and Policy. London,
1847; J, Brsgdon. Catholic Safeguards against the Errors,
Corruptions, and Novelties of the Church of Home: being
Discourse, and Tracts selected from the Writing of Dieine*
. . . mho lived ilurin'j tht .S'f!v:s(**ntt Centum. 3 vols., ib.
1849-51; (.'. Elliott, Jittin/aMan of Horn, ir.ii-, (..-.. i/-., front
the Authentic and Acknowledged Standards of the Church of
Rome, 2 vols., New York. 1851; F. D. Mnumv, Th, /?,■■
fwion of Rome and its Influence on Modern Civilisation,
London. 1855; J, C. Hare, The Contest u-ith ftnmr. ib.
1856; J. Cairns. Humanism and Rationalism as Opposed
to Pure Christianity, ib. 1863; E. B. Pusey. Irenicon. 3
parts. Oxford, 1856-70: H. L. Mnrtenscn, A'oWolicismus
und Protestonlismus. OQtcralob. 1874: Proceeding* u; the
gssstfsHpal Alliance Conference of 1673. pp. 440-468. New
York. 1874; J. Dolitasch, Dos Lehrsystem drr rumiicAen
Kirche, Gothn. 1875; W E. Gladstone. Home und the New-
est Fashion* in Religion. London. 1875: E. rto Laveleye,
Protestantism and Catholicism in their Bearings upon tht
Liberty and Prosperity of Nation*, ib. 1876; S. W. Bal-
nutn. rfomonism as it it: on Exposition of the Roman
Catholic System for tht Use at the American People, new
ed.. Hnrttord. 1878; R. W Thompson. Tht Papacy and
the CioU Power, New York. 1878; C, A. Hnse. tfundouefl
der proteaWtnlisrien Pohrmik eegen die ri-miseh-katholisch*
Kirche, 4th ed.. Leiinic 1878, Eng, transl. rTuidsos* IB
the Controvert!/ with Rome. London. 1908. rev. ed., 1909;
R. Jfutu,:., jinmonisin. a Doctrinal and R
Roman Catholics
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
82
ination of the Creed of Pius IV., ib. 1882; P. Tschackert,
Evangelische PoUmik gegen die rdmische Kirche, Gotha,
1885, 2d ed., 1888; £. Eisele, Jesuitismus und Katholixis-
mus, Halle, 1888; 8. S. Wynell-Mayow. The Light of Rea-
son, London, 1889; R. F. Littledale, Plain Reasons against
Joining the Church of Rome, ib. 1880; T. Moore, Anglican
Brief against Roman Claims, ib. 1895; Graf P. von Hoens-
broech, Dae Papsitum in seiner soeialkuUureUen Wirksam-
keit, vol. L, Leipsic, 1900; D. H. Falconer, The Errors of
the Roman Catholic Faith, ib. 1901; J. MacLaughlin, The
Divine Plan of the Church, ib. 1901; A. H. Galton, The
Church's Outlook, Our AtHtude toward English Roman Cath-
olics and the Papal Court, ib. 1902; J. B. Nichols, Evangel-
ical Belief. Its Contrast with Rome, ib. 1903; J. M. Logan,
Six Anti- Papal Studies, ib. 1904; Kontrovers-Lexikon, Die
konfessioneUen Streitfragen ewischen Katholiken und Pro-
testanten, Essen, 1904-05; O. Hermens and O. Kohlschmidt,
Protestantisches Taschenbuch, Leipsic, 1904; C. Gore, Roman
Catholic Claims, London, 1905; K. Sell, Katholixismus
und Protestantismue in Geschichte, Religion, Politik, Kultur,
Leipsic, 1908.
On the unfolding of worship and law consult: L. P.
Gueranger, V Annie liturgique, 16 vols., Paris, 1841 sqq.,
Eng. transl., London, 1867 sqq.; R. von Lilieneron,
Ueber den Inhalt der aUgemeinen Bildung in der Zeit der
Scholastik, Munich. 1876; B. Thalhofer, Handbuch der
katholischen Liturgik, 2 vols., Freiburg, 1883-93; H. von
Eicken, Geschichte und System der mittelalterlichen Weltan-
schauung, Stuttgart, 1887; J. J. I. von Ddllinger and F.
H. Reusch, Geschichte der Moralstreitigkeiten in der rdmisch-
katholischen Kirche scit den 16. Jahrhundert, 2 vols., ib,
1889; J. Dippel, Das katholische Kirchenjahr, 6 vols.,
Regensburg, 1889-93; S. B&umer, Geschichte dee Breviers,
St. Louis, 1895; P. Batiffol. Hist, of 0* Roman Breviary,
London, 1898; K. A. H. Kellner, Heortologie oder das
Kirchenjahr und die Heiligenfeste in ihrer geschichttichen
Entwickelung, Freiburg, 1901; F. Fleiner, Entwickelung
dee katholischen Kirchenrechts im 19. Jahrhundert, Tub-
ingen, 1902; F. von Tessen-Wesierski, Der Autoritatsbe-
griff in den Hauptphasen seiner historischen Entwicklung,
Paderborn, 1907; F. Acin, La iglesia catolica, su consti-
tucion interna y relaciones externas, Huesca, 1910.
For the general history of the church consult: The
Annates of Baronius (for bibliographical details see
Baronius); J. J. I. von Ddllinger, Lehrbuch der Kirchen-
geschichte, Regensburg, 1833-38, 2d ed., 2 vols., 1843,
Eng. transl.. Hist, of the Church, 4 vols., London, 1840-
1842; J. A. Mdhler, Kirchengeschichte, ed. P. B. Gams,
3 vols., Regensburg, 1867-70; F. X. Kraus, Lehrbuch der
Kirchengeschichte, 4 vols., Treves, 1872-76; J. B. Alsog,
Universalgeschichte der christlichen Kirche, 10th ed., 2 vols.,
Mains, 1882, Eng. transl. of 9th ed., 3 vols., Cincinnati,
1874-78, new ed., 1903; E. Renan, Lectures on the Influ-
ence of Rome on Christianity (Hibbert Lectures), new ed..
New York, 1898; R. F. Rohrbacher, Hist, universette de
rtglise catholique, 9th ed., 15 vols., Paris, 1899-1900;
F. Nippold, Handbuch der neuesten Kirchengeschichte, 4
vols, Berlin, 1901; C. Bougie, L'figlise romaine. Drome
historique de xx. siicles, Paris, 1902; H. Brflck. Geschichte
der katholischen Kirche im 19 Jahrhundert, 2d ed., 2 vols..
Mains, 1902; E. Pardo-Basan, Par la Europa catolica,
Madrid, 1902; B. W. Aecher, Characteristics of the Ro-
mish Church, London, 1904; J. P. Kirach and V. Luksch,
IUustrierte Geschichte der katholischen Kirche, Munich,
(1905); A. Baudrillart, The Catholic Church, the Renais-
sance and Protestantism, London, 1908; MacCaffrey, Hist,
oj the Catholic Church in the 19th Century, 2 vols., Dublin,
1909.
The literature on the history of the church in different
lands is to be looked for under the articles on those lands,
the following works being merely supplementary except
in the cases of Great Britain and the United States. On
the history of the Roman Catholic Church in Great Brit-
ain and colonies consult: J. Forbes. V figlise catholique
en Ecosse a la fin du xvi. siecle, Paris, 1885; W. F. Leith,
Narratives of Scottish Catholics under Mary and James
VI., Edinburgh, 1885, A. Bellesheim. Geschichte der
katholischen Kirche in Schottland, 2 vols.. Mains, 1883,
Eng. transl.. History of the Catholic Church in Scotland,
4 vols., Edinburgh, 1887-90. W. J. Amherst, History of
Catholic Emancipation and Progress of the Church, 1771-
1890, 2 vols., London, 1886: Kenny, History of Catholic-
ity in Australia to 1840, Sydney. 1886; T. D. Ingram,
England and Rome: History of the Relations between
the Papacy and the English State, London, 1892; G.
Grabinski (Count), La Renaissance catholiaue en Angle-
terre et le Cardinal Newman, Lyon, 1893; W. Ward, W.
G. Ward and the Catholic Revival, London, 1893; De
Madaune, Histoire de la renaissance du Catholicisms en
Angleterre au xix. siecle, Paris, 1896; Alexis, Histoire de
la province ecclesiastique d Ottawa, 2 vols., Ottawa, 1879;
P. F. Moran, History of the Catholic Church in Austral-
asia, Sydney, 1897; idem. The Catholics in Ireland under
the Penal Laws in the Eighteenth Century, London, 1899;
P. Thureau-Dangin, La Renaissance catholiaue en Angle-
terre au xix. siecle, Paris, 1899; P. H. Fitsgerald, Fifty
Years of Catholic Life under Cardinals Wiseman, Manning,
Vaughan and Newman, 2 vols., London, 1901; J. Forbes,
L'£glise catholique en ficosse a la fin du xvi. siecle, Paris,
1901; S. J. Jones, England and the Holy See, London,
1902; M. J. F. McCarthy, Priests and People in Ireland,
Dublin, 1902; idem. Five Years in Ireland, 1895-1900,
London, 1903; idem, Rome in Ireland, ib. 1904; M.
O'Riordan, Catholicity and Progress in Ireland, ib. 1905;
J. R. Wfllington, Dark Pages of English History. Being
a short Account of the penal Laws against Catholics from
Henry VIII. to George IV., ib. 1902; F. A. Gasquet, Short
History of the Catholic Church in England, ib. 1903; J. B.
Nichols, The Advance of Romanism in England, ib. 1904;
D. Williamson, Roman Catholic Orders in Great Britain,
ib. 1904; Mrs. Bryan Stapelton, History of the Post-
Reformation Catholic Missions in Oxfordshire, ib. 1905;
J. A. Bain, The New Reformation. Recent Evangelical
Movements in the Roman Catholic Church, Edinburgh,
1906; idem. The Developments of Roman Catholicism,
London, 1908; W. Forbes-Leith, Historical Letters and
Memoirs of Scottish Catholics, 2 vols., London and New
York, 1908; B. Ward, The Dawn of the Catholic Revival
in England, 1781-1803, 2 vols., London, 1909; Report of
the 19th Eucharistic Congress, held at Westminster, Sept.
9-18, 1908, ib. 1909. For Franca, beside the literature
under that article and Gaixicanism, consult: J. de Mag-
deleine. La France catholique et la France juive, 2 vols.,
Paris, 1888; J. B. Jeannin, Vtglise et la fin de siecle, ib.
1891; P. Boyle, The Irish College in Paris, 1878-1901,
London, 1901; L. Bourgain, VEglise de France et VUat
au dix-neuvieme siecle, 2 vols., Paris, 1901; M. P. Imbart,
L'ttglise Catholique, La Crise et La Renaissance, ib. 1909.
On Germany use: F. W. Woker, Aus norddeutschen Mis-
sionen des 17. und 18. Jahrhunderts, Cologne, 1884; Michel,
Die rdmische Kirche, ihre Einwirkung aufdie germanischen
Stamme, Halle, 1889; J. May, Geschichte der Generalver-
sammlungen der Katholiken Deutschlands, 1848-1902,
Cologne, 1903; R. Seeberg, Die Kirche Deutschlands im
neunsehnten Jahrhundert, Leipsic, 1903; H. A. Krose,
Konfessionstatistik Deutschlands, Freiburg, 1904; G.
Gayau, UAUemagne religieuse. Le CathoUcisme, 1800-
1848, 2 vols., Paris, 1905. For Italy consult: Letino
Carbonelli, La Chiesa, la proprieta, lo stato, Naples, 1884;
S. Muens, Aus Quirinal und Vatikan, Berlin, 1891; R.
Murri, Battaglie dCoggi, 3 vols., Rome, 1901; A. Robert-
son, The Roman Catholic Church in Italy, London, 1903;
R. de Cesare, The Last Days of Papal Rome, 1860-1870,
ib. 1909. On the church in the United States consult:
J. J. O'Connell, Catholicity in the Carolina* and Georgia
. . . 1820-78, New York, 1879; B. J. Webb, Centenary
of Catholicity in Kentucky, Louisville, 1884; J. G. Shea,
History of the Catholic Church in the U. S. A., 2 vols..
New York. 1886; idem. The Catholic Church in Colonial
Days, 1621-1763, ib. 1887; H. H. Heming, Catholic Church
in Wisconsin, Milwaukee, 1897; T. O'Gorman, in Amer-
ican Church History Series, vol. ix.. New York, 1897;
Hist, of the Catholic Church in the New England States, 2
vols., Boston, 1899; J. O'K. Murray, Catholic Pioneers
of America, new ed., Philadelphia, 1901; G. F. Houck,
Hist, of Catholicity in Northern Ohio, 2 vols., Cleveland,
1903; J. M. Flynn. Catholic Church in New Jersey, Mor-
ristown, N. J., 1904; A. Houtin, L* Americanisme, Paris,
1904; W. P. Tracy, Old Catholic Maryland and Us Early
Jesuit Missionaries, Baltimore, 1906; The Catholic church
in the United States of America, vol. i.. The religious Com-
munities, vol. ii.. Province of Baltimore, New York, 1908
sqq.; W. H. Bennett, Catholic Footsteps in Old New York;
a Chronicle of Catholicity in New York, 1624-1808, ib.
1909; J. P. Conway, The Question of the Hour: a Survey
of the Position and Influence of the Catholic Church in the
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Roman Catholics
U. 8., ib. 1909; J. L. Kirlin, Catholicity in Philadelphia
from the Earliest Missionaries down to the Preterit Time,
Philadelphia, 1900; F. T. Morton, The Roman Catholic
Church and ite Relation to the Federal Government, Boston,
1900; The Catholic Church in the United State*. New York,
1008 eqq. On Other Coon tries consult: B. Wolferstan,
The Catholic Church in China 1860-1907, London. 1909;
P. Pierling, La Rueeie et la Saint-Siege. fttudes diplo-
matique*, Paris, 1896-1901; L. Lescosur, Vtglise catho-
Uquee et le gouvernement rueee, ib. 1903; P. H. Zachers,
Geschiedeni* van het Heretel der Hierarchic in die Neder-
landen, 2 vols., Nijmegen, 1903-04; G. Verspeyen, Le
Parti catholique beige, Ghent, 1893; F. Deschamps, Catho-
Kquee actuela. No* litUraires, Lou vain, 1893; L. Schmitt,
Die Verteidigung der katholiechen Kirche in Danemark
gegen die Rdigionsneuerung im 16. Jahrhundert, Pader-
born, 1899; J. P. Restrepo, La Igletia y el Eetado en
Colombia, London, 1885.
On the Uniate churches consult: L. Allatius, De ecclo-
*im occidentalie atque orientalie perpetua conaensione,
Cologne, 1648; P. P. Rodota, Del Origins . . . del rito
Greco in Italia, Rome, 1768-63; A. Theiner, Die neuetten
Zustande der katholiechen Kirchen beider Ritu* in Polen
und Rusaland *eit Katharina II., Augsburg, 1841; O.
Mejer, Die Propaganda, ihre Proviruen und ihr Recht, 2
parts, Gdttingen, 1852-53; L. Lesoceur, L'figlue catho-
lique en Pologne, Paris, 1860; J. Lelewel, Hist, de la Li-
thuanie etdela Ruthenie, Paris, 1861; M. von Malinowski,
Die Kirchen- und StaatsaUungen bexuglich de* griechiech-
katholiechen Ritu* der Ruthenen in Qalizien, Lemberg,
1861; J. Hergenrdther, Die Rechteverhaltnisse der ver-
*chiedenen Riten, in Archiv fur katholische* Kirchenrecht,
vols, vii.-viii., 1862; L. Tolstoi, Le Catholicisms remain
en Rutsie, Paris, 1863; A. Pichler, Geechichte der kirch-
lichen Trennung ewischen dem Orient und Occident, 2 vols.,
Munich, 1864-65; J. B. Pitra, Juris ecclesiostici Grot-
corum hiatoria et monumenta, 2 vols., Rome, 1864-68;
A. Theiner and F. Miklosich, Monumenta spectantia ad
unionem eeclesiarum Or oca et Romanes, Vienna, 1872; J.
Petees, Geechichte der Union der ruthenischen Kirche mit
Rom, 2 vols., Vienna, 1878-80; N. Nilles, Kalendarium
manuals utriusqus ecdesios, 4 vols., Innsbruck, 1879-85, 2d
ed. of vols. L-iL, 1896-97; E. Likowski, Geechichte de* all-
gemeinen Ver falls der unierten ruthenischen Kirche im 18.
und 19. Jahrhundert, 2 vols., Posen, 1885-87; O. Werner,
Orbis terrarum catholicus sive totius ecclesiet catholicet . . .
conspectus geographicu* et etatisticu*, Freiburg, 1890;
F. Kattenbusch, Vergleichende Konfessionskunde, Leip-
afe, 1892; G. M. Rae, The Syrian Church in India, Lon-
don, 1892; A. Arndt, Die gegenseitigen Rechtsverhaltnisse
der Riten in der katholiechen Kirche, in Archiv fur katholi-
sche* Kirchenrecht, bnri (1894); W. Kdhler, Die katholi-
echen Kirchen de* Morgenlande, Darmstadt, 1896 (very
thorough); H. Densinger, Ritus orientalium, 2 vols.,
Wunburg. 1863-64, 9th ed., 1900; M. Fowler, Christian
Egypt, London, 1901; K. Beth, Die orientalische Christen-
hcit der Mittehneerl&nder, Berlin, 1902; Cotroneo, II Rito
Greco in Calabria, Reggio, 1902; F. Loofs, Symbol*, L
303 sqq., Tubingen, 1902; E. Likowski, Die ruthenisch-
romischs Kirchenvereinigung, genannt Union zu Brest,
Cracow, 1904; A. Silbernagl, Verfaesung und gegenwartiger
Bestand samtlicher Kirchen dee Orients, 2d ed., ed. J.
Schnitser, Regensburg, 1904; Prince Max, Duke of Saxony,
VorUeungen uber die orientalische Kirchenfirage, Freiburg-
m-Switserland, 1907; Sesostris Sidarouss, De* Patriarcat*.
Le* Patriot cats dan* r empire ottoman et specialement en
figypte, Paris, 1907; Charon, Le quineieme centenaire de
8. Jean Chrysoetome, pp. 258-264, Rome, 1909; KL, Hi.
41-45. vi 428-446, 1133-41, x. 1418-20; Hubner-Jura-
sehek, Geogmphisch-etatistische TabeUen oiler Lander (an
annual); La Gerarchia CaUolica (an annual).
ROMAH CATHOLIC EUCHARISTIC CON-
GRESSES: Name given to assemblies of ecclesias-
tics and laymen convened for the purpose of glorify-
ing* the Eucharist, and of devising means to
promote knowledge and love thereof among the faith-
ful. Because of the constant traditional doctrine
of the real presence (see Lord's Supper; andTRAN-
stjbstantiation), the Eucharist has always been
considered as the most precious treasure bestowed
by Christ upon his Church, and for long centuries it
has been the center of Roman Catholic worship, the
chief source of Christian piety. The latter half of
the nineteenth century was marked by a general
movement among Roman Catholics in the direction
of an increase of devotion toward the Eucharist;
confraternities of the Blessed Sacrament were or-
ganized, and works of adoration and the practise of
frequent communion became more wide-spread
(see Perpetual Adoration of the Blessed Sac-
rament). Of this general movement Eucharistic
Congresses became an important and stimulating
factor. The first of these gatherings was convened
at the instance of Bishop Gaston de Segur and was
held at Lille, France, in June, 1881. It was a local
event with a small attendance, but the idea rapidly
gained favor and from the year 1885 when the
fourth congress was held in Freiburg, Switzerland,
under the direction of Mgr. Mermillod, bishop of
Lausanne, the assemblies began to assume an inter-
national character. The eighth congress was held
in Jerusalem (May 14-21, 1893) and was presided
over by Cardinal Langenieux, archbishop of Reims,
who acted as papal delegate sent by Leo XIII. In
the mean time there had grown up, in all countries
where Roman Catholics were numerous, local gather-
ings of the Eucharistic leagues, and these too became
potent factors in the spread of the devotion. The
nineteenth congress was held in London Sept. 9-
13, 1908. It was attended by a vast number of
ecclesiastics and laymen from all parts of the world,
and it was considered to be in many respects the
most important congress yet held. Besides great
numbers of bishops and priests, there were present
seven cardinals, among whom was Cardinal Vin-
cenzo Vanutelli, who presided as special delegate of
Pius X. It had been planned to carry the host in
triumphal procession through the streets, but on
account of violent opposition on the part of many
English non-Catholics the project was abandoned
after a request to that effect had been addressed by
Premier Asquith to Archbishop Bourne of West-
minster. The twentieth congress was held in Mon-
treal, Canada, Sept. 7-11, 1910. It was the first
held in America, and in point of enthusiasm and
attendance on the part of the faithful it surpassed
all previous gatherings of the kind. Three cardinals
were present, one of them being Cardinal Vincenzo
Vanutelli, who again presided as papal delegate.
Among the salient features of the congress were a
monster procession in the streets, and an open-air
mass celebrated on the southeastern slope of Mount
Royal at which 40,000 persons assisted.
James F. Driscoll.
Bibliography: Thomas F.Meehan, in Catholic Encyclopedia,
v. 693-694, New York, 1909; official Reports of the differ-
ent congresses; The Narrative of the Eucharistic Congre**,
Montreal* 1910; A. Segur, Biographic nouveUe de Mgr.
De Segur, Paris, 1885.
ROMAN CATHOLIC PAROCHIAL SCHOOLS:
Name given to the private schools maintained in
the United States chiefly by Roman Catholics inde-
pendently of support from the State. The reason
for the existence of such schools outside and inde-
pendent of the otherwise excellent public school
system of this country is simply a matter of religious
Boman Oatholio
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
84
principle. No fault is found with the equipment
or efficiency of the public schools on the score of
secular instruction or ethical standing, but the
contention of Roman Catholics, and of some other
religious bodies as well, is that these schools are
wanting in an important respect, that they lack
an essential factor in the training of youth, viz., the
element of religious instruction and influence, and
for Roman^Catholics, of course, religious influence
means the specific influence of the Roman Catholic
religion. Hence throughout the period of the rapid
growth of Catholicism in the United States the
school question has always been a matter of con-
cern and frequently of controversy. The practical
impossibility of giving religious instruction in the
public schools, frequented as they are by pupils
representing the various Christian denominations
and the Hebrew faith, is recognized by Roman
Catholics and Protestants alike, and though it has
been sometimes suggested that a general knowledge
of Christian truth might be imparted without giving
offense to the adherents of any of the sects, the idea
has been opposed especially by Roman Catholics
who contend that all religious instruction, to be of
any value or even safe, must be positive and doc-
trinal, and consequently denominational in charac-
ter. But the zeal of Roman Catholics for the es-
tablishment and maintenance of parochial schools
is not determined solely or even primarily by the
desire to secure for their children proper religious
instruction. This need can be, and often has to be,
provided for in other ways. Of still greater impor-
tance in their esteem is what may be termed the
religious atmosphere of the Roman Catholic school,
with its multifarious subtile influences, all tending
to foster reverence and love for the Church and all
things pertaining thereto. The schools are organ-
ized under the immediate direction of the parish
clergy, and are for the most part in charge of teach-
ing brothers and nuns whose lives, being models of
devotedness and self-sacrifice, can not fail to make
a deep and lasting impression on the minds of the
children. These and other influences create in the
parochial schools a feeling and attitude toward re-
ligion and things religious which is rarely, if ever,
met with in the public schools. The same secular
instruction is given as in these latter, but it is per-
meated throughout with a religious spirit, and Ro-
man Catholic ideals and practises are commended
by word and example. Doubtless Roman Catholics
are not alone in advocating the importance and
need of the religious element in the education of
our American youth. Like views have often been
proclaimed by representatives of other religious
bodies, and within the last few years an important
movement in this direction has been inaugurated
by an association of eminent educators, but it is
among Roman Catholics that the principle of re-
ligious education has been most widely and consist-
ently carried out especially as regards the elemen-
tary schools.
The origin of the parochial schools in the United
States dates from the early days of the Maryland
colony, about the middle of the seventeenth cen-
tury, and the growth of the system ever since has
been intimately connected with the growth and
organization of Catholicism in the country. For
more than a century development was very slow,
but the American Revolution, by bringing about a
relatively greater freedom for Roman Catholics than
they had previously enjoyed, gave an impetus to
the cause of Roman Catholic education which was
later on powerfully aided by the great influx of
Roman Catholic immigrants with whom came also
many members of the various teaching orders.
Passing over in this connection the early work of
the Benedictines (see Benedict of Nursia), Do-
minicans (see Dominic, Saint), Franciscans (see
Francis, Saint, of Assisi), and Jesuits (q.v.), who
generally combined educational activities with their
missionary labors, mention should be made of the
Christian Brothers (q.v.), and particularly of the
orders of women, for it is chiefly through their zeal
that the rapid development of the parochial system
has been made possible. As early as 1727 the Ursu-
line Sisters (see Ursulines) established the first
sisters' school in the then French-speaking colony
of New Orleans. In 1799 the founders of what was
destined to become the American branch of the
Visitation order (see Visitation, Nuns of the)
opened at Georgetown the first free school in the
District of Columbia, and by the year 1850 branch
houses and schools under the control of this center
had been established in Baltimore, Washington, St.
Louis, Mobile, and Kaskaskia, 111. Of still greater
importance was the work begun by Mrs. Elizabeth
Ann Seton (q.v.), who, being a convert to the Ro-
man Catholic Church, founded in Baltimore (1812)
the American branch of the Sisters of Charity of
St. Vincent de Paul (see Charity, Sisters of, 1).
This foundation proved remarkably successful, and
in 1908 the community, together with the branches
connected with it, comprised about 5,500 sisters
with over 120,000 pupils — being about one-tenth
of the total Roman Catholic school attendance in
the United States. Among the other orders which
have rendered important services in the cause of
parochial school education are the Sisters of Mercy
(see Mercy, Sisters of), the Sisters of St. Benedict,
the Franciscan Sisters, the Sisters of St. Dom-
inic, the Sisters of St. Joseph, and many others
(see Teaching Orders). Because of the great
expenditure involved in the establishment and sup-
port of the parochial schools, the Roman Catholics
of this country have frequently sought to obtain
state recognition for their educational work and
thus be relieved of the burden of taxes imposed for
the maintenance of the public school system which
for religious reasons they'Vlo not find satisfactory.
A notable effort in this direction was made in
1840 by the Roman Catholics of New York under
the leadership of Archbishop John Hughes (q.v.).
It was argued in a petition to the aldermen of the
city and to the state legislature that if the same
quality of secular instruction was given in the
parochial as in the public schools — a point of fact
to be controlled by state inspection and examina-
tions— the former were in justice entitled to a pro
rata share in the public funds set apart for school
purposes. But the proposal was bitterly assailed
by Protestants generally, and the project failed,
as have also all subsequent efforts on the part of
85
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Roman Oatholio
Roman Catholics to bring about a compromise in
the matter such as obtains in England and Canada.
Local concessions and arrangements have been
sometimes made, as, for instance, in Poughkeepsie,
and at Faribault, Minn., in the early nineties, but
they have been of short duration, and have gener-
ally failed to satisfy either party to the controversy.
In the mean time the Roman Catholics have gone
on building and equipping their schools, and accord-
ing to the official statistics of the year 1908 the
total number of such schools in the United States
was 4,443, the number of pupils 1,136,906, and the
number of professional teachers, lay and religious,
20,755. The amount of property invested was esti-
mated to be over $100,000,000, with an annual ex-
penditure for school purposes of about $15,000,000.
A few years previous to this date an important move-
ment was inaugurated for the better organization
and unification of the system throughout the coun-
try. This is a part of the work undertaken by the
Catholic Educational Association which aims at
carrying out a similar aim for all the Roman Catho-
lic educational establishments in the United States,
theological seminaries, colleges, academies, and
high schools, under the general supervision of the
Catholic University of America located in Wash-
ington, D. C. To aid in the accomplishment of this
general purpose the professors of the latter institu-
tion have begun the publication of a Catholic Edu-
cational Review. James F. Driscoll.
Bduoobaphy: J. A. Burns, The Catholic School System in
the}Un%ted States, it* Principles, Origin and Establishment,
New York, 1908; Annual Report* of the Catholic Educa-
tional Association, 1903 aqq., Columbus, Ohio; The Offi-
cial Catholic Directory, published yearly by the M. H.
WOtshis Co., Milwaukee and New York.
ROMAN CATHOLIC POSITION ON THE BIBLE
m THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS: This topic has fre-
quently been a matter of controversy between
Protestants and Roman Catholics, particularly in
the United States. The custom of reading the Bible
as a part of the regular school exercises is doubtless
a survival from the earlier days when educational
institutions were in the main denominational, and
consistently imparted religious as well as secular
instruction. The attitude of Roman Catholics
toward the practise is determined not by hostility
to Bible-reading as such, but by certain considera-
tions of principle. In the first place, they are not
convinced of the utility or expediency of indiscrim-
inate Bible-reading especially for young children,
unless it be accompanied by suitable explanation,
and consequently this mode of imparting Scrip-
tural knowledge is rarely employed in Roman Catho-
lic elementary schools. It is judged preferable to
reduce the voluminous and often bewildering narra-
tive portions of the Bible to the simpler form of
Bible histories, while its dogmatic, ethical, and re-
ligious teaching finds expression in catechisms and
religious instruction. If it be proposed as an al-
ternative to have the Bible-reading in the public
schools accompanied by commentary on the part
of the teachers, Roman Catholics object, not only
because they question the authority of these ex-
ponents and their competency for such a task, but
also because such commentary is liable to be tinged
with sectarian
Furthermore, Bible-reading in the schools is
sometimes connected with the recitation of prayers
and the singing of hymns, thus taking on the char-
acter of a religious service. All these elements may
be very good in themselves and free from any in-
herent denominational tendencies, but Roman
Catholics consistently, with that exclusi veness which
is traditional in their church, refuse to take part in
a non-Roman Catholic (or, as they claim) heterodox
act of public religious worship. This prohibitive
principle, logically reducible to what the theologians
term communicatio in divinis, obtained originally
in most of the Protestant denominations as well as
among the older branches of Christianity, but of
late, and for obvious reasons, it has been rapidly
disappearing from the various forms of Protestant-
ism, and though among Roman Catholics it is now
less acutely emphasized than formerly, it is never-
theless maintained as an integral element of the
Roman Catholic position — a principle which can
not consistently be sacrificed.
Exception has also been taken by Roman Catho-
lics to the fact that the Bible read in the public
schools was the " Protestant " or King James ver-
sion, whereas a long-standing decree of ecclesias-
tical authority had made it obligatory for lay Ro-
man Catholics (unless otherwise permitted) to use
currently only those vernacular translations of Holy
Writ which had received the approbation of their
church, and were provided with suitable notes for
the proper understanding of certain passages. This
objection flows logically from the general Roman
Catholic principle according to which the Church
is held to be the divinely appointed guardian of the
Scriptures and their sole authoritative interpreter.
The prohibition in question, which is as old as the
Council of Trent, was based on the assumed danger
(now doubtless more remote than in the sixteenth
century) which, especially in those troubled times,
might result for the faith of Catholics from an in-
discriminate use of the various unauthorized trans-
lations then in vogue. It was assumed — and not
entirely without cause — that doctrinal bias had in-
fluenced the rendering of certain passages supposed
to have a bearing on the religious differences be-
tween Protestants and Roman Catholics. As in-
stances of this Bishop Kenrick (Theologia Dogmatica,
i. 427 sqq., Philadelphia, 1839) calls attention to
such passages in the Authorized Version as Matt,
ix. 11; I Cor. vii. 9, ix. 5, xi. 27; Heb. x. 38, etc.,
as being erroneous dogmatic renderings due to po-
lemical preoccupation. In this connection Roman
Catholics quote also the words of Robert Gell, the
chaplain to George Abbot (q.v.), Protestant arch-
bishop of Canterbury (one of the translators), who
says: " Dogmatic interests were in some cases al-
lowed to bias the translation, and the Calvinism of
one party, the prelatic views of another, were both
represented at the expense of accuracy." To this
may be added a recent Protestant admission, viz.,
that of Bishop EUicott: " In spite of the very com-
mon assumption to the contrary, there are many
passages (in the version of 1611) from which erro-
neous doctrinal inferences have been drawn, but
where the inference comes from the translation, and
not the original " (Considerations on the Revision of
Roman Catholic
Romanticism
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
86
the English Version of the New Testament, p. 89, cf .
also p. 88, London, 1870). Be that as it may, it is
certain, on the other hand, that this phase of the
objection to the Protestant Bible has now lost much
of its interest and cogency. It is not here the place
to discuss the relative merits of the " Authorized "
and of the Douay version, which through episcopal
authority has become the accepted translation for
the use of English-speaking Roman Catholics. Each
has its points of superiority and its defects. It is
worthy of note, however, that some of the alleged
faulty renderings mentioned above have been
emendated by the revisers of 1881.
A further and more serious objection on the part
of Roman Catholics to the use of the Protestant
Bible is based on the difference as regards the Scrip-
tural canon. The so-called " apocryphal " or deu-
tero-canonical books, which Roman Catholics (on
the authority of the Church) accept as having the
same divine authority as the other portions of Holy
Writ, have been excluded from the King James ver-
sion since the edition of 1826, whence arises the
Roman Catholic contention that the Protestant
Bible is a truncated version and materially incom-
plete. Apart from the question of authority which
finally determines the Roman Catholic position in
such matters, it is pertinent to note that such an
eminent and independent scholar as Charles A.
Briggs (General Introduction to the Study of Holy
Scripture, chap, v., " The Canon of Scripture," New
York, 1899) is inclined to accept the larger tradi-
tional canon as defined by the Council of Trent.
But whatever the scientific merits of the contro-
versy, this and the above-mentioned reasons may
serve to render intelligible the attitude of Roman
Catholics who have opposed the reading of the Bible
in the public schools. James F. Dbiscoll.
ROMAN CATHOLIC RESTRICTION OF BIBLE-
READING BY THE LAITY: The traditional and
official attitude of the Roman Catholic Church
toward Sacred Scripture and its use was formulated
in the fourth session of the Council of Trent (Apr.
8, 1546) the main enactments of which were re-
affirmed by the Vatican Council (q.v.). After de-
claring the substance of divine revelation to be
contained in Holy Writ and in the unwritten (i.e.,
non-inspired) ecclesiastical traditions (in libris
seriptis, et sine scripto traditionibus), the council form-
ally accepted the traditionally received books of
the Old and New Testaments with all their parts
as contained in the Latin Vulgate (decreeing at the
same time that a new, and as far as possible accu-
rate, edition of the same be prepared; see Bible
Vebsion8, A, II., 2, § 5), and further enacted that
this version, which was declared a substantially cor-
rect translation of the original Scriptures, should
henceforth be considered as the official text to be
appealed* to in all theological discussions, and for
general use in the Church. At that time, as for
centuries before, Latin was the official and liturgi-
cal language of the Church, and the Fathers of the
council, in thus making the Vulgate the standard
text, had no intention of declaring a preference for
it over the original Hebrew or Greek, but wished
simply to affirm its substantial conformity with the
latter, and to confer upon it for practical purposes
an official authority with reference to the other
existing Latin translations. Underlying these and
similar enactments is the fundamental Roman
Catholic doctrine that the authority of the living
Church — not the letter of Scripture — is the proxi-
mate rule of belief, and that the Church is the di-
vinely appointed custodian of Holy Writ, the sole
authoritative interpreter of its meaning in all mat-
ters pertaining to faith or morals. In her capacity
of guardian the Church assumes the duty of pre-
serving the substantial purity of the original text,
and likewise claims the right of supervision and di-
rection whenever it is question of translating the
Scriptures into any of the modern languages. As
these vernacular versions formed an important
factor of the controversies and the disturbed relig-
ious conditions of the sixteenth century, it was de-
creed by the Council of Trent that no such trans-
lation might be used by the laity unless it had the
sanction of ecclesiastical authority, and were pro-
vided with suitable notes for the proper understand-
ing of difficult and disputed passages. This re-
strictive legislation still retains force of law, though
the reasons justifying it are obviously less cogent
now than in the days of early Protestantism when
so much stress was laid by the Reformers on the
right of private interpretation. The Latin Vulgate
is still retained as the basis of all authorized trans-
lations, though free recourse may be had to the
Hebrew and Greek by way of comparison and eluci-
dation. In this as in similar matters, Roman Catho-
lic authority, while professing due respect for the
conclusions of critical scholars, seeks above all to
maintain the consensus of Christian tradition. See
Bible-Reading bt the Laity, Restrictions on.
James F. Driscoll.
Bibliography: Ada et Decreta ConcOli Tridentini, Seeeio
IV, ; H. Denxinger, Enchiridion Si/mbolorum, Freiburg,
1908; The Catholic Church and the Bible, London, 1906.
ROMANS, EPISTLE TO THE. See Paul the
Apostle, II., 3, §§ 5-7.
ROMANTICISM: The name of a movement
which especially affected literature, art, religion,
and theology in the last half of the eighteenth and
the first half of the nineteenth century. It arose on
a background of three other move-
The Back- ments which had much in common with
ground, one another, Classicism, Humanism,
and the Enlightenment. (1) Classi-
cism, which has retained its place ever since the re-
vival of learning, has adhered to those forms of ex-
pression which prevailed in the creative periods of
Greece and Rome. It was an attitude of mind, a
method of literary and artistic activity formed on
the severe models of ancient thought, characterised
by energy, freshness, purity, proportion, restraint,
objectivity, i.e., subserviency to nature, and rever-
ence for the authority of long-established types.
(2) Humanism (q.v.) — another name for the Ren-
aissance in Italy, 1350-1425 — turned away from
metaphysics, from scholastic logical formulas as de-
fined by the Church, from the despotism of the
Church as claiming exclusive right to absorb human
interests, from the division of knowledge into that
of the " Two ways " — supernatural and natural! re-
87
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Roman Catholio
Romanticism
$ *
•ti
\
ligious and scientific (see Albertus Magnus). It
studied afresh the literature of classic Rome;
through the revival of Platonism, Neoplatonism,
and Aristotelianism the freshness and freedom of
the Greek spirit were reawakened; and the ancient
Greek cosmology, doctrines of nature, philosophical
skepticism, and the eclectic mixture of incongruous
elements all came to life again. Owing to the new
scientific spirit discoveries and inventions of great
magnitude were on the threshold. With the redis-
covery of many splendid examples of Greek statu-
ary there was quickened the illimitable sense of
beauty and wonder associated especially with the
human form as the most perfect embodiment of the
ideal. In a word, Humanism drew attention once
more to man himself as a rational being with ca-
pacities of inexhaustible richness, susceptible of in-
finite culture (cf. J. A. Symonds, Renaissance in
Italy, 5 vols., new ed., New York, 1885). (3) The
Enlightenment (q.v., 1650-1800; also see Ration-
alism and Supernaturalism). More than two
centuries after the decline of Humanism and when
the Protestant Reformation was well under way, in-
terest was again directed to man, this time centering
in his rational nature and its capacities as such. The
movement may be summarized as the sufficiency of
the human reason for all the problems of life. Hu-
manism had indeed implied this, but it had not pro-
ceeded far enough to become self-conscious, to re-
flect upon what would be required to justify its
attitude and activity, and to offer a rational defense
for the entire movement. The Enlightenment was,
however, the spirit of Humanism come to life again
in the English, French, and German consciousness.
Like Humanism it eschewed metaphysics; it con-
tinued the investigation into the inner nature of
man always from the side of experience, the valid-
ity of his knowledge of the world, and the meaning
of human life both individual and social; and it
allied itself with the culture and literary activity of
the period. Yet it was conscious of having awa-
kened in a new world, no longer that of the church or
of Greece and Rome, but of new discoveries, a new
scientific method, new economic and social values,
a new psychology, and new historical postulates.
In toe process of working out its essential principle,
however, there were disclosed its inevitable limita-
tions, and also its inadequacy to answer to one large
element in man's nature — the poetic and imagina-
tive and the more definitely personal. In its ab-
stract superficial intellectualism, its individualistic
and social utilitarianism, itz denial of personal free-
dom, and its elimination of mystery it paved the
way for a profound reaction of consciousness in
which neglected regions of personality should re-
assert their abiding worth. The time was therefore
ripe for a movement in which intellect and theoretic
culture should give place to the esthetic side of
man '8 nature wherein this should find authentic
and luxuriant expression.
In a description of Romanticism the following
features require attention: (1) Subjectivity. J. G.
Fichte (q.v.) held that self-consciousness is deter-
mined by nothing outside of itself, and that every-
thing exists only by the activity of the Ego. Ac-
cording to F. W. Schelling (q.v.) nature is the Ego
in process of becoming. In English thought nature
was conceived as an analogon of spirit so that
nature and spirit answer to eac hother
Special (cf. S. T. Coleridge, Aids to Reflection,
Features. London, 1825, and often, e.g., ed. T.
Fenby, 1873; H. Bushnell, God in
Christ, "Dissertation on Language,'1 New York,
1849, and often). Besides this philosophical basis,
there was a profound feeling that the soul it-
self was a mine of exhaustless treasure as vein
scarcely explored. Nor was this limited to ths I
normal consciousness, but in certain of the German
romanticists the weird, fantastic, capricious, and
morbid were developed to extreme proportions (cf .
Novalis, i.e., Baron F. L. von Hardenberg, d. Mar.
25, 1801; and E. T. A. Hoffmann, d. July 24, 1822).
(2) Not so much the rational as the esthetic aspect
of the world and human life absorbed ~inlerest."
Thus appeal was made to imagination and fancy.
Duty was determined by feeling, and even religion
was resolved into the feeling of absolute depend-
ence (cf. Schleiermacher, q.v.). (3) Closely asso-
ciated with the esthetic element was the sense of
beauty, not indeed that of standards derived from
Greece and Rome or even of the Middle Ages,
except in Scott. There was first the beauty of
the natural world which, slumbering for centuries,
awoke in the romantic spirit — not alone the beauty
of great mountains, of quiet or tumultuous seas,
but clouds, sunsets, moonlight, flowers. Ths
search became a passion. It was found in out-
of-the-way places, in outcast and neglected per-
sons, in common and trivial events. On the other
hand the most extravagant situations were created,
the personality subjected itself to the most ex-
traordinary experiences in order to discover and
extract a quintessence of beauty never before dis-
tilled. (4) Mystery arising not only from the un-
fathomed depths of the soul, from the infinite as-
pects of being, but also from an inner and insatiate
longing for the unexperienced and the unknown.
For Novalis philosophy is homesickness — the wish
to find one's home in the Absolute. Johann Ludwig
Tieck was consumed with longing for something
which transcended the finite. Schelling thought of
beauty as the infinite appearing in finite form.
Wordsworth was haunted by the strangeness of
nature, which only reflected a deeper strangeness
in his own soul. (5) The relation of the inner to ths
outer world is presented from two points of view.
First, so far as the outer world is a copy of the in-
ner world, this may be due to an idealizing panthe-
ism. For either the harmony of the external world
is the creation of the Ego, or both are partial ex-
pressions of the infinite and all-pervading Unity
(Novalis, Lehrlinge zu Sais). Or, secondly, the inner
world of individual consciousness is first depicted
with entire disregard of outer social conventions,
wherein two types of life are allowed to coexist
side by side, one, of untrammeled development
of those who are gifted with genius, the other,
the conventional order of such as have not ths
strength or courage to assert the independent free-
dom of self-realization. The first type is regarded
as the highest human ideal, and the actual world la
judged by its degree of correspondence with this
$ *
;<
£
Bom&nticifm
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
88
A ■
■ j
t *
v-
s\s
" unchartered freedom." In like manner by a proc-
ess of ideal selection even the natural world is con-
ceived as the seat of marvelous forces which rarely
come to manifestation. (6) The free unfolding of
each personality according to its genius involved
recognition and obedience of all individual impulses,
inclinations, and even idiosyncrasies. Various were
the outward conditions in which the great roman-
ticists developed their genius — Wordsworth in soli-
tude, Scott in historical study of medieval life, Byron
?•». wanderings and heroic devotion to the cause of
liberty, Schelling and Schlegel in speculative phi-
losophy, most of the French and German writers in
more or less indifference to social conventions. The
theory constantly reiterated is, that the genius must
be free to follow his star so as to give his artistic
powers free play. Not only must no constraint be
permitted, but only in the pathway of perfect liberty
can the individual reach the goal of self-realization.
Instead of turning back to Greece and Rome or to
the Middle Ages for their material, they isolate
single aspects of their own experience and develop
these as if they were in truth of universal validity.
Whatever is vital in their writings is autobiographic.
Each one felt that he must himself first live the ro-
mantic life, since only then was he able by subtle
analysis and unsparing self-revelation of his inmost
consciousness to portray his ideal. Accordingly he
renounced conventions in his writings as he had al-
ready done in his life, he wrote as he felt and as he
thought, and dipped his metal white hot from the
anything cauldron of his own heart. (7) The roman-
tic writings are all with scarcely an exception tinged
with pantheism and mysticism. Philosophy, ethics,
religion, no less than conceptions of nature and hu-
man love, so far as these are self-conscious, are
frankly pantheistic. The infinite is not fully real-
used save as every possible form of consciousness
and action and human relation finds expression. If
the English pantheism was on the whole more sober
and naturalistic than that of the German and
French, this may be referred to the quieter tempera-
ment and severer restraint of the English mind. As
related to mysticism, not all mystics are romanti-
cists, and not all romanticists are mystics, but the
two are commonly associated in the same person.
\The romanticists believe that reality is revealed not
jby rational thought, but through feeling, immedi-
iate experience, spiritual illumination. Accordingly
a part of the meaning of life eludes analysis. Any
portrayal of it, however concrete and vivid, is at
best partial and suggestive rather than complete
and final. On the other hand, in romantic experi-
ence ecstasy is never far away. The secret of gain-
ing truth is less by searching than by brooding, by
listening to the inner voices, by interpreting what
is " given " in moments of rare and exalted feeling
(see Wordsworth, William).
Authorities are not agreed as to the exact begin-
nings of romanticism. One may, however, hold
that, in literature, the earlier traces of the move-
ment in Great Britain after Spenser, Shakespeare,
and Milton are in the eighteenth century found in
Thomas Gray, d. 1771, and William Blake, d. 1827
(cf. Arthur Symonds, The Romantic Movement
in English Poetry, New York, 1909); in France
in J. J. Rousseau, d. 1778; and in Germany in
Herder (q.v.). In philosophy, its ultimate vindica-
tion is to be referred to Kant's (q.v.)
Beginnings, primacy of the will, reaching its
metaphysical exposition in the doc-
trine of Schopenhauer (q.v.) that the essence of man
and world is will. In theology, one goes to Fichte
and Schleiermacher (qq.v.) for the subjective and
esthetic elements respectively.
The spirit of Romanticism has been active in
other fields than those described above: in music,
F. P. Schubert (d. 1828), F. F. Chopin (d. 1849),
and R. Schumann (d. 1856) ; in paint-
Spirit ing, J. M. W. Turner (d. 1851), and
F. V. E. Delacroix (d. 1863) ; in travel,
the inspiring motive of which since the latter part
of the eighteenth century has been to quicken the
feeling of beauty and sublimity in the presence of
impressive natural scenery; in social experiment,
as the Brook Farm episode, 1841-47, which sought
to put into practise the system of association or
phalanstery proposed by F. M. C. Fourier (d. 1837) ;
and, finally, in appeal to the chivalrous and heroic
in ministry to the suffering on the field of battle
(Florence Nightingale, q.v., in the Crimea, 1854-
1856) and in great cities (William Booth, q.v.).
The literature of Romanticism is of extraordi-
nary brilliancy — tales, poems, dramas, essays, psy-
chology, ethics, religion, and theology.
Literature. Only a tithe of this output can be here
referred to. In Great Britain: Lord
Byron (d. 1824); William Blake (d. 1826); S. T.
Coleridge (q.v.); W. Wordsworth (q.v.). In Ger-
many: Novalis (d. 1801), Die Lehrlinge zu Sais, and
Heinrich von Ofterdingen in Werke (Leipsic, 1898),
and, in Eng. transl., Hymns and- Thoughts on Relig-
ion (Edinburgh, 1888); H. von KUest (d. 1811),
Werke (Berlin, 1826); E. T. A. Hoffmann (d. 1822),
Werke (Leipsic, 1899); J. P. F. Richter, "Jean
Paul" (d. 1825), Titan (Berlin, 1800-03; Eng.
transl., London, 1863; cf. T. Carlyle, Essays, vols,
i. and iii., ib. 1887); F. von Schlegel (d. 1829),
Lucinde, in Athendum, 1798-1800, cf. also Esthetic
and Miscellaneous Works (London, 1875); F. D. E.
Schleiermacher (q.v.), Reden tuber die Religion
(Berlin, 1799; Eng. transl., Oh Religion, London,
1893); A. W. von Schlegel (d. 1845), Vorlesungen
ueber dramatische Kunst und Litteratur (Heidelberg,
1805-11 ; Eng. transl., Lectures on Dramatic Art and
Literature, London, 1861); Ludwig Tieck (d. 1853),
" William Lovell," Die Verkehrte Welt, in collected
works published in Berlin from 1828 to 1854 (for
Eng. transl. of several stories, cf . Translations from
Musaus, Tieck, and Richter, London, 1889). In
France: Madame de Stael (d. 1817), De VAUemagne
(London, 1813, Eng. transl., Germany, 2 vols., New
York, 1871; cf. H. Heine, Romantische Schule,
Hamburg, 1836) ; Theophile Gautier (d. 1872), Mad-
emoiselle de Maupin (Paris, 1835; Eng. transl.,
London, 1887), Fortunio (Paris, 1837); Alfred de
Musset (d. 1857), La Confession d'un enfant du siede
(Paris, 1836) ; George Sand (d. 1876), Indiana (Paris,
1831), Ldia (ib. 1833), Jacques (ib. 1834), Lucrezia
Floriani (ib. 1846; Eng. transl. of Consuelo, London,
1847, and Little Fadette, b. 1849) ; Victor Hugo (d.
1885), Hernani (Paris, 1830; Eng. transl. in idem,
89
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Romanticism
Romanus
Dramas, London, 1888), Lea MieerobUa (Paris, 1862;
Eng. transl., London, 1862). C. A. Beckwith.
Bibliography: T. Cariyle, Critical and Miscellaneous Es-
says, Boston, n.d.; J. A. Symonds, Renaissance in Italy:
The Revival of Learning, New York, 1885; W. Pater, Ap-
preciations, London, 1889; H. H. Boyesen, Essays in Ger-
man Literature, " The Romantic School in Germany,*'
New York, 1892; Qeorge Brandes, Main Currents in
Nineteenth Century Literature; " The Romantic School in
Germany," vol. ii.; " Naturalism in England," vol. iv.;
" The Romantic School in France," vol. v.. New York, 1902;
D. G. Mason, The Romantic Composers, ib., 1906; Cam-
bridge Modem History, vi. 822-887, ib., 1909; R. Eueken,
The Problem of Human Life, pp. 308-336, 345, 418, 447-
482, ib. 1910; I. Babbitt, The New Laokoon, Boston, 1910.
ROMANUS, ro-ma'nus: Pope, 897. Formerly
cardinal priest of St. Peter ad Vincula, he was
raised to the papal throne in the autumn of 897
on the murder of Stephen VII. His pontificate
lasted only four months, during which he con-
firmed the possessions of the Spanish churches of
Elna and Gerona at the request of their bishops.
(R. ZdPFFELf.)
Bibliography: Liber pontificalis, ed. L. Duchesne, ii. 230,
Paris, 1892; Jaffe, Regesta, pp. 303 sqq.; Mann, Popes,
iv. 86-87; Hefele, ConcUiengeschichU, iv. 566; Bower,
Popes, ii. 301; Platina, Popes, i. 239.
ROMANUS: Byzantine religious poet; b. at
Mi«eani (according to the Bollandists, at Emesa),
Syria; d. at Constantinople in the sixth century.
After being deacon at the church of St. Anastasia at
Berytus, he came to Constantinople during the reign
of Anastasius (probably in the last decade of the
fifth century), where he was attached to the church
of St. Mary's en tois Kyrou. Either here or in the
Blachernian church he received from the Virgin in a
vision the gift of poetry, and forthwith composed
his famous Christmas hymn, which was followed by
a thousand other hymns for various feasts. Accord-
ing to Nicephorus Callistus, the Greek Church later
discarded the hymns of Romanus, with the ex-
ception of one for each feast; while Metrophanes
Critopulus (De vocibus) states that in his time only
four hundred of the thousand hymns survived. The
scanty details concerning the poet are practically
restricted to a brief synaxarium (ed. most conve-
niently in the Analeeta Bollandiana, 1894, pp.
440-442).
The titles of all the hymns of Romanus are known.
They contain no allusion that would imply a later
date than the reign of Justinian (527-65), the period
assigned Romanus by the author of the Synaxarium,
Thus, the passage in the first hymn to the ten virgins,
with its phrase, "Lo, the Assyrians, and the Iah-
maelites before them, have led us captive/7 needs not
refer to successive inroads by the Omayads of Damas-
cus and the Abbasids of Bagdad, thus referring
to the eighth century, but may equally well allude
to the Persians and Saracens who menaced Byzan-
tium in the reign of Anastasius I. Nor do the
doctrinal references in the hymns imply a later date
than Justinian's reign, for though Mary is termed
" ever virgin," her freedom from original sin is not
taught, though great reverence is shown her and she
is regarded as a mediator between God and Christ
for mankind— concepts which were held in the Jus-
tinian period. Again, the Christology of Romanus
seems to allude to docetic theories, to Arius, to
Apollinarius of Laodicea, and to the theopaschitic
controversy in the reign of Anastasius, but of refer-
ences to the monothelite heresy, for example, there
is no clear evidence. There are likewise probable
allusions to the Chalcedonian Creed. The question
of the date of the poet, who would thus seem to be
no later than the reign of Justinian, though some
have sought to place him in the period of Anastasius
II. (713-716), is of importance in that on its solu-
tion depends the setting of the acme of Byzantine
religious poetry in the sixth or the eighth century.
Until the second third of the nineteenth century
the poems of Romanus were scarcely known in the
West, and occidental knowledge of them was in-
troduced by Cardinal J. B. Pitra's edition of twenty-
eight hymns and four sticharia in his Analeeta
SoUsmensia, i. 1-241 (Paris, 1876). A faulty edi-
tion was later prepared by the archimandrite Am-
philochius in his Kondakarion (2 vols., Moscow,
1879), but chief knowledge concerning Romanus
and his work is due to four studies of K. Krum-
bacher in the Sitzungsberichte der MUnchener
Ahademie (phil.-phil. Klasse, 1898, ii. 69-268, 1899,
ii. 1-156, 1901, pp. 693-766, 1903, pp. 551-691).
The material of the poems is drawn chiefly from
the Bible, especially from the great events of sal-
vation such as Christ's nativity, epiphany, passion,
crucifixion, resurrection, and ascension, and the
outpouring of the Holy Ghost. Romanus was like-
wise attracted by Biblical accounts of the Virgin
and by leading events in the lives of the apostles,
such as the denial of Peter and the conversion of
Thomas. Beautiful parables, as that of the ten
virgins, afforded welcome material to the poet.
Some fifty of his poems are concerned with Biblical
themes, thirty with the saints, while the remainder
are penitential hymns and the like. In his exegesis
he showed the influence of Chrysostom and Ephraem,
and in his hymns to the saints he followed well-
known lives. The purpose of his poems Romanus
expressly states to be didactic. Strangely enough,
his hymns were almost totally abandoned by his
church some centuries later, when, in the ninth
century, the Greek liturgies were remodeled and
the canons took the place of the hymns. Only a
few of the poems of Romanus were then retained,
such as the Christmas hymn and the so-called
requiem. Of the other hymns only single stanzas
were retained in the liturgies, chiefly introductory
and closing verses of general character.
The beauty of the poems of Romanus is evident
even in their external form. In Byzantine poetry
rhythm took the place of the classical metrical
scheme, thus giving a characteristic form with pecu-
liar rhythmic melody. After one or more proems
follows the poem proper, which may have more than
twenty stanzas. Each strophe closes with a refrain
which repeats the chief thoughts of the poem, and
the name of the author is usually given in an acros-
tic. This form of poetry was developed to its per-
fection by Romanus, the greatest hymn-writer of
the Greek church. His verse is easy and euphonious,
and varied by antitheses, assonances, paronomasias,
and rime plays. The refrain is used by Romanus
with admirable effect. The poems are preponder-
atingly dramatic in form, consisting of conversa-
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
tions between the characters introduced, as in the
dialogue between Satan and Hades, when they learn
that the on of Golgotha is destined to crush their
power. On the other hand, Romanus occasionally
becomes unnecessarily dogmatising, moralizing, and
Romanus was a noble poet in matter as well as
in form, beautifully expressing the spirit of the Gos-
pel and necking to lead man to believe that for him
1 11 T-o]i:illv salvation exists. He frequently praises
I he free grace of God and Christ, declaring that the
reward which the Lord sliall give in the life to come
is the reward of grace. Through sin mankind falls,
but rises through righteousness and faith, and is
saved through grace. Above asceticism and or-
th'.ioxy Romanus ranks love of man, though ho
praises ii.wticism highly. He likewise lauds celi-
bacy, but at the same time does not unduly de-
preciate marriage. Finally it may be noted that
his view of life was strongly eschatological, some
of his most beautiful poems being devoted to the
last judgment and to the life to come. In him By-
santine poetry comes to its fullest bloom.
(Philipp Meteh.)
&1BUOORAFHT: A complete edition of the works ii prom-
' 1 by r
Pilm. am ia Anale&a, Sac.
1-241; three others.
1888; a prayer, ed. Papadopulos Kerameus. ia AHaMtl
lernaolumitikei, i (1S0D. MWi-ISML'. Consult: Knim-
bacber, Grtchiehte, pp. 68.1-671; idem, in the Sitrungt-
berichle of the Bavarian. Academy, philoloiic- philosoph-
ical and historical class, laOS, vol. ii. 69-26S, 1890. vol.
ii. l-IM. 10U1. pp. 693-766. 11X13. pp. 551-691; idem,
Mimellen IK Romano.. Munich. 1U07; J. B. l'itra. Bym-
ruxjraphit dt fevtiar oreeqvt, Rome. 1867: idem, Analncla
•airn, tpiril.uium. i. 1 -211. I'arw. 1.S7C.; i.l.'.ii. At domino
Panlifire Leone XIII. omngtno giubtiore delia BMiottca
Vaticana, Rome. 1SS8: W. Christ and M. Paranikas, <tn-
Aolajin Oraca. Leipsic, 1871; Jacohi, in ZKG, 1882. pp.
177-250; W. Meyer, in the Abhandlungen of the Bavarian
Academy, philosophic-historical class, 1886, pp. 268-
440; H. Goiter, in the Abhandlimaen of the Saxon Acad-
emy, xviii. no, 5, p. 76; ButerUiniwdu Zrilwltrifl, 1893,
pp. 559-605 (by Papadopuloe Kemmeus), 1900, pp. 633-
640 (by De Boor), 1003, pp. 153-166 (by Van den Boo),
1902, pp. 358-369 (bv & Filmic.-). 1006. pp. 1-44,
337. 1907, pp. 257, 5B5-5K7. and 1010 2S5-306 (all by P.
Mass): Vailbe, in Echot <T orient. 1902, pp. 207-21.'; T.
M. Wetaofcr, Untertuehunaen sum Lied da Romanes an/
dtr Wiedtrkunft da Htm. ed. A. Erhard and P. Mans,
Vienna, 1907.
ROMESTIN, AUGUST HENRY EUGENE DE:
Church of England; b. at Paris May 9, 1830; d.
at London May 18, 1900. He was a scholar of Win-
chester College, 1843-48; of St. John's College, Ox-
ford (B.A.. 1852; M.A., 1854); was ordained deacon
1852, and priest 1854; was curate of Mells, Somer-
eet, 1853-54; of St. Thomas Martyr, Oxford, 1854-
1855; English chaplain at Freiburg-im-Breisgau,
1863-65; and at Baden-Baden, 1865-68; chaplain
of Woolland, Dorset, 1868-63; perpetual curate of
Freeland, Oxford, 1874-85; rural dean of Wood-
stock, 1879-85; vicar of Stony Stratford, Bucking-
hamshire, 1885; warden of House of Mercy, Great
Maple-dead, Essex, 1885-91; rector of Tiptree,
1891-66; and vicar of Sledmere, 1896-1900. His
throli 'Kiml standpoint was that of the school of E.
B. Pusey. He was the author or editor of Teaching
of the Twelve Apostles, Text, with Introduction,
Translation, and Notes (London, 1884); Saint
Aiujiintinc, On Instructing the Unlearned; Concern-
ing Faith of Things Unseen; On the Aabaatug**
of Believing; The. Encheiridion to Laurentiun ;
and Concerning Faith, Hope and Charity, Latin
and English (1885); The Five Lectures of Saint
Cyril cm the Mysteries (1887); An Inquiry into the
Belief of the Church from the Beginning until Now
as to the Limitation of Our Lord's Knowledge (1891);
and Saint Ambrose in the Select Library of the
Nicene and Post Nicene Fathers (18S5).
R0MUALD, SAINT. See Cam m.i.. »i.i res.
R0RSD0RF, rens'derf, SECT; A chiliastic and
communistic sect founded at Elberfeld in 1726
by Elias Eller and the Reformed pastor Schlcicr-
maebcr. Eller (b. at Ronsdorf, 5 m. s.e. of Elberfeld.
early in the eighteenth century; d. there May 16,
1750) went, while still a lad, to the neighboring
city of Elberfeld, where he became foreman of a
factory for a rich widow named Bolckhaus. Pietis-
tic, chiliastic, and communistic influences had been
rampant in the district, and with these Eller came
in contact. He began to read the Bible and all
accessible writings of the enthusiasts and pietists,
and evolved an apocalyptic, chiliastic system of his
own, blending it with communistic elements. The
reception accorded his teachings attracted the at-
tention of Frau Bolckhaus, whom he soon converted
to his tenets and married, thus becoming a man of
wealth. Eller now came in contact with Schleier-
macher, and the pair held frequent meetings of the
faithful, who called themselves the awakened and
the elect. Among their number was a certain Anna
van Bushel, the daughter of an Elberfeld baker, a
girl of remarkable beauty. She was converted by
Eller, who instructed her how to undergo ecstasies
and receive revelations from heaven, taught her the
Apocalypse, and inspired her with chiliastic ideas.
Somewhat later, accordingly, she was seized with
religious ecstasy, prophesying and describing in
glowing colors the coming of the crhiliastir kinj;(li>rii
in 1730, also declaring that the Lord had frequrnrlv
appeared to and spoken with her. Henceforth Anna
van Buchel was regarded as a prophetess. Before
long, Eller's wife died, and he soon married Anna
van Buchel with whom he had maintained for some
time illicit relations; as he alleged, to protect her
innocence. He now resolved to advance his doc-
trines more openly. His wife's visions became still
more frequent. She and her husband were of the
tribe of Judah and the lineage ol David; and were
to found the New Jerusalem. Kings and princes
were to descend from them; they were the two
witnesses (Rev. xi.), she was the woman clothed
with the sun (xii.}, the tabernacle*^ God among
men (xari. 3), and thebri de of the lamb (Cant.).
These revelations being received with trust and awe,
Eller now declared that God had revealed to his
wife that she was the mother of Zion who should
give birth to the savior of the world a second time,
who would be the king of the cliiliastic reign. Un-
lortunately Anna gave birth to a daughter. Eller,
however, explained this by the fact that sufficient
91
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Somanni
Boos
faith had not been Bhown him and the mother of
Zion, and bade his followers wait in patience. In
1733 the mother of Zion gave birth to a son, who
was baptized as Benjamin, on the basis of Ps. lxviii.
27. The child was reverenced in his cradle as the
future great prophet and savior of the world, and
Eller declared that his children were divinely be-
gotten, and consequently born without sin.
By this time the number of his adherents had so
increased that Eller could think of establishing a
church. He accordingly divided his adherents into
three classes; those of the court, the threshold, and
the temple. Only the initiate were allowed to re-
ceive the complete doctrine, and they must first
swear to maintain inviolable secrecy. The distinct-
ive tenets were as follows: (1) the fulness of the
Godhead dwells in Eller alone; (2) though the Bible
is the Word of God, the divine annunciation to the
mother of Zion that a new epoch is to begin necessi-
tates a new revelation, this being in the booklet
called Hirtenta&che which was granted in secret to
the select alone; (3) not only will the saints appear
again on earth, but the Savior must be born again;
(4) Eller is the counterpart of Abraham, but greater
than he. The person of the Father is in Abraham,
of the Son in Isaac, and of the Holy Ghost in Sarah;
but in Eller is the fulness of the Godhead. Hence,
except through him there is no blessing or happiness
from above, and those who do not follow him must
face the wrath of God; (5) Eller, circumcised by
God, must bear sickness and pain for the sins of the
world; (6) Moses and Elijah were not only proto-
types of Christ, but also of Eller, as were David and
Solomon; (7) the children of Eller are begotten
directly of God. Eller now sent apostles throughout
Germany, Switzerland, and the northern countries;
but somewhat to the detriment of his doctrine
''little Benjamin" died when barely a year old.
Though able to restore the confidence of his fol-
lowers, the practises of his community attracted
suspicion and silent investigation by the consistory
from 1735, so that in 1737 he left Elberfeld, which he
declared to be a second Sodom and Gomorrah; and
removed to Ronsdorf , where God had bidden the
mother of Zion to build the New Jerusalem. Many
of his adherents followed him, so that soon fifty
houses had been erected, all facing the East toward
Zion, which, as the tabernacle, was Eller'e house,
and his wife was the ark, the Urim and Thummim.
So many funds poured in from various portions of
Germany, as well as from Holland, England, and
Switzerland, that not only could a new church be
built at Ronsdorf, but in 1741 the Reformed
preacher Schleiermacher was called from Elberfeld
to be the preacher of the sect. Schleiermacher
and Eller worked in harmony, and when the mother
of Zion again bore a daughter, instead of the prophe-
sied Benjamin, it was Schleiermacher who held the
doubting believers together, until Eller had as-
sembled the chief members of the sect and informed
them that God had revealed to the mother of Zion
that her daughter was called to do masculine deeds.
Hardly had this child reached the age of two, before
it received divine homage.
Meanwhile the growth of the sect in Ronsdorf
rendered it possible for Eller to gain absolute con-
trol of the government; and the most unlimited
license held sway in connection with the rites of the
sacraments or on birthdays, Eller justifying him-
self boldly by the transgressions of the patriarchs,
David, and Solomon. In 1744 the mother of Zion
died mysteriously, after giving birth to another
daughter; and Eller now declared that all which
had previously applied to his wife must henceforth
be understood as referring to himself, the prophet,
high priest, and king. Schleiermacher, however,
becoming suspicious of Eller, and horrified at his
licentiousness, finally was convinced of his leader's
vileness. In bitter repentance, he acknowledged
his errors openly, charged Eller with wilful deceit,
and sought in his sermons to undo the mischief
he had wrought. Eller, in alarm, unsuccessfully
forbade attendance at Schleiermacher's addresses;
and then called one of his fieriest adherents, Wulning
of Solingen, to Ronsdorf as second preacher. For a
time Wttlffing and Schleiermacher remained on
peaceable terms, but in 1749 the latter was forced to
leave Ronsdorf. Rudenhaus of Ratingen was chosen
in his stead, at the instance of Eller to whom he,
like Wulning, rendered blind submission. At Eller's
death the sect began to decline. Wulning vainly
endeavored to carry on Eller's practise, aided by
Johannes Bolckhaus, the son of Eller's first wife.
Shortly afterward, however, Wulning himself died,
and the great majority of the villagers of Ronsdorf
quickly returned to the Evangelical faith.
(G. H. KuppELf.)
Bibliography: Sources are: J. W. Knevel, Orauel der
VerwQstung an heiligen Statte, oder die Geheimnisse der
Boeheit der Ronsdorfer SekU, Frankfort, 1750; P. Wttlff-
ing, Ronsdorffischer Katechiemus, Dusseldorf, 1756; idem,
Ronsdorf* silbeme Trompete oder Kirchenbuch, ib. 1761;
J. Bolckhaus, Ronsdorf* gerechte Sache, ib. 1757; P. Wttlff-
ing and J. Bolckhaus, Dae jubilierende Ronsdorf, MQhl-
heim, 1761. Consult: J. A. Engels, Vereuch einer Ge~
•ehiehte der religidsen Schwarmerei in . . . Herzogtwn
Berg, Schwelm, 1826.
ROOS, ros, MAGNUS FRIEDRICH: German Lu-
theran and devotional writer; b. at Sulz (40 m. s.w.
of Stuttgart) Sept. 6, 1727; d. at Anhausen (about
20 m. s.e. of Tubingen) Mar. 19, 1803. He was
educated at Tubingen, and in 1767 became pastor at
Lustnau and dean of the diocese of Bebenhausen,
also lecturing on theology at Tubingen. He was
later transferred, in accordance with his own wish,
to Anhausen, where he could have more leisure for
writing. In 1788-97 he was also a member of the
national committee of WUrttemberg. Theologically
Rooe was a moderate Pietist and essentially a pupil
of Johann Albrecht Bengel both in his life and his
writings. Among the latter, which were very numer-
ous, special mention may be made not only of his
commentaries on Daniel, Galatians, Romans, the
Johannine Epistles, etc., but also of his Einleiiung
in die bibliechen Geschichten (Tubingen, 1774; Stutt-
gart, 1876) and ChrisUiche Glaubenslehre (Stuttgart,
1786; Basel, 1867). He likewise wrote much on
eschatology, as Beleuchtung der gegenw&rtigen gros-
8en Begebenheilen durch das prophetische Wort GoUes
(Tubingen, 1779) and Prdfung der gegenufirtigen
Zeii nach der Offenbarung Johannis (Stuttgart,
1786) ; while his strictly devotional works include
his ChrisUiches Hautbueh (2 parts, Stuttgart, 1790;
Boots
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
92
1871); Kreuzschide (1799; 8th ed., 1896), and
Beicht- und Kommunionbuch (4th ed., 1805).
(Hermann Beck.)
Bibliography: An autobiography with notes by his son
and his grandson is contained in the Einleitung, ut sup.*
ed. of 1876. Consult: Christenbote, 1831, pp. 1 sqq., 1832,
pp. 53 sqq.; C. Grosse, Die alien TrGeter, pp. 484 sqq.,
Hermannsburg, 1900.
ROOTS, LOGAN HERBERT: Protestant Episco-
pal missionary bishop of Hankow, China; b. near
Tamaroa, 111., July 27, 1870. He was educated at
Harvard (A.B., 1891), and, after a year as graduate
secretary of the Harvard Christian Association and
traveling secretary of the college department of the
Y. M. C. A., entered the Episcopal Divinity School,
Cambridge, Mass., from which he was graduated in
1896. He was ordered deacon in the same year and
was advanced to the priesthood in 1898. In 1896
he went to China, and, after studying at Wuchang
until 1898, was stationed as a missionary at Hankow
until 1904, when he was consecrated (second) mis-
sionary bishop of Hankow.
ROPES, CHARLES JOSEPH HARDY: Congrega-
tionalist; b. in St. Petersburg, Russia, Dec. 7, 1851.
He was educated at the City of London School
(1862-67), the gymnasium of Arnstadt, Germany
(1868-69), the Sorbonne, Paris (1869), Yale College
(A-B., 1872), the University of Tubingen (1872-73),
Andover Theological Seminary (1873-75; resident
licentiate, 1875-76), and Union Theological Semi-
nary (1876-77). He was pastor at Ellsworth, Me.
(1877-1881); and professor of New-Testament lan-
guage and literature in Bangor Theological Semi-
nary (1881-1908). He was also librarian of the
same institution from 1887-1901, and resumed this
office in 1906. He has written The Morality of the
Greeks as shown by their Literature, Art, and Life
(New York, 1872), and has translated G.Uhlhorn's
Conflict of Christianity with Heathenism (in collabora-
tion with E. C. Smyth; 1879).
ROPES, JAMES HARDY: Congregationalist; b.
at Salem, Mass., Sept. 3, 1866. He was graduated
from Harvard (A.B., 1889), Andover Theological
Seminary (1893), and studied at the universities of
Kiel, Halle, and Berlin (1893-95). He was instruc-
tor in New-Testament criticism and exegesis at
Harvard (1895-1903), and has been Bussey profes-
sor of the same subjects since 1903, as well as Dexter
lecturer on Biblical literature since 1904. He has
written Die Spruche Jesu die in den kanonischen
Evangelien nicht uberliefert sind (Leipsic 1896).
ROSARY: A string of beads, each eleventh one
larger than the rest, used in the Roman Catholic
Church to aid in the reciting of a fixed number of
Our Father's and Hail Marys; also the devotion
in which such a string of beads is employed. Quasi-
analogues may be traced in non-Christian religions,
as among the Tibetan Buddhists, who use strings of
beads, generally 108 in number, and made of jewels,
sandal-wood, mussel-shells, and the like, according
to the status of their owners; while the Mohamme-
dans, in like manner, have a tasbih, or string of
thirty-three, sixty-six, or ninety-nine beads, to be
counted as the corresponding names of Allah in
the Koran are recited.
The custom of repeatedly reciting the Our Father
arose in the monastic life of Egypt at an early time,
being recorded by Palladius and Sozomen. The
Hail Mary, or Ave Maria, on the other hand, first
became a regular prayer in the second
Origin half of the eleventh century, though it
and was not until about the thirteenth that
History, it was generally adopted. The ad-
dition of the words of Elizabeth,
"blessed is the fruit of thy womb, Jesus" (Luke i.
42), to the Angelical Salutation, " Hail, Mary, full of
grace; the Lord is with thee; blessed art thou
among women " (Luke i. 28), is first mentioned
about 1130; but Bishop Odo of Paris (1196-1208)
requires the recitation of the Hail Mary together
with the Our Father and the Creed as a regular
Christian custom. The closing petition, "Holy
Mary, Mother of God, pray for us sinners, now and at
the hour of our death," developed gradually in
the sixteenth century, and was regarded even by the
Council of Besancon (1571) as a superfluous but
pious custom. These facts show that the traditions
which ascribe the invention of the rosary to Bene-
dict of Nursia, Bede, or Peter the Hermit are un-
trustworthy, and the same statement holds of the
Dominican tradition which makes Dominic receive
a vision of the Virgin commanding him to introduce
the use of the rosary. At the same time, the rosary
was originally an essentially Dominican mode of
devotion, though first arising long after the death
of the founder of the order; but while some in-
fluence may have been exercised by the ac-
quaintance of oriental Christians with the Moham-
medan tasbih, all the characteristics of the recita-
tion of the Our Father, like the meditations con-
nected with it, can be explained only from the
operation of specifically Christian ideas.
The devotions of the rosary are some twenty in
number, of which the most important now call for
consideration. The complete, or Dominican, rosary
discovered, according to tradition, by Dominic about
1208, consists of fifteen decades of small beads
(Hail Marys), each separated by a large bead (Our
Father). This is also called the
Chief rosary (or psalter) of the Blessed
Types and Virgin Mary, the alternative title im-
Derivatton plying that the 150 Psalms may like-
of Name, wise be regarded as so many prayers
to the Virgin. The ordinary rosary,
traditionally ascribed to Peter of Amiens about
1090, contains five decades of Hail Marys and five
Our Fathers, the former shaped (toward the end
of the Middle Ages) like white lilies to symbolize
the purity of the Virgin, and the latter like red roses
to typify the five wounds of Christ. The rosary of
St. Bridget consists of sixty-three Hail Marys,
representing the traditional number of years of the
Virgin's life (or seventy-two among the Francis-
cans), and seven Our Fathers. The Crown of our
Savior is a rosary traditionally ascribed to a
Camaldolite monk of the early sixteenth century,
and consists of thirty-three Our Fathers (represent-
ing the thirty-three years of the life of Christ) and
five Hail Marys (typifying the five wounds of Christ).
A similar devotion is the " little rosary," with three
decades of Hail Marys and three Our Fathers; and
98
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Soots
the angelical rosary likewise has thirty-three beads.
In the latter, however, the Hail Mary is recited only
at the first bead of each decade, the Sanchts, fol-
lowed by the lesser doxology, being repeated at
each of the nine others.
The origin of the name rosary for an object bear-
ing no resemblance whatever to a garland of roses
is problematical. Some Roman Catholic authors
derive the term from the Virgin's appellation of
"mystic rose" in the Church; or from St. Rosalie
(twelfth century), who is represented sometimes
with a string of beads and sometimes with a crown
of gold and roses; or from the roses which, legend
says, bloomed on the lips of those who paid true
homage to the Virgin and the Angelical Salutation,
and which she plucked and twined into a garland
about their brows. It is more probable, however,
that, in the spirit of the mystic piety of the Middle
Ages, the devotion itself was conceived as a garden
of roses, each of which, as a separate prayer, un-
folded in honor of the Blessed Virgin, especially as
this corresponds in meaning with the English
" chaplet," L&t. corona (" crown "), etc., as a designa-
tion of the rosary or of separate decades of it.
On beginning the rosary the sign of the cross is
made, the small cross attached to the center of the
string of beads is held, and the Creed, one Our
Father, three Hail Marys, and one Gloria are recited,
as they also are on the completion of the devotion.
The recitation of the rosary also involves meditation
on the five joyful, the five sorrowful,
Mode of and the five glorious mysteries. The
Recitation, five joyful mysteries are the annuncia-
tion, the visitation, the nativity, the
presentation, and the finding of Jesus in the Temple;
the five sorrowful mysteries are the agony and
bloody sweat of Christ in the garden, the scourging,
the crown of thorns, Christ carrying his cross, and
the crucifixion; the five glorious mysteries are the
resurrection, the ascension, the coming of the Holy
Ghost, the assumption of the Virgin, and the corona-
tion of the Virgin. The joys, sorrows, and glories
of Mary are thus linked in an ascending scale with
the great facts of redemption. The rosary is gen-
erally connected with a single group of the mysteries
at a time: the joyful mysteries on Mondays and
Thursdays, and the Sundays of Advent and from
Epiphany to Lent; the sorrowful mysteries on
Tuesdays and Fridays, and the Sundays in Lent;
and the glorious mysteries on Wednesdays and
Saturdays, and the Sundays from Easter to Advent.
A tradition of the Church, first fully developed in
the nineteenth century, grants indulgences for the
recitation of the rosary. The indulgence attaches,
moreover, to individual beads as well as to the
entire rosary, and only when more than half are
lost at the same time, or when the medal with the
picture of the Virgin is mutilated or become unrec-
ognisable, does the indulgence become invalid.
The Confraternity of the Holy Rosary was
founded at Cologne by the famous Dominican
Jakob Sprenger in 1475, and was privileged by
Sixtus IV. on condition that the rosary be recited
on the five great feasts of the Virgin (Purifica-
tion [Feb. 2]; Annunciation [Mar. 25]; Visita-
tion [July 2]; Assumption [Aug. 15]; and
Nativity [Sept. 8]), as well as on other days,
each time with an indulgence of 100 days. Suc-
ceeding pontiffs extended the confra-
Confrater- ternity and its privileges, and its
nity of the prestige was increased during the
Holy Turkish wars of the sixteenth century.
Rosary. The success of the Christian arms at
the battle of Lepanto (Oct. 7, 1571;
the first Sunday in October) was attributed to
the intercession of the Virgin for the prayers of
the confraternity, and Pius V. accordingly made
that day the feast of Our Lady of the Rosary (trans-
ferred by Gregory XIII. in 1583 to its present place,
the first Sunday in October). The limitation of the
feast, by Gregory XIII., to churches containing a
chapel or altar in honor of the rosary was gradually
extended by his successors until the Austrian
victory at Temesvar on the feast of Our Lady of the
Snows (Aug. 5) and the raising of the Turkish siege
of Corfu on the feast of the Assumption of the
Blessed Virgin Mary (Aug. 15) were deemed such
conclusive proofs of her power of intercession that
Clement XL, in the following year, commanded
that the feast be observed throughout Christendom.
The members of the Confraternity of the Holy
Rosary are bound to recite the rosary at least once
daily. Recently, however, there has been a tend-
ency to form "Living Rosaries/1 each of fifteen
members, each reciting a decade daily. These
fifteen members constitute a "rose/7 fifteen "roses"
a "tree of God/' and fifteen "trees of God" a "di-
vine garden of the Blessed Virgin.11 Leo XIII. was
an especially fervent promoter of the devotion of the
rosary, no less than eight of his encyclicals touching
upon it.
The monks of the Greek Church, particularly on
Mount Athos, have a quasi-analogue to the rosary
in their kombologion or hrmboschoinion, a cord with
a hundred knots, each of which, when told, must
be accompanied with the sign of the cross. Some
of the monks of Athos are required to repeat this
office twelve times daily, accompanying these 1,200
prayers with 120 genuflections. (O. Z&CKLERf.)
Bibliography: H. Alt, Das Kirchenjahr des christlichen
Morgan- und Abendlandes, pp. 72 sqq., Berlin, 1860; V.
Morassi, II Rosario delta B. V. Maria, Casalis, 1867; M.
Ch6ry, La ThSologie du saint rosaire, 2 vols., Paris, 1869;
K. Martin, Die Schonheiten des Rosenkranzes, Mains, 1876;
H. Duffant, Une hypothese sur la date et le lieu de V institu-
tion du rosaire, Freiburg, 1878; M. Plues, Chats about the
Rosary, London, 1881; T. Leikee, Rosa aurea. Dolmen,
1886; L. C. Qay, Entretiens sur le rosaire, 2 vols., Paris,
1887; W. Lescher, The Rosary, its Hist, and Indulgences,
London, 1888; idem, St. Dominic and the Rosary, Leices-
ter, 1901; T. Esser, Unserer lieben Frauen Rosenkranx,
Paderborn, 1889; A. Kdnig, Officium des heiliaen Rosen-
kranzes, Breslau, 1890; Acta sanctce sedis . . . pro so-
delate s. rosarii, 4 vols.. Ley den, 1891; T. Esser, in Katho-
lik, 1897, pp. 346 sqq., 409 sqq., 515 sqq.; O. Zdckler,
Askese und Monchtum, passim, Frankfort, 1897; S. Knoll,
Maria die Kbnioin des Rosenkranses, oder voUstAndige Br-
klarung der heiliaen Rosenkranx Oeheimnisse, Regensburg,
n.d.; Manual of Prayers for the Use of the Catholic Laity,
pp. 368-382, New York, n.d. (gives English prayers,
meditations, etc.); J. J. Roche, Short Explanation of the
Rosary, London (Duffy and Co.), n.d.; Canon Ryan, The
Holy Rosary, in vol. iv. of Collected Publications, Catholic
Truth Society, London, n.d.; Graf Hoensbroech, Das
Papsttum in seiner social-kulturellen Wirksamkeit, i. 277-
283, Leipsic, 1901; J. Procter, Rosary Guide for Priests
and People, London, 1901: D. Dahra, Die BrUdrrschaft
vom heiliaen Rosenkranx, Treves, 1902; IT. Hnlsnpfcl, St.
Bosoelinns
Bosenmueller
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
94
Dominikus und der RosenJcram, Munich, 1903; W. Schmiti,
Das RosenJcramgebet im 16. und im Anfange dm 16. Jakr-
hunderU. Freiburg, 1903; K. D. Beste, Rosa mystiea; the
Mysteries of the Rosary* London, 1904; ASB, Aug., i. 422-
437; DCB, ii. 1819-20; KL, x. 1276-80. For ethnic
rosaries consult: Monier Williams, in Athenttum, Feb. 9,
1878; I. M. Casanowics, The Collection of Rosaries in the
U. S. National Museum (Washington Gov't Pub.), 1909.
ROSCELINUS, ree-e-lOi'nus (ROSCBLLINUS,
ROZELINUS, RUCELIIfUS), JOHANNES: Nomi-
nalist and tritheist of the eleventh century; b. in
northern France, probably in the diocese of Sois-
sons. Of his life almost nothing is known, and it is
difficult to define his theological and philosophical
views. He received his education at Soissons and
Reims, and then taught at Tours and
Life. at Locmenach near Vannes in Brit-
tany. Shortly before 1092 he was
canon at Compiegne, but since he taught views on
the Trinity that seemed heretical, and since he ap-
pealed to Lanfranc and Anselm as supporting his
position, the latter addressed a letter of complaint
to Bishop Fulco of Beauvais immediately before
the synod of Soissons (1092). The synod bade
Roscelinus to recant, and as not only the members
of the synod, but apparently the whole people, had
been aroused against him, he obeyed from fear.
The form of recantation, which seems to have been
merely an abjuration of tritheism, must have
enabled him to adhere to his doctrine without
directly violating his word, for he was soon once
more defending his old opinions. He lost his
canonry and sought refuge in England where, as an
opponent of Anselm, he expected a favorable recep-
tion from William Rufus. He was compelled to
leave, however, after the reconciliation of the king
with Anselm, especially as he had attacked Anselm's
teaching concerning the incarnation. He returned
to France and became canon of Tours and Besancon.
While at Locmenach he had been the first teacher
of Abelard, but the pupil came to despise his
master, and in his De trinitate (1119) Abelard very
emphatically defended the unity of God in the
trinity of persons, with unmistakable reference to
the opinions of Roscelinus which had been con-
demned at Soissons. Roscelinus determined to
charge his pupil with heresy in regard to the Trinity
before Bishop Gisbert of Paris, whereupon Abelard
addressed a letter to the bishop, defending himself
and offering to hold a disputation with Roscelinus,
at the same time making a sharp attack on his errors
and his private life. The letter in which Roscelinus
replied to Abelard is the sole product of his pen
which is now extant (ed. J. A. Schmeller, in AM A,
philosophisch-philologische Klasse, 5 ser., iii. 189-
210, 1849; also in Abelard's Opera, ed. V. Cousin,
ii. 792-803, Paris, 1859). In this letter he haughtily
ignored the attacks upon his character, but referred
to Abelard's career, and expressed himself cautiously
but clearly on the theological points in controversy.
He reveals himself as ready to submit to the author-
ity of both the Bible and the Church, and as fully
recognizing the prestige of such a theological op-
ponent as Anselm. After this episode Roscelinus
disappears from history.
In considering the doctrine of Roscelinus, his
deviation from the orthodox doctrine of the Trinity
may first be discussed, then his nominalism, and
finally the connection between the two. He re-
garded the three persons of the Trinity as "three
self-existent beings," who, however, are united by
unity of power and will, thus endeavoring to avoid
the deductions that in the Son the Father and the
Holy Ghost were also incarnate. Anselm, in his
polemic against Roscelinus, asked
Trinitarian what he meant by the expression
Doctrine. " three self-existent beings"; if he re-
ferred simply to the relations by which
the Father and the Son are distinguished in God,
his doctrine would not be in disagreement with the
doctrines of the Church which teaches that the
Father as Father is not the Son, and the Son as
Son is not the Father. This, however, in his judg-
ment, could not be the opinion of Roscelinus, since
he says that the three Persons are " three essen-
tially separate beings," which would imply a stronger
distinction, the assumption of three different Gods.
This was likewise evident, according to Anselm,
from Roscelinus' comparison of the Trinity with
three angels or three souls, these evidently being
three substances, and not merely three relations
of one and the same being, whereas the Church
teaches that the three persons of the Trinity are not
three substances (i.e., three Gods), but one God.
Furthermore, if the " three beings " bore the name
of God in virtue of one and the same power and will,
as three men bear the name of king, God would not
be something substantial, but accidental, and the
" three beings " would then be three Gods as cer-
tainly as three men could not be one king. If
Roscelinus divides the whole God into three indi-
viduals, he would have to extend the incarnation,
according to Anselm, to ail three persons if this is
to be true and perfect. The doctrine of the Church,
however, is not compelled to assume this because it
sees in the one being, which is God, three distinct
persons, so that it sees the same God in the Father
as in the Son, only in another relation, and is, ac-
cordingly, not forced to ascribe to the Father every-
thing that belongs to God in the Son, e.g., the incar-
nation. Anselm derived the error of Roscelinus from
his excessive stress on the concept of personality
in reference to God. When he states that Roscelinus
" either wished to set up three gods or did not know
what he did mean," he was half right and half wrong.
Roscelinus posited three gods in so far as he clearly
perceived the difficulty of simultaneously conceiv-
ing of numerical unity and triple and true person-
ality in the Trinity; but he was no tritheist in the
heretical sense of the term, and he thought that
tritheism was fully avoided by his union of the per-
sons in power and will. Herein he was wrong, and
the rigid dialectics of Anselm clearly proved how
inevitably his phraseology led to tritheistic con-
clusions.
In philosophy Roscelinus was a nominalist,
maintaining that universals are not real and self-
existent, but are mere abstract names which exist
in and for thought. He, therefore, taught that a
whole cannot have parts in the sense that the
whole really exists while the parts proceed from it;
on the contrary, only the parts are real, their
synthesis forming a whole that can be distinguished
95
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Roaoelinus
BosenmueUar
as a unit from them only logically, not really. If,
now, the whole, or " thing," comprised parts, then,
since the whole is nothing but the
Ifomin&listic parts, the part would be part both of
Foundation, itself and of the other parts; and again,
since each part is necessarily prior to
the whole, this whole, if it is comprised of parts, must
be prior to them, so that the part is prior to itself.
This paradox is solved by the fact that Roscelinus
attached to " whole " (or " thing ") the connota-
tion of a concrete and existent individual, which is
consciously delimited from other objects, and ceases
to be itself when one of its elements is withdrawn.
The heresy of Roscelinus condemned by the Synod
of Soissons was not based ostensibly upon his nom-
inalism; but it is probably incorrect to argue that
he proceeded from a theological to a nominalistic
point of view in order to reconcile philosophy and
theology, for he was primarily a dialectician, and
considered theological problems from his philosoph-
ical standpoint. Regarding the universal as a mere
logical, nominal abstraction of particulars, he could
conceive God to exist only as an individual, and
could construe the " three beings " only as three
individuals, not as " one being " in the realistic
sense, so that the unity of the three could consist
only in their common power and will. In reaching
this conclusion he seems to have concealed his nom-
inalistic basis, lest, from its use in advancing a theo-
logical innovation, he should bring both theory and
basis into discredit. According to Anselm, Rosce-
linus declared that " we must defend the Christian
faith." On the surface this implies a purely apolo-
getic interest, but it has also been construed as a
plea for dialectic elucidation of the faith, and even
for relative freedom of reason in the interpretation
and development of ecclesiastical doctrine, espe-
cially as nominalism was generally associated with
a more rationalistic tendency than was realism.
The data are, however, too scanty to pronounce a
decision. (A. Hauck.)
Bibuoobapht: Anselm, De fide triniiatie, contra blaephe-
miae RoeeeUim, in MPL, clviii.; F. Pieavet, Roecdin, phi-
loeophe * IhSologien, Park, 1896; Hietoire litUraire de la
Frames ix. 358 aqq.; J. M. Chladen, De vita et hares*
RoeeeUini, Eriangeo, 1766; J. M. de Gerando, HieL com-
pared dee eyotemee de phUoeophie, ii. 446, Paris, 1804; Y.
Cousin, Fragments de phUoeophie scolastujue, pp. 119 sqq.,
Paris, 1840; H. Bouohitt*, Le Rationalieme chrUien a la
fin du oneieme eiede, Paris, 1842; C. de Remusat, AbUard,
2 vols., Paris, 1845; B. Haureau, De la phUoeophie eco-
iaeUque, L 175-179, faris, 1850; C. Prantl, QeeehichU der
Logik im Abendlande, iL 77 sqq., Leipsic, 1861; A. Stoekl,
OeechiehU der PhUoeophie dee MittelaUero, L 135 sqq.,
Mains, 1864; C. 8. Barach, Zur OeechiehU dee Nominalis-
mue, in Kleins phUoeophische SchrifUn, Vienna, 1878; F.
Uebenrcc OeechiehU der PhUoeophie, ed. M. Heinse, vol.
a., Berlin, 1905, En* transL of earlier ed., i. 364, 372-
376. 380. New York. 1874; 8ehaff, Chrietian Church, v.
I, pp. 592, 600, 613; Neander, Chrietian Church, vol. iv.
passim; KL, x. 1272-73; Hamaok, Dogma, vi. 34. 151-
162, 182; the works on the history of philosophy by J. E.
Erdmann, 3 vols., London, 1892-98, and W. Windelband,
New York, 1893.
R06E, THE GOLDEN. See Golden Robe.
ROSE, HENRY JOHN: Church of England; b.
at UckfieW (15 m. n.e. of Brighton) Jan. 3, 1800;
d. at Bedford Jan. 31, 1873. He was graduated
from St. John's College, Cambridge (B.A., 1821;
M.A., 1824; BJ)., 1831; fellow, 1824-38); rector of
Houghton Conquest, Bedfordshire, 1837-73; and
archdeacon of Bedford, 1866-73. He was joint edi-
tor of the Encyclopedia Metropolitana (London,
1817-45) from 1839, from which he reprinted, with
additions, his History of the Christian Church from
1700 to 1868 (1858). He was a member of the Eng-
lish Old-Testament company of revisers, and wrote
in part the notes on Daniel in The Bible Commen-
tary (London, 1872-82). He was author of The
Law of Moses in Connection with the History and
Character of the Jews, Hulsean lectures, 1833 (Cam-
bridge, 1834) ; and Answer to the Case of Dissenters
(1834). He was a conservative churchman, an in-
defatigable collector of books, and a voluminous
miscellaneous editor and writer.
Bibliography: J. W. Burgon, The Lives of Twelve Good
Men, pp. 284-295 et passim, 2 vols., London, 1888; E.
M. Goulbum, John W. Burgon: a Biography, 2 vols**
London, 1891; DNB, xlix. 232-233.
ROSE, HUGH JAMES: Church of England,
brother of the preceding; b. at Little Horsted (14
m. n.e. of Brighton) June 9, 1795; d. at Florence,
Italy, Dec. 22, 1838. He was graduated at Trinity
College, Cambridge, 1817; was vicar of Horsham,
1822-30; prebendary of Chichester, 1827-33; Chris-
tian Advocate in the University of Cambridge, 1829-
1833; rector of Hadley, Suffolk, 1830-33; incum-
bent of Fairsted, Essex, 1834-37, and of St. Thomas,
South wark, 1835-38; professor of divinity at the
University of Durham, 1833; and principal of
King's College, London, 1836. He was a very
learned man, and a High-churchman of the most
pronounced type. He early established relations
with J. H. Newman and others of the Oxford move-
ment, and the celebrated Hadleigh conference, which
bore fruit later in crystallizing that movement, was
held at his rectory, although later Rose took but
little part (see Tract arianism). He founded the
British Magazine and Monthly Register of Religious
and Ecclesiastical Information, 1832; was editor of
the Encyclopedia Metropolitana (29 vols., London,
1817-45) in 1836-38; and projected the New Gen-
eral Biographical Dictionary (12 vols., London,
1848). He published Christianity always Progress-
ive (London, 1829); and The Gospel an Abiding
System (1832).
Bibliography: J. W. Burgon, The Lives of Twelve Good
Men, 2 vols., London, 1888; J. H. Newman, Apologia pro
vita eua, chap. iL, ib. 1864; H. P. Liddon, Life of Ed-
ward Bouverie Pueey, passim, 3 vols., ib. 1893-04; DNB,
xlix. 240-242; and literature under Tractarianism.
R0SEHIUS, KARL 0L0F. See Bornholmers.
ROSBlf MUELLER, ro'zen-mul'ler, ERNST
FRDEDRICH KARL: German Lutheran and orien-
talist; b. at Hessberg (a village near Hildburg-
hausen, 17 m. s.e. of Meiningen) Dec. 10, 1768; d.
at Leipsic Sept. 17, 1835. He was educated at the
University of Leipsic, where he was privat-docent
(1792-96), associate professor of Arabic (1790-
1813), and full professor of oriental languages (1813-
1835). His life was the uneventful one of a quiet,
earnest student. Besides reediting S. Bochart's
Hierozoicon (3 vols., Leipsic, 1793-96), he wrote
Scholia in Vetus Testamentum (16 parts, 1788-1817;
excerpted in five parts, 1828-35); HandbuchfOr die
lAUerahtr der biblischen Kritik und Exegese (4 parts,
Booenmnftller
Boskoff
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
96
GSttingen, 1797-1800); Institutions ad fundo-
menta lingua Arabicce (Leipsic, 1818) ; Das alte und
neue Morgenland, oder Erlduierungen der heiligen
Schrift aus der naturlichen Beschaffenheit, den Sagen,
Sitten und Gebr&uchen des Morgenlandes (6 vols.,
1818-20); Handbuch der biblischen AUertumskunde
(4 vols., 1823-31); and Analeeta Arabica (1824).
Portions of his Handbuch were translated by N.
Morren under the titles Biblical Geography of Asia
Minor, Phenicia, and Arabia (Edinburgh, 1836),
and Biblical Geography of Central Asia (2 vols.,
1836-37), and by N. Morren and T. G. Repp under
the title Mineralogy and Botany of the Bible (Edin-
burgh, 1840). (G. FBANKt.)
Bibliography: Neuer Nekrolog der Deutechen, XIII., ii.
766-760; ADB, xzix. 215.
ROSBNMUELLER, JOHANlf GEORG: German
Lutheran, father of the preceding; b. at Ummer-
stftdt, near Hildburghausen (17 m. s.e. of Meinin-
gen), Dec. 18, 1736; d. at Leipsic Mar. 14, 1815.
After completing his education at the University of
Altdorf , he was for several years a private tutor and
teacher; then pastor at Hildburghausen (1767-
1768), Hessberg (1768-72), and Kdnigsberg in Fran-
conia (1772-75) ; professor of theology at Erlangen
(1775-83); first professor of the same at Giessen
(1783-85) ; and professor of theology, pastor of St.
Thomas', and superintendent at Leipsic (1785-
1815). In theology he was an opponent of the
Kantian exegesis and an adherent of the mediating
school, regarding the principles of the unbiased
reason to be as authoritative as the clear expres-
sions of Scripture. The fruit of his activity as
teacher and preacher appeared in writings on exe-
gesis, hermeneutics, practical theology, and, above
all, in books of edification. Special mention may be
made of his Scholia in Novum Testamentum (6th
ed., 6 vols., Nuremberg, 1815-31); Historia inter-
pretationis librorum sacrorum in ecclesia Christiana
(5 vols., Hildburghausen, 1795-1814) ; Morgen- und
Abendandachten (1799); Betrachtungen uber die
vornehmsten WahrheUen der Religion auf aUe Tage
des Jahres (4 vols., Leipsic, 1801); Auseriesenes
Beichtr und Kommunionbuch (1799); and Christ-
lichee Lehrbuchfur die Jugend (1809).
(G. Frank|.)
Bibliography: Notixen au» RotenmtUUr** Leben, Leipsic,
1815; J. C. Dole, RoeenmHUere Leben, ib. 1816; G. Frank,
Oeechiehte der proteetantiechen Theotogie, iii. 102, ib. 1875;
ADB, xxix. 219.
ROSE1IZWEIG, rt'zen-tsvaig, ADOLF: German
rabbi; b. at Turdossin (52 m. s.s.w. of Cracow),
Hungary, Oct. 20, 1850. He was educated at the
rabbinical seminary at Pressburg, the Lehranstalt
fUr die Wissenschaft des Judentums, Berlin, and
the University of Berlin. In 1874 he became rabbi
at Pasewalk, Pomerania, whence he was called, a
few years later, to Birnbaum, Posen, where he re-
mained until 1879. From 1879 to 1887 he was
rabbi at Teplitz, Bohemia, and since 1887 has been
rabbi and preacher of the Jewish community at
Berlin. He has written Zur EinleUung in die Bucher
Esra und Nehemia (Berlin, 1875); Zum hunderten
Geburtstage des Nathan der Weise (Posen, 1878);
Das Jahrhundert nach dem babylonischen Exile mil
besonderer Rucksicht auf die- religiose Entwicklung
des Judentums (Berlin, 1885) ; KUnsUer und Jugend-
bilder (Neuhaus, 1886) ; Der politische und religiose
Charakter des Josephus Flavius (Berlin, 1889);
Jerusalem und Casarea (1890); Das Auge in Bibel
und Talmud (1892); Geselligkeit und GeseUigkeits-
freuden in Bibel und Talmud (1895) ; and Kleidung
und Schmuck im biblischen und talmudischen Schrif-
ten (1905).
ROSETTA STONE. See Egypt, I., 6, § 1; In-
scriptions, L, § 3.
ROSICRUCIANS: An alleged mystical order of
the early seventeenth century, whose origin is sup-
posed to be given in the AUgemeine vnd General
Reformation, der gantzen wetien Welt. Beneben der
Fama Fratemitatis, dess LMichen Ordens des Rosen-
kreutxes . . . Auch einer kurtzen Responsion, von
dem Herrn Haselmeyer gestellet, welcher desswegen
von den Jesuitern ist gefdnglich einge-
The zogen, vnd auff eine GaUeren geschmiedet
Apocryphal (Cassel, 1614). The Fama is the most
Sources, important section of the work, the
General Reformation being a satire on
crasy reforms translated from an Italian original,
and the Responsion (which had been printed sepa-
rately two years previously) likewise deviating
widely from the style of the Fama. The alleged
author of the Responsion, Adam Haselmeyer, is de-
scribed as a notary of the archduke or an ordinary
imperial judge in a Tyrolese village near Hall, but
how far these assertions are authentic is unknown.
The Fama professes to give information concern-
ing a secret society founded some two centuries be-
fore, by a German of noble birth called Fr. R. C.
(^Frater rosea crucis, or " brother of the rosy
cross "), who, placed in a monastery at the age of
five, had started on a pilgrimage to the Holy Sepul-
cher. At Damascus he had become acquainted with
the lore of the Arabs, and there he had translated
into Latin " the book and the book M " ( = mundi).
After three years he was sent by his hosts to Egypt
and Fez, but in the latter city he learned the superi-
ority of his own faith and that man is a microcosm.
Two years later he sought to promulgate his new
wisdom in Spain, but to no purpose, and finally he
returned to Germany. Here, in a special " house
of the Holy Spirit," he formed a little band who
were to go into all lands, wearing no special habit,
freely healing the sick, reporting annually in per-
son or by letter to their founder, seeking worthy
successors, having as their seal and symbol " R. C."
(—Rosea Crux, " Rosy Cross "), and concealing
the existence of the fraternity for a hundred years.
A hundred and twenty years after the death of the
founder, a secret door was discovered in the " house
of the Holy Spirit," behind which was a vault with
an altar covering the uncorrupted body of the
founder, who held in his hand a little parchment
book with letters of gold. This discovery showed
that the Rosicrucians could now publicly proclaim
themselves; the Fama was published in five lan-
guages; the learned were invited to test it; and the
hope was expressed that some might be led to join
the fraternity. The Rosicrucians explicitly de-
clared their belief in Christ, also implying that they
were Protestants, and particularly disavowing all
97
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Boosnmueller
Boskoff
connection with heretics, sectarians, and false
prophets. Their philosophy was to be " Jesus on
every side." They opposed the accursed transmu-
tation of metals as a petty thing in comparison with
the real glory of the true philosopher, who is able to
see the heavens open and the angels of God ascend-
ing and descending, and to know that his name is
written in the book of life. The Fama was supple-
mented in 1615 by the Confessio fratemitatis R. C.
ad eruditos Europce, printed at Cassel, both in Latin
and German. While in general harmony with the
Fama, it is more strongly apocalyptic and opposed
to Roman Catholicism; and it suggests positive re-
forms and advocates a practical Biblical piety which
would transcend the denominational barriers of
Protestantism. Its fanciful history occupies a minor
place, but at the same time it states that the name
of the founder of the Rosicrucians was Christianus
Rosenkreutz, and that he was born in 1378 (d., ac-
cording to the Rosicrucian system, 1484).
These two works, the Fama and the Confessio, are
the sole original sources for the Rosicrucians. They
both had a phenomenal popularity, and evoked a
flood of writings on, for, and against
Sensational them. Some doubted the very exist-
Results, ence of the fraternity, and Descartes
and Leibnitz vainly sought to make
the acquaintance of a real Rosicrucian. From Ger-
many the Rosicrucian excitement spread to Eng-
land, France, and Italy; they were identified with
the Spanish Alombrados (q.v.); under the pseu-
donyms of Ireneus Agnostus and Menapius a pre-
tended adept (probably really named Friedrich
Grick) wrote again and again in pretended defense
of the Rosicrucians, though really in mockery of
them; and Johann Valentin Andrea added his seri-
ous warnings against them. Finally the outbreak
of the Thirty Years' War centered attention on other
matters, and more discerning minds at least per-
ceived that the whole fraternity was nothing but a
gigantic hoax. Henceforth the name Rosicrucian
proved an attraction for secret societies and many
sorts of impostures, and a century after its origin
Rosicrucianism underwent a recrudescence in con-
nection with freemasonry, which not only deemed
Rosicrucianism genuine, but even borrowed usages
and customs from the writings of those who had
satirised the fraternity.
The Fama and Confessio have been ascribed to
the most divergent sources, including Luther and
Tauler, but it is now generally agreed that the real
author was Johann Valentin Andrea (q.v.) . Though
intended externally as a satire, the underlying mo-
tive of the works was, as in most sa-
Authorahip tires, serious; and though later Andrea
and Motive saw himself forced to attack the unruly
of the spirits he had unwittingly unloosed, he
Fraud, never denied his authorship of the two
writings in question. Moreover he
criticized with equal severity his own Chymische
Hochzeit Christiani Rosencreutz (Strasburg, 1616),
which is analogous in style, phrase, and content
(even to the name of the hero) with the Fama and
the Confessio. According to his own statement, the
Hochzeit was written about 1603, and was, there-
fore. Andrea's first essay in that development of the
X.— 7
Rosicrucian hoax which was to lead to results so
unwelcome to its author. The fantastic elements
were drawn from romances of knighthood and
travel, and from cycles of alchemistic legend, and
were designed to arouse interest in the serious por-
tions. The very name of the hero contains allusions
to the author, " Christian " obviously referring to
Andrea's Reipublicce christianopolitance descriptio,
and " Rosenkreutz " to his coat of arms, a St. An-
drew's cross, gules, between four roses, gules,
shadowed by two wings, argent. Under all this fan-
tasy lay, as already noted, the most serious pur-
poses: the combating of alchemy and Roman Ca-
tholicism, and the promotion of Christian truth as
revealed in the Bible and the maintenance of the
principles of the Reformation. The intermingling
of jest and earnest finds its parallel in Andrea's own
Menippus, which appeared in 1618. As early as
1617, however, Andrea was obliged to attack his
creation in his Invitatio ad fraternttatem Chrisii ad
amoris candidates, but his attempt to found a Chris-
tian brotherhood, together with his introduction
of Calvinistic elements into his own church, aroused
suspicions of his orthodoxy on the part of strict
Lutherans, especially when it became known that
he was the author of the Hochzeit. In his own de-
fense he pleaded that he was not a Rosicrucian in
the accepted sense of the term, but his peculiar
position in the Church of Wurttemberg, as well as
his personal vicissitudes, forbade him either to deny
or to admit the authorship of the Fama and Con-
fessio, the first of which seems to have been in his
mind as early as 1604 and was in manuscript by
1610, or about the time when the Confessio appears
to have been taking shape. (H. Hermelink.)
Bibliography: For lists of the older literature consult: Q.
Kloes, Bibliographie der Freimaurer, pp. 174 sqq., Frank-
fort, 1844; and F. Katsch, Die Enstehung und der wahre
Endzweck der Freimaurerei, pp. 116 sqq., Berlin, 1897.
Consult: A. E. Warte, The Real History of the Rosicru-
cians, London, 1887; G. Arnold, Unparteiische Kirchen-
und KeUerhistorie, part II., chap, xviii., Frankfort, 1729;
J. S. Semler, Unparteiische Sammlungen zur Historie der
Rosenkreuzer, Leipsic, 1786-88; C. G. de Murr, Ueber den
wahren Ur sprung der Rosenkreuzer und Freimaurer, Suls-
bach, 1803; J. G. Buhle, Ueber den Ursprung und die
vornehmsten Schicksale der Orden der Rosenkreuzer
und Freimaurer, Gdttingen, 1806; G. E. Guhrauer,
in ZHT, 1852, pp. 298-315; F. C. Baur, Geschichte
der christlichen Kirche, iv. 351 sqq., Leipsic, 1863;
E. Sierke, Schw&rmer und Schwindler zu Ende des 18. Jahr-
hunderts, Leipsic, 1874; J. G. Herder, SamUiche Werke%
xv. 57 sqq., xvi. 298 sqq., 591 sqq., Berlin, 1877-99; H.
Kopp, Die Alchemie, 2 vols., Heidelberg, 1886; F. Hart-
mann, The Secret Symbols of the Rosicrucians, London,
1888; idem, Among the Rosicrucians, ib. 1888; idem, In
the Pronaos of the Temple of Wisdom, ib. 1890; idem. With
the Adepts, ib. 1909; W. Begemann, in Monatshefte der
ComeniusgeseUschaft, viii (1899), 145 sqq.; J. Kvacala,
in Acta et commentationes imperialis universitatis Jurievicn-
sis, Dorpat, 1899; F. B. Dowd, The Temple of the Rosy
Cross, Salem, 1906; R. S. Clymer, The Fraternity of the
Rosicrucians; their Teachings and Mysteries according to the
Manifestoes issued at various Times, Allentown, 1906;
H. Jennings. Rosicrucians, their Rites and Mysteries, 1870,
4th ed., London and New York, 1907; KL, x. 1283-90;
literature under Andrea, Johann Valentin.
ROSIN BIBLE. See Bible Versions, B, IV., § 0.
ROSKOFF, GEORG GUSTAV: German Protes-
tant; b. at Pressburg Aug. 31, 1814; d. at Ober-
tressen, near Aussee (40 m. s.e. of Salzburg), Styria,
Oct. 20, 1889. He was educated at the University
Bosmini-Serbati
Bocweyde
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
08
of Halle and the Evangelical theological faculty at
Vienna (1839-46); and was privat-docent of Old-
Testament exegesis in the latter institution (1846-
1850) ; and professor from 1850. He was the author
of Die hebrdischen AUertHmer in Brie/en (Vienna,
1857); Die Simsonssage und der Heradesmythus
(Leipeic, 1860); Die Geschichte des TeufeU (2 vols.,
1869); and Das Religionswesen der rohesten Natur-
vdlker (1880). (G. Frank!)
Bibliography: Evangeliache Kirchenzeituna fur Oesterreich,
1885, no. 3, 1889, no. 21; Protestantische Kirchenzeituna,
1889, no. 45.
ROSMINI-SERBATI, rea-nii'nf-s&r-ba'ti, AN-
TONIO: Italian Roman Catholic and philosopher,
and founder of the Institute of Charity, or Con-
gregation of Rosminians; b. at Roveredo (13 m.
s.w. of Trent), Tyrol, Mar. 25, 1797; d. at Stresa
(3 m. s. of Pallanza), Italy, July 1, 1855. He was
educated at the University of Padua and was or-
dained to the priesthood in 1820, after having al-
ready pursued the studies in mathematics and
philosophy which were later to result in his Nuovo
saggio suW origine delle idee (3 vols., Rome, 1830;
Eng. transl., Origin of Ideas, 3 vols., London, 1883-
1886). He now took up his residence at Milan,
where he became acquainted with the French mis-
sionary, J. B. Lowenbruck, and with him estab-
lished at Domodossola, on the road from Lago Mag-
giore to the Simplon, the Institute di carita as a
center for a congregation of clergy who would de-
vote themselves both to learning and to practical
Christian piety. At Rome, in 1628, Rosmini was
cordially welcomed by Cardinal Bartolommeo Al-
berto Capellari (afterward Pope Gregory XVI.),
although the Jesuits were later to oppose him with
the weapons placed in their hands by his own Cinque
piaghe delta santa chiesa (Lugano, 1848; abridged
Eng. transl., Five Wounds of the Holy Church, Lon-
don, 1883). Nevertheless, the years immediately
following were devoted by Rosmini to the elabora-
tion of his epistemology. As a genuine realist, he
held that ideal being is the ultimate cause behind
phenomena, and maintained that such being is cog-
noscible through immediate perception; but while
thus opposing the prevailing sensationalistic philoso-
phy, he diverged equally from the pantheism of
Vincenzo Gioberti, who based perception on purely
natural grounds, thus positing a natural intuition
of God. In the literary controversy which ensued
the Jesuit Joseph Aloysius Dmowski shifted the
issue to theology and charged Rosmini with Jan-
senistic errors, so that in 1843 Gregory XVI. found
himself obliged to command both parties to be
silent. Rosmini now restricted himself to practical
duties, especially as the Institute of Charity had
spread widely, particularly in England and Ireland.
Rosmini himself went in 1837 to Stresa, where he
labored for some years in his college for novices
until he saw himself involved in the excitement
which pervaded all classes in Italy at the accession
of Pius DC. He submitted to the new pontiff an
outline of a constitution for the States of the Church,
but it was unheeded, and he then published the
Cinque piaghe, which he had written sixteen years
before, the " five wounds " in question being de-
clared to be the suppression of the vernacular in
the liturgy, the false training of the clergy, the false
position of the bishops, the exclusion of the lower
clergy and the laity from the election of the popes,
and the arbitrary use of the property of the Church.
The work evoked bitter opposition from the ultra-
montanes and was naturally placed upon the Index,
whereupon Rosmini made his submission. The at-
tempt was also made to condemn Rosmini 's other
writings, but the Congregation of the Index, in
1854, officially declared that they might be read.
Nevertheless, opposition to them was still main-
tained, and by a decree of 1887 Leo XIII. expressly
condemned forty propositions of Rosmini. The in-
stitutions founded by him, however, still exist both
in England and in Italy.
A collection of Rosmini 's works, although not
absolutely complete, has appeared under the title
Opere ediie e inedite dell* abbate A. Rosmini-Serbati
(31 vols., Milan and Turin, 1837-57). Among these
special mention may be made of the following, all of
which have been translated into English: Massimc
di perfezione cristiana (13th ed., Milan, 1883; Eng.
transl., Maxims of Christian Perfection, London,
1849); Catechismo disposto secondo V or dine delle
idee (latest ed., Rome, 1898; Eng. transl., Catholic
Catechism, methodically Arranged, by W. S. Agar
London [1849]); Psicologia (2 vols., Novara, 1846-
1848; Eng. transl., Psychology, 3 vols., London,
1884-88); Sistema filosofico (Lucca, 1853; Eng.
transl., Philosophical System of Antonio Rosmini
Serbati, London, 1882); and the posthumous Del
Principio supremo deUa metodica e di alcune sue ap~
plicazioni in servigio dell* umana educazione (Turin,
1857; Eng. transl., The Ruling Principle of Method
applied to Education, by Mrs. W. Grey, Boston,
1887) and Schizzo sulla JUosofia moderna (Turin,
1881 ; Eng. transl., Short Sketch of Modern Philoso-
phies, London, 1882). A number of his letters have
also been translated by D. Gazzola under the title
Letters on Religious Subjects (London, 1901).
K. Benhath.
Bibliography: On the life consult: W. Lockhardt, Life of
Antonio Rosmini-Serbati, 2 vols., 2d ed., London, 1886;
V. Garelli, Bioorafia di Antonio Rosmini, Turin. 1861 ; F.
Angeleri, Antonio Rosmini, Treves, 1871; £. H. Dering,
The Philosopher of Rover eto, London, 1874; T. Davidson.
The Philosophical System of A. Rosmini-Serbati, xcith
Sketch of Author's Life, etc., London, 1882; O. S. Mac-
waiter, Life of A. Rosmini-Serbati, London, 1883; S. E.
Jarvis, Rosminif a Christian Philosopher, Market Weigh-
ton, 1888; A. Dyroff, Rosmini, Mains, 1906; G. B. Pagani,
Life of Antonio Rosmini-Serbati, London and New York,
1907.
On his philosophy consult: G. Ferrari, Essai svr le
principe et Us limites de la philosophie de Vhistoire, pp.
184-202, Paris, 1843; A. Pestalossa, Le Dottrine di Ros-
mini, 2 vols., Milan, 1851-53; idem, La Mente di Rosmini,
ib. 1855; T. Roberti. DeUa Spirito filosofico di A. Ros-
mini, Bassano, 1855; G. Bertaiii, Sistema ideolooico di
Antonio Rosmini, Verona, 1858; M. Debrit, Histoire des
doctrines phUosophiques dans V Italic contemporaine, Paris,
1859; C. M. Ferre, Esposizione del Principio filosofico di
Antonio Rosmini, Verona, 1859; J. Bernardi, Giovane
eta e primi Studii di Antonio Rosminii, Pinerolo, 1860;
S. Frata, A Rosmini: cenni suW Immortalita deW Anima,
Parma, 1861; L. Ferri, Essai star Vhistoire de la philoso-
phic en Italic, Paris, 1869; V. Lilla, Kant e Rosmini, Turin.
1869; L. Palatini, Del Principio filosofico di Antonio Ros-
mini, Verona, 1869; G. Buroni, Rosmini e S. Tommaso,
Turin, 1878; idem, Antonio Rosmini e La Ci villa Cattolica,
ib. 1880* G. Petri, A. Rosmini e i Neo-Scolastici, Rome,
1878; K. Werner, A. Rosmini' s SteUung in der Geschichte
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
K osmini ■■ So rbatl
dec uhm Phitomphie, Vienna. 1384; idem. Die italieni-
•chl P/lfloaopnur da 10. J ahrhundfrU. Vienna, 1881; E.
Avocodm, La FUotofia dctt' Abbott Antonio Rotmini
oMniiuca. Nopoli, 1885; F. H. Reuaeh. Indri iter M~
(KXnwn fitHA<r. ii. 1139 sc.q., Bonn, 1885; F. X. Kimi, in
Deutsche Sundtchau, 1SS3; P. MonUMpiaoi, Rotmini, San
Tommato. e & Loeica, Bologna. 1890; C. Vidari. Roamim c
Spencer. Milan. is<«t; K. de Sarlo. La Logira di A. Roimini,
Rome. 1SB3; idem. Lc Ban drlla i'.,...l.v,; . ,1.11,1 I!,..-:. -J,-,
m/ndo a Rotmini, its. 1S(i:(; II. C. Sheldon, in Paper, „/
the American Society a/ Church History, first serin, viii.
41-66, New York, 1897; G. Gentile. Rotmini e (iioberti.
Pi», 1898; C, Colli. Jfrwnini neMa presold) Quitliont
•oeiait, Turin. 1809.
On Ibu ardor; Heimbucher, Qrdcn uiul Konyreaotioitcn,
iii. 522.
BOSS, JOHH: Presbyterian missionary to China;
b. at Easter Rarichie, Nigg (138 m. n. of QlM^inc),
Scotland, Aug. 6, 1812. He received bis education
at the village school at Nigg, through private in-
struction, at tdasgou University, and at the United
Presbyterian Theological Hull, Edinburgh; and has
been a missionary in Manchuria wince 1S7J, during
recent years serving also as principal of the Theo-
logical Hall for Manchuria, In 1ST;: lie visited the
Korean Gate, at that time the only place where
Koreans could come into contact with foreigners,
and he became in this way a pioneer in the work of
introducing Protestant Christianity into the Korean
peninsula. He states his theological position as fol-
lows: "Mankind, being alienated from the unself-
ish goodness which is the character of God, has
brought loss and misery unlimited upon itself. Goil
being the All-loving as he is the All-righteous, it is
reasonable that he should by abnormal means reveal
this his character to his handiwork man, such rev-
elation being beyond the normal. Jesus in his life,
by word and deed culminating in the cross, revealed
the fact that God pities man, desires his salvation
from tile state of alienation, and pleads with the
alienated to become reconciled and thus eradicate
the cause of his misery. By this reconciliation Wd
imitation of the unselfish good-doing of God, the
reign of peace for which Jesus came will be estab-
lished on earth." By his writings he has contributed
to the success of missions, enabling Iatercomera to
the field to acquire through his works acquaintance
with the languages of the parts adjacent to Man-
churia. Of his works mention may be made of:
Mandarin Primer (Shanghai, 1876); Corean Primer
(1877); History of Carta, Ancient and Modern
{Paisley, 1879); The Manchus, or the Reigning Dy-
nasty of China (1880); Old Wang, the First Chinese
Evangelist in Manchuria (London, 1889); Mission
Methods in Manchuria (1003); and The Original
Religion of China (Edinburgh. 1909). He also trans-
lated the New Testament into Korean (Mukden,
1882-84); and was a member of the committee to
provide a commentary on the Bible in Chinese, in
connection with which he furnished the parts on
Iaaiah i.-xxxix., Job, the latter half of Matthew, and
ROSSI, rfle'si.GIOVAHMBATTISTADE: Roman
Catholic areheologist; b. at Rome Feb. 23, 1822;
d. there Sept. 20, 1894. He was educated at the
Collegium Ftomanum. Under the impulse from the
Jesuit Marcbi he devoted himself to archeology.
particularly the catacombs, laying the foundation
of his work by collecting antiquities in Italy. Swit-
zerland, France, Germany, and England. In this
department he became the chief by universal ac-
knowledgment and the founder of Christian arche-
ology. In 1854 he became one of the collaborators
of the Inscriptiones urbis Rama Latino; for the Ber-
lin Academy of Sciences, Corpus inxcriptomm, vol.
vi (Berlin, 1863 and after). In the SptcUtgnm
Stili-sDicmi: of J. It. Pitra were published De chris-
tian™ monumentis ichthun exhibentibus, vol. iii
(Paris, 1S55), and De christians titulis Carthayini-
tntOaa (1858). His great work, which he began in
lfvbi, was Iiixrrif-tioiics Christiana- urlAs Roma: sep-
hmn taada antuptiores (vols. i. and ii., Rome, 1861-
1888). This was followed by the Roma sotteranea
rhrimiann, (3 vols., 1864-77; Eng. adaptation, Lon-
don, 1869), leaving the materials for vol. iv. almost
complete. He made the BuUctino di afdudogia
sacra, which he issued quarterly, 1863-94, a treas-
ure store of material from the excavations of cata-
combs arn! archeology in general. He succeeded,
during forty years, in investigating the most im-
portant cemeteries, relocating most of the martyrs'
tombs, and bringing them to light. From 1872-
1894, he published the Musaici cristiani with its
chromo-lithographic plates (Spithoever ed., Rome,
1872-1900). For fifty years secretary at the Vati-
can, be published with copious notes Index eodicam
latinorum Bibliotheca Ynticnna, vols, x.-xiii (1886,
and .after), treating over 2,600 codices; and, with
other scholars, issued the (Eiiitcs completes de Bar-
tolomeo Borahexi (9 vols.. 1862, and after). Rossi
was professor at the University at Rome and after
1851 a member of the Accademia pontilicia di
archa-oliicia, and before his death its president. He
promoted ■ common bond between Roman Catholic
ami other aniicologi:-ls, and passed i|n.. mllueru-e
of bis spirit to a school of successors.
riiBLioaRAmr: F. B. Leitnor. J^ben dot . . . Johannes
Baptitla ,tr AV.-.-i. K.-tnrisl-.urB, l*'Ji>. V vitluahli- i-Tio.l-
ienl literature is indicated in Richardson, Encyclopaedia,
HOSWEYDE, ros-vni'de, HERIBERT: Jesuit
hai;ioi:rapher, originator of the idea afterward car-
ried out by Bolland and his associates in the Acta
Sanctorum Bollanitiataritm (see Holland, Jan, Bol-
LAfjnisTa); b. at Utrecht Jan. 21, 1570; d. at Anfr.
wcrp Oct. 4, 1629. He entered the Society of Jesus
in 1588, and was ordained priest in 1598, He was
professor of rhetoric at Brussels, 1592-95, of phi-
losophy 1598-1000, and of controversial theology
] 605-07. then for four years head of the colleges of
Court ray and Antwerp. From about 1614 he de-
voted himself with increasing e\elu>iveness to his-
torical studies, especially the lives of the saints, for
which the Belgian abbeys offered a vast mass of
manuscript material. He formed the plan of a
comprehensive collection of such lives which should
surpass the existing ones in extent and critical ac-
curacy; but official duties and the controversies in
which he became engaged with ,-Valigcr, Casoubon,
aii' I others took up too much of his time for him to
do more than begin the vast labor. He published
the Miirttirologium pun-uni Rmnnnnw which he had
discovered, together with that of Ado (Antwerp,
1613); the first edition of the W in desheim Chronicle
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
of Johann Busch (1821); an edition of the " Imita-
tion of Christ " (1617); and one of the Vita patrum
(1615). His faithfulness to duty was no less ad-
mirable than his scholarly activity, and hie last
illnes3 was due to disease contracted at the bed-
side of the dying.
Bibuoqbafht; ASB, Jan., L preface, | 6, and Mar., i.,
preface to the lite of J. Bolland, | 4; [V. de Buck], id
Analatet pour aereir k FkitUnr* MtWeioatiou* de la Bd-
tnqur, v (1858), 261-270; At. X. 1314-15; Lichtenberger,
ESH. xi. 301-302.
ROSWITHA, ros-vi'ta (B0SW1TH, HROS-
W1THA, HROTSUIT) : Nun of Ganderaheim in the
duchy of Saxony in the last third of the tenth cen-
tury; the years of her birth and death are not
known. Her abbess Gerberga (959-1001) asked her
to write a. heroic poem in honor of the Emperor
Otho I. It was finished in 968 and is entitled Hrol-
tuiiha carmen de gestis Oddonie I. imperatoris, but
is not preserved entire. As the authoress drew her
material from members of the imperial family, dip-
lomatic considerations influenced her work; yet her
representation is an important source of history.
Later she wrote the history of her monastery, De
primordiii canatrii Gandersheimensis, and also com-
posed many poems on saints. Her Christian come-
dies, modeled after those of Terence, are well known.
Ebert has disputed with good reason the earlier
view that these plays were written with the inten-
tion of suppressing the immoral plays of Terence.
(A. Hadck.)
Biblioobapht : Roawitha'a works were edited by K. A.
BoJMk. Nuremberg, 1858; Hid K. Streeker, Loipeie, IBOfl:
indinin MPL, cxxxvii. 971-1106. The two historical
poena ore ia MGH. Scrip.., I* (1841), 302-336. Then
ace German translations ol the Otto by W. OundUch,
Innsbruck, 1894, and others. Consult A. Ebert, Lillcra-
fur da MiUdaltert. ill. 285 nqq.. Leipsic IS87; A. H.
O. Rommel, in ForKhungen iut devltdien SatoUdata, I*
(1884). 123-158; R. Kopke, Hrotmiat ton Qamtcriheim,
Berlin, 186B: idem. Die Mttdi deuttelu DickUrin. Kul-
tvTutarhicMlirhtt Bild qui dim 10. JaArhutidrrl, ib. 1809:
R. Sleinhoff. in Zntachri.lt da Harircreint /Or Guchichte
trad AUrrihumtk\mdc. iv (188Z), 118-141): a notable serial
of contributions by O. Qrsahof aro to bo found hj BkTmHft
und WiHa«ifinnj«i am dm BcrudUdimr- und Citltrdemer-
Orden. 1884-88; Wmieiihai-h, 1.x itj. i (1885), 4, 313-318,
i (1893). 334-336; W. H. Hudson, io Englitli Historical
Rtvitv. 1888, pp. 431-457; ADB. nix. 283-264; Mary
Reed, in FraReviea, i. 269-282, London, 1893-94: Hsuck,
KD, iii. 301 nqq.
ROTA ROM ANA. See Curia, 5 3.
ROTH, rot, KARL JOHANN FRIEDRICH: Ger-
man Lutheran; b. at Vaibingen (5 m. s.w. of Stutt-
gart), Wurtteraberg, Jan. 23, 1780; d. at Munich
Jan. 21, 1852. He studied law at the University
of Tubingen (1797-1801), and was then consul for
Nuremberg at PariB, Vienna, and Berlin. When
Nuremberg came under Bavarian control, Roth en-
tered the service of the Btate, first as financial coun-
selor for the circle of Pegnilz at Nuremberg, then
(1810) as chief financial counselor at Munich, and
finally (1817) as ministerial counselor in the royal
ministry of finances. His De beUo Boruneico com-
menlarius (1809) proved his unusual scholarship.
U Mmvhile ho bad passed from the point of view of
Voltaire and Rousseau to orthodoxy, as was shown
by his selections from Luther's writings, Die Weie-
heil Dr. Martin Luthers (1817), and bis editions of
the works of J. G. Hamann (Leipsic 1821-25). As
president of the supreme consistory of Bavaria
(1828-48) he exercised rare tact and administrative
skill, in guiding the Church through the troublous
reaction against rationalism, in cultivating the per-
gonal acquaintance of the clergy, and in executing
the existing order, thus elevating the moral and the
intellectual status of the clergy. He established a
stated supervision of theological students at Er-
langen, which was soon given up, and a seminary
for the training of the Evangelical clergy at Mu-
nich, which was soon obliged to reduce its number
of students from eight to six annually. Daring the
period 1837-48, the Roman Catholics were in the
ascendency with the government, and Roth was
blamed for being remiss in not insisting upon the
Protestant claims, though, perhaps, without jus-
tice. Nevertheless, in 1848 he was retired in order
to allay the agitation against him. Soon after, he
was made a member ol the council of state, in
which he continued almost till his death.
(KiHL BtTRQERt.)
ROTHE, r5'te, RICHARD: Theologian; b. at
Posen (100 m. e. of Frankfort-on-the-Oder) Jan.
28, 1799; d. at Heidelberg Aug. 20, 1867. His
father was characterized by strong fidelity to duty
and patriotic devotion; his mother by
Early Life fervent piety. The latter was of a
and rationalistic type, as was also the
Education, wretched religious instruction obtained
from the Hide of the school and the
Church. However, he was led into a supernatural
vein of thought by the imaginative workB of Novalis
and other leaders in the Romantic movement, and by
his own reading of the Bible. He thus acquired a
living Christianity. Accordingly, against his par-
ents' inclination, he resolved to study theology,
and, at Easter, 1817, betook himself to Heidelberg.
Here he was influenced anew by Romanticism, so
that he came to entertain warm sympathies with
Roman Catholicism. At Berlin, whither he re-
moved in 1819, there prevailed, in part, a Pietistis
type of religion, together with a very conservative
spirit in matters of State and Church, and a prefer-
ence for the Hegelian philosophy. Rotbe listened
to Hegel's lectures on natural law and political sci-
ence with enthusiasm, and was but little attracted
by Schleiermacher's lectures and sermons. He ac-
quired growing reverence for August Neander (q.v.),
through whose good offices he found entrance to the
circle that gathered about Baron von Kottwitz.
Yet he felt not at all content, but tired of academic
life and yearned for home. Cheered and refreshed
by a brief visit to his parents, he went to the Theo-
logical Seminary at Wittenberg in the autumn of
1819. Most influential over him here was the third
director H. L. Heubner (q.v.); nevertheless Rothe
aimed to preserve his individuality and mental free-
dom. He also here, as formerly at Berlin, at first
vigorously withstood the attempts of the new semi-
nary adjunct Rudolf Stier and of Baron von Kott-
witz and the licentiate Tholuck on a visit from
Berlin to win him over to a Pietistic form of relig-
ion; but before long his sensitive temperament
yielded. On May 9, 1821, he reporte of the inward
101
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Boawitha
Bothe
change produced in him, as though it were the en-
trance of a new spiritual spring. For a considerable
time thereafter his letters were couched in the un-
natural mode of utterance in vogue among Pietists,
and abounded in the bluntest expressions respecting
everybody of a different opinion and all worldly
pursuits. He even condemned all scientific treat-
ment of theology. The Evangelical attempts in
the cause of church union merely aroused his ab-
horrence, and served only to enhance his inclina-
tion toward Roman Catholicism. He manifested
special predilection for the quietistic mysticism of
the extravagant Francis of Sales (q.v.). Although
he then assured his distressed parents that he had
won inward rest and blessedness, he nevertheless
later admitted in retrospect that he had not been a
happy Pietist, but had been without joy. Grad-
ually he felt the lack of satisfying, solid work at the
Wittenberg Seminary, though he had often preached
and studied much there, and, in the autumn of 1822,
he left Wittenberg, not without satisfaction, to re-
turn home. Here, thanks to the good offices of
Heubner, he was called to be chaplain to the Prus-
sian embassy at Rome. He now passed his second
theological examination, was ordained at Berlin,
married Louise von Brack, a sister-in-law of Heub-
ner, and journeyed with her to Italy.
He reached Rome early in 1824. What usually
attracted people he regarded with indifference, de-
siring simply to serve his congregation faithfully,
and thereby the kingdom of God. But
Career, owing to the peculiar constituency of
that body, the conscientious execu-
tion of this task was bound to enlarge his field of
vision. The nucleus of the Prussian congregation
at Rome comprised some finely cultivated Evan-
gelical families of the embassy, and a number of
artists of idealistic taste. He soon discerned that
Christianity was not to be presented before these
circles in the form of a narrow-minded Pietism.
Not a few of the members, above all the highly
talented, eager personality of Josias Bunsen (q.v.),
counselor of the legation, evinced by their combi-
nation of a vital Christian intelligence with political,
scientific, artistic, and other spiritual and secular
interests, that the two do not exclude each other.
Hence the Pietistic forms, foreign as they always
were to Rothe's individuality, fell gradually away
from his habit of life and thought. In his modesty,
his inner devoutness, his fellowship with Christ, his
preference for quiet, he had much in common with
Pietism, and these he retained enduringly. His style
of correspondence now became more natural, and
his judgment of Pietism more and more critical.
At the same time, being at the very center of Ro-
man Catholicism, he was radically cured of his pre-
dilection for that system, and perceived that a
stanch ecclesiasticism still affords no warrant of
Christian piety. Thus his own Christianity grew
more liberal toward the world, and, stimulated by
his official activity, he awakened more keenly to the
need of scientific studies. Before conferences of cul-
tivated members of his congregation, in response to
the request of some artists, he discussed topics in
ecclesiastical history. This Roman sojourn, how-
ever, had also its dark sides. Rothe's wife ap-
peared unable to bear the climate. Then the
frequent changes in the constituency of the Prus-
sian congregation rendered the fruits of his activity
insecure. With increasing diffidence toward pub-
licly disclosing his inmost mind, he began to
doubt his qualification for a practical church
career, and his desire for active scholarship grew
apace. Under the circumstances a call to be
professor at the theological seminary at Wit-
tenberg in 1828 was gladly accepted, and this
was followed by the appointment to be second di-
rector and ephor, 1832. In 1837 he became uni-
versity preacher, and professor and director of the
new seminary at Heidelberg. To be released from
the latter office he accepted a call to Bonn in 1840.
Feeling too much weighed down by the practical
duties of preaching in connection with the public
worship of the university, he returned to Heidel-
berg, 1854, where he now lectured on ecclesiastical
history, exegesis, systematic theology, the life of
Christ, encyclopedia, and, occasionally, on practical
theology till his death.
From the beginning of his independent theolog-
ical research, his deepest interest turned to the sci-
entific knowledge of the ideal truth of Christianity.
But in distinction from the dialectics of Schleier-
macher, which seemed to him too formal and ab-
stract, he strove after a more replete speculation,
rendering more justice to the realities
Work in of the world and of historical Chris-
Exegesis tianity. Hence his theological studies
and were applied, first, to Biblical exegesis
History, and ecclesiastical history. His exe-
getical studies were taken up at Rome,
and pursued with special zeal during the later period
of his sojourn there, since Biblical writings formed
the topics of discussion in the conferences of culti-
vated church-members. This gave rise to Rothe's
first literary publication, his monograph on Rom.
v. 12-21, prepared at Ischia, and published under
the title, Neuer Vereuch einer Audegung der Paidini-
schen SteUe Rdmer V., 12-21 (Wittenberg, 1836).
However, purely exegetical interest was not very
lively with him, and he published nothing further
in scientific exegesis. Still, his official tasks at Wit-
tenberg led him to produce edifying elucidations of
Scripture; and his exposition of I John is one of the
best of its kind, Der erste Brief Johannis (Witten-
berg, 1878). His studies next turned to the his-
torical field. Already at Breslau, after Neander had
inspired him at Berlin to the academic vocation, he
had devoted himself to studies in ecclesiastical his-
tory. At Rome association with the versatile and
scholarly Bunsen gave him new impetus. Coinci-
dent with his own interest the Roman artists be-
sought him for information on the history of Roman
Catholicism. The reaction which then took place
in his critical estimation of Romanism also occa-
sioned the need of some independent historical ex-
amination on this topic. His deep study of the
sources thus prepared him for the course of lectures
on " Church Life " that he was pledged to deliver
at Wittenberg, in which he treated the nature and
history of the Christian religion and Church. An-
other fruit of this labor was his much-noted work,
Die Artf&nge der chrMichen Kirche wid ihrer Ver-
Bothe
BouMeau
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
102
fa88ung (1837). Inherent in the nature of all re-
ligions, he asserts, there is the radical impulse of
self-expression. In the Christian religion, the proc-
ess of such manifestations has for its goal the con-
summation of the kingdom of God on earth, as
promised by Christ. But the State, as the most
comprehensive structure wrought by mind into
matter, is the actual realization of all moral life,
which, in its final perfection, must immanently in-
volve religion. In contrast, the Church, by virtue
of its intrinsic character, shall ever serve purely
religious ends. Therefore the kingdom of God on
earth can present itself only in the form of a per-
fected state or organism of states, wherefore the
Church becomes gradually superfluous. For the
present, however, the Church still has a lofty sig-
nificance. The idea of the Church sprang from an
internal necessity, and began to achieve its fulfil-
ment. As a matter of fact, the formation of the
Church followed soon after the destruction of Jeru-
salem, when the surviving apostles instituted the
episcopate as an organic expedient for the outward
unity of Christian fellowship. Incipiently, the idea
of the Church was vaguely identified with this em-
pirical Church. As all sorts of contingencies arose
to make this identification less congruous, there de-
veloped, over against the heresies, with increasing
certainty, the recognition of the papal Church of
Rome. This fiction, however, was bound ere long
to give rise to a contradiction resting fundamentally
upon the fact that the Church, as a whole, is not
the form of the Christian life in correspondence
with it. For the first time was the question funda-
mentally involving the transition from Apostolic
Christianity to the hierarchical Roman Catholic
Church so definitely raised. In comparison with
Neander's treatment of church history, whereby
the inner life of the individual Christian personal-
ities received a one-sided emphasis, there was a
distinct advance with Rothe, when he placed due
importance upon the general development of Chris-
tianity in its social forms. A reciprocal defect ap-
peared, however, in that, according to Rothe, the
idea of the Church realized itself essentially only by
the adoption of constitutional forms; and that this
abstraction of a constitution did not appear to be
evolved from the inner life of the Church, but was
externally instituted by the apostles. In this view
a reaction from his earlier admiration of Roman
Catholicism can not be mistaken, while his thought
of a gradual resolution of the Church into the State
becomes clear in the light of his impressions in child-
hood, and his subsequent transition from narrow
Pietism to the wider sphere of life at Rome. Rothe
did not publish any further historical development
of this view, and his lectures were published in
fragmentary form, Vorlesungen tiber Kirchenge-
schichte (2 vols., Heidelberg, 1875-76).
Rothe's first production in church history im-
pelled him to a purely systematic work. Only then
did he approach the task for which he was best
fitted, by which he most amply developed his gifts.
He sought to arrive at an explanation of his views
on Christianity, Church, and State on the basis of
the clear representation of the relation between the
religious and the ethical. This was the purpose of
his ethics. While he assigned dogmatics to histor-
ical theology, ethics, as the conclusive part of specu-
lative theology, was to unfold its sub-
Theological ject only in accordance with the law
Ethics, of logical thought. It was to take its
point of departure from the conscious-
ness of God; and this, contrary to Schleiermacher,
from its objective content. Rothe thus proceeds
deductively from God to the creation of the world
as the necessary means whereby he is distinguish-
able, and from the infinite process of creation to
its continuation in the ethical process, which sub-
sists in the unity, fixed in the human mind, of
personality and material nature. Inasmuch as this
concept of the ethical appears in the threefold form
of moral good, virtue, and duty, Rothe's ethics falls
under three main heads. The first sets forth the
ethical process, namely, the original unity of mor-
ality and religion; its disturbance by the evil which
subsists in the predominance of the nature of sense
over personality; the redemption from evil through
the second Adam; the primarily religious, then
moral efficacy of this redemption upon individual
men, through the kingdom of God, first resolved in
the form of a church and finally fulfilled in a Chris-
tian state organism; and the end of all things.
Compared with this comprehensive thought outline
of the first part, all else in his ethics, although
containing many beautiful details, is like a super-
fluous appendix.
Concerning the fundamental views of his religious-
ethical system in the first part, his effort to derive
the entire organism of Christian truth by logical de-
duction from a single concept can not
Estimation, be upheld. It proved itself incapable
of logical conclusion, and led to the
tendency of a pantheistic confusion of God and the
world; of conceiving the divine and the moral in
natural terms; of thinking of the spiritual as a mere
product of matter; and of denying, in determinist
fashion, all freedom of divine and human action.
Yet this tendency was contradicted by Rothe's
strong ethical and theistic temperament, as well as
by his positive supernaturalism, such as he exhibited
in his admirable Zur Dogmatik (Gotha, 1863). This
inconsistency occasioned many palpable contradic-
tions and defects in his system. His identification
of religion with morality, whence emanated his evi-
dently erroneous ideas on the relation of Church
and State, was also involved with a pantheistic
inclination. A practical consequence of these views
was his mode of participation during his closing
years in the affairs of the State Church of Baden.
In the liberation of culture and of its exponents from
domination by the Church, he saw nothing short of
an operation by his Savior. Therefore he believed
that he was serving him best when he cooperated
in the plan of introducing the congregational prin-
ciple in constitutional polity, whereby cultivated
laymen, with their " unconscious Christianity,"
were to be associated in congregational autonomy,
and when by the " Protestant Union " (q.v.) Chris-
tianity became effectually emancipated from its
ecclesiastical restrictions, offensive as these were
to the cultured. Thus Rothe, though abhorring all
partizan tactics, himself proved a partizan. Finally,
108
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bothe
Bona
it should be borne in mind that the defects in Rothe's
ethics are, to some extent, involved with insoluble
antinomies, and they are compensated in his work
by superior merits; such as his dialectical adapts
bility and his skill in the grouping of his matter,
let alone his affluence of significant and useful ideas,
even of elements of truth in his most vulnerable
representations. F. Seeffert.
Bibliography: F. Nippold, Richard Rothe, 2 vols., Wit-
tenberg, 1873-74; A. Hausrath, Richard Rothe und seine
Frtunde, 2 vols., Berlin, 1902-06; J. Cropp, in Protes-
tanHsche Monatshefte, 1887, 1899; £. Achelis, Dr. Richard
Rothe, Gotha, 1809; W. Honig, Richard Rothe. Charak-
ter, Leben und Denken, Berlin, 1898; H. Bassennann,
Richard Rothe ale praktischer Theoloae, Freiburg, 1899;
O. FlQgel, Richard Rothe aU spekulaHver Theoloae, Lang-
ensalsa, 1899; P. Mesger, Richard Rothe. Bin theo-
iogisches Charakterbild, Berlin, 1899; K. Sell, in Theo-
loaisehe Rundschau, 1899; H. Spdrri, Zur Erinnerung an
Richard Rothe, Hamburg, 1899; E. Troeltsch, Richard
Rothe, Oeddchtnisrede, Freiburg, 1899; R. Kern, Dr.
Richard Rothe, Cassel, 1904; L. Witte, Richard Rothe uber
J emu ale Wunderthater, Halle, 1907; J. Happel, Richard
Rothe* Lehre von der Kirche, Leipsio, 1909.
ROTHMANN (R0TTMANN), BERNHARD. See
Muenster, Anabaptists in.
ROTHSTEIK, rot'stOin, J0HANN WILHELM:
German Protestant; b. at Puhl, a village of Rhen-
ish Prussia, Mar. 19, 1853. He was educated at the
universities of Bonn (Ph.D., 1877; lie. theol., 1878)
and Halle, where he devoted himself to theology
and Semitic8 (1872-78). He was a teacher in the
gymnasium at Elberfeld until 1884 and at the girls'
high school in Halle until 1889, when he was ap-
pointed associate professor of Old-Testament exe-
gesis at the University of Halle, and in 1910 became
professor in the same branch at Breslau. Theo-
logically he bases his work on a belief in Biblical
revelation, and, though favoring earnest historical
criticism, is opposed to rationalistic interpretations
of the Old and New Testaments from the point of
view of comparative religion. He has written: De
chronographo Arabe anonymo qui codice Berolinensi
Sprengeriano tricesimo continetur (Bonn, 1877) ; Das
Bundesbuch und die rdigionsgeschichtliche Entwich-
lung Israels (Halle, 1888); Das Ho he Lied (1893);
Der Gottesglaube im alien Israel und die religions-
geschichtliche KriHk (1900); BUder aus der Geschichte
des alien Bundes in gemeinverstdndlicher Form, vol.
i. (Erlangen, 1901); Die Genealogie des Kanigs von
Juda Jojachin und seiner Nachkommenschaft in I
Chron. Hi. 17-*4 (Berlin, 1902) ; Geschichte und Off en-
barung mil Bezug auf Israels Religion (Stuttgart,
1903); Juden und Samarilaner. Die grundlegende
Scheidung von Judentum und Heidenium. Eine
kritische Studie sum Buche Haggai und zur jud-
ischen Geschichte im ersten nachexilischen Jahrhundert
(Leipsic, 1908); Grundzugedeshebrdischen Rhythmus
und seiner Formenbildung, nebst lyrischen Texten mil
kriHschem Kommentar (1909) ; Psalmentezte und der
Text des Hohen Liedes (1909; reprinted from the
Grundzuge des . . . Rhythmus); and Die Nachtge-
riehte des Sacharya (1910). He has translated into
German W. R. Smith's The Old Testament in the
Jewish Church (Freiburg, 1894) and S. R. Driver's
Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament
(Berlin, 1896), and contributed Jeremiah and Ze-
phaniah to E. Kautssch's Das AUe Testament (Frei-
burg, 1894; in the 3d ed., 1910, Jeremiah, Ezekiel,
and Chronicles), the apocryphal portions of Daniel,
as well as Baruch and the Epistle of Jeremiah to
the same scholar's Apokryphen und Pseudepigraphen
des Alien Testaments (1900), and Jeremiah and Eze-
kiel to R. Kittel's Biblia Hebraica (Leipsic, 1906).
ROUS, raus, FRANCIS: Puritan; b. at Dittisham
(25 m. e. of Plymouth) in 1579; d. at Acton (7 m.
w. of London) Jan., 1658-59. He was educated at
Oxford (B.A., 1596-97), and the University of Ley-
den (1598-99); was a member of parliament dur-
ing the reign of Charles I., of the Long Parliament,
and others (1625-56); was appointed lord of par-
liament by Cromwell (1657); and became provost
of Eton (1643-44). The Westminster Assembly ap-
pointed him one of its lay assessors (1643) ; and he
was chairman of the committee for ordination of
ministers after its organization (1643-44). In 1649
Rous went over to the Independents and served on
the committee for the propagation of the Gospel,
which framed an abortive scheme for a state church
on the Congregational plan, revived without suc-
cess by the Little Parliament of which he was
speaker (1653). When that body dissolved itself,
he was sworn on the protector's council of state.
He was placed on the committee for the approba-
tion of public preachers 1653-54, and with Crom-
well on that of discussion of the kingship (1656).
He was author of Psalms Translated into English
Metre (1643; 1646), a version approved by the
Westminster Assembly, authorized by parliament
for general use, and adopted by the committee of
estates in Scotland, where its popular use has con-
tinued till the present day. During a period of re-
tirement from the Middle Temple to Landrake,
Cornwall (1601-25), he wrote Meditations of Instruc-
tion, of Exhortation, of Reproof (London, 1616); The
Arte of Happiness (1619); Diseases of the Time
(1622); and Oyl of Scorpions (1623). His piety was
of an intensely subjective kind, as illustrated in
Mystical Marriage (1635), and Heavenly Academic
(1638). A number of his works were collectively
republished in Treatises and Meditations (London,
1656-57).
Bibliography: A. a Wood, Athena Oxoniensis, ed. P. Bliss,
iii. 467, 4 vols., London. 1813-20; D. Neal, Hist, of the
Puritan*, ed. J. Toulmin, 5 vols., Bath, 1793-07; J. A.
Alexander, Lives of the Speakers of the House of Commons,
London, 1850; S. W. Duffield, English Hymns, p. 533,
New York, 1886; W. A. Shaw, History of the English
Church . . . 1640-60, 2 vols., London, 1900; Julian,
Hymnology, pp. 918, 979, 1023; DNB, xlix. 316-317
(where many scattering references are given).
ROUSSEAU, ru8"s6', JEAN JACQUES: French
deistic philosopher and author; b. at Geneva June
28, 1712; d. at Ermenonville (28 m. n.e. of Paris)
July 2, 1778. His mother died at his birth, and his
father, a dissipated and violent-tempered man, paid
little attention to the son's training, and finally de-
serted him. The latter developed a passion for
reading, with a special fondness for Plutarch's
Lives. Apprenticed first to a notary and then to
a coppersmith, he ran away (1728) to escape the
rigid discipline, and, after wandering for several
days, he fell in with Roman Catholic priests at Con-
signon in Savoy, who turned him over to Madame de
Bousseau
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
104
Warens at Annecy, and she sent him to an educa-
tional institution at Turin. Here he duly abjured
Protestantism, and next served in various house-
holds, in one of which he was charged with theft.
After more wanderings he was at Chambery (1730),
whither Madame de Warens had removed. In her
household he spent eight years diverting himself in
the enjoyment of nature, the study of music, the
reading of the English, German, and French phil-
osophers and chemistry, pursuing the study of
mathematics and Latin, and enjoying the play-house
and opera. He next spent eighteen months at
Venice as secretary of the French ambassador,
Comte de Montaignu (1744-45). Up to this time,
when he was thirty-nine, his life, the details of
'which he publishes in his Confessions (Geneva,
1782; Eng. transl., The Confessions of J. J. Rous-
seau, London, 1891), may be styled as subterra-
nean. He now returned to Paris, where his opera
Les Muses galantes failed, copied music, and was
secretary of Madame Dupin. Here he came into
association with Diderot, Grimm, D'Alembert, Hol-
bach, and Madame d'fipinay, and was admitted as
a contributor to the Encyclopedic (see Encyclope-
dists) ; and his brilliant gifts of entertainment, reck-
less manner, and boundless vanity attracted atten-
tion. With the Discours sur le sciences et les arts
(Paris, 1750), a prize essay in which he set forth the
paradox of the superiority of the savage state, he
proclaimed his gospel of " back to nature." His
operetta Devin du vUlage (1752) met with great
success. His second sensational writing appeared:
Discours sur VinegaliU parmi les hommes (1753),
against the inequalities of society. His fame was
then assured. In 1754 he revisited Geneva, was
received with great acclamation, and called him-
self henceforth " citizen of Geneva." In 1756, upon
invitation of Madame d'fipinay, he retired to a cot-
tage (afterward " The Hermitage ") in the woods
of Montmorency, where in the quiet of nature he
expected to spend his life; but domestic troubles,
his violent passion for Countess d'Houdetot, and his
morbid mistrust and nervous excitability, which
lost him his friends, induced him to change his resi-
dence to a chateau in the park of the duke of Lux-
embourg, Montmorency (1758-62). His famous
works appeared during this period: Lettre a d'Alem-
bert (Amsterdam, 1758); Julie ou la nouvelle He-
loise (1761); Du control social (Amsterdam, 1762;
Paris, 1795; Eng. transl., The Social Contract, 2
vols., New York, 1893, new transl., 1902); and
fimile ou de V education (Amsterdam, 1762; Eng.
transl., Emilius; or an Essay on Education, 2 vols.,
London, 1763, and again, 1895). The last-named
work was ordered to be burned by the French
parliament and his arrest was ordered; but he
fled to Neuchatel, then within the jurisdiction of
Prussia. Here he wrote his Lettres icrites de la
Montague (Amsterdam, 1762), in which, with refer-
ence to the Geneva constitution, he advocated the
freedom of religion against the Church and police.
Driven thence by peasant attacks (Sept., 1765), he
returned to the Isle St. Pierre in the Lake of Bienne.
The government of Berne ordered him out of its
territory, and he accepted the asylum offered him
by David Hume in England (Jan., 1766). But his
morbid misanthropy, now goaded to an insane sense
of being persecuted, made him suspicious of plots,
and led him to quarrel with his friends for not ma-
king his opponents their own enemies, and he fled to
France (1767). After wandering about and de-
pending on friends he was permitted to return to
Paris (1770), where he finished the Confessions
begun in England, and produced many of his best
stories. Here he copied notes, and studied music
and botany. His dread of secret enemies grew upon
his imagination, until he was glad to accept an in-
vitation to retire to Ermenonville (1778), where his
death came suddenly.
Rousseau was possessed with an overmastering
love of nature, and reacted against the artificiality
and corruption of the social customs and institu-
tions of the time. He was a keen thinker, and was
equipped with the weapons of the philosophical
century and with an inspiring eloquence. To these
qualities were added a pronounced egotism, self-
seeking, and an arrogance that led to bitter antag-
onism against his revolutionary views and sensi-
tive personality, the reaction against which resulted
in a growing misanthropy. Error and prejudice in
the name of philosophy, according to him, had
stifled reason and nature, and culture, as he found
it, had corrupted morals. In fimile he presents the
ideal citizen and the means of training the child for
the State in accordance with nature, even to a
sense of God. This " nature gospel " of education,
as Goethe called it, was the inspiration, beginning
with Pestalozzi, of world-wide pedagogical meth-
ods. The most admirable part in this is the creed
of the vicar of Savoy, in which, in happy phrase,
Rousseau shows a true, natural susceptibility to
religion and to God, whose omnipotence and great-
ness are published anew every day. The Social
Contract, on the text that all men are born free and
equal, regards the State as a contract in which in-
dividuals surrender none of their natural rights, but
rather agree for the protection of them. Most re-
markable in this projected republic was the provi-
sion to banish aliens to the state religion and to
punish dissenters with death. The Social Contract
became the text-book of the French Revolution,
and Rousseau's theories as protests bore fruit in
the frenzied bloody orgies of the Commune as well
as in the rejuvenation of France and the history of
the entire Western world. Among many editions
of Rousseau's complete works are those by P. A.
Du Peyron (35 vols., Geneva and Paris, 1782) fol-
lowed by (Euvres posthumes (12 vols., 1782^83);
and by V. D. Musset-Pathay, with biography and
notes (26 vols., Paris, 1823-27). His Lettres in-
4dites, ed. H. de Rothschild, appeared Paris, 1892.
Also see Deism, II., § 4.
Bibliography: Recent issues of some of the works of Rous-
seau in English are: EmUe; or. Treatise on Education,
London, 1895; The Social Contract; or. Principle* of
Political Right, ib. 1902; Confession*, 2 vols., ib. 1907;
Morals, ib. 1908; Humane Philosophy, Maxims and Prin-
ciples, selected . . . by Fredcrika Macdonald, ib. 1908.
Studies of Rousseau's life and works are: J. Morley,
J. J. Rousseau, 2 vols., London, 1888; A. J. Barruel-
Beauvert, Vie de J. J. Rousseau, ib. 1789; V. D. Musset-
Pathay, Histoire de la vie et des outrages de J. J. Rous-
seau, 2 vols., Paris, 1822; M. O. Streckeisen, J. J. Rous-
seaut see amis et ses ennemis, 2 vols., ib. 1865; F. Brocker-
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
SouMMn
boil. J. J. Rduuoii, uin Lebrn und trine Werte. 3 vols..
Ladpaio. I8o3-74; T. Vagi. J. J. Routteau- 1 Lebcn. Vienna,
1870; H. Beaudouin. La Via d In nur™ da ./eon ./acotiea
Amsiaau. 2 vola.. Puia, 1872: A. Cbuquel, Jean Jaconet
Boutteau, ib. 1893; Ssiiin-HLirc-iJiranlin. J. 7. 8m-
huh, « » J ra ouwouea. ib. 1875; A. Meylan.
Jean-Jacquei Routteau, m vie et let micro, ib. 1878: H,
Gehrig, J«m Jacauct Boutteau, teirt Leben und seine
pOdaaoaitcJu: Balrulune. Neuweid, 1870: H. O. Onhim,
Sowmou. London, 1882; A. Bougoault. oWriuri'aaJ men-
ial aW. ./. fiouaiaou. Paris. 1883; L. Ducroa, J. J. Raut-
teau. ib. 1S8X; EL Walireniiolu. Jean-Jacauet Routteau:
Leben, Geittettntwicklung und Hauptwerki. Leipaii-. IM|
idem, .Aran Jatqvtt Routteau. New York, 1907: E. Ahc,
J. J. JtouMMu. Puis, 1001): J. Lemnitre, Jnn J acquit
Routteau, Ib. 1007. Eug. trans]., London. 1908.
On the philosophy and ideas of Rouaaeau consult: E.
v. Hobcnhauasen, Rouaaeau . . . tin kritiseJi-lUeraritcner
I'm™, Casael. 1847; L. Moreou, /, /. Kmww et It
titele philotaphiaue. Puis. 1870; C. Borxraud, J. J. Ruui-
aoiu'j Reliaiontphitotophit, Leipaic, 1883; G. Maugras.
ijucrellft de philvvrphet Voltaire et J. J. Routteau, Paris,
1886; O. Schmidt, Routteau und Byron, Leiiwie, isLxi;
A. Spinner, .Vulur utiJ .Volurirmiaunoi nri J. y. Row-
•w Leipaic, 1892: L. Claritto. J*. /. Routteau. Paris,
1896; H. Uoffdinj. Routteau und trim Philosophy. BMtV
girt. 1897; T. Davidson, Routteau and Education accord-
ing la Nature, New York. 1808; E. Flhrnmnn. ffounuu'i
.VufumiuBAau iiTio. Leipaic, 1901; W. H. Hudson, Adiumsu
and Naluralitm in Life and Thought, Edinburgh, 1003:
Fraderika MscdoooJd, Jean Jacauct Routteau, a Nero
Criticitm. 2 vol*., London and New York, 1907{T>; G.
Compoyre, Jean Jaconet Routteau and Education from
Nature, London, 1908,
ROUSSEL, rfj-scl', GERARD (GERARDUS RC-
PUS or TOLHINUS): French Roman Catholic; b.
»t Vaquerie (a village near Amiens) about 1600;
d at Muuleon (25 m. s.w, of Pau) in the early part
of 1550. At the age of twenty he went to Pau,
where he attended the lectures of Jacobus Faber
■Siiqnik-nttis (see Faber, Stapclenbib, Jacobub) ; but
his teacher was suspected of heresy by the Sorbonne,
and Roussel accordingly followed him to Meaux,
where they found refuge with Bishop Guillaume
Briconnct (q.v.). Under this prelate's patronage
Roussel was appointed vicar of St. Saintain, later
becoming canon and treasurer of the cathedra! of
Meaux. where for some months he preached with-
out interference. Though he held that the time had
not yet come to break with the Roman Catholic
Church, nevertheless, on Dec. 13, 1524, Bishop
Bri^onnct, alarmed by the warning that he might
be summoned before parliament, suspended Rous-
h-I. wlm, ill the insticiil imi of r'urol, endeavored to
set up a printing-office at Meaux for the publication
of Protestant tracts, but was forced to take refuge
in Strssburg, where the new teachings had become
supreme. At the invitation of Francis I., he went,
in 1535, to Paris, where he delivered sermons of a
Protestant character at the Louvre, but was for-
bi'iiii-ri liv the Sorbonne to continue. Neverthe-
less, he enjoyed the patronage of Margaret of Na-
varre, and in ISM was consecrated bishop of Oleron.
Roussel 's dream was the reformation of the Church
without breaking with it. He preached three and
four times daily, administered the Eucharist in both
kinds, and bis clergy were required to recite each
Sunday in the vernacular the Ten Commandments,
the Lord's Prayer, and the Apostles' Creed. His
two main doctrines were that God can be known
only through the study of the Bible and that sal-
v&tioD is won only through grace. The dialogue in
which he set forth these views, the Familiere ex-
position du symbol*, de la loi et dc I'oraiion domini-
cale, was, however, condemned by the Sorbonne
and was never published, although it is preserved
in manuscript in the Bibliotheque Nationale. to-
gether with its continuation, the Forme de visiles de
dioeise. Before this action on the part of the Sor-
bonne had become known to him, the bishop died
from injuries received while preaching at Mauleon,
K here a fanatic had hacked away the pulpit with an
ax. The only works of Roussel, besides those just
DOttttj were editions of the Aritlimelica of Boethius
(Paris, 1521) and of the Moralia magna of Aristotle
(1522). Q. Bonet-Maubt.
BiBLioaanpHr: Sources are: Beia's Hitt. eccUiiattigue dot
tolitct reform**!, 1580. new ed. by J. W. Baum and A. E.
Cuniti. 3 vols., Paha, 1883-80, alao, ed. P. Veason. 2
vols., Paris. 1882-33; and A. L. Herminjard. Corretpon-
dana det Rtformateurt, vols. i„ iti., v.-vii., ix (consult in-
dex). Geneva. 1878-07. Consult: C. Schmidt, Gerard!
Routsd, Htraaburg, 1845; Touaaaint du Plewis. Hist, da
rfolitt de Meaux, vol. i„ Pari*. 1731; H. Graf, Ettai tur
la vie et let ecritt dr. Leftvrt d'Elapltt, Strasburg, 1842;
E. and E. Haag. La France prolaatanle, ed. H. L. IV.r.liur.
Paris, 1877 sqq.: E. Doumergue. Jean Calvin, Lausanne,
1809; L, Delisle. Notice* et atraitt at la BibluAhiaut
nationale. vol. ravi.. Paris. 1890; G. Kawerau. in TSK.
1002 (on the letters of Sturm to Butter): V. L. Bourilly
and N. Weiss, in Bulletin du protetlantitme francait. 1903
(on the PnjteaUata and the Sorbonne): cl. alao the Bul-
letin, xiv„ p. di„ and 2 ser., x. 419; Liohtenberger, ESR,
xL 334-35.
ROUTH, routh, MARTIB JOSEPH: Church of
England; b. at South Klmharn (90 m. n.e. of Lon-
don), Suffolk, Sept. 18, 1755; d. at Oxford Dec. 22,
1854. He was educated at Oxford (B.A., 1771;
M.A., 1776; B.D., 1786). In 1791 he Hueeeeded to
the presidency of Magdalen College, Oxford. He
published the Reliquia sacrcr, fragments of the lost
Christian authors of the second and third centuries,
one of the most important and useful works upon
patristic literature, revealing the finest English
scholarship (4 vols., Oxford, 1814-18; 2d ed., 1846,
si:[)[!jf'iin.'ntary vol., 1848}; and Scriptorutn ecciew-
oMieonim opuscula (2 vols., 1832) ; and edited Bishop
Burnet's History of his Own Time (7 vols., 1823).
BiBUooBACat: J. W. Burgon, Livrt of Twelve Good A/en,
2 vola.. London. IS-HS; T. Mo.ley. Reminitecncei. chiefly
ofOritt and tht Oxford Movement, 2 vola,, ib. UUl DNS,
■lii. 324-326.
ROW, THOMAS: English Baptist hymnist; b. in
1786; d. at Little Grausden, Cambridgeshire, Jan.
3, 1864. He was pastor at Hadleigh, Suffolk, and,
after 1838, at Little Grausden. Republished CM-
OS! Spiritual Poems (London, 1817), containing 529
hymns; and Original and Evangelical Hymns (1822),
cuntriiiiing 543 hymns. They are Calvinistic in
type, and possess little poetic merit, but Home have
found their way into well-known collections.
Bib u oo m put: Julian, Humnologu, p. 070: DNB. xlix. 331.
ROWE, HENRY KALLOCH: Baptist; b. at
Dorchester, Mass., Nov. 30, 1869. He was educated
at Brown University (A.B., 1892; A.M., 1895),
Harvard (1892-93), and Boston University (Ph.D.,
1905). From 1893 to 1903 he was a teacher in
m- 'I'll ■lilies and private schools, after which he was
instructor in history in Boston University until
1906, since when he has been assistant professor of
church history in Newton Theological Institution,
Newton Center, Mass.
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOQ
ROWE, PETER TRIMBLE: Protestant Episco-
pal missionary bishop of Alaska; b. at Meadow villc,
Ont., Nov. 20, 1856. He was educated at Trinity
University, Toronto (B.A., 1878); was a mission-
ary at Garden River, Ont. (1876-82); a mnnanuy
at Sault Ste. Marie, Mich. (1882-95); and a com-
missioner of schools in Chippewa County, Mich.
(1890-94). In 1895 he was consecrated bishop of
the newly created missionary diocese of Alaska.
ROWLANDS, DANIEL: Welsh Methodist; b. at
Pan! ylirudy, pariah of Nautcwnlle (40 m. n.n.w.
of Snaiisni), Cardiganshire, Wales, in 1713; d. at
Llangcitho (41 m. n.w. of Swansea) Oct. 16. 1790.
Of his youth and early manhood nothing is known,
except that he studied at the grammar-school of
Hereford. Ordained deacon in London, 1733,
whither he traveled on foot, and priest, in 17,l.'i, he
became curate to his brother at Llangcitho. Some
time before 1736 he became curate at Ystrad Pfin,
Carmarthenshire, and presently began to organize
(Jul villi st ie Mr <h oil ist societ ie.-. Hi- Methodist iir real
cost him his curaey of Ystrad Ffin, but he received
instead that of Llanddewi Brefi, Cardiganshire. Is
1763 Bishop Squire suspended him from clerical func-
tions, and henceforth he preached in an improvised
building at Llangeitho. thronged for twenty-five
years by pilgrims from all parts of Wales in addition
to his congregation. He exercised an immense power
as a preacher, ranking next to George Whitclicld.
Once in his history a revival began with his RMufing
of the litany of the Church of England. At the
words, " By thine agony and bloody sweat, good
Lord, deliver us," the congregation began to weep
loudly. Eight .Sermons, translated from the Wcl-h.
were published (London, 1774); and Three Ser-
mons (1778; new ed. in Welsh, 1876, with
Bibuoorapbt: The beat memoir n thotjn the 1876 ed, of
the Sermons (ut sup.) in Welsh. Consult further: J.
Oweu, Memoir of the Rtv. Dtmid Rowlands. London.
1840; E, Motcbji, Ministerial Records; or, brief Acrinint
of the great Progress of Religion under . . . D. Rowlands
.... London. 1840; J. C. Ryle. Christian Leaders of
the Last Century, London. 1889: Owen Jones, Some of the
Great Preachers of Wales, London. 1885; DNB. xlix. 350-
351.
ROWLANDS, DAVID: Welsh Congregationalist;
b. at Geufron, Rhosybol, Anglesea, Mar. 4, 1836.
He was educated at the Independent College, Bala,
New College, London (B.A., University of London,
I860), and the Congregational Memorial College,
Brecon. He was ordained in 1861, and held Con-
gregational pastorates at the Welsh church in Llan-
lirytimiiir, Montgomeryshire (1861-67), and the
1 7 1 1 !_r r i .- 1 L eiuuvhes in Welshpool, M'juticorrii-rv.-luri-
(1867-71), and Carmarthen (1871-72). Since 1872
he has been connected with the Congregational
Memorial College, Brecon, Wales, where he baa been
professor of mathematics (1872-82), professor of
Creek Testament exegesis and church history
(1882-96), and principal and professor of Greek
Testament exegesis and practical theology (since
1896). He has been for many years adjudicator in
poetry and prose at the National Eisteddfod, and
has also been a member of the Gorsedd of the Bards
of the Isle of Britain, with the degree.1* of Druid
and Bard under the pseudonym of Dewi Mon, since
1863, and a member of the Honorable Socicly of
Cymmrodorion since 1874. In theology he is a
liberal conservative. He was associate editor of
Yr Annibynwr ("The Independent'1); Y Dyagc-
dydd (" The Instructor "; the monthly journal of
the Welsh (.'oiicrciMtionalist.s); Cumbrian Minstrel-
sie, a collection of Welsh airs, to which he contrib-
uted the notes and most of the Welsh and English
lyrics (6 vols.. Edinburgh, 1893); and Caniedydd
yr Ysgol Sid (" Sunday School Songster "), to which
he contributed many hymns (1898); and also ed-
ited Telyn Tudno (" Tudno's Harp "), the poetical
works of Tudno (Wrexham, 1897). In addition to
twelve volumes of sermons and his Men and H'ornrn
of the Old and New Testaments (6 vols., Manchester,
1904), special mention may be made of his Cmiia-
dau Serch (" Songs of the Affections," Bab, 18S4J;
Sermons on Historical Subjects (London, 1870);
Gramadeg Cymraeg (" Welsh Grammar "; Wrex-
ham 1874); Gwersi mewn Gramadeg (" Lessons in
Grammar"; Dolgelly, 1876); the librettos of the
late Joseph Parry's Emmanuel, Ariameen, lilod-
wtm, Joseph, and Paul; and the notes on I and 1 1
Thessolonians in the Bibl y Teulu (" Bible for the
Family "; Denbigh, 1906).
ROYCE, JOSIAH: Layman, philosopher; h. at
Grass Valley, Nevada Co., Cal., Nov. 20, 1855. He
was graduated from the University of California
(1875); was instructor in English literature and
logic in the same institution, 187S S2; instructor
and assistant professor at Harvard University,
1882-92; and has been professor of the history of
I'lnlii.-uphy there since 1892. He is the author of:
Religious Aspect of Philosophy: < 'riliqm: of the Bases
of Conduct and of Faith (Boston, 1885); California,
from the Conquest of 1846 to the Sternal Yitiilnntr
Committee in San Francisco (1886); Spirit of Mod-
ern Philosophy (1892); Conception of God: philo-
sophical Discussion concerning llie Nature of ilie Di-
vine Idea as a demonstrable Reality (in coll id viral inn
with others; New York, 1897); Studies of Good
and Evil: Essays upon Problems of Philosophy and
of Life (1898); Conception of Immortality (1900);
The World and the Individual (2 series, GUfod lec-
tures; London and New York, 1900-01); Outlines
of Psychology (1903) ; Herbert Spencer; an Estimate
and a Review (New York, 1904); Philosophy of
Loyally (1908); and Rare Question*, Proi-iiiciuti.im,
and Other American Questions (1908).
ROYSTON, PETER S0RENS0N: Church of
England; b. in London June 6, 1830. He was edu-
cated at St. Paul's School, London, and at Trinity
College, Cambridge (B.A., 1853; M.A., 1861; D.D.,
lf>72) ; was resident tutor in the Church Missionary
College, London, 1853-55; corresponding secretary
for the Church Missionary Srx'icly and incumbent of
that society's church at Madras, India, 1855-62 and
1866-71, during the same period editing the .1/ad-
ras Church Missionary Record; fellow of Madras
University, 1858-73; incumbent of St. Thomas'.
Mauritius, 1865; was chosen bishop of Mauri-
tius, 1872, resigning because of ill-health in 1891;
was assistant bishop to the bishop of Liverpool.
1891-1905; vicar of Childwall, 1896-1903, and rural
dean of Childwall, 1896-1903. He was also one of
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
the editors of the Proceeding* of the South Indian
Alieeumary Conference held in 1858.
RUBRICS (Lat. rubrics, from ruber, "red"): In
the ecclesiastical sense, the directions in service
books which show how, when, and where the van*
oua parta of the liturgy should be performed. The
name was derived from the fact that rubrics were
originally written in red, a custom which is now
almost obsolete. The word was borrowed from the
legal usage, according to which it waa applied
to the titles or headings of chapters in certain
RUCHAT, rfl-sha', ABRAHAM: Historian of the
Reformation in French Switzerland; b. at Grand-
eour (28 m. n.n.e. of Lausanne) Sept. IS, 1678; d.
at Lausanne Sept. 29, 1750. He waa educated at
Lausanne, and after being ordained in 1702 waa for
several years a teacher in Bern. In 1705 he se-
cured a scholarship which enabled him to travel,
and he accordingly studied for a time in Berlin, and
still longer in Leyden, during this period preparing
his GramtnaHea Hebraica facili methodo digesta
(Leyden, 1707). Returning to Switzerland, he
made his first essay in what was to prove his future
field in his Abrtgi de I'histoire eceU&iasiique du pays
de Vaud depute I'ilablissement du chrislinnifriif
fu&qu'a noire temps (Bern, 1707; Lausanne, 1838).
After being vicar in his native district, he was ap-
pointed minister at Aubonne in 1709, and in 1716
w-as called to the pastorate of Rolle, where he re-
mained more than twelve years. The sole produc-
tion of his pen during this period was his Dtlices de
la Suisse (4 vols., Leyden, 1714), a work which won
high praise and evoked equally strong OppottiJOB.
In 1721 Ruchat was appointed professor of elo-
quence at Lausanne, a position which carried with
it the rectorute of the Latin school. The Kucce.is
which his own hih-nts -liuulil have gained was, how-
ever, frustrated by the theological animosities of
the time, and be accordingly plunged into the his-
torical studies for which he had been collecting
materials for two decades. He now published the
first half (1516-36) of his Histoire de la reformation
en Suisse (6 vols., Geneva, 1727-28); but political
conditions forbade the publication of the entire
work, which extended to 1566, until a century
later, when the complete history was edited by
L. Vulliemin (7 vols., Lausanne, 1835-38; abridged
Eng. transl. by J. Collinson, London, 1845). In
1733 Ruchat became second professor of theology.
and was promoted to the first professorship fifteen
years later. During this period of his career his
wri lings were mainly theological and in the do-
mains of polemics ami Old-Testament theology.
To the former category belong his Ezamen de Vori-
gfititme (Lausanne, 1733) and the anti- Roman
Catholic Lettree H monuments de troie peree apo»-
toliquee (2 vols., Leyden, 1738; translations of the
epistles of Clement. Ignatius, and Polycarp and
the martyrdoms of the two latter, with excursuses
attacking the Roman Catholic Church); to the
tatter, among others, his Traill dee paids, des mesures
et des monnoyes donl if est parU duns rtcriturr nainlt
(Lausanne, 1743). He took an active interest in
missions to the Jews, while his leisure was devoted
to studies in Swiss history, especially of the medi-
eval period, the results being contained in manu-
script in the libraries of Bern and Lausanne.
Ruchat's Dflices dc la Suisse and Histoire de la
reformation m .s'mi'ssc wen:1 placed on the Icdsx, and
two unnamed Jesuits sought, in 1724, formally to
refill i* his history of the K if urination in Vaud. In
addition to the works already noted, mention may
be made of his anonymous French translations from
i hi- Knwlish and Spanish of works of J. Beeverell
and J. Alvarez de Colmenar under the respective
titles Delicts de la Grande Brelagne et de I'Irlande
(8 vols., Leyden, 1707) and Delieee de VEspagne et
du Portugal (5 vols., 1707).
(H. Vir-LLEtrMTEIt.)
Bridel.inConMTHifm-iMUM, vol. »iv(1828);
by L. Vulliemin in his ed. of the ttiM. dt la
423-448. IMS; E. Secretin,
Qalm
. 680-690, Una
1874; P. '
pp. 17S-17B. Puns,
■aire dt la S
1889; V. BoS.ll. Hi*
53 nqq.. ib. 1890; Lichtenberger. ESS, xi. 342-346.
RDCHRATH, JOHAriN. See Wesel, John op.
RUDELBACH, ru'del-bOH, AHDREASGOTTLOB:
Dano-Gennan Lutheran; b. at Copenhagen LSept.
29, 1792; d. at Slagelse (50 m. s.w. of Copenhagen),
Zealand, Mar. 3, 1862. He was educated at the
university of his native city, where he became
privat-doccnt. During this period he edited, in col-
laboration with N. F. S. Grundtvig, the Theologiek
Maanedskrift (13 vols., 1825 sqq.), and in 1829 was
called to the pastorate of Glauchau, Saxony, where
he powerfully aided religious awakening and revolt
against the rationalism of the period, though at the
same time he opposed any formal separation from
the Lutheran Church. In 1830 he aided in found-
ing the Muldenthal pastoral conference, but oppo-
sition gradually developed against him, largely on
account of his uncompromising Lutheranism, and
in 1845 he gladly resigned his pastorate and re-
turned to Denmark. From 1846 to 1848 he lec-
tured at the University of Copenhagen on dog-
matics and introduction, but the death of his royal
patron in the latter year exposed him to the at-
tacks of those who regarded him as a German and
a traitor. He accordingly accepted a call to the
pastorate of Slagelse, where he passed the remain-
der of his life.
He edited the Ztitschrifl fur die gesammle Itdher-
ische Theologie und Kirche (in collaboration with
H. E. F. Guericke, Leipsie, 1839 sqq.) and Christ-
liche Biographic, i (1849), and wrote, in addition to
the works already mentioned and several volumes
of sermons: Hiermymu* Savonarola und seine Zeit
(Hamburg, 1835); Reformation, Luthertum und
Union (Leipsie, 1839); HistoriscAe-JtritijteA* Ein-
leituiig in die Avgsburtjitehe Konfession (Dresden,
1841); Amtliehes Gutachten uber die Wiederein-
fuhrung der Kateehiemus-Exanrina im Kdnigreich
Sachsen, nsosf historischer Erdrtening dcr Katlirchis-
mus-Anstalten in der evangelisclt-lutherischen Kirch*
Devtschlande (1841); and Om Psalme- Literatures
og Paalmebogs-Sagen, historisk-kritiske Undersogetser
(Copenhagen, 1856). ' (Oswald ScmoDTt.)
Bibijoosaphi: An sutobioartphy win projected, and Its
publication aa " Contention! " begun in the ZrUtchrift /Or
fuUerucA* Thtologit und Kirvhe. 1841, j. 1 aqq.. il. 001
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOQ
aqq,, 1802, iii. 401 aqq.. and continued (ed. C. R. Kiiiei
from author"* manuscript) in NKZ, 1902, pp. 163-180.
BW AMI (goes to end ot univeraity period). Conault:
C. R. Kaiser, Andreas Ootllob RvdtOach. Leipajc, 1
J. R. Stockholm, in Kirkdig Kalmdar Jot Nnrgt. pp. 36-
,. 1ST 7 (:
Nor
a Mo
1, Bibiiatbtca ZucAoU,
1095, Gfittingeu. 1864.
RUDIH, ERIC GEORG VALDEHAR NAPOLEON :
Swedish Lutheran; b. at Oesterryd, Oestergijtland,
July 20, 1833. He was educated at the University
of Upsala, being graduated from the philosophical
course in 1857 and from the theological two years
later. He was then secretary of the National Evan-
gelical Society at Stockholm (1859-62), and direc-
tor of the Foreign Missionary Society id the same
city (lsti'2-tJH), after which be was vice-chaplain
of St. Clara's, Stockholm, until 1872. In 1872 he
"became privat-docent at the University of Upsala,
where he was made adjunct in theology in 1875;
-was associate professor of exegetical theology
(1677-93), and from 1893 until his retirement as
professor emeritus in 1900 was full professor of the
name subject. He was appointed court preacher
in 1873 and in 1886 was made provost. In 1883
he became a member of the committee for the re-
vision of the Swedish translation of the Old Testa-
ment. In theology he is a moderate Lutheran,
friendly to the Biblical theology of Beck and to the
mystics. He has written " Intimations of Eter-
nity " (Stockholm, 1872); " Biblical Psychology,"
■ (Upsala, 1875); "Life of Sb'ren Kierkegaard"
(1880); "Synopsis of the Gospels" (1881); "Gos-
pel of Marl " (1883); " Introduction to Old Testa-
ment Prophecy" (1884); "Commentary on the
Minor Prophets" (1884); "Discussions on Theo-
logical ami Erclcsiassticul Subjects " (2 parts, 1885-
1886); and " Survey of the Scriptural History of
the Old Testament " (1886).
RUDOLF OF EMS: German poet and writer of
the thirteenth century. The details of bia life are
unknown, except that he was probably a Swim by
birth and that his death occurred between 1250 and
1254 at some place unknown while he was in the
company of Emperor Conrad IV. He was, how-
ever, one of the most fruitful poets of his period,
and also entered the field of historical writing, be-
sides working in the field of Biblical history (see
Historical Bibles). Among his poems are Der
gute Gerhard (ed. M. Haupt, Leipsic, 1840; Germ.
tranals. by Lerech, Bonn, 1847, and K. Simrock,
2d ed., Stuttgart, 1864), which exalts the grace of
Christian humility; and BaarUtam und Josaphat
(ed. F. K. Kfipke, Berlin, 1818, and F. Pfeiffer,
Leipsic, 1843), a retelling of that story (see Baah-
Laam AND Josaphat for analysis and literature).
Of liij historical works the two of interest are Wil-
lehalm von Orlens (ed. V. Junk, Berlin, 1905), and
~\Yt:!l'hrot:ih. (Indicated to Conrad IV. (only frag-
ments have been published for this — for a list of
these cf. Potthast, Wegweuer, pp. 986-987), which
told the i-tory of the Old Testament as for as the
death of Solomon. This was much used for a time,
but was combined with the much poorer work of
on unknown writer to its own detriment.
Biblichjiiifht: A. F. C. Valmar, Dit mm Rerrntitmm und
BaHtUchriftrrlitmihm drr WettchronBc Rudolph* von Em,
Marburg, 1B39; Zacher, in ZnUchriJi fur dtvUcht PhOot-
egie, ix (1877), 401-171; O. Doberenta, in the aiLme, iii
(18SO). 257-301, 387-464, xtii (1881), 29-67. 166-223:
V. Zeidler, Die QueUm nm Rudoifi am Ems WUhdrn Don
Orient, Berlin, 1894.
HUDOLPH, ROBERT LP/raGSTOH: Reformed
Episcopal bishop-coadjutor of the New York and
Philadelphia Synod; b. in New York City Dec. 29,
1865. He was educated at New York Dktiventty
(B.A., 1892) and the Reformed Episcopal Theolog-
ical Seminary, Philadelphia, from which he was
graduated in 1894, also taking a past-graduate
a at Princeton Theological Seminary, and later
studying at Erlangen. He became assistant pastor
of the First Reformed Episcopal Church, New York
City, in 1895, and in 1903 was appointed professor
of systematic theology and Christian ethics in the
Reformed Episcopal Theological Seminary, Phila-
delphia, still retaining his pastorate. In 1896 he
i made secretary of the New York and Phila-
delphia Synod and held this position until 1908,
when, without resigning his professorship, he was
mode bishop of the same synod.
RUECKERT, ruc-kert, KARL THEODOR: Ger-
man Roman Catholic; b. at Beckstein (a village
near Konigshofen, 17 m. s.e. of Wcrtheim'l, Baden,
Feb. 2, 1840; d. at Freiburg Nov. 8, 1907. He
was educated at the University of Freiburg from
1859 to 1862 (D.D., 1865), and, after being engaged
in pastoral and state duties from 1863, was a pro-
fessor at the gymnasia of Taubcrbischofsheini and
Freiburg until 1880, when he became privat-docent
at the University of Freiburg, still retaining his
gymnasial professorship, however, until 1890, when
he was appointed associate professor of NeW-Tori*
ment literature at the University, where he was
promoted to a full professorship of the same sub-
ject in 1895. He wrote Die Qudlen der Apotlelge-
schichte (Freiburg, 1865); Die Religion vom apolo-
gettichen Slandpunkl (Tubingen, 1874); Nach
Paldstina und fiber Libanon (Mainz, 1881); Nach
Nordafrika (Wilraburg, 1898); and Die Lage des
Serges Sum (Freiburg, 1898).
RUECKERT, LEOPOLD IMMANUEL: German
Lutheran; b, at Grosshennersdorf (a village near
Hermhut) Feb. I, 1797; "d. at Jena Apr. 9, 1871,
His first education was received from the Mora-
vians and was completed at Leipsic (1814-17).
After being a private tutor in Niederlausits and
Juterbog, and after preaching at Berlin, he became
deacon of his native village in 1819. He earnestly
desired on academic position, but as this was itn-
l>ii>!-ii.].' fur the time being, he set forth his irlcidn
of a teacher in a series of works which included
ChrUtliehe Philaxophie, oder Philonophit, Gesrhirhte
und Bibel nach ihren wahren Beziehungen zu einan-
der (2 vols., Leipsic, 1825). In 1825 Ruckert was
appointed a teacher in the gymnasium at Zittau.
There he taught Hebrew, French, history, mathe-
matics, and science, and studied not only Plato,
whose Symposium he edited (Leipsic, 1828), but
also the New Testament, especially the Pauline
writings, publishing commentaries on Romans,
Gala Hans, Ephesians, and Corinthians (5 vols.,
Leipsic, 1831-37). After having been suggested,
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
a 1832
but not accepted, as a professor in Erlangen
and at Greifswald in 1836, he became toe
of F. L. O. Baumgarten-Crusius at Jena in 1844.
Here, besides his academic duties., he preached fre-
quently, some of his sermons being collected in bis
Seeks Zeiipredigten in den Jahren I848 und I84B
gehaUen (Jena, 1850) and Kleins Au/siUze fiir christ-
Ixeke Bdehrung und Erbauung (Berlin, 1861). After
the stormy year of 1848 Rllckert wrote his Theo-
logie (2 parte, Lcipsic, 1851), which was essentially
a scientific picture of the ideal life, pnicticiil lift',
and the life revealed and rendered possible to man
through Christ, and not the conventional dogmatic
or ethical theological treatise. Certain portions of
this work were further elucidated in his Das Abend-
maid, sein Wesen und seine Gttchichte in der alien
Kirche (Leipsic, 1856), and his Bilchlein von der
Kirehe (Jena, 1857). His theological point of view
receives its full expression in his Der Rationalumus
(Leipsic, 1859). It should also be noted that
in his Lutaers Verhdltnis zum augsburgiscken
BekennntU (Jena, 1854) he sought to prove that
the Augsburg Confession could not truly be called
Luther's.
Rilckert held in exegesis that a prime factor was
the ability of the scholar so to identify himself with
his subject as to 'have no idea of his own which
should diverge from the subject in question; he
denied the existence of any evidence beyond the
sphere of morals; and be regarded Christ merely
as a man of surpassing goodness wbo gave his life
for the moral regeneration of his race. His ration-
alism, however, was regarded by him as ethical, or
Christian, and as opposed to the older empirical
system. Bo deemed it to consist solely in search
(or facts and their truths, and to be hindered by no
Authority from clinging to the truths thus ascer-
tained. He accordingly advocated a critical proc-
ess of simple investigation, neither believing nor
denying, but accepting what seemed to be credible
and rejecting all else. Portions of Rflckcrt's com-
mentary on I Cor. were translated into Ewrlish by
B. B. Edwards in the Selections from German Litera-
ture prepared by him and E. A. Park (Andover,
1839). (Q. FBANxt)
_, Jenaitcher Uninerrit&u-Al-
; J. Gonlhor, Lrbrmtiam der
Jena, p. <3. lb. 1S5S; G. Frank,
Die iuiaiichi Thtalagir. p. 125, Leipain. IflnH; <\ Ki-hwnrj.
Zur GaeniiMe der neuaten Thealogit, p. 4S2, ib. 1869.
RCEDDJGER (RUEDIGER), ru'ding-er, ESROH:
German Protestant theologian anil educator; b. at
Bamberg May 19, 1523; d. at Nuremberg Jan. 2,
1590. He was educated at Leipsic, and after being
tutor to the children of Joachim Camerarius (q.v.)
was privatniocent at Leipsic in 1546-47 and second
teacher at Schulpforta in 1547-48, raassuming
his position at Leipsic that he might marry the
-eldest daughter of Camerarius. From 1549 to 1557
be was rector of the school at Zwickau, but bis
theological position as a firm Philippist brought him
into conflict with strict Lutherans, especially as he
taught the necessity of good works. It was a wel-
come change, therefore, when he was called in
1557 to be professor of physics at Wittenberg, where
be also lectured on ethics and the interpretation of
Latin authors. In 1570 be became professor of
Greek, and was dean of the philosophical faculty
in 1559 and 1570 and rector in 1562. He became
involved, however, in the eucharistic controversy
between the Lutherans and the Philippics in 1571.
and was imprisoned for a short time at Torgau for
refusing to sign the " Torgau Articles." He was
permitted to return to Wittenberg, and then, though
forbidden to leave the city, ho fled to Berlin. De-
clining offers from Basel and Heidelberg, ho ac-
cepted the rectorate of a school newly erected at
Eibenschitz (12 m. s.w. of Brunn) for young nobles
of the Bohemian Brethren and Moravians. The
school finally became offensive to the nascent Ro-
man Catholic reaction, and though in 1578 an im-
perial command to close the institution was disre-
garded, a sharper order, issued on Jan. 22, USSSj
directing that Itlldinger be arrested and placer! in
the custody of the bishop of Olmiltz, caused him to
take refuge with Frederick of Zerotin. There be
remained until 15SS, when his widowed sister in-
vited him to spend the remainder of his life with
her at Nuremberg.
Rudinger's principal theological works were the
following: Li&rt Paalmorum paraphraais Latina
(Gorlitz, 1581); Endexion, tunica funebria ex Ida
Parodist ad dextram crucia Christi (Nuremberg,
1591); De origine ubiquilatis pit et eruditi eaftudam
viri traetatio (Geneva, 1597); and De/ratrum ortho-
dozorum in Bohemia et Moravia ecdeeialia narra-
tiuncula, in the Hislorica narrotio de frotrum ortho-
doxorum ccclctriix in Bohemia, Moravia et Polonia
of J. Camerarius (Heidelberg, 1605). A number of
theological works (especially on predestination, the
" Torgau Articles," and the De Jean Christo mar-
tyre) are contained in the Collectio Camerariana in
the Royal Library at Munich. (E. Fabian.)
Bibuodr.phi: A. Strobel, JT™ Beitragi iur Lilteratvr da
10. JaJirkundrrit, vol. it. pnrt 1, 6 vols., Nuremberg,
I7BO-Q4; M. Aiiamus, Vila Germunor-um phiintophOTUm.
pp. 372-373. Heidelberg. 1B15: J. F. Kfihler. in Dretdentr
G/itfirttn Amricni, 1790, parts jjiv-nviii.; J. F. A.
Gilfcl, Crato von \Crafflhtim. 2 vols., Frankfort, 1880;
H. Ball, Dm Schulaaen der b'-hmi*chcn BrOder. Berlin,
1898.
RUEETSCHL ruefshl, RUDOLF: Swiss Protes-
tant; b. at Bern Dec. 3, 1820; d. there 1903. He
was educated at tho universities of Bern, Berlin,
and Tubingen; and in 1842 became vicar, first in
the country and later at Bern. In 1845 he became
privat-docent for Old-Testament theology at Uie
university of his native city; and during thi- |>rri nil
edited the Biblische Dogmatik of his teacher, J. L.
S. Lutz (Pforzheim, 1847). Next, Ruetschi was
pastor at Trub (1848-53), Kirchborg in Oberaargau
(1853-67), and at the Cathedral of Bern (1867-97).
As a theologian he belonged to the intermediate
party, midway between the extremes of conserva-
tism and rationalism. In 1878 he received an hon-
orary professorship at Bern, where lie lectured on
Semitics, and on the history of Israel from the
exile to the time of Christ. He took an active part
in a SwisB translation of the Bible, of which only
the New Testament appeared, and translated Eccle-
siastes for £. Kautssch's Die heUige Scnrifl dea Allen
Testament* (Freiburg-im-Breisgau, 1892-94). He
retired from active life in 1897. (W- Hadobw.)
Buet
Xtunftnift
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
110
RUET, rt-et', FRANCISCO DE PAULA: Spanish
Protestant; b. at Barcelona Oct. 28, 1826; d. at
Madrid Nov. 18, 1878. After a meager education
he became a strolling player, and about 1841 aban-
doned Roman Catholicism for Waldenaian teach-
ings at Turin, where he prepared himself for the
ministry. The revolution in 1855 rendered it pos-
sible for Ruet to reenter Spain, and he preached
for a month at Barcelona. He was imprisoned, first
by the governor, and again by the captain general,
and the political reaction a few weeks later ren-
dered it possible for the bishop of Barcelona to cite
him before the spiritual court, which, after he had
been in prison seven months, sentenced him to the
stake for heresy. As such a sentence could no
longer be executed in Spain, it was changed, Sept.
18, 1856, to perpetual banishment. Forming a small
Protestant community among the Spaniards at
Gibraltar, where Ruet was ordained by a Walden-
aian committee, he made it a center for the dissemi-
nation of Protestantism in Spain. Intercepted by
the rigid watch on the Spanish border, Ruet left,
and first preached to his countrymen during the
London exposition, and later went under the aus-
pices of a French committee to Algiers, working
among the thousands of Spaniards there, as well as
in Blidah and Oran. At the liberation of Spain in
1868-69, he returned and founded the Protestant
church at Madrid. The French committee being no
longer able to assist him after 1870, Ruet entered
the service of the German missionary society and
labored zealously in a chapel purchased for him in
1874 by German friends. (Fritz Fliedner-}-.)
RUFINUS, ru-fai'nus, TYRANNIUS: Latin eccle-
siastical writer; b. near Aquileia, in Venetia, at the
head of the Adriatic, about 345; d. in Sicily about
410. He seems to have obtained his education at
Rome, and in 370 or 371 received baptism in a
monastery at his native place; at this time he was
a friend of Jerome. He left Aquileia probably in
373 for Egypt bent on the practise of asceticism,
and, some think, in company with a certain Me-
lania, a rich Roman lady, who, enamored of the
ascetic life, devoted her property to the service of
the saints of Christ. He visited the celebrated her-
mits of the Scetic and Nitrian deserts and was there
during the time of persecution under Lucius, the
Arian bishop, opponent of the Alexandrian Pa-
triarch Peter, meanwhile studying under Didymus
the Blind of Alexandria (q.v.). Possibly in 379 he
went to Palestine and settled on the Mount of Olives
and devoted himself to ministrations to the pil-
grims to the place. Not long before 394 he was
made presbyter by Bishop John of Jerusalem. In
the dissension between John of Jerusalem and Epi-
phanius of Salamis, Rufinus took the side of John, an
action which interrupted his friendship with Jerome,
though this was once more cemented. When he
returned home again, it is not impossible that Me-
lania was again in his company, though the ex-
pression in a letter of Paulinus of Nola (in CSEL,
xxix. 246, 1), in which Rufinus is called " attendant
on the spiritual journey of Melania," is susceptible
of another interpretation. Rufinus appears next
at the cloister of Pinetum near Terracina, where at
the wish of the Abbot Ursacius he adapted the rules
of Basil in Latin for the monks. A certain Macarius
desired him to translate the works of Origen. He
translated the first book of the Apology (for Origen)
by Pamphilus, and followed this with a translation
of Origen's Peri archdn, the first draft of which he
completed in 398 or 399. Rufinus saw that this*
engagement with the works of Origen might bring
him into disrepute, especially at a time when Origen
was not in favor; yet at the urgency of Macarius,
he carried the work through. The unfinished manu-
script, according to the report of Rufinus, was pur-
loined and sent to Jerome by some friends of the
latter, who at once set to work on a translation
which should show the inadequacy of that of Ru-
finus, accompanying the transmission of this with
a long letter (no. lxxxiv., Eng. transl. in NPNF, 2
ser., vi. 175-181); Jerome also wrote a letter to
Rufinus (no. lxxi., Eng. transl., ut sup., p. 170),
which was suppressed by the false friend, who took
advantage of the absence of Rufinus; meanwhile
Rufinus was under deep suspicion on account of his
supposed leaning toward Origenism. Rufinus
learned of Jerome's letter and wrote to a friend at
Rome, Apronianus, not for publication, however, in
sharp terms against Jerome; Pammachius and
Marcella, the friends of Jerome, learned enough of
it to send a report of the writing to Jerome. The
latter then wrote the first two books of his " Apol-
ogy " answered by a letter to Jerome, who then
wrote the third book of the " Apology." Rufinus
spent most of the remaining years of his life in
Aquileia, and added new friends to the old who
still stood by him, to some of whom he dedicated
further labors in translation and original work.
With old age he desired to visit again the holy
places, but got no farther than Sicily when he died.
The dispute with Jerome brought a shadow upon
Rufinus1 life in the Church. Pope Gelasius held
that while Rufinus' books contained much good,
Jerome's estimate must stand (MPL, lix. 75) ; but
Gennadius praised him (De vir. ill., xvii.) and his
Latin. Of independent works may be named, be-
sides the two books against Origen's " Apology,"
the continuation of Eusebius' " Church History,"
covering the period 324-395, which is valuable in
spite of its defects; CommerUariue in eymbolum
apostolorumy the earliest treatment of assured date
in Latin dealing with exposition of the symbol, but
dependent upon Cyril of Jerusalem; De benedic-
Honibus patriarcharum, in which the mystical in-
terpretation rules, written at the request of a Pau-
linus, probably not Paulinus of Nola. Concerning
the translations made by Rufinus it is to be remem-
bered that he never strove to give an exact render-
ing. He translated numerous exegetical works of
Origen (Homilies on Gen -Num., Josh., Judges,
Psalms, and the Song, and the commentary on
Romans); he saved for us the Peri archdn; the
" Apology " of Pamphilus he called De adulterationc
librorum Origenis, really the title of the preface,
screening himself with the suspicion that the here-
tics had interpolated or changed Origen's state-
ments. In the translation of the Dialogue de recta
fide he is adjudged more faithful to his text than
in the other works of Origen. Greater congeniality
Ill
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bnet
Rumania
seems manifested in the rendering of the " Church
History " of Eusebius in nine (not ten) books; and
the translation is of value for text-critical purposes
in spite of the freedom occasionally allowed him-
self by the translator. He felt no satisfaction in
rendering the Clementine Recognitions. Out of
Basil's Institute monachorum he translated a series
of homilies, also rendering some homilies of Gregory
Nazianzen, some Sententice of Evagrius Ponticus
(possibly the Liber centum sententiarum). He put
into Latin the Sententice ad eos qui in camobiis et
xenodochiis habitant fratres and the Sententice ad
virgines. The " Sentences of Siztus " mentioned by
Origen and used by Porphyry were also translated
by him, with the addition of a prologue, and at-
tributed to Sixtus II. of Rome, though they were
the product of a Pythagorean philosopher (cf. F. C.
Conybeare, The Ring of Pope Xystus, together with
the Prologue of Rufinus, now first rendered into Eng-
lish, with an historical and critical Commentary,
London, 1010) . For this he was severely handled by
Jerome. It is a long-standing cause of debate
whether the Historia monachorum is Rufinus' own or
a translation from a Greek work, with the probabili-
ties now tending in favor of the second alternative,
though the translation is unquestionably by Rufinus.
Still an open question is whether the old Latin rend-
ering of Josephus' " War of the Jews " is to be
attributed to Rufinus. Works not by him, but in
the list of his works, are Commentarius in Ixxv
Davidis psalmos (probably by the Gallic Presbyter
Vincentius of the second half of the fifth century) ;
Commentarius in prophetas . . . Osee, Joel et Amos;
Vita sanctcB Eugenia virginis ac martyris; and two
writings entitled Defide. (G. KbOgeb.)
Bibliography: The complete works of Rufinus have never
been published. Parte were edited by L. de la Barre,
Paris, 1580; a fuller edition is by D. Vallarsi, Verona,
1745, this being taken into MPL, xxL, with the Vita
of J. Fontanini (originally published Rome, 1742) and
that by C. T. Q. Sohoenemann (Ldpric, 1792). A critical
edition of the Latin translation of Eusebius is by T.
Mommsen, vol. i., Leipsic, 1903; one of the Commentarius
in symbolum apostolorum, with Notes by C. Whittaker, also
Translation, 2 parts, London, 1908. Translations into
English of selected works are in NPNF, 2 ser., iii. 405-
568.
8ources for a life are Rufinus* own works; Jerome's
"Apology against Rufinus," Eng. transl. in NPNF, 2
ser., iii. 482-540, and his Epistles (nos. 3-5, 51, 57, 80-
84, 97, 125, 133); Augustine, Epist., briii., clvi.; Oen-
nadius, De seriptoribus ecclesiasticis, xvii., Eng. transl. in
NPNF. 2 ser.. iii. 389. Consult further: A. Ebert, AU-
Oemexne GesehiehU der Litterotur dee Mittetolters, i. 321-
327, Leipsic 1889; J. F. B. M. de Rubeis, Dissertotiones
dues, pp. 1-100, Venice, 1754; H. Bruell, De Tyrannii
Rufini . . . Commentario in symbolum apostolorum,
Daren. 1872-79; F. Kattenbusch, Beitrage *ur GesehiehU
dm altkirthliehen Tauf symbols, pp. 27-32, Oiessen, 1892;
B. Csapla, Gennadius ale Litterarhistoriker, pp. 27-28, 44
sqq., 95. If Qnster, 1898; C. Schmidt, in GGA, cbri (1899),
7-27; P. Reinelt, Studien fiber die Brief e dee . . . Paur
hnue eon Nola, Breslau, 1904; M. Schans, GesehiehU der
romisehen Litterotur, iv. 1, pp. 371-387, Munich, 1904;
Bardenhewer, Patrologie, pp. 397-400, Eng. transl., St
Louie, 1908; Kruger, History, passim; DCB, iv. 555-561;
KL, x. 1353-56; Ceillier, AuUurs sacris, vii. 448-484, et
passim; Harnack, Dogma, vols, iii.— iv. passim; Schaff,
Christian Church, iii. 701 . 884, 984 note; Neander, Christian
Church, vols. L— iii. passim.
RUIHART, rwf'nar, THIERRI: French Benedic-
tine; b. at Reims June 10, 1657; d. at the monas-
tery of Hautvilliere, near Reims, Sept. 27, 1709.
He entered the Benedictine abbey of St. Remy in
1674, made his profession in 1675, and in 1682 was
called to the great Maurist center of learning, St.
Gennain-des-Pres, at the instance of Jean Mabillon
(q.v.), to whom he was pupil, co-worker, and biog-
rapher. His life was a quiet one, broken only by
two journeys — to Alsace in 1696 and to Champagne
in 1709 — for material for his works. The first of
these was the Acta primorum martyrum sincere et
8electa (Paris, 1689; 2d revised ed., Amsterdam,
1713), which was followed by the Historia perse-
cuHonis VandaliccB (1694) and the Gregorii episcopi
Turonensis opera omnia necnon Fredegarii scholastici
epitome et chronicum (1699). Ruinart collaborated
with J. Mabillon in the eighth and ninth volumes
of the Acta sanctorum ordinis sancti Benedicti (1701),
and also prepared the second edition of Mabillon 'a
De re diplomatica (1709), which he had previously
defended in his Ecclesia Parisiensis vindicata (1706).
He likewise wrote an admirable Abrege' de la vie de
D. Jean McbiUon (1709); but his intention of ed-
iting the fifth volume of the Annates ordinis Sancti
Benedicti was frustrated by his death. The work
was prepared by Rene" Massuet (Paris, 1713), who
placed Ruinart's biography in the preface. An in-
teresting diary of Ruinart's on the history of the
Benedictine edition of Augustine has been edited by
A. M. P. Ingold as an appendix to his Histoire de
V edition BenSdictine de S. Augustin (pp. 154-193,
1903) . Ruinart wrote also Apologie de la mission de S.
Maur, apostre des Benedictine en France (1702), as
well as three treatises: Disquisitio historica de pallio
archiepiscopali; VitabeatiUrbanipapalL; and Iter
litterarium in Alsatiam et Lotharingiam, all in
Outrages posthumes de Mabillon et de Ruinart, vols.
ii- — iii. (1724); and many letters, edited by E. Gigas,
Lettres des bfrtfdictins de SaintrMaur (2 vols., Copen-
hagen, 1892-93), also in Correspondance inedite de
Mabillon et de Montfaucon (3 vols., Paris, 1846).
(G. ItAUBMANNf.)
Bibuoorapht: A life by R. Massuet is in the Annates de
Vordre de S. Bennoit, vol. v. Consult further: G. Lori-
quet, he Cardinal de Bouillon . . . et T. Ruinart dans
r affaire de rhist. oenerale de la maison oVAuvergne, Reims,
1870; H. Jadart, Dom Thierry Ruinart. ib. 1886; E. de
Broglie, Mabillon et la sociiU de Saint-Germain des Pr4st
2 vols.. Paris, 1888; J. B. Vanel. Lee Bentdictines de
Saint-Maur, pp. 87-90, ib. 1896; Lichtenberger, ESR,
xi. 348-360.
RULE OF FAITH. See Regula Fidei.
RULIKG ELDERS. See Laity; and Presbyte-
rians, x., 2, § 2 (4).
RULMAH MERSWIN. See Friends of God.
RUMANIA: A kingdom (after 1881) in south-
eastern Europe, between Russia on the north and
Bulgaria on the south, and the Black Sea and Rus-
sia on the east and Austria-Hungary and Servia on
the west; area, 50,720 square miles; population
(1907), 6,684,265. Not including the Russian sect
of the Lipovanians and the Roman Catholics, each
numbering about 140,000 to 150,000, the Christian
population is of the Orthodox Greek Church, which
is the State Church. Art. 7 of the Constitution of
1866 provides that variance in religious confession
shall constitute no hindrance to civil and political
rights; and art. 20 assures freedom of all religions,
Sup«rt of Dsut*
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
in so far aa their exercise does not violate public
order or good morale. Further, it is provided that
the Orthodox Church is independent of all foreign
supervision, while thoroughly maintaining the unity
'with the ecumenical Church of the East in the
sphere of doctrine. As early as 1854, subordination
to the patriarchate of Constantinople was declared
to be abolished, and the church of the land to
be independent, national, and autoccphalous, this
in order to avert outside political influence and
unforeseen protection. For purposes of self-govern-
ment the holy synod was organized, whose constitu-
ent members are the metropolitan primate of Hun-
gary-Wallachia, or the archbishop of Bucharest;
the metropolitan of Moldavia and Suxava, or the
archbishop of Jassy; the three episcopal eparchs
of Wallachia, respectively Rimnic-Valcei, Buzeu,
mid Arjieh; and those of Moldavia, respectively,
Roman, Galatz, and Hush. The synod convenes
twice a year, with the minister of worship in at-
tendance. These eight dioceses embrace 3,670
parishes, 370 of which are in the cities. In round
numbers there are 8,000 priests. The clergy also
comprises about 600 monks, distributed in four
notable cloisters of Moldavia and five in Wallachia,
in addition to which there are 160 small cerioSniicd
abodes with two to four inmates to each. The ed-
ucation of the clergy is provided by six seminaries
•with a curriculum of four years and by the theo-
logical faculty of the University of Bucharest. The
other university, at Jassy, makes no such provision.
The archbishops are elected by popular representa-
tives and the boyars (privileged classes) of the first
class; and the bishops are appointed by the arch-
bishops. By action of the synod in agreement with
the state government, each diocese also receives a
titular bishop as an alternate to the highest digni-
tary. Although the State, in 1664, sequestered
most of the cloistral estates, it contributes only
email amounts for the support of the bishops, and
the parish clergy depend exclusively on the pro-
ceeds of the parochial real estate and the surplice
The Roman Catholic Church, influential, espe-
cially in Moldavia, till after the Middle Ages, lost
the bulk of its following; but by immigration in
the nineteenth century it has entered a more marked
development. By 1818 Jassy had become the seat
of a papal vicariate, and in 1884 of a bishopric em-
bracing 26 parishes, most of which are in the south-
ern part of the diocese, and are supplied mainly
■with Minorite pastors. This bishopric has about
90,000 Roman Catholics. The bishopric of Wal-
lachia did not originate until 1883, when it was de-
tached from that of Nicopolia in Bulgaria and
erected into an archbishopric; although there are
only IS parishes and somewhat above 50,000 mem-
bers. Evangelical Christians are much scattered,
especially in Moldavia. Their number is estimated
St 25,000 to 26,000, including about 8,000 Magyar
Oalvinists. There are from 15,000 to 16,000 Ger-
man Evangelicals, and a small number of Method-
ists, Anglicans, and Presbyterians, principally at
Bucharest and Galatz. Owing to the immigration
from Transylvania, the German Protestants have a
Congregation in Bucharest of about 8,000, whoso
formal constitution, together with the school estab-
lishments, was confirmed by the German and Aus-
trian consuls-general. Other congregations in Wal-
lachia are at Crajova, Turnu-Severin, Rimnic, and
Brails. There has been one at Jassy, Moldavia,
since 1754, now including six branch congregations,
and there is one equal in size at Galatz. There are
three congregations in the Dobrudja district (east
of the Danube), among them, that of the port
Constantsa. There is no synodical bond between
these church communities. Excepting Budiar./.-t,
they have subjoined themselves to the superior
church council of Berlin (see Prussia, III., 1, $1),
and are related with the pastors of Rumclia and
Bulgaria through conferences. The Jews, in spite
of much emigration to the United States, number
about 260,000. In 1878 they obtained an equality
of status with the Christians, but can acquire no
real estate before the end of a naturalization term
of ten years. There arc from 44,000 to 45,000 Mo-
hammedans in the country (43,470 iu 1900), mostly
in the Dobrudja. where they have many mosques.
Armenians (16,598 in 1900) have a few small con-
gregations in the two capitals and the ports of the
Danube. (Wilheim GoTst).
Bibuoobafhy: J. Samuelaon, Ammonia Paul and Prrttnt,
London. I8S2; J. H. A. Ubirini, La Original dr VhiH.
raumaiTW, Puis, 1888; R. Bei-gritr. 7fum.in.tn, Bnulnu,
1387; T. Tunm, Utberdtn Urtprmg dcr flumaiwn. Bona,
1891; W. Miller, The Ilalkam. Roumania, London and
New York. 1898; G. Benger. fiumfinioi im Jnhrt 1900,
Stuluzart, 1900; F. Dam*, Hi*, de la Roumanit conttm-
poraine, ISM-tBOO, Pari.. lfllBI; Sloirr.lra. La Terr' 'I
la race rouxuinu. Para. 1904; A. Bellmort. La ffoti-
manie contemporaint, Paris, 1905; N. Jorga. " Hot. of
the Rumanian Church wad of the Religioui Life of the
Rumanians." Valenii-de Munte. 1909 (in Rumanian); J.
Gherghel, Z-ar Front dtr Urhtimal dcr RrnnOntn, Vienna,
1010.
RUMANIA!! ORTHODOX CHURCH HI THE
UHITED STATES AMD CANADA: In the year 1900
Rumanian immigration from Transylvania, in
Hungary, began to flow toward the United Ststo-s
and later follows I iininicrnl inn from Rumania itself.
At present there are about 60,000 Rumanians in
the United States and Canada. Of these about
35,000 are Uniates (Roman Catholic) from Tran-
sylvania and 25,000 Orthodox. Of these last about
half come from Rumania and half from Transyl-
vania, and for this reason of the six Orthodox con-
gregations three are under the jurisdiction of the
primate of Rumania and three under that of the
metropolitan of Hermannstadt in Transylvania.
The first congregation of the Orthodox was organ-
ized in 1904 at Cleveland, Ohio; other congrega-
tions are in East Chicago, 111. ; Lawyer, N. D. ; and
Regina, Canada. The first congregation of the
Rumanian Uniates was also founded in 1904, at
Cleveland, Ohio, only a little before the Orthodox
congregation of that place. Rumanian Uniate
churches are at present located at Scalp Level. Pa.;
Aurora, HI.; Youngstown, Ohio; and New York
City. The relations between the Orthodox and
Uniate Rumanians are very friendly.
A. A. Stamotjli.
RTJHZE, run'tee, GEORG AUGUST WILHELM:
German Lutheran; b. at Woltersdorf, Pomerania,
Feb. 13, 1852. He was educated at the universities
118
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Rupert of Deutz
of Greifgwald and Berlin (1870-74), and after being
private tutor in a nobleman's family in Curland,
Russia (1874-76), adjunct of the Domkandidaten-
stift, Berlin (1876-77), and senior in the Studen-
tenkonvikt Johanneum (1878-80), became privat-
docent for systematic theology and the philosophy
of religion at -the University of Berlin in 1880. In
1885 he was made a teacher at the Falk real-gym-
nasium in Berlin, and since 1890 has been associate
professor of systematic theology and the philosophy
of religion at the University of Berlin, and instruc-
tor in the Lessinghochschule in the same city since
1902. Besides preparing the sixth and seventh edi-
tions of C. G. J. Deter's Abriss der Geschichie der
Philoaophie (Berlin, 1898-1901, and 1906), he has
written Schleiermachers Glaubenslehre in ikrer Ab-
h&ngigkeit van seiner Philosophie (Berlin, 1877);
Der ontologische Gottesbeweis, kritische Darstellung
seiner Geschichie seit Anselm bis auf die Gegenwart
(Halle, 1881); Grundriss der evangdischen Glaubem-
und SiUenlehre (2 vols., Berlin, 1883-84); Studien
zur vergleichenden Rdigionswissenschaft (3 vols.,
1889-97); Praktische Ethik (1891); Die akademi-
sche Laufbahn und ihre dkonomische Regelung (anon-
ymous; 1895); Friedrich Nietzsche als Theolog und
als Antichrist (1896); Katechismus der Dogmatik
(Leipsic, 1897); ReligionsphUosophie (1901); and
Metaphysik (1905); F. F. Calos Leben und Wirken
(Berlin, 1907; prefixed to Calo's Photinissa Chrys-
opulos); Der Rdigumsunterricht eine Gewissens-
frage (Osterwieck, 1908); and Rdigion und Ge-
echlechtdiebe (Halle, 1909).
RUPERT OF DEUTZ.
Early Life and Writings (J 1).
Controversies on the Nature of God ((2).
Allegorical, Biographical, and Practical Works (f 3).
The Writings of his Later Years (J 4).
Rupert's Theological System (J 5).
Rupert of Deutz, an important medieval theologian
and abbot of Deutz, was born, probably in Germany,
about the middle of the eleventh century; d. at
Deutz (now part of Cologne) Mar. 4, 1135. While a
child he was brought by St. Laurence to the Bene-
dictine monastery at Liege, his slow talents, he
affirmed, being quickened by the special favor of
the Virgin; but he refused to receive
i. Early ordination since the investiture con-
Life and troversy was then raging in Liege (see
Writings. Investiture). During this early
period of his life Rupert composed
some hymns, including one, now lost, on the incar-
nation, a lost work De diversis scripturarum senten-
tiis, the fragment of the Chronicon Sancti Laurentii
Leodiensis, and biographies of Augustine and St.
Odilia. On the death of Bishop Wazo of Liege,
Abbot Berengar was removed from his monastery,
and with him, in 1092, Rupert and other Cluniac
monks sought refuge in the monastery of St. Hubert
in the Ardennes. It was at this time that Rupert
wrote his LibeUus hymnorum, which in its thirteen
poems gives a faithful picture of the condition of
the Church as it appeared to the eyes of a faithful
Ultramontane. A commentary to these hymns is
afforded by the chronicle of the monastery, which
must have been completed before Aug. 9, 1095,
when Berengar and his companions returned to
Liege. He now received the ordination which he
had refused to accept from the schismatic of Liege,
probably after 1106. During this time, moreover,
besides his undoubted study of Hebrew, he read
deeply in Plato, Plotinus, Dionysius the Areopagite,
Aristotle, Heraclitus, Augustine, Jerome, Hilary,
Anus, Sabellius, Symmaohus, Aquila, Theodotion,
and Gregory the Great. In 1111 Rupert wrote his
twelve books De divinis officii*, which explains the
mystical meaning of the priestly office, beginning
with the hours, vigils, bells, service of the altar,
and vestments. The third book proceeds to the
church year, the lessons, and the services on indi-
vidual feasts, all the rites being explained by an
astonishing abundance of symbolical exegeses of
Scripture. At the same time he held that unworthy
communicants received only the outward forms in
the sacrament; and that Christ gives in the Eucha-
rist only his spiritual, not his physical, body.
Rupert was still at Liege when he wrote the Super
Hiob commentarius, based on the M or alia of Greg-
ory the Great. The allegorical method of his pred-
ecessor is followed with extreme closeness, Job,
for instance, allegorically representing the Savior.
But his views had excited some suspicion, and
Berengar, anxious to provide for Rupert's safety,
recommended him to Abbot Cuno of
2. Contro- Siegburg and gained him a patron in
versies on Archbishop Frederick of Cologne,
the Nature Rupert went to Siegburg apparently
of God. in 1113, but was soon recalled, and
within the year, or at most in 1114,
wrote his De voluntate Dei to defend himself against
the attacks of Anselm's pupils at the cathedral of
Laon. The work is in twenty-six chapters and is a
critique against the teaching at Laon and Chalons
that God '8 will concerning evil was twofold, one
permitting evil deeds and the other approving them,
to the end that ultimate good might result. Rupert,
on the other hand, maintained that the divine per-
mission of evil by no means implied approval of it,
but only divine patience concerning it. In his effort
to escape the predestinationalism of William of
Champeaux and Anselm, Rupert approximated the
position of Johannes Scotus Erigena (q.v.), who re-
garded evil as in itself non-existent, and as merely the
shadow of the substance. Like thoughts filled the
twenty-seven chapters of the De omnipotentia Dei,
the tenth chapter of which establishes the thesis
that God desires the salvation of all mankind. The
Laon theologians were angered, and Anselm him-
self complained to Berengar's successor, Heribrand,
as though Rupert were still a monk at Liege. Heri-
brand actually cited Rupert to appear at Liege, where
he was acquitted. The opposition still continued,
however, and he now assumed the offensive. In
1117 he went to Laon and then disputed at Chalons.
Charge after charge was brought against him, only
to be refuted with ease. In the midst of the con-
troversy, the course of events changed and Rupert
was called from Liege to Cologne, thus returning to
his monastery of Siegburg. Here he planned to
write on the majesty and the honor of Christ; but
from this task he was called by Cuno to prepare
a work In regulam Sancti BenedicU. The first
book tells of its author's learned controversies, the
Rupert of Deuts
Bupert
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
114
second of the arrangement of vigils, and the third of
the order of the service of the altar, while the fourth
deals with the dispute concerning the preeminence
of Augustine or Benedict. Still under the patron-
age of Cuno, Rupert wrote his In evangelium sancti
Joannis commentarius. This work, which is dis-
tinctly allegorical in character, is divided into four-
teen books, and was probably written before 1117.
After its completion, Rupert finished his De trini-
tate et operibus ejus, which he had begun in 1114.
This is the most important of all his writings, and
falls into three main portions: the work of the
Father, from the beginning of creation to the fall
of man; the work of the Son, from the fall to the
passion; the work of the Spirit, from the passion
to the resurrection at the last day. The major part
of the De trinitate is occupied with the Old Testa-
ment, with the mystical interpretation of its entire
ceremonial law and sacrificial ritual. Like Augus-
tine in his " City of God," and like Irenseus, Hilary,
Justin, and Hugo of St. Victor, Rupert regards the
six ages of the world as embracing the entire history
of the earth, the sixth day of history corresponding
to the sixth day of creation, as well as to the spirit
of fear of Isa. xi. 2, and beginning with the birth
of the Son of man. The third part of the entire
work now opens, and the four Gospels show the
glory of the kingdom in which are developed the
gifts of the Holy Ghost, the liberal arts, music, etc.
The De trinitate was followed by the In apocalyp-
sim Joannis apostoli libri duodecim. Here the seven
churches of Asia are compared with the seven
women that take hold of one man in Isa. iv. 1, and
the glassy sea of Rev. iv. 6 is explained as baptism,
through which man passes to the throne of grace as
Israel passed through the Red Sea.
3. Allegor- The serpent that cast water out of his
ical, Bio- mouth after the woman (Rev. xii. 15-
graphical, 16) typifies Arius with his attack upon
and Prac- the Church. The number 666 is that
tical Works, of man, who was created on the sixth
day, without entering the divine hep-
tad. The triple hexad is ruled by Satan, and not
only can not, but will not, become a heptad, being
triply augmented in its opposition to God. Abbot
Cuno was likewise the inspiration of Rupert's In
cantica canticorum commentarius, also called De incar-
natione Domini, a work naturally composed in the
allegorical exegesis of the period. To this time may
belong the charge brought against Rupert that he
taught that the Holy Ghost was incarnate in the
Virgin. Norbert was the first to make the accusa-
tion, and it has been conjectured that Rupert's
reply may be embodied in the Conflictus Ruperti
cum Norberto, which is preserved in two manuscripts
at Lobkow and Weissenau. In the AUercatio mona-
chi et clerici the controversy between secular and
regular priests is discussed, the decision being that
a monk may preach after receiving ordination. A
like opinion was later expressed by Rupert in his
Epistola ad Everardum (the abbot of Brauweiler),
and his Epistola ad Liezelinum canonem on the dig-
nity of monasticism may belong to the same period.
It was probably at the request of the abbot of St.
Martin in Cologne that Rupert wrote the Vita
Sancti Eliphii, and about 1120 he also composed
his Vita Sancti Heriberti. Toward the end of the
same year he was chosen tenth abbot of Deutz, and
is said to have built a dormitory and the chapel of
St. Laurence before the castle doors. To his liter-
ary controversies were now added troubles with
squatters in the old castle, who were later guilty of
burning both the castle and the monastery. In
1120 Abbot Wibald of Stablo wrote Rupert asking
whether, in his opinion, self-pollution involved so
grave a breach of chastity as to forbid ordination,
and Rupert's reply, the De lasione virginitatis, con-
stitutes a noteworthy chapter of clerical discipline.
If the unique manuscript of the De vita vere apos-
tolica, now preserved in the monastery of Graf schaf t,
is to be ascribed to Rupert, there are here five dia-
logues essentially on the old question of the relative
position of seculars and regulars. Rupert, writing
to Canon Liezelin, ranked the monks far above the
secular clergy, the regulars being both priests and
monks.
About this time Rupert wrote his Commentarius
in duodecim prophetas minores, which seems to have
been completed about 1 124. It contains little which
is especially noteworthy, however, and when Arch-
bishop Cuno interrupted the work, Rupert turned to
his De victoria Verbi Dei, based on the
4. The conversations between the author and
Writings his patron during the latter's visits to
of his Deutz, and picturing, in thirteen books,
Later the victory of the Son of God over
Years. Satan. After a brief preface, Rupert
passes to the names of the fiend, and
then the battle breaks out in heaven, rolls over the
earth, blazing most fiercely when Christ and Satan
enter on the stage of earth, and lasts until the
dragon is slain by the Lord. On the completion of
this work, Rupert resumed his commentary on the
prophets, and at Christmas of the same year (1124)
was present at the enthronization of Pope Honorius
at Rome. He then visited Monte Cassino, but with-
in the year was one of the signers of a diploma at
the monastery of Grafschaft. Shortly after his re-
turn to Deutz, Rupert must have begun his De
gloria et honore filii hominis, a free exegesis of Mat-
thew in thirteen books. He begins with the vision
of Ezek. i. 5 sqq., the four cherubim typifying Christ:
four, since he is at once God and man, king and
priest; man, since he was born in Zion; an ox,
since as a priest he offered himself in sacrifice; a
lion, since he conquered death and rose from the
dead; an eagle, since God ascends above all the
heavens. For almost every word of Matthew the
Old Testament is cited by Rupert, but in the last
book he returns to a philosophical consideration of
the necessity of the incarnation. The work can not
have been completed before 1126, but it was ready
by 1127, and together with it the abbot had written
his commentary on the books of Kings. About the
same time, moreover, he wrote his Dialogus inter
Ckristianum et Judoeum, a work of minor impor-
tance, except as showing his vast knowledge of the
Old Testament and his skill in devising exegetical
arguments. On Aug. 25, or Sept. 1, 1128, Deutz
was consumed by fire, and Rupert, an eye-witness
of the disaster, describes it in his De incendio oppidi
Tuitii. Soon afterward he composed his De glori-
115
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bupert of Deuts
Rupert
jicaUone sancta trinitatis et processu Spiritus Sancti,
quickly followed by the De meditation* mortis. In
the latter he holds that the word of God which for-
bade Adam to eat of the tree of life was a word of
the highest grace, in that through the death of the
body man is freed from the death of the soul in
the death of Christ. About 1130 Rupert also wrote
his In librum Ecdesiastes commentarius, the method
of exegesis being the same as in his other works.
Rupert likewise wrote a De glorioso rege David,
which is no longer extant. The De gloHficatione,
however, was his last important work, and in his
later years the infirmities of age seem to have pre-
vented him from continuing his literary labors.
Essentially an allegorical exegete and a poet,
Rupert of Deuts can scarcely be said to possess a
formal dogmatic system. Dogmatic problems, in-
deed, are touched on only in the course of his exe-
gesis, and receive varying answers, in consequence
of the varying context; and thus it
5. Ruperf b became possible for the most divergent
Theological views to be held concerning his actual
System, position. On the other hand, he ap-
pealed constantly to the Bible, and to
it alone, so that his view of the universe and his
concepts of God and of the world must be drawn
from his exegesis. He regarded the Bible in all
three senses: literal, allegorical, and moral. In
each point of his interpretation the Scriptures were
present to his vision as a whole, forming for him a
single sentence of many clauses, each word, each
syllable, each letter of and for the one thought.
The whole system of his interpretation centers about
Christology. At the creation the incarnation was
already provided for, and the divine command that
man should multiply was designed to fill the city of
God. In his Christology, moreover, Rupert strongly
insisted on the perfect blending of the human and
divine natures in Christ; and from his Christology
his views concerning the means of grace, especially
the Eucharist, become plain. Of the Eucharist he
writes (De divinis officii*, II., 11): " The body of
Christ, which before the passion was the body of
the Word alone, so increased through the passion,
was so spread abroad, so filled all the world, that by
the new diffusion of this sacrament it makes into
one Church all the elect that have been from the
beginning of the world, or that shall be to the last
one chosen at the end of the ages," that the Re-
deemer may say, when he gives the Church to God,
" This is now bone of my bones, and flesh of my
flesh." At the same time, there has been much
question whether the eucharistic doctrine of Rupert
was orthodox or not, his editor, J. Cochkeus, fol-
lowed by the Maurists, affirming it, while Bellar-
mine denied it. In the first place, since he regarded
the Church as essentially the mystery of the body
of Christ, little room was left for the Eucharist.
His views on the problem can scarcely be reduced
on a definite formula, and passages may be cited
from his writings which seem, at first blush, to im-
ply that he taught that the elements merely repre-
sented the body and blood of Christ. It is clear,
however, that, as a matter of fact, he postulated
the reality of the presence, and it is equally evident
that he held the doctrine of transubstantiation.
The truth is that Rupert, impelled by his general
point of view, was involuntarily led to phrases and
similes which exposed him to suspicion. Again,
while some passages would imply that he taught
that unbelievers received only the outward signs of
the Eucharist, there is too little evidence on this
score to assert positively that such was his doctrine.
Thirdly, it would seem that he would have inclined
toward the doctrine of impanation, had this been
sanctioned by the Church. There is, however, noth-
ing to prove, as is sometimes alleged/ that Rupert
taught not only consubstantial impanation, but also
hypostatic impanation, holding that Christ was
united with the bread and wine in the same sense
that his divine and human natures were hypostat-
ically united.
The deviations and the inconsistencies of Rupert
were those of his age, nor can he be judged by a
norm suited neither to him nor his period. It is far
more important to know that he was, in his teach-
ings, a mirror of the Church of the twelfth century.
In philosophy he was a Platonizing mystic, a fol-
lower of Augustine, Johannes Scotus Erigena, Ber-
nard of Chartres, and Odo of Cambray. He was,
therefore, essentially opposed to Aristotelianism.
By his side in Germany were Gerhoh and Arno of
Reichersberg and Honorius of Autun (qq.v.), all
Platonizing mystics, in their opposition to Nestorian-
ism almost approximating Eutychianism in their
Christology. (R. RocHOLLf.)
Bibliography: Frequent editions of the Opera were issued
from Cologne — by Cochtaus in 1526, 1527, 1528, by
Melchior Novesianus in 1539, 1540, 1542, 1577, 1602; an
enlarged ed. was put forth by Hermann Myliua at Mains,
1631; Chastelain's ed. was issued at Paris, 1638; the
Benedictine ed. appeared in 1751, and they are in MPL,
cbcvii.-clxx. Parts of the De incendio and of the De
gloria et honore FUii hominis are in MGH, Script., xii
(1856).
Consult: R. Rocholl, Rupert von DeuU, Gutersloh, 1886;
idem, in ZKG, xxiv. 1 (1903); ASM, vol. v.; Jaffe, BRO,
vol. v.; Hist. litteraire de la France, xi. 422-587; J. Bach,
Dogmengeachichte dee MittdaUera, vol. ii., Vienna, 1875; F.
W. E. Roth, in Die kalkolische Bewegung in unseren Tagen,
vol. zx., parts 16-18, Wursburg, 1887; J. Mailer, Ueber
Rupert von Deutx und deseen Vita S. Heriberti, Cologne,
1888; Wattenbach, DOQ, ii (1886), 123, 136, 137. 237,
347, ii (1894), 137, 150-152, 194, 382. Schaff, Christian
Church, v. 1, pp. 714, 719; Neander, Christian Church,
iv. 79, 337-338, 411; Hauck, KD, iv. 319-320; Vigouroux,
Dictionnaire, fasc. xxxv., col. 1272.
RUPERT, ru'pert, SAINT: The apostle of the
Bavarians; d. at Salzburg early in the eighth cen-
tury. His biography exists in three recensions:
the oldest (between 790 and 800), the Gesta sancti
Hrodberti confessoris (ed. F. M. Mayer, Archiv far
dsterreichische Geschichte, briii. 606 sqq., Vienna,
1882); the Vita primigeniat the first part of the
ninth century De conversions Bagoariorum et Co-
rantanorum (MGH, Script., xi. 1854, 4-5); and the
version in ASB, Mar., iii. 702 sqq. According to
the Gesta, he was a kinsman of the Merovingians
and in the second year of Childebert III. (695-711)
was bishop of Worms. His fame led to his invita-
tion to Bavaria by Duke Theodo II., and he ac-
cordingly went to Regensburg. Urged by his patron
to select a see city, Rupert visited Lorch, but did
not remain there; and later founded St. Peter's on
the Wallersee (Seekirchen in Upper Austria). There
he heard of the Roman ruins at Salzach, and re-
Boppreoht
THE NEW SCHAFF-HEBZOQ
ceived from the duke a grant of four square miles.
He then founded at Salzburg the church of St. Peter,
a monastery, and also a nunnery for Erindruda of
Worms. The Gesta thus present the picture of a
man laboring in a land only nominally Christian,
and seeking primarily to revive a dead faith. It is
likewiM:* noteworthy that the Notiiia Arnonis of
790 {Salzburger UTkundenbuch, ed. W. Hauthaler,
i. 3 si]<i , Salzburg. 1H0S) represents him simply as a
initml :il>!int, 1 lius i-iisting doubt on his being <\>l)e.l
to Bavaria by Theodo, as well as on the entire pre-
vious history of his life. Immediate pupils of his
and monks invested by him are mentioned in the
ninth century Breves notiliai Salsburgenses (viii. 13,
ed. G. Kainz, Munich, 1869). (A. Hadck.)
linn mnir: A very full list of edition* of sources and
of literature ii given id Pottbaat, Wegaviier. pp. 1557-58.
Consult, besides the sour™ named in tbe text: ASM.
ill, 1, pp. 340-348: RiM. litteraire de la France, iii. 448
•qq.; J. Friodrieb. Dim wahre ZeilaUer da heiligm Rupert.
■ ApoHdt der Bayrrn, Bamberg, 1868; W. Waiteril. .i. Ii.
BritrOge mr Gtechichie der chruUicfum Kirche in Mahren
tmd Bohmen, Vienna, 18*9; J. G. von Korli-.-l.rr, [<-!■!.
Ueber das iBahre Zeitalter da hrrilioen Rupert, in Archie
far Kundt btterreich ischer OeacnieAlaflueUeB, v (I860).
385-497: R. Minrraiulh-r. ;j<ij Zntalter da heitujen flu-
pert, Mctlen. 1S57; P. Heber, Dit oortaralinffiKhrn ckrist-
lichrti Glavberuheldrn am Rhein. pp. 140-148. Frankfort.
18SB; A. Huhcr, Dot Grab dee Aeiligen Rupert, TOCOU.
1890; 8. Riealer, Gachichie Baitrnt, vol. i , Gottaa. 1878;
W. Hauthaler. Die dtm heiliaen Rupertui . . . geiceMen
Kitchen urul Kapdten, Maliburg. 1885; F. von Picbl.
KrUitcht Abhandtungen Bber die allrMe Gachiehte Salx-
burae, Innsbruck. 1880; Rpttberg, KD. ii. 103 «qq.;
Hauck, KD. i. 372 8qq.; DCB. iv. 662-563.
RTJPPRECHT, ru'preBt, GOTTLIEB FEIEDBICH
EDUARD: German Lutheran; b. at Atsendorf
(15 m. B.B.W. of Magdeburg) Mar. 2, 1837. He was
educated at the University of Erlangen (1855-5°);
was a teacher of Latin at Munchberg (1859-61);
vicar at Forth, Middle Franconia (1862-64); he was
bo seriously ill as to be incapacitated for any active
life (lStil-70), but in 1870 became pastor at Wal-
lesau, Middle Franconia, where he remained eight
years. Since 1878 he has been pastor at Sausen-
hofen, Middle Franconia. In theology he adheres
to the system of Thoroasius and Hofmann as set
forth by the Iowa am! Ohio synods of the Lutheran
Church; in regard to the Old Testament, however,
he is an adherent of Heng^tcnherg and Keii. He
has written: Was ist Wahrheil (3 parts, Sagan and
Giitersloh, 1875-77); Dl'u jlimftmiHUji (hi luiWa km
Schide WeUkausen vom Pentateuch, ein tuissenichaft-
lich begrHndctes Glaubensieugnis an dti Oegeninart
(Li. i|>-k\ 1893); Der Pseudodaniel und Pseudojesaja
der tnodernen Kritik, ein neves Glaubewzeagnis vor
dent Forum des ckrisllichen Glaubens, der Moral und
Wissenschafl (1894); Das Ends dieses Weltlaufes,
car Einfukntng in die neiilestamentlielie. Weissagung
(Munich, 1894); Das Ratsd des Filnfbuches Mose
und seine- falsche Losung (Giitersloh, 1894); Des
R&tsels Lotting, oder Beitrflge wr nchtigen Ldsung
des PentateuchrOlseU (3 vols., 1895-97); Die Kritik
nnch ihrcm Recht und Unreeht (1897); Wissensehaftr-
liches Handhurh der Einfilhrung in das Alle Testa-
ment (1898); Erkl&rte deutsche Volksbibel (Hanover,
1900); and Das Christentum von D. Adolf Har~
naek nach dessen sechsuhn Vorlesungen (Giitersloh,
1901).
fl|il|.[.,..H.r>MV. i; TiLUMlli".!--. ll.l.t i'»| |.lvi;,;-.
oua dm Lebtn dries (uddeulacaen Theotogen in NortUex-
form. Sagan, 1897.
SURAL DEAN. See Dean (4).
RURER, rfl'rer, J0HANW: First Protestant pas-
tor of Ansbach; b. at Bamberg; d. at Ansbach
about Whitsuntide, 1542. His university career is
unknown, but about 1505 he was in Brandenburg,
and by 1512 had attained euch reputation that he
was appointed vicar of St. Catherine's at Anskieh.
He soon became chaplain to Margrave Casimir, who
iaii'i |!l:ired him in full control of the parish, where,
already an adherent of the teachings of Luther, he
was able to exercise a powerful influence on the re-
ligious fortunes of the margravate. On Palm Sun-
day, 1525, he held the first German services at
Ansbach, and was soon opposing the margrave,
who, for political reasons, saw that he had gone too
far toward the Lutheran side. Finding that he
could make no impression on Casimir and fearful
of arrest, Rurer fled, in Feb., 1527, to tiegniU,
where Duke Frederick sought to secure him for his
"Christian school." Before long, however, Rurer
was recalled to Ansbach by George, the sui*<v.w>r of
Casimir, and was made preacher at the collegiate
church, a position which he retained until his death.
He was one of those appointed to draw up new
church regulations for the margravate; he took a
prominent part in the conference at Schwabach on
June 15, 1528; and was a factor in the three con-
ferences on the Nuremberg proposals in February,
May, and December, 1531. Meanwhile he had ac-
companied the margrave to the Diet of Augsburg
in 1530, where, though at first hopeful that an un-
derstanding might be reached between Roman
Catholics and Protestants, he opposed the com-
pliance of Melanchthon; yet he was one of the
clergymen who, dreading the responsibility of re-
sistance to the emperor, advised George not to join
the Schmalkald League. Rurer was likewise active
in the introduction of the Brandenburg-Nuremberg
agenda of 1533, which was a potent weapon in the
struggle against Roman Catholics and AnnhnptiMs,
although he deprecated the use of violent measures
against adherents of the ancient faith. His services
to the Protestant cause, including the winning over
of the aged Margrave Frederick, were rewarded by
George with the income belonging to the dean of the
cathedral, L. Keller. Toward the end of his life
Rurer was a delegate to a number of diets, but died
shortly after the Conference of Regensburg in 1541.
(Karl Schornbattm.)
Biblioqraphi : F. J. Beyschlag. SuUoffe variorum spun*
lormn, i. 787 eqq.. 864 «qq., 996, ii. 1*4 win.. Hall. I7L-7-
1731; C. F. Jaoobi. Gescliichte der Stadt Frucnlwanom,
pp. 69-70. Nuremberg, 1833; T. Knlda, -Inrfrm. AHAamer,
Erlangen. 1895: K. Sohombaum. Iht Sitttumi da Mark-
orafen Kaiimir, Nuremberg, 1900; F. Cobrs. Die eraagtli-
echen KaUcltitmutvereveke, iii. 3 sqq., Berlin, 1901.
RUSHBROOKE, WILLIAM GEORGE: Church of
England layman; b. at Ampthill (8 m. s. of Bed-
ford) Jan. 21, 1849. He prepared for the university
at the City of London School, 1862-68; became a
scholar at St. John's College, Cambridge, 1868. and
graduated, taking degrees both in Cambridge and
117
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Buppreoht
Bnifla
London University; became senior classical master
at the City of London School, 1872; fellow of St.
John's College, Cambridge, 1879; and headmaster
of St. Olave's Grammar School, 1893. He has
issued: First Greek Reader (London, 1878); Syn-
opticon. An Exposition of the common Matter of
the Synoptic Gospels (1880); and The Common Tra-
dition of the Synoptic Gospels (in collaboration with
E. A. Abbott; 1884).
RUSSELL, CHARLES TAZE. See Millennial
Dawn.
RUSSELL, CHARLES WILLIAM: Roman Catho-
lic; b. at Killough (27 m. s.w. of Belfast), Ireland,
May 14, 1812; d. at Dublin Feb. 26, 1880. He re-
ceived his education at Drogheda, Downpatrick,
and at Maynooth College, becoming a Dunboyne
student at the latter in 1832; he was made professor
of humanity in 1835; was selected for the apostolic
vicariate of Ceylon in 1845, became professor of
ecclesiastical history at Maynooth in 1845, and
president in 1857. His significance lies in two di-
rections; his influence on the Tractarian movement
(Newman attributes to him the major influence in
his own conversion to Roman Catholicism), and his
scholarship in antiquarian matters. He was ap-
pointed to the Historical Manuscripts Commission
in 1869; published A Report on the Carte MSS. in
the Bodleian Library (8 vols., Oxford, 1871), in col-
laboration with John Patrick Prendergast; and
compiled the Calendar of Irish State Papers during
the Reign of James /. (4 vols., 1872-77). He was
the author of The Life of Cardinal Mezzo fanti (1858) ;
and, with M. Kelly, translated from the German of
Christian Heinrich Schmid the Catholic Tales (3
vols., London, 1846), and also Leibnitz's System of
Theology (1850).
Bibliography: DNB, xlix. 428-429.
L History of the Orthodox Greek
Church.
Beginnings (| 1).
From the Mongol Invasion (f 2).
From the Patriarchate (| 3).
IL Statistics.
1. The Orthodox Greek Church.
RUSSIA.
2. The Evangelical Church.
Lutherans in Russia Proper (| 1).
Lutherans in Finland and Poland
((2).
Reformed (I 3).
III. Sectarianism in Russia.
Origin (J 1).
The PopovBhchina (f 2).
The Bespopovshchina (f 8).
The Khlysty (J 4).
The SkopUi (J 5).
The Molokani (J 6).
The Stundists (J 7).
L Early History of the Orthodox Greek Church:
Tbe existence of Christianity in Russia as early as
the tenth century is shown by the treaty between
the Greeks and the Varyags of Kief made in 944,
the Christian Varyags being especially obligated to
TnyintAin the peace, being called upon at its con-
clusion to take the oath in the churches of St. Elias,
" for/' says the annalist, " many Varyages were
Christians." A few years later Olga,
i. Begin- the widow of Igor, embraced Chris-
nings. tianity; and the annals state that
Vladimir accepted the faith after
listening to the arguments of envoys of the Mo-
hammedan Bulgars, the pope, the Jewish IJaxare,
and a Greek philosopher, his baptism taking place
after the capture of Korsun. The scanty account
of the monk Jacob (1070) represents that he
adopted Christianity of his own accord and through
the example of his grandmother Olga, and that
he was baptised three years before reducing
Korsun. Tike Christianization of Russia, which
was almost contemporaneous with the conver-
sion of Hungary and Poland, was closely con-
nected with Vladimir's alliance with the hard-
pressed Byzantine emperors and his marriage
with their sister. At Kief the idols were thrown
into the river, and the people were driven in
throngs to be baptised in the Dnieper. At Novgo-
rod baptism does not seem to have been received
without resistance, and Murom and Ryasan were
not converted until the end of the eleventh century.
It was only in the latter part of the twelfth century
that Russia could be considered Christian. Vladi-
mir (d. 1015), Yaroslaw, and Vladimir Monomach
(d. 1125) sought to make provision for schools and
the training of clergy; and the bishops and metro-
politans— the latter, until the Mongol invasion, all
Greeks with two exceptions — brought with them a
certain degree of culture. But the almost ceaseless
wars were unfavorable to the development of clerical
life; and theology amounted to little more than
polemics against the Latins, with a few ascetic wri-
tings, accounts of pilgrimages, annals, and legends.
The writings on canon law, however, give glimpses
of the civilization of the time. Religious life and
culture centered at the eremitic monastery at Kief,
founded by a certain Antonius, but influenced more
by its second abbot, Theodosius, who introduced
the Studite rule. The ideals of the monastery, which
was filled chiefly with members of the higher classes,
were those of Greek monasticism ; but ignorance pre-
vailed, and the cloister exerted influence only over
the more cultured grades of society. The masses
were openly pagan and utterly ignorant.
The Mongol invasion was a blow to the Church
as well as to the kingdom; the metropolitan was
either killed or forced to flee, and the same fortunes
befell the most of the bishops. After
2. From the establishment of Mongol rule, how-
the Mongol ever, the Russian Church shared in the
Invasion, religious toleration of Genghis Khan.
The worship, laws, judgments, and
property of the Church were undisturbed; and the
clergy were exempt from taxation and could exer-
cise jurisdiction over their people in civil and crim-
inal matters. The Russians themselves preferred to
bow before the Mongols rather than to submit to
Rome. The metropolitans were no longer exclu-
sively Constantinopolitan Greeks, but also num-
bered native Russians. Meanwhile the grand dukes
of Moscow had contrived to enlist the cooperation
of the metropolitans as well as the favor of the
Russia
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
118
Mongol khans. The metropolitans imposed upon
the opponents of the grand duke bans and interdicts
and helped them to unite Russia. Especially is this
true of the two most distinguished ones, Peter (d.
1326) who designated Moscow for his burial-place,
and Alexei. When Vladimir became the second
metropolitan late in 1354, it was to the advantage of
Moscow. The relation of the metropolitans to the
patriarch was changed by the fall of Constantinople,
shortly before the expulsion of the Mongols from
Russia. In 1436 the metropolitan Isidore sent from
Constantinople to Moscow was imprisoned by the
grand duke because he had accepted the Florentine
union. The next metropolitan, Jonas, was ap-
pointed without confirmation from the patriarch,
and Gennadius of Constantinople even granted
the Russian Church the right to choose and conse-
crate its own metropolitans. This practically meant,
however, the subjugation of the church to the
grand dukes, and no less than eight metropolitans
were removed by these princes between the conse-
cration of Jonas and the erection of the Russian
patriarchate. During the reign of Ivan IV., " the
Terrible," the wilful caprice of that prince domi-
nated the church and the metropolitan Daniel was
compelled to validate his fourth marriage. In
consequence of this dependence of the metropolitans
on the grand dukes, the church of Lithuania sepa-
rated from that of Moscow and received a metro-
politan of its own at Kief. Moscow now retained
the archdioceses of Novgorod, Kazan, and Rostov,
and the dioceses of Susdal, Ryazan, Tver, Sarai,
Kolomna, Smolensk, and Perm. The grand duke
of Moscow regarded himself as the real protector of
the orthodox faith, and Moscow became a third
Rome. It was during this period that Christianity
first took deep root in Russia. Monasteries multi-
plied, among them being that of St. Sergius of Ra-
donesh (d. 1391), where communal monastic life
was adopted, as it was at the Cyrillic monastery on
the White Sea and at Joseph Sanin's cloister at Vol-
okalamsk. Nil Sorski (1433-1508), on the other
hand, defended the ideal of the sketists (see Athos),
even combining with his pupil Vassian and the
grand duke in an unsuccessful attempt to secure
the secularization of monastic property at the Mos-
cow Synod of 1503. The sole heresies reported at
this period were the " Jewish sect " and the Strigol-
niki at Novgorod. The latter, about 1375, repre-
sented essentially a protest against simoniacal
priests, and were soon suppressed. The " Jewish
sect " is said to have been founded at Novgorod
about a century later by a Jew named Skhariyah
(Zachariah), its tenets including denial of the Vir-
gin, icons, crosses, sacraments, fasting, and holy
days. Archbishop Gennadius of Novgorod insti-
tuted stern measures against them, despite the in-
fluence they had obtained over Ivan III.; and after
about 1520 nothing more is heard of the sect. Far
more important than the Moscow Synod of 1503
was the " Synod of a Hundred Chapters," at Stog-
lav in 1551, which sought to preserve genuine tra-
dition and to improve moral conditions. Its meas-
ures were later disavowed, however, as sanctioning
the shibboleth of the Raskolniki (q.v.) ; the sign of
the cross with two fingers, and the double Hallelu-
iah, the triple Halleluiah, and shaving the beard
being rejected as Latin heresies. Gennadius of Nov-
gorod now sought, about 1493, to unite the Slavic
translations of the Bible, while Macarius prepared
Russian lectionaries for the entire year (1541, 1552).
But despite the growth of a literature in which
translations were still more important than orig-
inal productions, even the Russian bishops remained
ignorant, and Protestant travelers in the land con-
sidered Christianity almost non-existent.
In 1589 Job was consecrated independent patri-
arch of Russia, as one of the four of the Orthodox
Greek Church. The Patriarch Hermogen, aided by
hatred of and aversion to the Latin Church, pre-
vented the Poles from becoming masters of Moscow
during the period of chaos. When Michael Roman-
off ascended the throne, his father was
3. From made patriarch and virtual regent
the Patri- (1619), and similar power was enjoyed
archate. for a time by his third successor, Nikon
(q.v.). The latter, in 1667, carried
through a reform of the liturgy, thus leading to the
great schism of the Raskolniki. In 1654 the metro-
politanate of Kief was reunited, after long prelimi-
nary negotiations, with Moscow. At Kief, moreover,
contact with the West and polemics with the Roman
Catholic Church had resulted in the growth of a type
of scholastic learning, and in 1631 Petrus Mogilas
(q.v.) had founded a college in the city. From
this school proceeded many distinguished men — Sil-
vester Medviedeff, who began the controversy over
the instant of the transformation of the bread in the
Eucharist, in which for the first time the methods
of Western theology were employed; Dimitri, met-
ropolitan of Rostov (1651-1709); Stephan Yavor-
ski (d. 1722), patriarch and the assistant of Peter
the Great, who founded the holy synod to take the
place of the patriarch; and Theophanes Proko-
povich (d. 1736), archbishop of Novgorod, ecclesias-
tical adviser of Peter, and for a century the authority
in dogmatics and pulpit oratory. In 1764 the monas-
teries were secularized under Peter III. and Catha-
rine II. The early part of the reign of Alexander
I., like the rule of Catharine, favored the Enlighten-
ment, but gradually the czar turned toward mys-
ticism. In 1812 a Bible society was established,
but in 1824 the orthodox archimandrite Photius of
Novgorod changed the course of events. The Bible
society and the Protestant mission in Transcaucasia
were suppressed under Nicholas I., and in 1835 with
Protassoff began the series of conservative chief pro-
curators of the Holy Synod, later ably represented
by Pobiedonostsev (q.v.), a firm opponent of Prot-
estantism. The dogmatic theology of Russia dur-
ing the nineteenth century was likewise predomi-
nantly anti-Protestant, until Yanisheff brought on
a more favorable reaction. At the present time
notable services are rendered, especially in the de-
partment of church history. The theological semi-
naries in St. Petersburg, Moscow, Kief, and Kazan
have their own journals; the first three have
published translations of the Church Fathers and
the last a translation of the ecumenical councils.
IL Statistics: According to the census of 1897, pub-
lished inl905, the population of European and Asiatic
Russia, numbering 125,640,021 (not including Fin-
110
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Buaai*
land ; see below) , was distributed as follows : Orthodox
Greek including the United Greek Church, 87,123,-
604; dissidents, including the Old Believers, 2,204,-
596; Roman Catholics, who form 74 per cent of
the population of Russian Poland, 11,506,809;
Lutherans, mostly in the Baltic provinces, 3,572,653;
Armenian Gregorians, 1,179,241; Armenian Catho-
lics, 38,840; Reformed, 85,400; Mennonites, 66,-
564; Baptists, 38,139; Church of England, 4,183;
other Christians, 3,952; Mohammedans, 13,906,972;
Jews, 5,215,805; Buddhists, 433,863; Karaites,
12,894; and other non-Christians, 285,321.
1. The Orthodox Greek Ohurch: According to
the representation of the procurator of the holy
synod the gain was from 79,115,820 in 1898 to
86,259,732 in 1902. In 1902 there were 49,703
churches, including 723 cathedrals, 46,827 priests,
and 58,529 cantors. A parish is normally inherited
by the son-in-law of the previous incumbent. In
1898 the official income of the Orthodox Church
was about 60,000,000 rubles (ruble, 51 cents),
40,000,000 from the State and 10,000,000 direct
gifts, while the budget of the holy synod in 1900
was 24,000,000 rubles, and the imperial budget for
1906 was 29,126,000 rubles for the Orthodox Church,
and 1,752,000 for others. The czar is the head of
the Russian Church and the directing power is the
holy synod, which, by the ukase of 1763, must in-
clude six clerical members, among them the three
metropolitans and the exarch of Georgia; and now
includes seven bishops and a proto-presbyter, the
confessor of the czar. The presiding officer is the
metropolitan of St. Petersburg, and the rank of a
clerical member is held by the chief procurator, who
is a minister of state. There are three metropoli-
tans (St. Petersburg, Moscow, and Kief) and four-
teen archbishops, though these have no actual su-
periority in rank. The exarch of Grusia, or Georgia,
alone has jurisdiction over his bishops. Each bishop
is aided by a consistory, whose members are ap-
pointed by the synod at his nomination; and the
supervision of religious instruction and censorship
are especially under his control. The eparchies, or
dioceses, generally correspond to the provinces, and
there are sixty-six, nearly fifty in European Russia.
The bishops frequently rise through a series of dio-
ceses. The monasteries number 862, of which only
the moat famous have many inmates; among these
are the cave-monastery, and the monastery of St.
8ergius, of Alexander Nevski at St. Petersburg (the
three lauras besides the one at Potchaiev in Vol-
hynia), and of Solovetski on the White Sea. In
1902 the monks numbered 8,455 with 8,090 aspir-
ants, and the nuns 10,082 with 31,533 aspirants.
The higher clergy are drawn from the monks, but
they are such only as a transient stage in their pro-
motion. The real monks guard relics and icons,
collect alms, and by singing increase the dignity of
the service. Of the half-million white or secular
clergy, barely 35,000 were priests (" popes ") in 1887,
the remainder being deacons or psalmodists, sacris-
tans, sextons, and bell-ringers. The theological semi-
naries and academies are more for the education of
the sons of priests than of the future clergy. In
1899 there were 58 seminaries with 19,642 students;
4 academies with 930 students; and 185 secondary
schools. The clergy have no fixed income, except
in the western provinces, where they must protect
the Orthodox Church against Roman Catholicism
and Protestantism. They are accordingly obliged
to use their sacred calling as a means of gain, and
possess scant educational influence. They enjoy
little respect except when conducting services,
which they make full of pomp. To many Rus-
sians worship is chiefly reverence of the icons by
crossing themselves, lighting candles, prostrations,
and genuflexions. Sermons are rare. The chief
saint, next to the Virgin, is St. Nicholas. The rigor-
ous fasting, for which the Russians were long fa-
mous, seems to have been mitigated in recent years.
In 1905 freedom of worship was granted to the Old
Believers, but reclamation from schism, as well as
the conversion of the non-faithful, has always
formed a prominent activity of the Russian Church
with the aid of the State. Between 1840 and 1890
there were 1,172,758 conversions, including 580,000
Greek Uniates, Roman Catholics, and Protestants.
The average annual converts from Judaism num-
ber 936, from Mohammedanism 1,315, and from
paganism 3,104. In Japan Russian missionary
efforts are phenomenally successful.
2. The Evangelical Church: The Protestants in
Russia, including Poland but excluding Finland,
numbered (1897) 3,762,756; of whom there were
1,790,489 Germans, 1,435,937 Letts, 1,002,738
Esthonians, and 351,169 Finns (in Russia). Of
these 3,322,242 were Lutherans: 799,-
ans to" 748 m the TOnsistorial district of St.
Bussia Petersburg; 454,912 in Moscow; 659,-
Proper. 291 in Courland; and 1,156,083 in
Livonia. The confession of the Luth-
eran Church in Russia is that of the Book of
Concord, and of all the Russian Protestants the
Lutherans of the Baltic provinces are the most prom-
inent. Livonia sympathized with Lutheranism
from the first, but it was unable to withstand the
armies of Ivan IV. When, in 1561, it submitted to
Poland, protection was promised to Lutheranism.
At the same time an Evangelical Church was or-
ganized in Courland. Attempts at a Roman Catho-
lic propaganda in Livonia were frustrated by the
invasion of Gustavus Adolphus, which assured the
continuance of the existing state of affairs. Even
when the country came under Russian control, the
Augsburg Confession remained supreme, though
freedom of worship was guaranteed for the Greek
Church. In the reorganization of the church after
the war between Russia and Sweden the pietism of
Halle found welcome in Livonia, as did the doctrines
of Herrnhut (1729-43, 1764). On the other hand,
rationalism was disseminated from Riga through-
out Livonia, at first finding a foothold even in the
new center of spiritual life created by the establish-
ment of the University of Dorpat in 1802. In 1849
the schools were placed under the control of the
nobility and clergy, and were raised by the aid of
the Church to a standard approximating that of
the Germans. In 1832 the Lutheran Church of the
Baltic provinces was united with the remainder of
the denomination in the interior of the empire by
means of a general consistory, meeting at St. Peters-
burg. This consistory is composed of a lay president
Bnsaia
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
120
and clerical vice-president (appointed by the czar),
and of two clerical and two lay delegates serving for
three years each. Administratively it is under the
control of the minister of the interior, judicially it
is subject in general to the senate. Until 1890 the
consistories of Riga, Reval, and Oesel, each with a
superintendent at the head, were retained side by
side with those of Courland, Livonia, and Esthonia;
but in the latter year they were merged in their
provincial consistories. In 1794 the order for the
training of children of mixed marriages was made
applicable to Esthonia, and in 1857 all penal juris-
diction in provinces claimed by the State Church
was extended to the Baltic provinces. This was of
the utmost importance, in that, 1845-48, a tenth of
the population of Livonia had been led to enter the
Russian Church, and then a considerable number
returned to their former faith. By an oral decla-
ration of Alexander II. the penalty was removed
from receiving of such reconverts, and about 30,000
returned to the Lutheran Church. When, how-
ever, Pobiedonostzeff assumed control, the Russian
Church claimed these members, and the resisting
Lutheran clergy of Livonia were prosecuted and
disciplined. It was not until the accession of
Nicholas II. that affairs were at all ameliorated, and
the first real assistance was afforded by the procla-
mation of religious toleration at Easter in 1905.
The consistorial district of Courland had (1904) 129
parishes with 117 clergy, and an outlying dias-
pora of 19 churches, 42 chapels, and 23 clergy in
the provostship of Vilna, and the governments
of Kovno, Grodno, Vilna, Minsk, Mohileff, and
Vitebsk. The district of Livonia has 154 parishes
and 180 clergy; and that of Esthonia, 57 parishes
and 69 clergy. In Livonia the Unity of the Breth-
ren and Baptists are decreasing, but the latter
gained a solid footing in Courland in 1857. In 1882
they numbered in these provinces, 5,884, with 10
churches and as many missionaries. The Lutherans
in the interior of the Russian Empire are divided
into two widely extended consistorial districts.
The consistory of St. Petersburg stretches over
eighteen governments from the Gulf of Finland and
the White Sea to the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov.
The consistory of St. Petersburg reported in 1910
641,000 Lutherans, of whom 390,000 were Germans,
133,000 Finns, 84,000 Esthonians, 26,800 Letts,
6,200 Swedes, and 1,000 belonged to other national-
ities. The city of St. Petersburg lies at the heart of
a district with 22 German colonies and many congre-
gations in cities, besides 19 Finnish churches; and
itself has 13 Lutheran congregations, with (1904)
about 105,000 members. The number shows a
marked diminution, due in great measure to the
law that the children of mixed marriages must be
brought up in the Orthodox Greek faith. In Kief
the Lutheran community, founded in 1767, num-
bers about 5,500. The Lutheran colonies in the
government of Kief are now mostly combined into
the independent parish of Radomysl, with between
8,000 and 9,000 members in some 40 places. In the
government of Volhynia, where the first colonies
were formed in 1816, there were some 75,000 Evan-
gelicals by 1885, scattered abroad among the dis-
sident Methodist or Baptist propaganda. In the
governments of Bessarabia, Cherson, Taurien, Yeka-
terinoslaf, and the southwest district of the Don
Cossacks, many Lutherans are scattered in thirty-
four parishes. The community of Odessa, founded
in 1804, had in 1905 about 7,000 members. Swa-
bian colonies in this part of Russia are noteworthy
for their spiritual zeal, and show tendencies that
expose them to Baptist proselyting. A separate
community was founded by immigrants from
Wurttemberg at Hoffnungsthal in 1817, and in 1881
numbered 2,009. Far larger than the St. Peters-
burg consistory is that of Moscow, under a general
superintendent, which embraces all eastern Russia
in Europe, as well as the Caucasus, Transcaspia,
and Siberia. In 1910 the consistory contained 459,-
000 Lutherans, of whom 411,000 were Germans,
22,000 Letts, 3,000 Finns, 600 Swedes, 1,000 Ar-
menians, and 400 others. In the diaspora cover-
ing the eighteen governments from Tver to Astrak-
han, outside of Saratof and Samara, there is only
the colonial community of Kharkof of 3,500 mem-
bers; the isolated Lutherans almost inevitably give
up their denomination, and even in the oldest Lu-
theran communities of the Empire no family re-
mains Evangelical for more than a century in con-
sequence of the law governing mixed marriages. A
compact Lutheran population is found in the col-
onies of the governments of Saratof and Samara,
which also includes the Unity of the Brethren com-
munity of Sarepta, founded in 1764. Over 25,000
colonists, mostly from central Germany, accepted
the invitation of Catharine II. in 1763, and reached
the Volga in 1767. Their privileges were annulled
in 1872, and their schools were placed under state
control. They now number 406,170, despite exten-
sive emigration; and are divided into 32 parishes.
Their interest in religion, however, is keen, and they
possess five hospitals, four orphan asylums, and a
deaf and dumb asylum. Three parishes are Re-
formed. A number of colonists migrated from the
Volga to Stavropol and Piatigorsk north of the
Caucasus, where at Karas a Scotch mission has been
active since about 1820. ChUiastic hopes and op-
position to rationalism led many to emigrate from
Wurttemberg to Georgia in 1817, where they were
served for a time by missionaries from Basel. They
have recently been included in the consistory of
Moscow, and have ten congregations with twelve
pastors. The congregation at Tiflis includes about-
3,000 members. Transcaspia forms a single parish,
with but one pastor. In Siberia, from the Ural to
the Pacific, there were, in 1880, about 6,650 Lu-
therans, about 5,000 being in the colonies of exiles
at Omsk and Yeniseisk, about 1,400 in the cities,
and the remainder in penal institutions. They now
possess eight parishes with eight pastors.
The grand duchy of Fin/and had, in 1900, a pop-
ulation of 2,673,200, of whom 48,812 were Ortho-
dox, 560 Roman Catholics, 2,620,891
a- X£t£?r" Lutherans, 2,630 Baptists, and 317
a^*J ™?' Methodists. The Lutheran clericals
Poland. numDer 758 in 512 parishes; and are
controlled administratively by four
bishops (the bishop of Abo being also archbishop of
Finland) and by the cathedral chapter, while the
legislative body is the general synod, two-fifths of the
191
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
members being clerical. The supreme control of the
Church, however, devolves on the department for
spiritual affairs in the Finnish senate. The laws
proposed by the synod must, on the one hand, be
approved by the diet and confirmed by the em-
peror; and, on the other hand, laws may be pro-
posed by the priest diets, which, when affecting the
liturgy, must be sanctioned by the congregations.
The pastors nominate the provosts, canons, and
three candidates for the bishopric, of whom the
emperor selects one. The congregations are free to
choose their pastors and officers. Since 1868 only
religious instruction has been left officially to the
Church; but as a matter of fact the majority of
the presidents of the school boards are Lutheran
clergymen, and all the principal teachers of the sec-
ondary schools must be Lutherans. At the Uni-
versity of Helsingfore there are four professors of
theology, and the entire school system of the grand
duchy is well organized. For the Finnish Bible So-
ciety, see Bible Societies, II., § 5. Since 1859
Finland has had its own missionary society which
works, in collaboration with the Rhenish mission, in
the Ovambo district, West Africa, having five sta-
tions and thirteen missionaries. Finnish missionary
activity likewise endeavors to reclaim the Lapps of
the far north, who have almost fallen back into
paganism because of the constant lack of preachers
(see Lapps). In the spiritual life of the Finnish
Church two opposing tendencies may be distin-
guished: one pietistic, laying all its stress on re-
pentance and sanctification, and the other empha-
sizing forgiveness of sins by grace and joy in the
perfected atonement. Also a Biblical stands in
contrast with an ecclesiastical tendency. See Fin-
land, Chbistianization of. The ten governments
of the former kingdom of Poland had, in 1871, a
population of 6,026,421, of whom 4,596,956 were
Roman Catholics, and 327,845 were Protestants.
The Lutheran parishes number sixty-five. At the
time of dismemberment only two Lutheran par-
ishes remained, those of Warsaw and Vengrov. The
others have sprung from German immigration since.
The control of the Polish Lutherans is vested in the
Evangelical Augsburg Consistory at Warsaw, which
has been subject to the ministry of the interior
from 1867. The lay president is appointed by the
emperor, and the clerical president, who is at the
same time general superintendent, by the minister.
Five superintendents (at Warsaw, Kalish, Augua-
tovo, Petrikau, and Plock) are under the control of
the general superintendent. The pastors are chosen
by the congregations and confirmed by the consis-
tory. They are members of the church boards
which, in every congregation, not only administer
the secular side of the church, but also supervise
the pastors and other officials and provide for the
poor. The schools are now withdrawn from Evan-
gelical control. German Lutherans have migrated
in large numbers from the Polish to the Russian
provinces of the empire in recent decades, and it is
only of late years that the Polish Evangelicals have
thrown off the influence of rationalism.
The Refdrmed Church in Russia enjoys greater
freedom than the Lutheran in the control of its
properly and the conduct of its service*. On the
other hand, it lacks the bond of a common creed
and is less consolidated. It consists of two large
8 Ka- bod*68' the synod of Lithuania and
formed. *ne c0118*3*0^ °f Warsaw. The other
nine communities are controlled by the
independent " Reformed sessions " coordinated with
the Lutheran consistories at St. Petersburg, Mos-
cow, Riga, and Mitau, and composed of the secular
members of the Lutheran consistories, the Re-
formed pastors, and one or two elders. Their powers
are limited to marriage, the examination and ordi-
nation of pastors, discipline of their clergy, and the
presentation of candidates for approval to the
minister of the interior, under whose jurisdiction
they stand. In the consistorial session of St. Peters-
burg there are the French and German congre-
gations in the capital, and churches at Odessa,
Chabag, Neudorf, and Rohrbach. The German
Reformed at St. Petersburg number about 3,000, and
are active not only in religion, but also in philan-
thropy and education. At Riga there were, in 1881,
1,843 Reformed ; 1 18 in the smaller cities of Livonia;
and 88 in Reval. The Reformed community at
Moscow numbered about 2,000 in 1882, and at
Mitau about 400. The Reformed Church in Lithu-
ania is controlled by the Lithuanian synod, to
which each member of the congregation belongs.
The decisive vote, however, rests in the synedrium,
a committee composed of the curatores nati, the su-
perintendent, and elected lay " curators." The
executive body, under the supervision of the minis-
ter of the interior, is the Reformed collegium at
Vilna, composed of four clerical and four lay mem-
bers. The synod comprises three districts: the
Samogitian with four Lithuanian communities and
10,600 members (1881), and two Polish congrega-
tions with about 300 Poles and Germans in the
government of Kovno; the district of Vilna with
four congregations in the government of Vilna;
and the district of White Russia with five congre-
gations in the governments of Grodno and Minsk.
The schools formerly controlled by the Reformed
Church in the Samogitian district were closed by
the State in 1860, and replaced by state schools.
The Reformed Church of the former kingdom of
Poland is governed by a synod and a consistory.
The former, in which only delegates of the in-
dividual churches are now allowed to vote, rules on
general matters concerning the church; while the
consistory, chosen from the synod, proposes new
measures, carries out the resolutions of the synod,
and decides questions concerning marriage. The
individual congregations are represented by presby-
teries, to which the pastor belongs. This, consis-
torial district embraces six pastoral congregations,
of which that of Warsaw is the largest with (1887)
2,700 members; three branch congregations with
7,659 pastoral members and 3,957 communicants;
the Reformed in Lodz; and a number of scattered
representatives of the denomination. The denomi-
nation controls several schools, but is compelled to
support the elementary crown schools. The small
embassy churches are entirely independent, these
being the Dutch in St. Petersburg; six Church of
England, in St. Petersburg, Kronstadt, Odessa,
Moscow, and Riga; and an Anglo-American Con-
Bnaaia
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
192
gregationai church at St. Petersburg. In Arch-
angel the Lutherans and Reformed united in 1818.
The Unity of the Brethren congregation at St.
Petersburg numbers about 45. The Mennonites,
who settled in the governments of Tauris, Yeka-
terinoslaf, and Samara after 1784 and 1804, num-
bered 34,217 in I860, while in 1903 there were in
Samara 1,218 Mennonites in 10 congregations.
Since 1880 the Baptists have been officially recog-
nized.
IIL Sectarianism in Russia: The stress laid by
the Eastern Church on the forms of worship as
a means of grace, with consequent insistence on the
abrogation of all innovations and opposition to any
alleged emendation, however slight, became the
cause of Russian sectarianism when, in the seven-
teenth century, the attempt was made to revise the
liturgy. In the course of time devia-
z. Origin, tions in ritual had naturally developed,
but in 1551 the " Synod of the Hun-
dred Chapters " had definitely sanctioned the lit-
urgy then observed. When the task of printing the
ritual began, the uncertainties of the text became
painfully evident, and while stern measures were
adopted to prevent emendations, the double halle-
luiah was substituted for the triple (1610) and the
sign of the cross with two fingers was adopted (1641)
— the principal matters of the subsequent contro-
versy. When Nikon (q.v.) became patriarch, he
energetically undertook the emendation of the rit-
uals and had them sanctioned by the synods of
1654-56. The form of the Greek and old Slavonic
books was made the norm, and the approbation of
the patriarchs of Antioch, Servia, and Constanti-
nople was secured. Reforms of so sweeping a char-
acter naturally evoked opposition, but the vigor-
ous policy of Nikon prevailed, and the synod of
1656 pronounced the anathema over the adherents
of the old uses. His enemies gradually gained
strength, however, but even while the synod of
1666-67 condemned Nikon, it confirmed his reform,
and thus became the starting-point of the great
schism which still exists in the Russian Church.
In the north it was the monastery of Solovetskii on
the White Sea that formed the center of the oppo-
sition. It was treacherously surrendered in 1676,
after a seven years' siege, and 400 of its inmates
were put to death. Yet this, and other stern meas-
ures, failed to crush the " ancient faith." The new
ritual was regarded by its opponents as the doc-
trine of Antichrist. The making of the sign of the
cross with three fingers instead of two, the pronun-
ciation Ilsus instead of Isus (" Jesus "), the three-
fold halleluiah instead of the twofold during mass,
the four-armed cross instead of the eight-armed,
celebration with seven " prosphers " instead of with
five, procession in a direction contrary to the ap-
parent course of the sun, the omission of " very "
(instead of " Lord ") as applied to the Holy Ghost
in the Nicene Creed, and the prayer " Jesus Christ,
our God " instead of " Jesus Christ, Son of God "
were all considered essential heresies of Antichrist.
Later still numerous other heresies were alleged
against the State Church, especially all innovations
of Peter the Great and the entire infiltration of
occidentalism.
Within the schism itself the dying-out of priests
ordained before the separation from the State
Church led to a distinction between the " Priestly "
(Popovshckina) and " Priestless " (Bezpopovshchina),
since the lack of any bishop rendered
2. The it necessary either to have all sacra-
Popovsh- ments administered by priests who
china. had renounced the State Church, or
entirely to surrender the sacraments
excepting baptism, which, in case of necessity,
might be performed by a layman. The Popovsh-
ckina, as the less radical sectaries, were the more
successful in founding a new church. Their chief
center at the end of the seventeenth century was
on the island of Vietka in one of the tributaries of
the Dnieper, in the government of Moghilef , where
more than 30,000 gathered. Two attacks, in 1735
and 1764, destroyed their possessions, and many
of them were exiled, chiefly to Siberia. While
Nijni-Novgorod was a favorite residence of the
Sktii, a sub-sect of the Popovshckina, the center of
the latter became Starodub in the government of
Chernigof. Since 1771, except for an interruption
of a few years, the Rogoshski cemetery at Moscow
has been the center of the Popovshckina, as the
Preobradshenski cemetery has been for the Bez-
popovshckina. The question of reanointing priests
who had become converts from the State Church
led, in 1779, to a loss of the prestige of the Popovsh-
ckina, who were forbidden in 1832 to receive priests
from the Russian Church. A few years later, how-
ever, they received priests ordained by a deposed
Bosnian patriarch, though they were long obliged
to officiate in secret. A variety of liturgical and
other questions have caused more or less serious
divisions among the Popovshckina; while the per-
mission of the Synod (1800) for priests to officiate
according to the ancient rite resulted in the recon-
ciliation of many Popovshckina with the Church —
the Yedinovyeretzi, or " Coreligionists." The mon-
asteries of the Yedinovyeretzi are recognized by the
State, but they have not been able to obtain an in-
dependent hierarchy. The number of this sect
scarcely exceeds a million; in 1886 it possessed 244
churches.
The Bezpopovshchinaf who number between two
and three million, are much more radical than the
Popovshckina, and are split into a greater number
of minor sects. Their chief home is between Lakes
Ladoga and Onega and the White Sea, so that they
are termed Pomoryane, or " Sea-
3. The Dwellers." Since all priests ordained
Bezpopovsh- before the time of Nikon had died,
china. these sectaries declared that the time
of Antichrist had come, in which all
sacraments except baptism were abrogated. In-
stead of ordained priests they had only elders and
readers, who expounded the Scriptures, heard con-
fessions, and baptized, the mode of baptizing being
the cause of many divisions. They observe the
fasts of the Russian Church, venerate icons and
relics, and avoid tobacco, sugar, and certain sorts
of food. Their formal organization was begun in
1691, and their monastery on the River Vyga long
formed their center. After the time of Peter the
Great they enjoyed a certain degree of toleration;
188
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Russia
but when, in 1738, some of them were willing, for
political reasons, to include intercession for the
czar and his family in their prayers, the majority
proved recalcitrant, and the two sub-sects (both
named from their founders) of " Philipists " and
" Feodosians " were consequently formed, refusing
to have any fellowship with their former comrades.
The most difficult problem for the Bezpopovshckina
was that of marriage. Their quasi-monastic ideals
proving impracticable, some renounced religious
marriage, others rejected its indissolubility, and
others still would not tolerate marriage at all, so
that their level of morality proved inferior to that
of the orthodox. The abolition of marriage could
not be carried out; the novoshennye (" newly
wedded ") were married by priests of the State
Church and then did penance. From the Filipovtzi,
toward the end of the eighteenth century, arose the
" Pilgrims " (Stranniki) or "Fugitives" (Bye-
gtony)* wn°i m supposed conformity with Matt. x.
37-38, forsook their homes and families, rejected
legal marriage and the certificate of naturalization
with the seal of " Antichrist," and ate no food from
the vessels of strangers. A sub-sect of the " Pil-
grims " intentionally postponed their vow of wan-
dering until toward the end of their lives, but occu-
pied a less honored position. From the loss of a
hierarchy others of the " priestless " Russian sec-
taries inferred that the sacraments and public
worship were altogether abrogated, as by several
divisions of the Netovtzi (" Deniers ") . The " Non-
Prayers" respected only the prayer of the heart,
and even regarded all prayer as an affront to the
divine omniscience, and explained all Christian
doctrine as allegorical; the Molchalniki (" Silent ")
refused to speak, even under torture; others used
raisins instead of wine in the Eucharist; and the
tenets of others are still unknown.
Besides these sects there are a number of others
which did not originate from the schism of 1667,
which is called the raskol (" schism ") par excel-
lence, whence its adherents are known as Raskolniks
(" Schismatics "). Among them mention should
first be made of certain mystics who are not sepa-
rated externally from the Orthodox
4. The Church, but frequently seem to be her
Khlysty. most zealous members. These are the
" People of God," or Khlysty (" Flagel-
lants "), probably a corruption of Khristy
(" Christs "). According to their account, God de-
scended in 1645 on Mount Gorodin in the govern-
ment of Vladimir, and took up his abode in the
peasant Daniel Philippov, who chose as his son,
" Christ," the peasant Ivan Suslov, who in turn
chose a " Mother of God " and twelve apostles.
Suslov is said to have been twice crucified, to have
risen and been manifested to his followers, and to
have lived until 1716. Since that time the Khlysty
have had many " Christs " (including Peter III.;
see | 5). Each member of the sect is expected to
endeavor to become a " Christ " or a " Mother of
God " by mortification of the flesh and prayer. The
" ships " in which the Khlysty gather are directed
by a prophet or angel, aided by a prophetess, and
the commands of these prophets are the law of their
adherent*. The twelve commands of Philippov are
also still in force, including abstinence from intoxi-
cating liquors and all carnal indulgence. They hold
that the essential baptism is that of the Spirit, and
they celebrate the Eucharist with the triturated
Easter prospher and the water blessed at the feast
of the Epiphany. Dancing and singing form the
principal parts of their religious exercises, the men
in the center and the women on the outside circling
round with frantic gestures (supposed to imitate
the flying of the angels) until exhausted and even
unconscious (cf. Ecstasy); while the incoherent
phrases which they utter are taken to be prophecies.
The secrecy attaching to the Khlysty enhances
their prestige, but much of the scandal popularly
ascribed to them seems apocryphal. The exact re-
lation of the Skakuny (" Jumpers ") to the Khlysty
is problematical.
An offshoot of the Khlysty is formed by the
Skoptzi (" Self-Castrators "). They were founded
by a certain Selivanov (whose real name is un-
known), who, about 1770, declared himself to be
Peter III. and a son of God. Banished to Siberia,
he was permitted to return by Paul I.,
5. The but was confined as insane until re-
SkoptzL leased by Alexander I- He then en-
joyed quasi-divine honor in St. Peters-
burg, but in 1820 he was again placed in confinement
in the monastery of Suzdal, where he died in 1832,
a centenarian. In opposition to the licentiousness
of some Khlysty, Selivanov laid all stress on Matt.
xix. 12, xviii. 8-9, distinguishing between the
" royal seal " and " second purity " (partial cas-
tration). Women usually have the breasts am-
putated. Many Skoptzi are " white doves " or
" pure spirits " only after they have begotten chil-
dren, and others are nominally married. Selivanov
is considered the perfect redeemer. The Skoptzi,
who on principle deny that they belong to the sect,
carry on an active propaganda, and all measures
to suppress them have failed. Their number is esti-
mated at between two and three thousand, many
of them emigrants to Rumania.
Opposition to the ceremonial of the Orthodox
Church is embodied in the Molokani (" Milk Drink-
ers ") and Dukhobors (q.v.), who reject the sacra-
ments and are officially designated as rationalistic
sects. Scorning ceremonial, a special priesthood,
and the veneration of icons, they maintain that the
only worship of God is in spirit and that the heart
of man is the sole true temple of God. Instead of
baptism by water they demand the
6. The baptism of the Spirit, instead of con-
MolokanL fession to a priest confession to each
of the brethren, and instead of the
Eucharist meditation on the words of Christ. The
origin of the Molokani is obscure, nor are they offi-
cially mentioned until 1765. They claim that the
Bible is their sole foundation, and though they ex-
plain it allegorically, they do not reject the his-
torical elements in the Gospel. They refuse to eat
pork, but in general their doctrines are vague, so
that much diversity of opinion prevails among
them. Their congregations meet in private houses,
each body having a presbyter and two assistants
conspicuous for uprightness of life. Their devo-
tions consist of prayer, the singing of hymns and
1
THE NEW 8CHAFF-HERZ0Q
reading of the Bible, and conversations on religious
themes. Their morality is high, and their readiness
to assist one another has led to frequent experi-
ments in communism. Theoretically they hold that
earthly rulers are only for the worldly, so that many
of tin in refuse to pay taxes, take oaths, or perform
military service, but practically they are, as a rule,
loyal and peaceful subjects. Large inroads have
been made in their numbers by the Baptists and
St nudists. The Molokani are also held by some in-
vi::stij;:ili"irs to include the Subotniki (" SaM.'nUin-
ans "), who, though having no affinities with Juda-
ism, observe Saturday as the Sabbath, practise
circumcision, and observe the dietary laws.
There are many minor mystic and rationalistic
Russian sects, such as the " Sighers," " Spiritual
liivllircti." " Nameless," etc. The most important
development of Russian sectarianism, however, is
that of the Stundists, who arose about 1S64, pri-
marily in southern Russia. They seem
7. The to have originated from devotional
Stundists. " hours " (Germ. Slunden) held in the
German colony of Rohrboch and visited
"by Russians. Under Baptist influence Stundism
assumed a position of hostility toward the ritual,
sacraments, and icons of the Orthodox Church, and
at the same time incurred the suspicions of the gov-
ernment for supposed German tendencies. Stund-
ism seems no longer connected with the Baptist
denomination, hut it bis developed the sub-sect of
Jlalovantzi (named from its founder, the peasant
Kondrut Mulovani, who is supposed to be the Mes-
eiah), who resemble the Khlyety.
The number of Russian sectaries is too vague to
be stated even approximately, the figures assigned
ranging from 3,000,000 to 15,000,000.
(N. Bonwetsch.)
BiblioubaphT' For the background in the history of the
Kelly. Hi
The Rus
, London, 1850; A. Romhnud, Hist, of
Russia, 3 vols., London. 1887; H. H. Howonh. Hist, of
the Mongols. 3 vols., London, 1888: D. M. Wallace, Rus-
sia, newed., London. 1905; A Brflckner, Geschichle Russ-
lands bit tur Endt des IS. Jahrhunderi*. Gottaii. 1898; S.
Wolkonsky. Pictures of Russian Hisloru and Russian Litera-
lurt, Boilon, ISC': A. Leroy-Beaub'eu, L' Empire d.
Milukow, Skixxen
, 1897-08: P.
Kultururachichte, 2 ^
-. Hist, of Run
K. Walissci
Literature, Now York. 1900; W. K. Morfell. Hist, of R:
rin from Peter the Great to Alexander II., New York, 1901 ;
F. H. E. Palmer. Roman Life in Team and Country- New
York, 1903; R. U. Bain, Tht First Romanovs (1B15-
17tS>: Bitt. of the Muscovite Civilisation, New York,
190S; A. Ulnr. Russia from WMin, New York, 1905;
Jeremiah Curtin. The Mongols in Russia, Beaton, 1908;
~~u*slanit* w-i.U'1!.- /.nr.-i. I.'nii:,1 uii Si)i,:).l
Lileratur. TQbingen, 1908: T. H. Pau-
r Entetehung del russi-
schen Reiches oil mr Gegenivart, Leipsic 1908: D'Abnour,
Hist, abtegee da peuplet de la Rune. Paris 1910.
For tbe history of the ehurch nearly nil the literature
under Eastern I 'hiirrli is | --rr Jn--n t . :iu,l llir most important
entries are cited there in dii.isiEed form. The literature
uti.W Nikon. Photiua. hd>1 Platon is also to be consulted.
P. Strahi. Beitrage tur russischen KirchengetchicliU- Balhs,
1827: idem. Geschichle der rumitchim Kircht. vol. i.. ib.
1830; A. N. Mouravieff Hut of 1** CnunA o/ Russia.
London. 1842: H. Lutteroth Russia and On Jesuits, from
l?7*ta IStO, ib. 1858: H, Dalton. Getchichte der lejormier-
ten Kirche in Russland. Golha. 1S85 idem, flnlrflo* sur
Geschichtc der evangclitchtn Kirche in Rutland, 4 vol*..
ib. 1887-1905; idem, Dit rustisehe Kirthe. Lcipaie. 1S92;
Qayahn. Russian Clergy. London, 1872; Philarel, Ge-
schichle dsr Kirche Rwitlnn.lt. 2 vols., Frankfort. 1872;
The Patriarch and the Tsar, from tat Russian by William
Palmer, 3 vols.. London. 1871-73; H. Knatomorov, Rus-
sische Geschichle in Biooraphien, Leipsic, 1889: F. Ni li-
poid. Hnndbuch der neuetten Kirchengeschichte, ii. 2t~ *'\<\..
Berlin, 1901: F. Knltenbusch, in W. D. Grant, Chris-
tendom anno Domini 1901. i. 388 sqq.. New York, 1902;
L. K. Gflls. Das Kicwtr H.Mcnkloster als Kulturlentrum
des vormonooliscnen Russland, Passati. 1B04; idem,
Kirchcnrtrhtliche und Kulturgeschichlliche Drnkmaler Alt-
russlands. Stuttgart. 1905; idem. Stoat und Kirehi in
AltrusMand. Kievtr Periode 888 bis ttiO, Berlin, 1908;
A. Malvy, La Reforms Or Ciglise ruste. Paris. I90S; 8m-
ict Book of the Holy Orthodox-Catholic Apostolic iOreco-
Rustian) Church, compared, translated and arranged far
the Old Church-Slavonic Service Books of the Russian
Church and collated urith the Service Books of the Greek
Church, by Isabel F. Hapgood. Boston. 1906; J. Vi'ilbois.
L-Avtnir de Teglise run. Paris. 1907; A. Palmieri. La
Chiesa Russa. Le w odierne corulisioni eilsuo rifarmismo
doUrinaie, Florence, 1908. Treatises in Russian on the
church history of Russia are by Mnknrij. 12 vols., at.
Petersburg. 1868-83. E. Golubinaky. 2 vols, in 3, Moscow,
1900-02.
For the history of Russian dissent sjid the sects con-
sult: K. K. Grass. Dit russischen Sekten. Lei[»ir. HKH <M:
E. Pelikan. GeschicAlUch-medisinUche Vnlersvehunoen
flour lias Sknptentum in Russland, Giessen. I87S; T. Pech,
Die Molakanen. La Historisches Toschenbuch, 6 ser.. viu.
203 sqq.. Leipsic, IBJSj N. von Gerbel-Embach. Russi-
sche Sektierer, in Zctifragtm der Christlichen Volkslebens,
voL viii., part 4, Heilbrann. 1S.S.1; A. F. Heard. The Rus-
sian Church and Russian Dissent; comprising Orthodoxy,
Dissent, and Erratic Sects, London. 1887; N. Tsakni, La
Russie teetaire, Paris, 1888; V. Frank. Russische Sclbtl-
seugniste. Russisches Christentum, Paderbom, 1889;
A. Roscbdestwenskij, Der sudrussischs Slundismus, Bt.
Petersburg. 1889; D. Dan, Die Lippowaner in der Bu-
kooina. Csemowits. 1890; F. Kattenbusch, Lehrbuch der
rerolcitJienden Konfessianskunde. L 234 sqq.. 542 sqq.,
Freiburg, 1892; F. Knie, Die russisch-schismatische Kirche,
Gras. 1894; H. Dslton, ut sup., pp. 57 sqq.; idem, Der
Slundismus in Russland. Guteraloh, 1896; Hesba ^tret-
Ion. Hiahvay of fiorruiD at the Close of the 19th Century,
London. 1897; P. Birukoff, J. Treguboff . and W. T«.li.n-
kofl. Christenverfolguna in Russland, Munich, 1898; J.
Gehring, Die Sekten der russischen Kirche, Lcipaie. 1S93;
F. Loofs, Symbolik. L 109 sqq., Tilbingeu. 1902; B. shu>
gsrilOW, OeschiclUe der russischen rntionalislischsn und
mystiechen Sekten. Kisbinew. 1902; K. K. Grass, Die oe-
hcime heilige Schrift der Skopien, Leipsic. 1904: J. B.
Severao. La Secte russe det hammes de Dicu, Paris. 1900;
P. Strahi. Beitrage, ut sup,, i. 250 sqq.; and literature
under DuKSOBoas.
RUST, GEORGE: English theologian, usually
reckoned among the Cambridge Plalonists (q.v.)i
b. at Cambridge; d. at Dromore (15 m. s.w. of Bel-
fast), Ireland, Dec., 1670. He was educated at St.
Catharine's Hall, Cambridge (B.A., 1S47; M.A.,
1650), and was elected fellow of Christ College in
1649. He resigned his fellowship in 1059, and soon
:ifter the Restoration was invited by Jeremy Taylor
to Ireland, was ordained deacon and priest May 7,
UHtl, becoming dean of Connor in August, and in
1664 was rector of Lisburn. In 1667 he succeeded
Taylor as bishop of Dromore, which was now again
separated from Down and Connor, and died three
years later. He was the intimate friend of Henry
More and Joseph Glanvil! (qq.v.), and wrote two
works whose subjects and spirit connect him with
their school: Discourse of Truth (London, 1677; ed.
Glanvil!); and a Discount: of tlte Use of Reaxon in
Matters of Religion (ed. H. Hallywell, 1683). The
former, by which he is chiefly known, shows an en-
lightened mind, but no largeness of grasp, while its
line of thought is a weaker echo of Cudwjr'.'i.
185
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Russia
Buth
His Remains were edited by H. HallyweU
(1686).
Bibliography: Besides the literature under Cambridge
Platonxsts, consult: C. H. Cooper, Annals of Cambridge,
iii. 545-546, 5 vols., Cambridge, 1842-53; idem. Memorials
of Cambridge, new ed., 2 vols., ib. 1858-60; J. Ware,
Antiquities and Hist, of Ireland, 9 parts, London, 1704-05;
H. Cotton, Festi eccletim Hibernica, vol. iii., 5 vols., Dub-
lin. 1845-60; J. Worthington, Diary and Correspondence,
ed. J. Crossley for Chetham Society, Manchester, 1847
sqq.; DNB, L 1-2.
RUST, ISAAK: German Evangelical; b. at Muss-
bach (59 m. n.w. of Stuttgart) Oct. 14, 1796; d. at
Munich Dec. 14, 1862. He was educated at the
University of Heidelberg (1815-17); and was first
vicar, then teacher at the progymnasium at Speyer
(1817-20), where he also lectured for a term on phi-
losophy at the Lyceum. In 1820 he became pastor
at Ungstein, where he wrote his Pkilosopkie und
Christentum, oder Wissen und Glauben (Mannheim,
1825), in which, from a rationalistic point of view,
he traced the intellectual and religious development
of mankind in parallels through three stages: pa-
ganism, the stage of feeling; Judaism, of under-
standing; and Christianity, of reason. Similar
views were maintained in his De nonnullis qua in
theologia nostra cetcUis dogmatica desiderantur (Er-
langen, 1828), a polemic against Schleiermacher.
In 1827 Rust was called to Erlangen as pastor of
the French Reformed church; and, in 1830, was
appointed associate professor of theology, and full
professor in 1831. His Geist aus Luthers Sckriften,
oder Concordanz der Ansichien und Urieile des gros-
sen Reformators (in collaboration with F. W. Lom-
ler, E. Zimmermann, and others; 4 vols., Darmstadt,
1827-31), and Stimmen der Reformation und der
Re/ormatoren an die FUrsten und Vdlker dieser Zeit
(Erlangen, 1832), indicate his change to orthodoxy.
In 1833 Rust was appointed director of the con-
sistory of Erlangen in place of a pronounced ra-
tionalist. His arbitrary spirit and zeal for the
Palatine union and against the rationalistic element
raised such opposition that, in 1836, the supreme
consistory sent two councilors to the Palatinate,
where they held ineffectual conferences with cler-
ical and lay members of the synod. Rust remained
in the consistory, however, where he exercised a
reactionary influence on theological education, Bib-
lical instruction, and missions, and on the synods.
Opposition to him and his measures continued,
until, in 1846, he was appointed to the supreme
consistory at Munich. In the stormy year of 1848,
however, his removal was repeatedly demanded,
and the separation of the unionistic Palatinate
Church from the consistory was urged again and
again. This took place in 1849, to avert which
Rust had meantime been retired from the supreme
consistory, but continued to be court chaplain, and
in 1850 was appointed ministerial councilor and
referee for Palatine ecclesiastical affairs in the
ministry of worship. Henceforth his influence on
the church was not such as to evoke opposition, and
in 1861 he retired from active life.
(J. Schneider.)
Bibliography: H. E. Q. Paulus, Die protestantisch-evan-
OeUsch-vmerU Kirehe in der baieriochen PfaU, Heidelberg,
1840; Q. F. Kolb. Kune OeeehiehU der vereinioten protes-
tantiseh esangelisch-christiichen Kirehe der baierischen
PfaU, Speyer, 1847; E. F. H. Medicus, Geechichle der
evangelisehen Kirehe im Konigreich Bayern, supplement
vol., Erlangen, 1865; F. W. Laurier, Die evangeliseh-
protestantische Kirehe der PfaU, Kaiserslautern, 1868.
RUSTON, WILLIAM OTIS: Presbyterian; b. in
New York City Dec. 6, 1852. He was graduated
from the College of the City of New York (B.A.,
1872), and from Union Theological Seminary, New
York City (1875); was pastor atFairmount, N. J.,
1875-77; at West Union, la., 1877-86; at Du-
buque, la., 1886-1903; professor of sacred lan-
guages and literature in the German Presbyterian
Theological School of the Northwest, since 1903;
and president of the same, 1904-08.
RUTH, BOOK OF : A book of the Old Testament
placed in the English canon between Judges and
I Samuel. It is a narrative of events which pur-
port to have taken place in the period of the Judges,
about the Moabitess Ruth, who, through a series of
singular incidents, became the ancestress of David.
Elimelech, a Bethlehemite, driven by famine, emi-
grated, with his wife, Naomi, and his two sons,
Mafrlon and Chilion, to the land of Moab, where he
and his two sons died after these had taken Moa-
bitish wives, Ruth and Orpah. After remaining
ten years in Moab, Naomi decided to return to her
native land and advised her daughters-in-law to
leave her; but Ruth, with filial attachment, fol-
lowed her back to Judah. There, while gleaning in
a field belonging to Boaz, a kinsman, she was well
treated by him. Naomi instructed her to offer her-
self in marriage to her well-to-do kinsman, he being,
to a certain extent, bound to take the childless
widow and " to raise up the name of the dead upon
his inheritance." Boaz accepted the obligation,
after a nearer relative, to whom he gave the oppor-
tunity of redeeming the land of Elimelech and ta-
king Ruth, had declined. The son of Boaz and
Ruth became the grandfather of David.
The grace and freshness of the narrative have air
ways been admired. It bears internal evidence of
its truth, for it is not likely that a fiction would have
ascribed a Moabitish ancestress to David. How-
ever, it has an especial spiritual significance; it in-
dicates that God's people was ordained to draw
fresh strength from a heathen source. Ruth is men-
tioned as an ancestress of the Messiah in Matt, i.,
beside Tamar and Rahab. Tamar, mother of
Pharez (Gen. xxxviii.), of the same genealogy, is
also mentioned by the narrator of Ruth as a source
of divine blessing (iv. 12) ; not only as a foreigner,
but as the mother of the offspring from a marriage
based on the obligations of kinship, which Judah
unknowingly and involuntarily had to fulfil. Still,
in spite of the inner significance of this mixture of
Jewish with foreign blood, in the house of David, it
seems clear that it could not have been the inven-
tion of a didactic " tendency." Just as little could
the story have been conceived for the sake of com-
mending the levirate marriage, since that is taken
for granted and not especially urged. Political and
mythological motives have been ascribed to the
book, but on insufficient grounds. The book pre-
sents a historically faithful picture of ancient
customs and traditions. It is not certain to what
Ruth
Ruysbroeok
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
120
period of the era of the Judges Ruth belongs. Ac-
cording to the genealogy of Ruth (iv. 18 sqq.), she
lived about 100 yean before David. The history
of David's family could have been of general inter-
est only after his accession to the throne. Philo-
logical evidence points to a much later date of the
writing of the book of Ruth, probably after the
exile.
If the matter was derived from an oral family
tradition of the house of David and the present is
a redaction of an earlier text (E. Konig), the fact
would be admissible that the editor introduced also
didactic motives with the reproduction; but the
principal thing is not to contend for a certain
" tendency," but to throw light on the origin of the
house of David. Some (e.g., A. Bertholet) think
that he wrote in the Ezra-Nehemiah period to com-
bat the exclusion of foreigners from the connubium.
Such a polemic intention is too faintly brought out
to make its existence probable. As to integrity it
Is not improbable that iv. 18-22 was a later addi-
tion. The position of the Book of Ruth differs in
the Hebrew canon and in the Septuagint. The
latter placed it after Judges; and Josephus, follow-
ing this, combines it with Judges as one book.
Many have assumed that it once formed the third
appendix of Judges and was later separated. It
was counted among the five rolls to be read at the
five feasts. (C. von Orelli.)
Bibliography: Commentaries are by: 8. H. Tyng, The
Rich Kinsman, New York, 1855; Metsger, Tubingen,
1857; C. F. Keil and F. Delitisch, Eng. transl., Edin-
burgh, 1865; A. Raabe, Das Buck Ruth und das Hohelied
im Uriexi, Leipeic, 1879; C. Hamann, Annotations critical
et exegetica in librum Ruth, Marburg, 1871; H. Zschokke,
BQdische Frauen, pp. 208-225, Freiburg, 1882; E. Ber-
theau, 2d ed., Leipeic, 1883; H. F. Kohlbrugge, Utrecht,
1886; R. Brown, Gleanings from the Book of Ruth; or, the
Book of Ruth opened out by Comparison with other Parte of
Scripture, London, 1887; F. de Hummelauer, Paris, 1888;
8. Oettli and J. Meinhold, in Die geechichtlichen Hagio-
graphien, Munich, 1880; M. C. Horine, Philadelphia, 1892;
A. Bertholet and O. Wildeboer, Tubingen, 1898; W.
Nowack, Odttingen, 1900; A. Black, Ruth, a Hebrew Idyl,
London, 1906. The Midrash Ruth Rabba is in A. Wun-
sche, Bibliotheca rabbinica, Leipeic, 1883, cf. the Collegium
rabbinico-biblicum in librum Ruth, ed. J. B. Carpsov, ib.
1703.
On questions of introduction, teaching, and text con-
sult the works on O. T. theology, on introduction to the
O. T., and on the history of Israel under Ahab; and
Israel, History op; F. W. C. Umbreit, in TSK, 1834,
pp. 305-308; Auberlen, Die drei AnhAnge dee Buches der
Richier, in TSK, 1860, pp. 536-568; C. H. H. Wright,
Book of Ruth in Hebrew, . . . Text, Readings, Critical
Commentary, London, 1864; R. W. Bush, Popular Intro-
duction to . . . Ruth, London, 1883; K. Budde, inZATW,
xii (1892), 37-51; DB, iv. 316; EB, iv. 4166-72 (impor-
tant); JE, x. 576-578; Vigouroux, Dictionnaire, fasc.
v., cols. 1273-82.
RUTHENIA5 CATHOLICS: See Roman Catho-
lics, II., 2, § 1.
RUTHERFORD, ruth'er-ferd, SAMUEL: Scotch
Covenanter; b. in Nisbet Parish, now part of (trail-
ing (42 m. s.e. of Edinburgh) about 1600; d. at St.
Andrews (11 m. s.e. of Dundee), Roxburgshire, Mar.
20, 1661. He graduated from Edinburgh (M.A.,
1621); was regent of humanity, 1623-25; began
the study of theology, 1626; was pastor of An-
worth, Galloway, 1627-36, when he issued Exer-
citationes apologeticce pro divina gratia (1636), a
work in defense of the doctrine of grace against the
Arminians which attracted wide attention and
elicited a call to the chair of theology at Utrecht
and also to that at Hardewyk. On July 27, 1636, he
was cited before the high commission court to an-
swer for his non-conformity to the Acts of Episco-
pacy, and his work against the Arminians. De-
prived of his living at Anworth, he was banished
to Aberdeen. When the Covenant was again tri-
umphant, in 1638, he returned to Anworth, and in
1639 was made professor of divinity at St. Mary's,
at St. Andrews. In 1643 he was chosen one of the
Scotch commissioners to the Westminster Assem-
bly (q.v.), and during his four years of service in
that capacity wrote The Due Right of Presbyteries
(London, 1644); Lex, rex; the Law and the Prince
(1644); The Tryal and Triumph of Faith (1645);
and The Divine Right of Church Government and
Excommunication (1646). Soon after, he became
principal of St. Mary's, and in 1651 rector of the
University of St. Andrews. His Free Disputation
against Pretended Liberty of Conscience (1649) was
pronounced by Bishop Heber " perhaps the most
elaborate defense of persecution which has ever
appeared in a Protestant country." Joining with
the western remonstrants in their protest to the
assembly in 1651, the schism was opened which,
ten years later, resulted in the restoration of epis-
copacy. These ten years were filled with acrimoni-
ous controversy both with the sectarians and with
his colleagues at St. Andrews, where, on account of
strife, the communion was suspended for six years.
Possessed of high ability, honesty, and unselfish-
ness, Rutherford was called the " true saint of the
covenant "; yet by his narrow, bitter, and scurril-
ous antagonism, he helped to degrade and destroy
pre8byterianism, which he aimed to serve. The
Lex t rex was ordered to be burned; he was deprived
of his offices, and summoned to answer to a charge
of treason by parliament, in 1661; but severe ill-
ness which resulted in his death prevented his ap-
pearance. He published further: The Covenant of
Life Opened (1655) ; Survey of the Survey of Church
Discipline by T. Hooker (1658); and Influences of
the Life of Grace (1659). Rutherford's letters are
specially interesting and edifying, published under
the title Joshua Redivivus (1664; or Letters of Sam-
uel Rutherford, with Sketch of his Life, by A. A.
Bonar, New York, 1851; 5th ed., London, 1906).
Bibliography: Besides the Letters, ut sup., consult: Manna
Crumb; . . . being Excerpte from the Letters of Samuel
Rutherford, Gathered by W. P. Breed, Philadelphia, 1865;
T. Murray. The Life of Samuel Rutherford, Edinburgh,
1828; Hew Scott, Fasti ecdesim ScoHcana, 6 vols., Edin-
burgh, 1866-71; A. P. Stanley, The Church of Scotland,
pp. 100-108, London, 1872; A. B. Grosart, Representative
Nonconformists, London, 1870; A. F. Mitchell, The West-
minster Assembly, London, 1883; Scottish Divines: 1606-
1878 (St. Giles Lectures), Edinburgh. 1883; A. T. Innee.
Samuel Rutherford, Edinburgh, 1884; A. Thomson, Samuel
Rutherford, London, 1884; A. Whyte, Samuel Rutherford
and some of his Correspondents, Edinburgh, 1894; The
Upward Way. A Book of Extracts from the Letters of
Samuel Rutherford. Written chiefly from his Prison at
Aberdeen, 1696-88, ed. Eleanor C. Gregory, London, 1908;
and the literature under Prxsbttbkians relating to
Rutherford's period, and that under Westmnsteb
Assembly.
RUYSBROBCK, reis'breH, (RUUSBROEC, RUTS-
BROEK), JAN VAN: Dutch mystic; b. at Ruys-
broeck (4 m. s.w. of Brussels) 1294; d. at the
137
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Buth
Kuysbroeck
Augustinian monastery of Groenendael (2 m. s.e.
of Brussels) Dec. 2, 1381. Inclined, even as a child,
to the religious life, he left home at the age of
eleven and went to his uncle, canon of
Biography. St. Gudula at Brussels. Here he
studied diligently for four years, and
then determined to renounce all secular learning
for theology. At the age of twenty-four he became
a priest and vicar of St. Gudula's. Of his career
here little is known, though he seems to have de-
voted himself more and more to the contemplative
life. Mild and charitable, he was yet stern to all
forms of vice and error, and associated much with
other mystics. In order to give his undivided
thoughts to contemplation he retired from the secu-
lar priesthood at the age of sixty to the newly es-
tablished monastery of Groenendael, of which he
became the first prior. Dividing his time between
a reform of his order and meditation, he became a
model of monastic sanctity, and received visitors
from far and wide, among them Johannes Tauler
and Geert Groote (qq.v.). Soon after his death
legend gathered around his name; and, at an early
date, he was styled doctor ecstaHcus.
The writings of Ruysbroeck show a marked
similarity to those of Meister Eckart (q.v.), by which
they may well have been influenced, especially as
the works of the older mystic were certainly read
in the vicinity of Groenendael, and he
Writings, may have heard Eckart at Cologne.
Ruysbroeck, the best prose writer of the
Netherlands in the Middle Ages, wrote entirely in
Dutch, in a style mostly quiet and simple, but
capable, under the stress of feeling and imagination,
of rising to lofty heights. On the other hand,
despite the precision with which he was able to
express the profoundest thoughts, he is frequent-
ly obscure through his allegories, similies, repeti-
tions, digressions, and subtile (though often illog-
ical) divisions. His works were soon translated
into Latin by his pupils Willem Jordaens and
Groote, and translations into the dialects of Gel-
derland, Cologne, the Upper Rhine, and High
German are extant. The first printed treatise of
Ruysbroeck was the Brulocht, which appeared under
the title De ornatu spiritualium nupUarum (Paris,
1512), while later L. Surius published the Rus-
brockii opera (Cologne, 1552). From the latter
text, which is paraphrastic and often incorrect,
Ruysbroeck's writings were translated into German
by " G. J. C." (ed. G. Arnold, Offenbach, 1701).
The Gelder and Cologne versions of four tractates
have been edited by A. von Arnswaldt under the
title Vier Schriften von Johann Rusbroek in nieder-
deutscher Sprache (Hanover, 1848). The chief edi-
tion, however, is the complete one prepared, under
the auspices of the Flemish Academy of Biblio-
philes, by J. B. David, Werken van J. van Ruusbroec
(6 vols., Ghent, 1858-69). This contains twelve
treatises: (1) Chierheit der gheesteleker Brulocht,
sent in 1530 to the friends of God at Strasburg, and
consisting of three books treating respectively of
the active, the inward, and the contemplative life;
(2) Dot Bote van den Gheesteleken Tabernacule is a
long allegorical interpretation of the ark of the
covenant as the type of the mystical life, based on
the Historia scholastica of Peter Comestor (q.v.);
(3) Dot Boec van den Twaelf Dogheden, more ethical
than mystical, is a development of Christian virtue,
whose foundation is humility; (4) the Spieghel der
ewigher Salicheit, written for the Poor Clares in
1359, is an application of the three grades of the
mystical life, respectively, to monasticism and to
the Eucharist, the work being mostly devoted to
the author's views on the sacrament; (5) the Van
den Kerstenen Ghelove is a short exposition of the
Athanasian Creed; (6) Dot Boec van seven trappen
in den groet der gheesteliker minnent on the three
grades; (7) Tractaet van seven stolen was written
for the Poor Clares and describes the duties of the
nunnery, with special stress on the necessity of in-
ward meditation; (8) Tractaet van den Rike der
Ghelieven is written largely in rime of little poetic
value; (9) Dot Boec van den vier Becoringhen com-
bats the chief errors in the author's time; (10) Dot
Boec van den twaelf Beghinen, on contemplation,
though often disturbed in context, is of much im-
portance for a knowledge of Ruysbroeck's mysti-
cism; (11) Vingherlinc, of het blickende Steentje,
on the " white stone " of Rev. ii. 17 (Christ, who
is given to the man of meditation), is also devoted
to the three grades, especially the last; (12) Sam-
uel, of dot Boec der hoechster Waerheit, is an apology
for the author's mysticism.
Ruysbroeck proceeds, in his mystical system,
from God, descends to man, and finally returns to
God. God is simple unity, the supernal essence of
all, himself immovable, and yet the motive source
of things. The Son is wisdom, the uncreated image
of the Father; and the Holy Ghost,
Doctrines, proceeding from and returning to both,
is love, which unites the Father and
the Son. In the persons God is eternal activity, in
his essence eternal rest. All creatures are thoughts
of God before creation. In man soul and spirit are
to be distinguished, the former the principle of the
life of the creature, and the latter the principle of
divine life. The soul has three qualities: memory,
reason, and will. Higher than these are, the essen-
tial simplicity and formlessness of the spirit which
render it like the Father; the intelligence which
receives eternal Wisdom (the Son); and the sin-
deresis (or spark of the soul) which strives back to
the origin, and unites man with the divine unity
by means of love through the Holy Ghost. These
three qualities, being inseparable, constitute the
simple substance of the spirit. Obscured by sin
they must be transported by grace, or wisdom in-
carnate, above nature to God through the three
grades of the active, inward, and contemplative
life. The first consists in conquering sin and ap-
proaching God by outward acts and good works.
The second (vita affectiva), in which asceticism is
of minor importance, is characterized by ecstacy
and visions, by reentrance into self, by indifference
to everything that is not God and the defacing of
all mental pictures, striving toward God with mys-
tical love and feasting upon him, and by the inter-
pretation of the divine spirit and the spirit of man.
In the third stage (vita vitalis), the Christian rises
above hope, faith, and all the virtues, even grace,
to plunge into the abyss of the divine essence; it
Mfoam
Ryle
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
128
is an immediate sense and possession of God with-
out knowledge or bounds. It means the dying and
annihilation of self, in order to behold the absolute
and eternal essence. This life, a gift of grace, re-
newed in the inner secrecy of the Spirit through
love, comes to its reality in the quiet contemplation
of God and in the absolute submission to his opera-
tion. From this repose of the Spirit is developed
the superessentia, a supraessential contemplation
of the means of differentiation of the Trinity, an
indescribable feeling and state of bliss. The ulti-
mate differences in consciousness between God and
creature, between thing and nothing, disappear.
This is the bridal flight of Christ with the human
spirit; the Word is continually reborn in the eternal
present, in which God is self-producing in the high-
est excellence of the spirit. This proceeds from
light to light until the clearness by which it sees,
the clearness which it sees, and itself are one and
the same. Consciousness of supraessential being
and unity of essence in God are attained. Here
Ruysbroeck arrives on the border of pantheism.
Yet he ever endeavored to distinguish between the
eternal spirit and the created; and in the union with
God he held that only the difference of will and
thought vanished, not the difference of personality.
However, so delicate was the hne that in his phrase-
ology he often overstepped it; and, though he was
in reality in thorough accord with orthodoxy, and
he continually antagonized the Brethren of the
Free Spirit and the Beghards (see Free Spirit,
Brethren of the; Beghards and Beguines), yet
in his writings he roused grave suspicions among
some more cautious minds, among whom was J. C.
Gerson (q.v.). The influence of Ruysbroeck on
theological and philosophical thought in the Nether-
lands was relatively slight, and the mystical wri-
tings of his immediate pupils were either ascetic or
repetitions of his own thoughts. This was doubt-
less due in part to his obscurity and the liability
of his phraseology to misinterpretation and also to
the fear of the Flemish heretical pantheistic mys-
ticism of the Beghards. Ruysbroeck's activity, in-
deed, lay rather in the power of his personality and
in the influence he exerted on kindred minds. It
was his pupil Groote who founded the Brethren of
the Common Life (see Common Life, Brethren
of the), who also very probably drew his inspira-
tion from Ruysbroeck himself.
(S. D. van Veen.)
Bibliography: In addition to the editions noted in the
text F. A. Lambert edited Die Zierde, Vom glantenden
Stein, and Das Buch von . . . Wahrhcit, Leipeic (1901).
In English there ia Reflection* from the Mirror of a Mystic,
being Gleanings from the Works of John Ruysbroek (" Doc-
tor Ecstaticus"), a Mystic of the XlVth Century, trans-
lated by EarU Baillie, London, 1905 (contains sixteen
ohapters of the choicest thoughts of the great mystic).
Besides the literature under Mysticism, and under the
articles to which reference is made in the text, especially
Common Life, Brethren op the, consult: M. Maeter-
linck, Ruysbroeck and the Mystics, with Selections from
Ruysbroeck, London, 1894, new ed., 1908; J. G. V. Engel-
hardt, Richard von St. Victor und Johannes Ruysbroeck.
Zur Oeschichte der mystischen Theologie, Erlangen, 1838;
C. Schmidt, fttudes sur le mysticisms aUemand au quator-
sieme siecle, Strasburg, 1845; F. Bdhringer, Die Deutsehen
Mystiker des 14. und IS. Jahrhunderts, pp. 442-611,
Zurich, 1855; O. C. Schmidt, fttude sur Jean Ruysbroeck,
. . . sa vie, ses ecrits, et sa doctrine, Strasburg, 1859; A.
Jundt, Hist, du pantheisms populaire au moyen dge, Paris,
1875; C. UUmann, Reformers before the Reformation, ii.
31-55, Edinburgh, 1877; A. Auger, De doctrina et mentis
Joannis van Ruysbroeck, Lou vain, 1892; W. L. de Bresse,
Bijdrage tot de Kennis van het Leven en de Werken van
J. van Ruusbroec, Ghent, 1896; A. A. van Otterlos, Jo-
hannes Ruysbroeck. Ben Bijdrage tot de Kennis van den
Ontwikkdingsgang der Mystiek, 2d ed. by J. C. van Slee,
The Hague, 1896; V. Sully, Short Account of the Life and
Writings of the Blessed John Ruysbroeck, London, 1910;
Schaff, Christian Church, v. 2, pp. 273-278; Lichtenberger,
ESR, xi. 363-366.
RYAN, PATRICK JOHN: Roman Catholic arch-
bishop of Philadelphia; b. at Thurles (21 m. n.e.
of Tipperary), County Tipperary, Ireland, Feb. 20,
1831; d. at Philadelphia Feb. 11, 1911. He was
educated at Carlow College, Ireland (from which he
was graduated in 1852), and, leaving Ireland for
the United States, was attached to the clergy staff
of the Roman Catholic cathedral in St. Louis, of
which he became rector in 1856. Later he was ap-
pointed rector of St. John the Evangelist's in the
same city, and rose to be vicar-general of the dio-
cese. During the Civil War he was chaplain of the
Gratiot Street Military Prison and Hospital, St.
Louis, and in 1868 accompanied the archbishop of
St. Louis to Rome, where he preached the English
Lenten sermons. Four years later (1872) he was
consecrated titular bishop of Tricomia and ap-
pointed bishop-coadjutor of St. Louis, with the right
of succession. He was again in Rome in 1883 as
one of the United States prelates to represent the
interests of religion, and in 1884 was created
titular archbishop of Salamis. Within the year he
became archbishop of Philadelphia. He wrote Some
of the Causes of Modern Religious Scepticism (St.
Louis, 1895).
RYDBBRG, rid'berg, ABRAHAM VIKTOR:
Swedish author and educator; b. at Jdnkoping
(80 m. e. of Gothenburg), province of Smaland,
Sweden, Dec. 18, 1828; d. at Stockholm Sept. 21,
1895. He studied philosophy at the University of
Lund, 1848-52; was literary editor of Gdteborgs
Handelstidning, 1854-76; lay representative at the
church congress of the Swedish State Church, 1868;
member of the lower house of the Swedish Parlia-
ment as representative of the city of Gothenburg,
1870-72; and professor at the high school of Stock-
holm from 1884. His service to Sweden was in the
dissemination of liberal thought. He was author
of " The Doctrine of the Bible on Christ " (Gothen-
burg, 1862) ; " The Jehovah Worship among the
Hebrews before the Babylonian Captivity " (1864);
"Magic of the Middle Ages1' (Stockholm, 1865;
English transl., New York, 1879); " On the Pre-
existence of Man" (1868); "Church and Priest-
hood" (1868); "Genealogy of the Patriarchs in
Genesis and the Chronology of the Septuagint "
(Gothenburg, 1870) ; " Roman Legends about St.
Paul and St. Peter " (Stockholm, 1874); " Roman
Days" (1877; Eng. transl., including "Roman
Legends," New York, 1879); and "The Ultimate
Things " (1880). In his romances he strives for
freedom, tolerance, and knowledge: " The Pirate of
the Baltic" (Gothenburg, 1857); " Singoalla "
(1857); and "The Last Athenian" (1859; Eng.
transl., Philadelphia, 1869). His scientific works
199
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Buvsbroeok
Kyle
are: Segersvdrdet (1884); Undersdkningar i ger-
mansk Mythologi (2 vols., 1886-90; Eng. transl.,
Teutonic Mythology, Aberdeen, 1889); and Om
Ting och fenomen ur empirisk synpunkt (1890).
Complete works, Skri/ter, were issued by Carl War-
burg (15 vols., Stockholm, 1896-1900).
RYDER, WILLIAM HENRY: Congregationalist;
b. at Elyria, O., July 24, 1842. He was graduated
from Oberlin College, Oberlin, O. (A.B., 1866), and
Andover Theological Seminary (1869). After being
pastor of the Congregational church at Watertown,
N. Y. (1869-70), he was professor of Greek at Ober-
lin until 1877, and was then pastor of the First
Congregational Church at Ann Arbor, Mich., until
1888; then became professor of New-Testament in-
terpretation at Andover Theological Seminary. He
served throughout the Civil War in the Union Army
and was promoted second lieutenant.
RYERSON, roi'er-sun, ADOLPHUS EGERTON:
Canadian Methodist; b. at Charlotte ville, Norfolk
County, Ontario, Mar. 24, 1803; d. at Toronto Feb.
19, 1882. His father was an American loyalist from
New Jersey. The son entered the Methodist min-
istry in 1826; became editor of the Christian Guar-
dian in 1829; was first president of Victoria Col-
lege, 1841-44; and superintendent of education in
Upper Canada, 1844-76. As a preacher he was elo-
quent and effective, and in representative missions
for his church he was able and commanding. His
main work was in organizing education; the act
which he drafted in 1850 is the one under which the
schools of Ontario have since been maintained. He
published Epochs of Canadian Methodism (1882),
and The Loyalists of America and their Times: 1680-
1816 (1880).
RYLAHD, JOHN: Baptist; b. at Warwick (20
m. s.c. of Birmingham) Jan. 29, 1753; d. at Bristol
May 25, 1825. He was exceedingly precocious as a
child, learning Hebrew when only five years of age,
and Greek when nine; when fifteen he began to
teach at Northampton in the school of his father
(who was also a pastor); he began to preach to
Baptist congregations in 1769, and was admitted
to the ministry in 1771; he continued to teach till
1778, and became assistant pastor with his father
in 1781 and sole pastor in 1786; in 1793 he took
charge of the Broadmead chapel at Bristol and be-
came president of the Baptist college there, holding
both positions till his death. He was one of the
founders of the Baptist Missionary Society in 1792,
and its secretary from 1815 till his death. He was
also a hymnist of some note, and a few of his hymns
continue in use, including " In all my Lord's ap-
pointed ways." Among his works may be noted:
Serious Essays on the Truths of the Glorious Gospel
(London, 1771; 121 pieces in verse, including some
hymns); The Divine Inspiration and Authority of
the Holy Scriptures Asserted and Proved (1772);
Compendious View of the Principal Truths of the
Glorious Gospel of Christ (Salisbury, 1774); A Can-
did Statement of the Reasons which induce the Bap-
tists to differ in Opinion and Practice from their
Christian Brethren (London, 1827); Memoir of the
Rev. Andrew Fuller (1816); Serious Remarks on the
X.-
Different Representations of Evangelical Doctrine by
the Professed Friends of the Gospel (2 parts, Bristol,
1817-18); Pastoral Memorials; with a Memoir of
the Author (2 vols., 1826-28); and Hymns and
Verses on Sacred Subjects, vnth a biographical Sketch
(1862).
Bibliography: Besides the sketches as noted above con-
sult: the memorial sermon by Robert Hall, in the tatter's
Works, i. 360-414, London, 1832; F. A. Cox, Hist, of the
Baptist Missionary Society, i. 1-290, ib. 1842; F. L. Col-
vile, Worthies of Warwickshire, pp. 623-625, ib. 1870;
J. B. Meyers, Centenary Volume of the Baptist Missionary
Society, ib. 1893; S. W. Duffield, English Hymns, p. 259,
New York, 1886; Julian, Hymnology, pp. 983-984; DNB,
1. 55-56.
RYLE, rail, HERBERT EDWARD: Church of
England, bishop of Winchester; b. in London May
25, 1856. He was educated at King's College, Cam-
bridge (B.A., 1879; M.A., 1882), of which he was
fellow (1881-1901). He was ordered deacon (1882),
and ordained priest (1883); was divinity lecturer
at Emmanuel College, Cambridge (1881-84) and at
King's College (1882-86). He was principal of St.
David's College (1886-88); Hulsean professor of di-
vinity in the University of Cambridge (1887-1901);
president of Queen's College, Cambridge (1896-
1901) ; examining chaplain to his father the bishop
of Liverpool (1883-87), to the bishop of St. Asaph
(1887-89), and to the bishop of Ripon (1889-1901);
select preacher at Cambridge in 1889, 1892, 1895,
1899, and 1902, and at Oxford in 1901-03; War-
burton lecturer at Lincoln's Inn and chaplain in
ordinary of the same body in 1898-1901; honorary
canon of Ripon and commissary of Wellington
(1895-1901); honorary chaplain to the queen
(1896-98), and chaplain in ordinary (1898-1901).
In 1901 he was consecrated bishop of Exeter, and
in 1903 was translated to his present see of Win-
chester. He has edited The Psalms of the Pharisees
(in collaboration with M. R. James; Cambridge,
1891), and has written The Canon of the Old Testa-
ment (London, 1892); The Early Narratives of
Genesis (1892) ; Commentary on Ezra and Nehemiah
(Cambridge, 1893); Philo: Quotations from the Old
Testament (London, 1895); On the Church of Eng-
land (1904); and On Holy Scripture and Criticism
(1904).
RYLE, JOHN CHARLES: Church of England; b.
at Macclesfield (30 m. e.s.e. of Liverpool) May 10,
1816; d. at Liverpool June 10, 1900. He was edu-
cated at Eton and at Christ Church, Oxford (B.A.,
1838; M.A., 1871). He became curate of Exbury,
Hampshire, 1841; rector of St. Thomas, Winches-
ter, 1843; of Helrningham, Suffolk, 1844; vicar of
Stradbroke, Suffolk, 1861; rural dean of Hoxne,
1869; honorary canon of Norwich, 1872; select
preacher at Cambridge, 1873-74; at Oxford, 1874-
1876, 1879, 1880; dean designate of Salisbury, 1880;
and was bishop of Liverpool, 1880-1900. He was
an Evangelical in type, and in an uncommonly pure
and expressive style wrote more than a hundred
tracts on doctrinal and practical subjects, of which
more than two millions have been circulated, and
many have been translated into foreign languages.
He was also author of The Bishop, the Pastor, and
the Preacher, being biographical Lectures on Latimer,
Byswiek
/Babaoth
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
180
Baxter, and Whitefield (Ipswich, 1854); Bishops
and Clergy of Other Days (London, 1868); The
Christian Leaders of the Last Century (1869) ; Ex-
pository Thoughts on the Gospels (7 vols., 1856-73;
new ed., 4 vols., 1900) ; Hymns for the Church on
Earth (1860), being 300 hymns and spiritual songs;
Practical Religion (1874-80); Knots Untied (1874);
Holiness (1879); and Light from Old Times
(1891).
Bibliography: J. C. MacDonnell, Life and Correspondence
of William Connor Magee, 2 vols., London, 1806; A. C.
Benson, Life of E. W. Benton, 2 vols., ib. 1809; DNB, Sup-
plement iii. 334-335.
RYSWICK, ris'wic, CLAUSE: A stipulation in-
troduced by the French representative into the
peace of Ryswick. The French had installed Ro-
man Catholic worship and diverted Evangelical
church properties to Roman Catholic use in many
German places of which Louis XIV. had taken pos-
session under pretext of the reunion of Nimeguen
(1679). These were now to be restored by the
peace of Ryswick. The final draft was already
being prepared when shortly before midnight of
Oct. 29, 1697, the French representative insisted
upon adding to the fourth article the clause,
" nevertheless the Roman Catholic religion shall
remain in the same status in which it now is in the
places so restored "; and he threatened that the
French king would break off negotiations immedi-
ately and resume the war against those offering
impediments. The representatives of the emperor
and the Roman Catholic estates, the imperial depu-
tation, and the delegates of Wurttemberg, of the
counts of Wetterau, and the imperial city of Frank-
fort attached their signatures; and for want of a
vigorous support from the English and Dutch rep-
resentatives and the Swedish mediator, the remon-
strances of the remaining Evangelicals were in
vain. The emperor, however, unconditionally rati-
fied the peace, and thus the diet consented that the
matter should rest, although 1,922 places were
affected by a change of their religious relation.
Specially, the Elector Palatinate Johann Wilhelm,
under Jesuitic influence, employed the clause for
despoiling the Evangelicals.
(C. T. G. VON ScHEURLf.)
Bibliography: J. S. Putter, Hietorieche Enhcickelung der
heutigen Staataverfaeeung dee deutechen Reiehe, ii. 300 sqq.»
Qottingen, 1787; J. C. Neuhaus, Der Friede von Ryswick
und die Abtretung Strauburgt an Frankreich 1697, Frei-
burg, 1874. The background in the other treaties men-
tioned is given in brief in Cambridge Modern History, vol.
v. passim. New York, 1008.
S
SAADIA, sa-a'di-a, BEN JOSEPH (SAID AL FAY-
YUMI): Jewish rabbi; b. at Dilaz in Upper Egypt,
892; d. at Sura (100 m. s. of Bagdad), Babylonia,
942. In 915 he went to Palestine, and in 928 be-
came gaon, or head teacher, of the ancient academy
of Sura; but on account of strife was compelled to
retire to Bagdad, 930-937. He is distinguished for
his Arabic translation of the Pentateuch, Job,
Psalms, Canticles, and other books of the Bible,
with brief annotations; his grammatical and lexical
works; and, above all, for his "Book of Articles of
Faith and Doctrines of Dogma" in Arabic, com-
pleted in 933; known only in the Hebrew transla-
tion of Judah ibn Tibbon, Sefer emunot we-delot
(Constantinople, 1562; Germ, transl., by Julius
Fuerst, Glaubenslehre und Philosophic von Saadja
Fajjumi, Leipsic, 1845, in Die judischen Religions-
philosophen des Mittclalters, vol. i.). Saadia was a
representative of the peshat, or literal interpreta-
tion, a creator of Hebrew philology, and the pro-
moter of a new school of exegesis characterized by a
rational investigation of the contents and a scientific
knowledge of the text. His work was characterized
by treating each book as a whole and the contents as
a unity, and by minuteness of exegesis; and his
style, in translation and authorship, aimed at
simple form and pure vocabulary. In his philosophy
he surveyed the entire field of doctrine, ranging from
the idea of God to ethics, in the light of reason and
revelation.
Bibliography: JE, x. 578-586 (excellent; contains very
full list of literature) ; S. Munk, Notice m R. Saadia Gaon,
Paris, 1838; A. Geiger. in Judieche Zeitechrift fUr Wisten-
achaft und Leben, v. 267-316; J. Outtmann, Die Religion*-
philosophie dee Saadia, Gdttingen, 1882; A. Harkavy,
Stvdien und Mittheilungen, vol. v., Berlin, 1891; idem,
in JQR, xiii. 655-668; W. Engelkemper, De Saadia
Gaonie vita, M Ouster, 1897; M. Friedlander. in JQR, v.
177-199; S. Pounanski, in JQR, viii. 684-691, x. 238-276.
SAALSCHUETZ, sfll'shtttz, JOSEPH LEVIN:
German rabbi and archeologist; b. at Kdnigs-
berg Mar. 15, 1801; d. there Aug. 23, 1863. He
studied in the university of KOnigsberg (Ph.D.,
1824) ; held positions as rabbi and teacher in Berlin,
1825-29, and in Vienna 1829-35; became rabbi at
Kdnigsberg, after 1835; in 1847 he became privat-
docent in Hebrew archeology, and afterward pro-
fessor extraordinary. He was the author, among
other works, of Forschungen im Gebiete der hebr&ischr
dgyptischen Archdologie, three parts (Kdnigsberg,
1838-51); Form und Geist der btblisch-hebr&ischen
Poesie (1853); and Archdologie der Hebr&er, in
twelve parts (1855-56). He also edited a new
edition of J. D. Michaelis' Das mosdische Recht mil
BerucksichHgung des spdtern Judiscften, in two parts
(Berlin, 1846-48).
Bibliography: S. Carpin, in AUgemeine Zeitechrift dee Ju-
dentume, Oct. 18, 1901; JE, x. 586.
SABAOTH, sab'g-eth or sa-bft'-dth: A term
used twice in the New Testament (Rom. ix. 29;
Jas. v. 4) as a title of God, but in the English Old
Testament translated "hosts."
From I Sam. i. 3, throughout the Old Testament
the Hebr. zebaoth, "hosts/' appears constantly as an
element in the attributes ascribed to the God of
Israel. The word is used with or without the article
in various combinations, such as "Yahweh God
of hosts," "Adonai Yahweh of hosts," "Adonai
Yahweh God of hosts/' "the Lord Adonai of
hosts/' with variants even from these several
181
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Byswiok
Sabaoth
forma (cf. Isa. i. 24, x. 23, 24; Hos. xii. 5; Amos.
iii. 13, v. 16; II Sam. v. 10, and many times). In
many of these combinations Adonai is
Use and a reading in the margin intended to
Distribution displace Yah wen; in other cases, partic-
of the Term, ularly in the second and third books of
Psalms, Elohim displaces an original
Yahweh. The formula "Yahweh God of hosts" is
comparatively rare, while "Yahweh of hosts" occurs
234 times, and the presupposition is that the latter
is the original form, which may, however, have im-
plied the fuller formula, unless it be supposed that
Yahweh is a later substitution for an earlier "El,"
another form for "God." The distribution of the
expression "of hosts" may be set forth something
like this: in the books of Samuel, eleven times; in
the books of Kings, five times; in I Chron., in
parallels to Samuel, three times; in the prophetic
books 247 (248) times, of which fifty-five occur-
rences are in Isa. i.-xxxix., and six times in Isa.
xJiv.-liv.; while fifteen occurrences are in Psalms, of
which fourteen are in the second and third books.
It is omitted from the Hexateuch, Judges, Ezekiel,
Joel, Obadiah, Jonah, and the whole of the Hagiog-
rapha except Psalms and Chronicles. It often oc-
curs in the text of the Septuagint where it is not in
the Hebrew, and vice versa. In the books of Samuel
in five of the eleven cases it is used in connection
with the ark or with war, and this is to be remem-
bered in relation with the fact that the root zaba* is
*
broadly Semitic and deals with war. Whether the
hosts of which Yahweh was God were those of
heaven — the angels and stars— or of Israel seems to
be decided by the fact that the use of the word in the
plural is generally in connection with the armies of
Israel (cf. Ex. vii. 4); in Ps. lxviii. 13; Jer. iii. 19
the reference is to the armies of the nations (when
the heavenly hosts are meant, the singular is every-
where used, cf. Ps. ciii. 21, cxlviii. 2
Earlier amended text). This conclusion is
Usage; supported by I Sam. xvii. 45, cf. verses
Israel's 26, 36; by the fact that Israel's wars
War Hosts, are Yahweh's (Num. xxi. 14; I Sam.
xxv. 28) ; and by the fact that Yahweh
is the leader of the Israelitic armies (II Sam. v. 24;
Isa. xiii. 4; in Joel iv. 11 it is doubtful whether the
reference is to heavenly armies). A question of
interpretation is raised by Ps. xxiv. 10, cf. verse 8
and I Sam. xvii. 45; the fact that verses 7-10 were
chanted on the occasion of the bringing of the ark
into the sanctuary makes it preferable to construe
" the Lord of hosts" of this passage also with refer-
ence to the Hebrew armies. A similar line of
reasoning is reached in connection with I Sam. i. 3,
iv. 3 sqq., where the ark is designated as belonging
to "the Lord of hosts"; of especial weight in this
relation is II Sam. vi. 2. In this last case the for-
mula in the latter part of the verse simply shows
that the person or thing mentioned is in a relation of
subordination to the person bearing the name (cf.
Isa. iv. 1, lxiii. 19), which subordination involves
the claim to protection (Jer. xiv. 9). As the name
of Yahweh is " called " over Jerusalem (Jer. xxv. 29)
and the temple (I Kings viii. 43) to indicate the
closeness of relations with Yahweh, so the ark in
II 8am. vi. 2 is called by Yahweh's name to show
its close connection with Lira. The same re-
lationship of the ark with Yahweh as the leader
of the hosts of Israel appears in the early passage
Num. x. 35-36; cf. xiv. 44; Josh. vi. 4 sqq.; II
Sam. xi. 11, xv. 24 sqq. The general tenor of the
passages considered is to show that the expression
"Lord of hosts" recalled Yahweh as the leader of
the Israelitic battle array.
While this is so and while it appears to be the
consistent usage in the Old Testament, it is a ques-
tion whether it represents the original usage. An
examination is the more necessary in
Objections, view of the absence of the article in
some cases and of the use of the plural.
It was advanced by Delitzsch as an objection to the
view here stated that in this case the expression
would have been expected in the Pentateuch inas-
much as in twenty cases the formula " hosts of
Israel" is found. But it was pointed out by A.
Klostermann (Geschichte des Volkes Israel, p. 76,
Munich, 1896) that "Lord of hosts" was evidently
cast out of Joshua in the process of editing (in Josh,
vi. 17 the Septuagint still reads it, and Josh. xi. 11,
13 probably had it) at a time when the formula re-
called the hosts of heaven (as objects of idolatry).
Borchert attempted to show that zaba' did not
designate "hosts of war" but mere population; in
this he overlooked that in P at least (Num. ii.) the
conception is that of a warlike host from which the
Levites were excluded as not subject to warlike
levies. A more difficult objection to meet is the one
that if " Lord of hosts " originally designated the war
god as the leader of Israel's hosts, this expression
should be more frequent in this sense in the earlier
prophecies. Passages which raise a doubt are Amos
iii. 13, v. 16, 27, vi. 8, 14 where the "I,ord of hosts"
threatens Israel, and Isa. i. 24, ii. 1, 12, 15, and the
like, where classes or individuals are under menace.
Another class of passages is that in which the idea
of world rulership is inherent, such as II Kings
xix. 31; Isa. ix. 7, x. 16, 24, 26, 33, and similar
passages. Sometimes the phrase denotes simply
"the sublime" and is equivalent to "the Holy
One" (Isa. vi. 5, viii. 13, xviii. 7, li. 15; Amos. iv.
13). But since the activities of the divine absolute-
ness or holiness are related to his plans for Israel,
Yahweh zebaoth, "Yahweh of hosts," may designate
without special emphasis Israel's God and king, as
is shown by the numerous cases in which the ex-
pression is found either in apposition or parallelism
with " God of Israel " or like expressions. The op-
position between prophetic usage and the funda-
mental thought of the idea of God as leader in battle
is by many commentators set aside by the concep-
tion of a transformation in the course of centuries;
i.e., the earthly hosts give way in the enlarging con-
ceptions to heavenly hosts, whether of stars or
angels or other heavenly powers. The transforma-
tion of the idea of hosts from heaven to earth is
evident; but the passages give ground for debate
whether the heavenly hosts were angels or stars.
For the former make such passages as Josh. v. 13
sqq.; II Kings vi. 17; Isa. xxiv. 21; I Kings xxii.
19; Dan. vii. 10. Yet frequently "host of heaven"
represents in part the objects of idolatrous worship
(Deut. iv. 19; II Kings xvii. 16; Jer. viii. 2;
Sabaoth
8*batier
THE NEW 8CHAFF-HERZ0G
189
Zeph. i. 5), in part the monuments of God's creative
omnipotence (Gen. ii. 1; Isa. tttjv. 4; Jer.
xxxiii. 22). In this line of reasoning the mistake
has been made sometimes of noting the fact of the
use of the singular "host of heaven" and ignoring
the use of zebaoth (plural) to designate earthly hosts
where "of heaven" is omitted. Another difficulty
is that if Yahweh ubaoth originally designated the
war god of Israel as represented by the ark, this
connection could not have been so wholly for-
gotten by the time of Isaiah as to be entirely
absent.
It is not a chance that just this designation is
used by Isaiah in the trisagion (Isa. vi. 3). Though
Isaiah was still conscious of the connection of
Yahweh zebaoth with the ark, yet the reference of
ubaoth to the hosts of Israel alone was still incon-
ceivable.' The solution of these difficulties has been
sought by considering that the phrase
Solution as referring to the God represented by
Indicated the ark had also another designation
by Isaiah, than "earthly hosts," a meaning to
us unknown but of which the prophets
had a clear consciousness. The expression may
have been transferred from some other deity to
Yahweh, the original sense lost, and the epithet
avoided by the older writers. But Isaiah, e.g., could
not have used the phrase so purposely and with such
solemnity without a definite conception of its con-
tent, and this, too, as warranted by its original
meaning, even though he deepened and extended
this. And this latter would be helped by the fact
that since Solomon's time the ark had receded from
observation by remaining in the Holy of Holies,
and had come to be regarded as something fearful,
unapproachable, and supremely holy. After Isaiah
had so stamped the usage as extended to a trans-
cendental or heavenly host, there could be no reason
why another, such as Jeremiah, should not employ
it for special emphasis. As the original meaning of
the phrase receded in memory, the more would the
conception of Yahweh as leader of angel hosts ap-
pear in expression, and the same would apply to
the connection of zebaoth with the stars. Thus
"Yahweh of hosts" came to designate the world
creator and world ruler. A proof of the transforma-
tion of the word is found in the varied and suc-
cessive translations of the Septuagint, where there
appear kurios (ho theos) Sabaoth, kurios (ho theos)
ton dynamedn (in other translators, kurios ton
stratiOn), ho theos ho pantokrat&r or kurios panto-
bratOr. " Sabaoth " stands alone as a designation of
God in the Sibylline Books, i. 304, while the Ophitic
Gnostics made Sabaoth one of the planet spirits.
(E. Kautzsch.)
Bibliography: F. Delitssch, in Zeitechrift far lutherieche
Theologie und Kirche, 1874, pp. 217 sqq.; E. 8chrader, in
Jahrbucher far proteetantieche Theologie, 1875, pp. 316
sqq.; W. von Baudiasin, Studien rur eemitiechen Rdigione-
geechichU, i. 119, Leipeie, 1876; W. H. Kosters, in ThT.,
x (1876), 53 sqq.; H. Schults, Old Testament Theology* 2
vols., London, 1892; A. Dillmann, Handbuch der altteeta-
mentlichen Theologie, pp. 220 sqq., Leipsic, 1895; Borchert,
in T8K, 1896, pp. 619 sqq.; R. Smend, Lehrbuch der ait-
teetamentlichen ReligionegeechichU, pp. 201 sqq., Freiburg,
1899; M. Lohr, Untereuchungen turn Buch Amos, pp. 38
sqq., Giessen, 1901; F. Schwally, Semitische KriegtaUer-
tamer, L 4 sqq., Leipsic, 1901; B. F. Westcott, The His-
toric Faith, pp. 21 sqq.. London, 1904; H. Greaamann,
Der Ureprung der israelHieeh-jOdischen Bochatologie, pp.
72 sqq., Gftttmgen, 1905; W. Hammann, BrkUtrvng von
Pe. *4, pp. 81 sqq., Darmstadt, 1905; B. Stade. Bib-
lithe Theologie dee A. T.. L 73-74. Tubingen. 1905; G.
Westpfaai, in Orientalieehe Studien awn 70. Geburtetog
T. Ndldekee, iL 717 sqq., Giessen. 1906; K. Marti. Ge-
eehiehte der ieroeUtiochen Religion, pp. 157 sqq.. Stras-
burg, 1907; Zimmera, in Schrader, KAT, pp. 421, 456;
DB, iL 203, iiL 137-138, extra vol., pp. 636-637; EB,
iii 3328-3330; Vigouroux. Dictionnaire, Case. xxxr.
1288-1289.
SAB AS, so/bas: Name of several saints.
1. Palestinian hermit and abbot, and founder of
.the order of Sabaites; b. at Mutalasca (Mutala)
near Cfeesarea, Cappadocia, 439; d. near Jerusalem,
probably on Dec. 5, 531 or 532. At the age of five
his parents took him to Alexandria; at eight, he
renounced the world and entered a monastery; and
at eighteen he began to live as a hermit on the south-
ern course of the Kedron near the northwest end of
the Dead Sea (the site of the present monastery of
Mar Sabha). There he remained five years, being
a favorite disciple of the abbot Euthymius (d. 473).
With the spread of his fame for holiness, he suc-
ceeded in founding a laura with the rule of St. Basil,
which was the first of many. In 491 Sabas was or-
dained priest and made exarch of all hermits in
southern Palestine. Such was the honor in which he
was held by the Emperor Anastasius, that his inter-
cession in behalf of Elias, bishop of Jerusalem, was
received. Though Elias was forced into exile in
517, his successor, Johannes, was induced by Sabas
to anathematise all opponents of the Council of
Ghalcedon, especially the Origenistic monks.
In art Sabas is represented with an apple, since he
refused to eat that fruit on account of its part in
the fall of man. He is likewise sometimes repre-
sented with lions, in allusion to his hermit life in a
cave. His order, the Sabaites, never spread beyond
Palestine. Their habit was a yellowish-brown
mantle, with a black scapular.
8. Gothic martyr; drowned in the Musaeus (a
tributary of the Danube) about 372. He is said to
have been horribly tortured by the Visigothic King
Athanaric (or Athanarid), and the account of his
death is contained in a letter from the Christian
Goths to the Church of Cappadocia, to which the
Roman prefect Soranus is said to have sent his
remains at the request of Basil the Great.
8. Gothic martyr, put to death at Rome during
the reign of Aurelian (270-275), together with some
seventy other Christians.
4. Bishop of Paltus in Syria, and an orthodox
delegate to the synods of Constantinople (448)
and Chalcedon (451).
5. The surname of a hermit named Julianus, who
lived in the fourth century in a cave near Edessa,
and was distinguished for his anti-Arian orthodoxy
and for his miracles. (O. Z&cklek\.)
Bibliography: On 1: the Vita by Cyril of Scythopolis, in
J. B. Cotelerius, Monumenta eodeeim Groteoj, iiL 220-376,
Paris, 1686; A. H. Hore. Eighteen Centuriee of the Ortho-
dox Greek Church, pp. 285-286. New York, 1899; F. Die-
kamp. Die origenietiechen StreUigkeiten im 6. Jahrhundert,
pp. 5 sqq.. Monster, 1899; Ceillier, Auteure eacres, x. 750,
xi 274-277, 882, xiv. 268; Neander, Christian Church,
ii. 271, 764; DCB, iv. 666-667. On 2: ASB, April, iL
88-90; Tomascheck, in the Sitsungeberiehte of the Vienna
Academy, 1881-82, pp. 437-492; C. A. Scott, Utfila*,
Apoetls of the Gothe, p. 90, London, 1885. On 3: ASB,
133
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Sabaoth
Apr., iii. 261. On 4: M. Le Quien, Orient Chrittionus,
ii. 709, Paris, 1740; H&rduin, Concilia, ii. 138, 170, 370.
On 5: ASB.. Oct 18.
SABATIER, sa-ba-tytf, CHARLES PAUL MARIE:
French Protestant; b. at St. Michael-de-Chabrilla-
noux, a village in the department of Ardeche, Aug.
3, 1858. He was educated at the lyceums of Besan-
cpn and Lille and in the theological department of
the University of Paris, from which he was grad-
uated in 1885. He was then vicar of the Protestant
Church of St. Nicholas at Strasburg, but was ex-
pelled from Germany because he declined to accept
a position which would oblige him to become a
German citizen. He then returned to France and
was for five years (1889-04) pastor at St. Cierge-la-
Serre, Ardeche, when he was obliged by ill-health to
retire from the ministry. After that time he de-
voted himself entirely to historical and theological
studies. In 1002 he founded at Assisi, Italy, the
Soctete" internationale des Etudes franciscaines. In
1898 he was created an honorary citizen of Assisi
in recognition of his studies of the life of St. Francis
of Assisi (an honor previously conferred only on
Garibaldi) and in the following year was elected a
member of the Accademia dei Lincei, Rome. He
has edited La Didache des douse apdtres (Paris,
1885); Speculum perfectionis, seu Sancti Francisci
Assisiensis legenda antiquissima, auctore fratre Leone
(1898); Fratris Francisci Bartholdi de Assisio
tractatus de Indulgeniia Sancta Maria de Portiun-
cula (1900); Actus Sancti Francisci et seniorum
ejus (1902); Floretum Sancti Francisci Assisiensis,
liber aureus qui Italice dicitur, I. Fioretii di San Fran-
cesco, and the periodical Opuscules de critique his-
Unique, which he founded in 1904. He discovered
in May, 1901, at Capestrane in the Abruzsi the
long-lost manuscript of the Franciscan Regula
antiqua tertii ordinis, which he edited at Paris in
1901. As independent works he has written Vie de
St. Francois d Assise (Paris, 1893; Eng. transl.
by L. S. Houghton, New York, 1894; this work has
been translated into the principal European lan-
guages); a propos de la separation des iglises et
de Vital (1905; Eng. transl., Disestablishment in
France, by Robert Dell, London, 1906); Lettre
ouverte a . . . le cardinal Gibbons . . . sur la sepa-
ration des eglises et de Vital en France (1907); Mod-
ernism (London, 1908; Jowett Lectures); and Les
Modernistes, Notes d'histoire religieuse contemporaine
(Paris, 1909).
SABATIER, LOUIS AUGUST: French Protestant;
b. at Vallon (95 m. n.w. of Marseilles) Oct. 22, 1839;
d. at Paris Apr. 12, 1901. He was educated at the
college of Montpellier and at Montauban, and also
studied for a time at Basel, Tubingen, and Heidel-
berg. After being an agent of the Soctete" centrale
protestante d'evange'lisation at Aubenas, he was
appointed, in 1870, professor of Reformed dog-
matics at the University of Strasburg. On the out-
break of the Franco-Prussian war, however, he helped
to organise a Protestant ambulance service which
accompanied the Army of the Loire; and declining
* professorship proffered him at Strasburg by the
German government, and otherwise manifesting his
to the new regime, he was ordered to leave
the city. He went to Paris, where he became secre-
tary of the fecole libre des sciences religieuses,
seeking meanwhile to replace Strasburg by a
theological faculty to be affiliated with the Sor-
bonne. Declining a call to Lausanne, he supported
himself chiefly by journalism; but in 1877 he saw
his hopes fulfilled when the theological faculty of
Strasburg was transferred to Paris and he again as-
sumed the chair of Reformed dogmatics. Later
he became associate director of the section for the
history of religion at the ficole des hautes etudes,
and in 1895 was made dean of the theological
faculty.
The initial point of view of Sabatier was that of
entire orthodoxy; but the lifelong problem which
he set himself, the reconciliation of faith with
science, led him further and further away from
orthodox tenets. As early at 1880 he adopted the
methods of historical criticism, and his conclusions
were such as to lead him to abandon the teaching of
the Church not only concerning the person and the
work of Christ, but also with regard to the remaining
positions of orthodox dogma. To Sabatier religion
owed its origin to the desire of man to reconcile the
antinomy between his empirical and his ideal ego,
and thus became the spiritual aspect of the instinct
of self-preservation. In the religious evolution of
the race revelation has passed through three
stages: mythological (paganism), dogmatic (Ro-
man Catholic and Protestant), and critical or
psychological, the latter alone at once satisfying
the requirements of piety and criticism. Such rev-
elation is essentially spiritual and progressive,
though always subject to the limits of human
subjectivity. Religious sources and standards thus
need constant revision on the basis of personal
experience.
The culmination of religious development, ac-
cording to Sabatier, is Christianity, the cardinal
principle of which is to be a child of God, historically
assured to man in the person of Jesus, in whom was
first realised the divine revelation which has since
been repeated as the experience of the pious Chris-
tian. This principle can not be overthrown by
scientific criticism, since it is raised above the means
and methods of historical criticism in virtue of
being personal experience. Yet theology can not
dispense with criticism, the function of which is to
strip temporary and chance elements from the
absolute principle, and thus to render possible an
ever purer realisation of Christian piety. This
process of continual revision is the task of dogmatics,
its subject matter being primarily the creeds, which,
in the evolution of religion, become obsolete, lose
their practical meanings, and become mere for-
mulas. The function of Protestant dogmatics ac-
cordingly lies in the choice of such creeds as shall
correspond to the requirements of the soul and shall
harmonise with the religious consciousness.
Sabatier' s works, received in Germany with com-
parative coolness, were enthusiastically welcomed
in France; a section of French Roman Catholicism
received a new impulse; and his books appealed to
the general Protestant public, and even to circles
which had broken with all religion. He was essen-
tially a representative of the modern type of theo-
Sabatier
Sabbath
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
134
logian, yet free from all factionalism, and anxious
to construct and reconcile rather than to destroy
and alienate. In his Religions of Authority he de-
clared that his object was " to reconcile all that is
eternal in the Christian faith with the most rigid
demands of the scientific spirit."
His principal writings are cs follows: Le Temoignage de
Jesus-Christ aur sa peraonne (Paris, 1863); Eaaai aur lea
aourcea delaviede Jesus (1866); Johannia coangelium aaculo
incunte aecundo in ecdeaia jam adfuiaae demonatrotur (1866);
Jeaua de Nozarctl. (1867); L'Apdtre Saul (1870, 3d ed..
189C; Eng. .ransl.. The Apostle Paid, London, 1891);
GvUlau.ie le tacUume (1872); De V influence dee femmea
aur la litterature francaise (1873); Rapport aur lea danger a
qui menocent Vegliae riformee et lea moyena de rUoblir
la paix dans eon aein (1876); Le Canon du Nouveau
Teatamenl (1877); De reaprit theotooique (1878); Memoir
aur la notice heoralque de V esprit (1870); Lea Originea lit-
Urairea de V Apocalypse de Saint-Jean (1888); La Vie in-
time dee dogmea (1800); Eaaai d'une theorie critique de la
connaissance religieuse (1800); j,'aquiaae d'une pkiloaophie
de la religion cTapres la peychologie et Vhietoire (1897; partial
Eng. transl., Outlines oj a Philoaophy oj Religion baaed on Pay-
chology and History, London, 1807, new ed., 1002); La Re-
ligion et la culture moderns (1807); The Vitality of Christian
Dogmaa and their Power oj Evolution: a Litudy in Rdigioue
Philoaophy (London, 1808); La Critique biblique et Vhie-
toire dee religions (Paris, 1901); La Doctrine de V expiation
et son evolution historique (1003; Eng. transl.. Doctrine of
the Atonement and its Historical Evolution; Religion and
Modern Culture, London, 1004); and the posthumous Lee
Religions d'autoriU et la religion de V esprit (1003; Eng.
transl., Religione of Authority and Religions of the Spirit,
with Memoir ... by Jean R£villo, London, 1004).
(EUGEN LACHENMANN.)
Bibliography: On Sabatier's philosophy and theology con-
sult: E. Menegoz, Publications diverscs aur le fidexame et
eon application a V enaeignement chretien troditionnel, Paris,
1000; idem. La Theologie d'Auguste Sabatier, ib. 1001;
idem, Le Fidexame et la notion de la foi, ib. 1005; Riemers,
Het Symbohfideisme. Beschrijving en kritische Beechou-
ving, Rotterdam, 1000; G. Lasch, Die TJieologie der
Pariser Schule, Characteristik und Kritik dee Symbolo-
Fideismus, Berlin, 1001. W. Ward, Augusts Sabatier and
Neun.ian, in Fortnightly Review, lxxv (1001), 808 sqq.;
J. Berthoud, Augustc Sabatier ct Schleiermacher, Geneva,
1902. On the life consult. J. Vienot, F. Puaux, J. E.
Roberty, and H. Monnier. Augusts Sabatier, ea vie, ea
pensie, et ass trauiaux, Paris, 1903; J. P6deser\ Souvcnire
et etudes, Paris, 18G8; dem Cinquant ana de aouvenira
religieux et eccUsiostiques 18S0S0, ib. 1896: idem, Au-
gusts Sabatier, simples aouvenira, Alencon, 1004; l-'. Cha-
ponniere, Le Projesseur Augusts Sabatier. Paris, 1002;
L. S. Houghton, in Reformed Church Review, r* (1004),
523 sqq : H. Dartigue, Augusts Sabatier, critique litteraxre,
Paris, 1010.
SABBATARIANS. See Adventists, § 2; Bap-
tists, II., 4 (b); Communism, II., § 5.
SABBATH: The seventh day of the week, ob-
served as a holy day by the Jews. The command to
hallow each seventh day as the sabbath of Yahweh
by refraining from all vrork (Ex. xx. 8-11; Deut.
v. 12-15) is the only one m the Decalogue which
refers to ritual. The sanctity of the sabbath cc
stressed in the book of the covenant
Data of and the holiness code (Ex. xxiii.
the Old 12, xxxi. 13 sqq.. xxxiv. 21; Lev.
Testament xix. 3, 30, xxiii. 3, xxiv. 8; cf.
xx vi. 34-35, 43): and the priest code
also forbids the lighting of a fire on the sab-
bath (Ex. xxxv. 3), while the account of the
manna in Ex. xvi. 22 sqq., evidently implies that
the institution of the sabbath had long been known.
The necessity of hallowing the sabbath is further
emphasized by the event narrated in Num. rv.
32-36. The proper offerings for the sabbath are
enumerated in Num. xxviii. 9-10; and the holiness
code (Lev. xxiv. 8) adds that fresh showbread was to
be placed in the tabernacle on the sabbath. From II
Kings iv. 23 it is evident that the pious were accus-
tomed to visit prophets on the sabbath, doubtlessly
to hear the word of God; and in the regal period two-
thirds of the royal body-guard were on watch at the
Temple on the sabbath, and one-third at the palace,
since on that day the concourse of worshipers was
especially large (II Kings xi. 5 sqq.). The meaning
of the " covert for the sabbath" mentioned in II
Kings xvi. 18 is unknown, neither the supposition
that it was a covered way for the king to pass from
the palace to the Temple nor the hypothesis that it
was a covered place built in the Temple for the king
to take part in the sabbath services being plausible.
The last general event narrated in the Old Testa-
ment concerning the sabbath is the suppression of
traffic on that day by Nehemiah (Neh. x. 32, xiii.
15 sqq.). The earlier prophets mention the sab-
bath three times. Amos viii. 4-5 shows that in the
northern kingdom of the eighth century traffic was
forbidden on the sabbath and on the days of the new
moon. According to Hos. ii. 13 the sabbath was a
day of rejoicing, and it is also clear from Isa. i. 13-14
that it was a festival of Yahweh, on which the people
assembled at the Temple and offered sacrifices.
Jeremiah's exhortation to keep the sabbath (Jer.
xvii. 19 sqq.) is held by many to be a late addition,
but the only basis for this assumption — the theory
that such a speech could have been delivered only in
the time of Nehemiah, while Jeremiah himself was
opposed to all ritual — is entirely inadequate. Jere-
miah certainly had the Decalogue before his eyes
when he condemned the violation of the sabbath,
and the sabbath laws of the Pentateuch were already
ancient in Jeremiah's day. His language should be
understood in the light of the utterances of his con-
temporary, Ezekiel, who charged Israel and Judah
with having desecrated the sabbath (Ezek. xxii. 8,
xxiii. 38), and also severely condemned the elders of
Israel who, while wandering in the wilderness, broke
the sabbath laws given by Yahweh when he led
them out of Egypt (Ezek. xx. 10 sqq.). Since the
Pentateuch does not record a profanation of the
sabbath in the wilderness, accounts of the events
during the thirty-eight years of wandering after the
Israelites left Sinai would seem to have existed in
the time of Jeremiah and Ezekiel which are no
longer extant. Ezekiel describes the sabbath as
a sign of the sanctification of Israel by Yahweh
(Ezek. xx. 12, 20), a concept iound by him in Ex.
xxxi. 13, 17, the hypothesis that the Pentateuchal
law in question is later than Ezekiel being untenable.
It is also evident that by the time of Ezekiel the sab-
bath had long been distinctively a day ot rest, and
there is no reason to suppose that either he or his
contemporaries made the requirements for its ob-
servation more rigid than they had previously been.
The Deutero-Isaiah likewise mentions the sabbath.
He is blessed who keeps the sabbath holy (Isa. lvi.
2), while one of the indispensable conditions of
securing the divine favor fe maintaining the sanct:ty
of the sabbath as a day of rest and one sacred to
Yahweh (Isa. lviii. 13-14): and, finally, in the
135
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Sabatier
Sabbath
future reign of the Lord all flesh shall come on each
sabbath and each new moon to worship Yahweh
(Isa. lxvi. 23). Turning to the Hagiographa, the
books of Chronicles, besides their parallel reference
to II Kings xi. 5 sqq. ( II Chron. xxiii. 1 sqq.), con-
tain a number of allusions to the showbread that
was to be placed in the sanctuary on sabbaths and
new moons (I Chron. ix. 32, xxiii. 31 ; II Chron. ii.
3, viii. 13, xxxi. 3) ; in the Psalms the only reference
to the sabbath is the heading of Ps. xcii. ; and Lam.
ii. 6 mourns that Yahweh has caused feast-day and
sabbath to be forgotten in Zion.
The Old Testament frequently mentions the
sabbath in connection with the new moon
(Amos. viii. 5; Isa. i. 13, lxvi. 23; Ezek. xlvi. 1,
3; II Kings iv. 23; II Chron. ii. 3) and also in con-
nection with both new moon and feast (Hos. ii.
13; Ezek. xlv. 17; Neh. x. 34), but in none of
these passages is there the slightest implication that
the sabbath was connected in any way
Observance with the moon, particularly (in con-
in Old- tradistinction to the new moon) with
Testament the full moon. This statement is
Times. decisively confirmed by the command-
ments regarding the sabbath (Ex. xx.
9-11, xxiii. 12, xxxiv. 21; Deut. v. 12-15), espe-
cially as there is no reason to suppose the Decalogue
to be later than Ezekiel, or the other sabbatical
commandments to be post-exilic. The character
of the day clearly remained practically the same
from the time of Moses — a day of gladness, sacred
to Yahweh, marked by offering of sacrifice, listening
to the discourses of prophets, visiting the sanc-
tuary, and cessation of all ordinary toil. The true
reason for the collocation of sabbaths and new
moons in the Old Testament seems to be that they
were recurrent throughout the year, whereas the
other feasts occurred but once annually. While,
however, the sabbath thus retained its original char-
acter throughout the period between Moses and
Christ, the views concerning its proper mode of ob-
servance apparently changed. It was indeed held
that all work, except what was absolutely necessary
for daily life, should cease on that day, but the
precise scope of these limitations received varying
interpretations. Although exact details are un-
obtainable, it is evident from the words of Jeremiah
and Ezekiel that those Israelites who were little in-
clined to obey the law had almost wholly secularized
the sabbath, especially in troublous times. It is
equally impossible to ascertain the precise require-
ments laid down for the proper observance of the
day, but it is at least clear that the priestly class was
particularly firm in its demand for the hallowing of
the sabbath and that the rules laid down gradually
increased in strictness.
Two opinions as to the origin of the sabbath were
formerly held — one, that God commanded man to
rest as he himself had done after creating the
world, and that Moses revived the still
Origin lingering observance of the command;
of the the other, that the ordinance was
Sabbath, originated by Moses, both views being
based on the allusions to the sabbath
in Ex. xvi. 22 sqq. It is now held by many that the
sabbath is Babylonian in origin, though received by
the Jews immediately from the Canaanites; while
another hypothesis maintains that the sabbath rep-
resents a moon-feast of the nomadic ancestors of the
Israelites. The Canaanitic and nomadic theories are
both undemonstrable and unnecessary, but with the
relation between the Jewish and the Babylonian sab-
bath the problem is more complex. The cuneiform
inscriptions contain two equations of importance
in this connection, shabattu — " day of appeasing the
heart (of the gods)/' also shabattu «■» " fifteenth day."
Consequently the Babylonian sabbath was a day
of penance, and the middle of the Babylonian
month. It has also been held that the seventh,
fourteenth, twenty-first, and twenty-eighth days
of the month, designated as ill-omened, were the
Babylonian sabbaths; but for this argument there
is no evidence, and it must accordingly be assumed
that the fifteenth day of each month was the sabbath
of the Babylonians. This day was reckoned that
of the full moon, but since the Hebrew sabbath was
not connected with the full moon and was a day of
gladness, not of penance, and since the Babylonians
had no week of seven days, the assumption that
the Hebrews borrowed the sabbath from the Baby-
lonians lacks all foundation. At the same time there
is a certain connection between the Hebrew sab-
bath and the Babylonian shabattu, since the root
of both means "cease, end." A number of other
etymologies have been proposed, as from Babylonian
shaba(u, "to strike" (the day of striking the breast),
or shapafu, "to judge" (the day of legal de-
cisions), as a Sumerian word, as an Arabic word
8habat, "seat" (the alleged pause of the moon at
each of its four phases), and as denoting the "per-
fect moon" (although shabbath never means "to
be perfect"), but none of these is satisfactory.
Both the Hebrew shabbath and the Babylonian sha-
battu must, therefore, mean "rest," and while there
is no evidence that the Babylonian sabbath was
such a day of rest, it can not be demonstrated that
the Babylonian here preserved the original character
of the day. The reverse would seem to be the case,
especially as the Hebrew sabbath was so much more
important than the Babylonian. The reason for
resting on the sabbath (according to Ex. xx. 10,
xxxi. 15; cf. Lev. xix. 3, 30, xxiii. 3, xxvi. 2; Deut.
v. 14) is that the day belongs to Yahweh, so that
men may not use it for their own purposes. Ex.
xxiii. 12 extends its beneficent effects to dependents
and cattle (cf. Deut. v. 14-15). The cause of the
special sanctity of the sabbath is that on it Yahweh
rested after the six days' work of creation (Gen. ii.
2-3; Ex. xx. 11, xxxi. 17). The association of sab-
bath rest with the account of creation must have
been very ancient among the Hebrews, and :t is
noteworthy that no other Semitic peoples, even the
Babylonians, have any tradition of the creation in
six days. It would appear that the primitive Sem-
ites had four chief moon-days, probably the first,
eighth, fifteenth, and twenty-second of each month,
called sabbaths from the fact that there was a tend-
ency to end work before them so that they might
be celebrated joyfully. Among the Babylonians
these seventh days through astrological concep-
tions became ill-omened, while the sabbath in
the middle of the month was made a day of
Sabbath
Bacehoni
THE NEW SGHAFF-HERZOG
186
propitiation, and its name was construed as mean-
ing " the day for ending the wrath of the gods." The
Israelites, on the other hand, made the sabbaths the
feasts of a living and holy God. The work of man
became symbolic of the work of God, and human rest
of divine rest, so that the sabbaths became pre-
eminently days of rest. Since, moreover, the lunar
month had twenty-nine or thirty days, the normal
lapse of time between sabbaths was six days, al-
though sometimes seven or eight; and six working
days were accordingly assigned to the creation,
which was to furnish a prototype for human life.
The connection of the sabbath with the lunar phases,
however, was discarded by the Israelites, who did
not worship the moon, and the weeks were accord-
ingly divorced from the days of the months and were
made to follow in succession throughout the year,
a more regular correspondence with the week of
creation being thus secured. The first lunar day,
however, or the day of new moon, retained, although
no longer called sabbath, somewhat of its sabbatical
character, so that in the Old Testament it fre-
quently appears as a pendant of the sabbath (see
Feasts and Festivals, I., J 2; Moon, Hebrew
Conceptions of the, J 4).
After the exile the observance of the sabbath was
made extremely rigid and in the Maccabean period a
large number of ultra-orthodox Jews were killed,
together with their wives and children,
Later on the sabbath day, on which they
Jewish would offer no resistance (I Mace. ii.
Develop- 27sqq.; Joeephus, Ant., XII., vi. 2-3).
ment Later, however, the Jews considered it
lawful to defend themselves on the
sabbath, though not to take the offensive (I. Mace,
ii. 39-41; II. Mace. viii. 26; Josephus, Ant., XIV.,
iv. 2). Thirty-nine principal forms of work, to-
gether with many minor varieties, came to be for-
bidden on the sabbath. On the other hand, the
work involved in the ritual of the Temple and cir-
cumcision was permitted (Matt. xii. 5; John vii.
22-23); assistance might be given to a woman in
childbirth and also to the sick if in danger of death;
and Matt. xii. 11 states that it was lawful to rescue
a sheep from a pit on the sabbath, though this is
denied by the Talmud. On the basis of Ex. xvi. 29,
combined with Num. xxxv. 5 and Josh. iii. 4, more
than a "sabbath day's journey" (2,000 cubits) was
forbidden on the sabbath. Nevertheless, the sab-
bath remained a day of joy among the Jews, and the
eating of three hearty meals on that day was en-
joined. The sabbath feasts of the Jews accordingly
became widely known, although not without receiv-
ing mocking criticism, as from Juvenal ("Satires/1
xiv. 96-106), Persius (v. 184), and Martial (iv.
417), while Seneca (Opera, ed. F. Hasse, iii.
427, Leipsic 1863) lamented that a seventh
part of life should thus be wasted. Despite this
the Jews were imitated by many pagans, so that
Josephus could say (Apion, ii. 40): "There is not
any city of the Grecians, nor any of the barbarians,
nor any nation whatsoever, whither our custom of
resting on the seventh day hath not come."
(W. Lotz.)
Bibliography: J. Spencer, Dc legibus Hebrctorum ritualibur,
2 vols., Cambridge, 1727- F. W. Farrar, Life of Christ,
L 374 aqq.t 430-443, ii. 83, 113 aqq., London, 13th ed..
n.<L; A. Ederahaim, Life and Time* ofJeeue the Messiah,
ii. 62-62, 182, 774 sqq., London, 1883; W. Lots.
QuasHones de historia SabbaH, Leipsic 1883; L. Thomas,
Le Jour du seigneur, 2 vols., Paris, 1892-03; A. H. Sayce.
Verdict of the ' Higher Criticism ' and the Monuments,
pp. 76 sqq., London, 1894; H. Gunkel, Sch&pfung und
Chaos, Gottincen. 1895; M. Jastrow, in AJT, 1898. pp.
316-352; C. H. W. Johns, Assyrian Deeds and Documents,
London, 1898; C. H. Toy, in JBL, 1899, pp. 191-193;
W. Riedel, AUtestamentliche Untersuchungen, pp. 74-89,
Leipsic, 1902; F. Bonn. Der Sabbat im Alien Testament,
Gutersloh, 1903; D. Nielsen. Die aUarabische Mondre-
ligion, pp. 63 sqq., Strasbtui, 1904; Pariehes, in PSBA,
1904, pp. 51-66; Zimmern. in ZDMO, 1904. pp. 199 »qq..
458 sqq.; F. Delitssch, Babel und Bibel, i. 62-65. Leipsic.
1905; J. Meinhold, Sabbat und Woche im A. T., Gottingen,
1905; H. Winckler, Retigionsgeschichtlicher und geschictd-
licher Orient, pp. 58 sqq., Leipsic. 1906; J. Hehn. Sieben-
sahl und Sabbat bei den BabyUmiern und im Alien Testament,
Leipsic. 1907; C. F. Kent, Students Old Testament, iv..
f 217, pp. 263-265, New York, 1907; Q. Beer. Schabbath,
Tubingen, 1906; 8ch0rer, Geschiehte, ii. 450-459, 470-
478, 491-493 et passim, Eng. transl.. II.. ii. 75-83. 96-
105, 120-122, et passim; 8chrader, KAT, pp. 592-594;
Nowack, Arch&ologie, ii. 140 sqq.; Bensinger, Archaolcgie,
pp. 389-391; DB, iv. 317-323; EB, iv. 4173-80; JE, x.
587-602; DCG, ii. 640-542; Vigouroux, Dictiannaire,
Case, xxxv., cols. 1291-1306. Also cf. the literature
under Sunday.
SABBATH DAY'S JOURNEY. See Weights and
Measures, Hebrew.
SABBATH LAWS. See Sunday, II.
SABBATICAL TEAR AND TEAR OF JUBILEE:
The seventh and fiftieth year respectively, connected
with the idea of the Sabbath (q.v.) among the
ancient Hebrews and associated with religious
usages. The Book of the Covenant directs (Ex. xxi.
2) that a slave of Hebrew descent be set free in the
seventh year of his servitude, and Deut. xv. 12
extends this requirement to Hebrew female slaves
as well. It is evident that this year was connected
with the sabbath, although as yet there was
no reference to a year which should possess a sab-
batical character throughout the country. The
Book of the Covenant (Ex. xxiii. 10-11) requires
tillage and harvesting for six years, while in the
seventh year the land was to lie fallow and what
grew spontaneously was to be left for the poor and
wild beasts (see also Lev. xxv. 1-7). Although the
context (v. 12) clearly shows that the rest of the
land should be analogous to that of the sabbath,
there is no implication even here of a sabbatical year
for the whole country. Deut. xv. 1 sqq. further
required a release from all indebtedness of one Is-
raelite to another every seventh year, the passage
in question implying that the "year of release" was
observed in the whole country (cf . also Deut. xxxi.
10). These debts were to be remitted each seventh
year, not after the lapse of six years from their con-
traction (cf . Deut. xv. 9) ; but since a year was re-
quired for the release in question, although the ac-
tual remission might be made in a single day, it
would seem that the "release" was not a remission
of the debt but merely a cessation of requests for
payment during the year. Since the Deuteronomic
law for the manumission of slaves after six years of
bondage immediately follows the requirements
governing the "year of release," it would appear
that this manumission was at least desired in the
"year of release." Although it is uncertain when
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
SabbMI.
Saootuml
and why each seventh year came to be regarded as
a sabbatical year, the basis would seem to have been
the "year of release." According to Jer. xxxiv. 8
sqq., there waa a general manumission of slaves in
harmony with Deut. xr. 12 during the reign of
Zedekiah, but no certain conclusions can be drawn
from this passage. The sabbatical year was reck-
oned from autumn to autumn, since the land could
not be allowed to begin to lie fallow in the spring,
and this is borne out by the fact that the year of
jubilee, itself in a sense a sabbatical year, was
solemnly announced to begin on the tenth day of
the seventh month (Lev. xxv. 9). Although in the
preezilic period the sabbatical year was only im-
perfectly observed (Lev. xxvi. 34-35, 43; II Chron.
xxx vi. 21), the Jews under Ezra and Nehemiah
expressly pledged themselves to keep it (Neb. x. 31),
and it was fully observed in the time of Alexander
the Great, the Haamoneans, and the Herodians
{I Mace. vi. 49, 53; Josephus, Ant., XI., viii. 6,
XIII., viii. 1, XIV., x. 6, xvi. 2, XV., i. 2; War, I.,
ii. 4; Philo, in Eusebius, Prxparatio euangelica, vii.,
Eng. transl., i. 389-391, Oxford, 1903; Tacitus,
HUt., v. 4). This observance must, however,
have been extremely difficult, and the Talmud
(Shebhi'ith, VI., ii. 5-6), on the basis of Lev. xxv.
2, restricted the validity of the law to Palestine.
The law of the year of jubilee follows that of the
sabbatical year in Lev. xxv. 8 sqq., which enacts
that at the expiration of seven sabbatical years,
i.e., in each fiftieth year, a trumpet should be
sounded throughout the land on the tenth day of
the seventh month, i.e., on the Day of Atonement,
the first day of the year of jubilee. Like the sab-
batical year, the year of jubilee was to have no har-
vest reaped in it, but in addition it was a year of
freedom for all the inhabitants of the country.
Each man should return to the property which
he had been obliged to sell; all lands and buildings
Bold outside the wailed cities were to be held only
until the next year of jubilee; and Israelites who
had been forced to sell themselves into bondage
were to be released in the year of jubilee (Lev. xxv.
39-55). There is no reason to doubt that the law
of the year of jubilee is preexilic, and it is evidently
a remodeling of an older enactment of uncertain
nature. The precise date of its origin is equally
obscure, though it may be a parallel to the Feast of
Weeks. There is an obvious allusion to the year
of jubilee in Exck. xlvi. 16 sqq., and probably in
Isa bri. 1-2. Ezra and Nehemiah, on the other
hand, never mention it, and there is an express
Jewish tradition that after the time of Ezra the year
of jubilee was no longer observed. (W. Lotz.)
BlBLIoaHAFHT: B. Zuckennnnn. Ueber Sabbat/iiahrcuclu*
•am Jobetperiadt, Biwlnu. 1857: C. P. Caipari. Die at-
icMcJitlichm SabbatJiiahre. in TSK, 1876. pp. 181-100:
H. Ewald. Aiuianiiiei offirad, pp. 338. 309-372, Boston.
1876; J. Fetitoa, Eartu Hebrew Life. pp. 68-74. London.
1880: BchQrer. QachicMt. 1. 36-37, 214, 258-250.
EL 343, iii. 104-105. Eng. tian.il., I., i. 41-43, 224. 274.
ii. 1S7. II., i. 302-363. ii. 295: Nuw&clt. Archaaloaie. ii.
1*1-164: Benainger. ArchaaUmie, 308; J. lleinhold. Sob-
bat imd Wocht im Allen Treuimenl, pp. 21 sqq., GDtting-
«, IMS: C. F. Kent. Studenti' Old Tttament, iv., tf
III III, pp. 274-270. Npw YojU, 1907; DH. iv. 323-320.
BB. ii. 2014-16, JB, i. 806-608. Vigouroui, Diction-
lain. iii. 17S3 sod too. xxxv., coin. 1302-1300: thn com-
■Mntariea on the passage* cited, and lbs works on lb*
SABELLIUS, SABELLIANISM. See Monabchi-
ANI3M, VI.
SABIAHS. See Mandeahs.
SABIHE, WILLIAM TDFHELL: Reformed Epis-
copal bishop; b. in New York City Oct. 16, 1838.
He was graduated from Columbia Universitv,
(A.B., 1859) and at the General Theological Sem-
inary, New York City (1862), being ordered deacon
in the Protectant Episcopal Church in the same year
and ordained priest in 1863. After being curate
of St. George's, New York City (1862-63), he waa
rector of the Church of the Covenant, Philadelphia
(1863-65), and of the Church of the Atonement,
New York City (1866-74). In 1874, on the forma-
tion of the Reformed Episcopal body, he with-
drew from the Protestant Episcopal Church, and
from that year to 1907 was pastor of the First Re-
formed Episcopal Church, New York City. In 1902
he was elected bishop of the New York and Phila-
delphia Synod of the Reformed Episcopal Church.
SABINIAN, sa"bint-an: Pope 604-606. He was
born at Volterra (32 m. s.w. of Florence), Italy,
in the sixth century. Though only a deacon, he was
elected on Sept. 13, 604, to succeed Gregory I., who
had once sent him as nuncio to Byzantium. The
only known events of his pontificate are his en-
deavors to relieve a severe famine, but even these
efforts do not seem to have saved him from the
hatred of the Roman populace [aroused by his ava-
rice and cruelty to the poor], (A. Haocx.)
BjHuoaRAPHT: Souths are: Liber pontificalia, ed. L.
Duchesne. 2 vols., Paris. 1886-02. and ed. T. Mommsea.
in UGH, Got. pant. Ram., i. 1 (1898). 163: and Paul the
Deacon's Vita Ortoorii I., in MPL. Ixxv. 41 sqq. Can-
suit: R. Baxmnnn. Die Palilii drr PilpMi von Gregor I.
bit emf Grtaor VII., i. 140. Elberfold. 1868: F. Gregor-
orius. Hi*, of . . . Rome in the Middle Aoit. ii. 104-lOfi,
London. 1804: Mann. Pope*, i. 251-256; Bower, Papa,
1. 424-435; Platina, Popes, i. 140-141; Human, Latin
Chtittianitv, ii. 202-264.
SABTAH. See Table or the Nations, £ 6.
SACCHONL Bach-o'ru, RAINERIO: Roman
Catholic inquisitor; d. after 1262. His birthplace
wasPiacenia, but nothing is known of his early years.
He joined the Cathari (see New Manichuaxs, II.)
and was one of them for seventeen years, attain-
ing the dignity of bishop. He was brought back to
the faith of the Church apparently by the preaching
of Peter of Verona (q.v.) and the Dominican Moneta
(d. about 1235). When Peter Martyr was murdered
at Como in 1252 at the instigation of the Cathari,
Rainerio was appointed in his place as impil-itur in
Lombardy. In 1259, the heretics succeeded in
driving him out of Milan. He had induced Alexan-
der IV. to put under the ban Uberto Pallacino, a
distinguished personage of Milan, who favored the
Cathari. Uberto obtained a decision of the Podcsta
banishing Rainerio (Murntori, Scriptures, xvi. 662).
The last known of Rainerio is that he was summoned
to Rome on July 31, 1262, by Urban IV. toconsull
on important matters. The year of his death is
unknown. Rainerio is important for his account
of the Cathari. His Sum nut de Chalarit el Leonittis,
Sach&u
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
138
obviously intended for the information of the In-
quisition, is still the most important source for the
history and doctrines of that obscure sect, though
it no longer exists in its original form. It was first
published by Gretser (Liber contra Waldenscs,
Ingolstadt, 1613), but it is doubtful whether other
writings are not included with it; also in E. Martene
and U. Durand, Thesaurus novum anecdotorum, v.
1775 sqq. (Paris, 1717). (F. Cohrs.)
Bibliography: J. Quetif and J. £chard, Scriptorce ordini*
pradicatorum, i. 154 sqq., ii. 817, Paris, 1719-21; A.
Touron, Hist, dee hommes illustres de Vordre de St. Dom-
inique, i. 313 sqq., ib. 1743; J. C. L. Gieseler, De Rainerii
gumma eommentatio critica, Gftttingen, 1834; A. W.
Dieckhoff, Die Waldenaer im Mittelalter, pp. 152 sqq., ib.
1851; W. Preger, Oeachichte der deutachen Myatik im Mit-
tdolter, L 168 sqq., Leipaic, 1874; H. Reuter, GeechichU
der rdigioaen Aufklarung im Mittelalter, ifc 317, Berlin,
1877; K. MOller, Die Waldenaer, pp. 147-148, Gotha,
1886; KL, x. 1452-53; H. C. Lea, Hist, of the Inquisition
in the Middle Ages, vol. ii. passim, New York, 1906.
SACHAU, saVau, EDUARD: Orientalist; b. at
Neumunster (36 m. n. of Hamburg) July 20, 1845.
In 1869 he became extraordinary professor of Semi-
tic languages at Vienna, and was advanced to
ordinary professor in 1872; went to Berlin as pro-
fessor of oriental languages, 1876; traveled in
Syria and Mesopotamia, 1879-80, and 1897-98;
became director of the oriental seminary at Berlin,
1887; and received civil recognition as councilor in
1906. Pe has written or edited: De Aljovoligi
ejusque opere (Halle, 1867); Theodori Mopsuesteni
frogmenta Syriaca (Leipsic, 1869) ; Inedita Syriaca;
tine Sammlung syrischen Uebersetzungen von Schrif-
ten griechischer Pro/anliteratur (Vienna, 1870);
The Chronology of Ancient Nations. An English
Version of the Arabic Text of the Athar-ul-bakiya of
AUnruni (London, 1879) ; Syrisch-rdmisches Rechts-
buch aus dem 6. Jahrhundert (Leipsic, 1880; in col-
laboration with C. G. Bruns) ; Reise in Syrien und
Afesopotamien (1883); AUnruni1 8 India (London,
1888); lndo-Arabische Studien zur Aussprache und
Geschichte des Indischen in der ersten H&lfte des 11.
Jahrhunderts (Berlin, 1888); Afuhammedanisches
Erbrecht von Zanzibar und OsUAfrika (1894); Skizze
des FeUichi-Dialekts von Mosul (1895); Ueber die
Poesie in der Volkssprache der Nestorianer (1896);
Muhammedanisches Recht nach schafiUischer Lehre
(1897); Am Euphrat und Tigris. Reise Notizen
. . . 1897-98 (Leipsic, 1900); Drei aramdische
Papyrus-Urkunden aus Elefantine (Berlin, 1908);
and Ibn Saad's Biographien Muhammeds (Leyden,
1908-09) ; besides a considerable number of smaller
brochures dealing with various inscriptions and
other matters of oriental and Biblical interest.
SACHEVERELL, sa-shev'er-el, HENRY: Church
of England; b. at Marlborough (70 m. w. of Lon-
don), Wiltshire, about 1674; d. at The Grove (13 m.
n.w. of London), Highgate, Middlesex, June 5,
1724. He was graduated at Oxford (B.A., 1693;
M.A., 1695; B.D., 1707); was senior dean of arts of
Magdalen College, 1708, and bursar in 1709; and was
appointed preacher at St. Saviour's, Southwark, in
1705. In 1709 he preached two sermons which, on
account of their political bearing, gave the gravest
offense to the ministry and the majority of parlia-
ment (whigs). He was impeached for libel by the
house of commons; and in 1710 he was convicted by
the peers, and suspended for three years from the
ministry. He was ardently supported, however, by
the tones, the clergy, and the country squires; and
the excitement caused by his trial contributed much
to the defeat of the whigs in the general election of
1710 and the downfall of Sidney Godolphin and his
colleagues. In 1713 he was made rector of St.
Andrew's, Holborn, in which position he died.
Bibliography: F. Madan, A Bibliography of Dr. Henry
SachevereU, privately printed, Oxford, 1887 (indispensable
for sources); W. Bisset, The Modern Fanatick, London.
1710 (a violent attack); W. King, Vindication of the Rev.
Dr. Henry SacheoercU, ib. 1710 (reply to Bisset); T.
Hearne, Remarks and Collections, ed. C. E. Doble for Ox-
ford Historical Society, vols, i.-iii. passim, Oxford, 1885
sqq.; C. A. Lane, Illustrated Notes on English Church His-
tory, pp. 205-206, London, 1892; W. H. Hutton, The
English Church . . . (1695-1714)* PP- 260-282, ib. 1903;
DNB, 1. 80-83 (has reference to scattering notices).
SACHS, sacs, HANS: German Lutheran poet;
b. at Nuremberg Nov. 5, 1494; d. there Jan. 19,
1576. After completing his education at the Latin
school of his native city, he was apprenticed, at the
age of fifteen, to a shoemaker, and during the two
years following received his first in-
His Life, struction in the Meistersinger's art.
After his "wander years" (1511-16),
he returned to his native town, where he henceforth
resided as a shoemaker and poet. His life falls in
the period of Nuremberg's prosperity, and in this
city, the home of wealth, art, and learning, he was
honored as the master and patriarch of the Meister-
singers. The dialect used by him is Bavarian High
German. His first work as a Meistersinger was his
Bui Scheidelied (1513), but his chief activity began
after his return to Nuremberg. At the instance of
his friends, he undertook a complete edition of his
writings (5 vols., Nuremberg, 1558-79, reprinted,
Kempten, 1612-17), which contained 1,462 poems,
though he himself prepared only the first three
volumes. All forms of poetry are represented —
epic, lyric, didactic, and dramatic — and the themes
are drawn indifferently from sacred and profane
history, legend, descriptions of nature and geog-
raphy, civil and domestic life, events of the author's
own life or the lives of others, and from his own
imagination. The sources which he expressly names
are more than 120, among the more modern being
Boccaccio, S. Brant, Reuchlin, Erasmus, Alberus,
and Agricola.
The first volume of the Nuremberg edition of Hans
Sachs is opened by his Tragedia von der Schdpffung,
Fall und Austreibung Ade auss dem Paradetss, a
drama with eleven characters and three acts, writ-
ten in 1533. This is followed by a poem on the
children of Eve, based on the writings of Agricola.
The most important poem drawn from
Principal the New Testament is the tragedy of
Poems, the passion with thirty-one characters
and ten acts, written in 1557. The
antagonism between the law and the Gospels is set
forth in the tragedy of the last judgment with
thirty-four characters and seven acts (1558). From
the "golden legend" is drawn Ein Comedi von dem
reichen sterbenden Menschen der Hecastus genanni
(1549), which treats of a rich man called from the
189
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Sachau
Sachtae
joys of life to the divine judgment seat, where,
abandoned by his friends, he finds consolation in
faith in the merits of Christ. Besides purely Biblical
narratives are found legends of apostles and mar-
tyrs. In the writings which treat of virtues and
vices there is found keen observation, cogent
thought, and well-drawn characters, despite fre-
quent monotony and prolixity. Here mention can
only be made of Das kUnstlich Frauen Lob, Fama das
weitfliegend Gerucht, Die gut und bds Eigenschaft des
Geldes, and Kampfgespr&ch Xenophontis Philosophi
mil Frau Tugend und Frau Untugend. It is, how-
ever, in the fables, farces, and Shrove Tuesday
plays that Hans Sachs reaches the zenith of his art.
In the farces, 210 in number, the devil and fools are
the principal characters. The devil, however, is
ridiculous rather than dangerous, while the speeches
of the fools contain serious admonitions. Among
these farces allusion may be made to Der Teu/el
sucht ihm tine Ruhstalt auf Erden, Der eigensinnig
Mdnch mil dent Wasserkrug, and Der Einsiedel mil
dem Honigkrug. The Shrove Tuesday plays, of
which the Nuremberg edition contains forty-two,
are essentially dramatized farces, designed, as their
author said, "only for seemly merriment and joy.1'
The first of these plays, Das Ho/gesind Veneris
1517), is based on the Tannh&user cycle, and among
the others are Das bds Weib, Derfahrend Schiller im
Paradeiss, Das heiss Eisen, and Das Weib im Brun-
nen. In regard to religion and the Church, Hans
Sachs was a Christian, almost a Protestant, poet.
Between 1514 and 1518 he wrote eight hymns, in
1525 he issued his Etliche geystliche in der schrifft
gegrHnte IAederfUr die layen zu singen, and in 1528
his Dreytzehen Psalmen, his entire contributions of
this character numbering thirty-five. Many of
these marked distinct changes from the older views,
as when he modified the Sant Christoff du heyliger
man into the Ckriste warer sun Gottes fron. To the
same category belong the paraphrases of books and
portions of the Bible, as of the Psalter, Ecclesiastes,
EcclefdasticuB, the types of the Old Testament, and
the gospels for Sundays.
Hans Sachs was not only a poet, but a polemist,
and was one of the first and most decided adherents
of the Reformation in Nuremberg. Long an ad-
mirer of Luther, he himself entered the lists against
the Roman Catholic Church with his poem of 700
verses, Die Wittembergisch NachHgall, die man yetz
horet uberaU (1523). In 1524 he published his Vier
Dialogen in Prosa: the disputation between a canon
and a shoemaker; an attack on the
Anti- outward works and vows of the clergy;
Romanist and two admonitions to the Lutherans
Writing!, themselves against unseemly conduct
and against abuse of their freedom.
He created a sensation in 1527 by publishing, to-
gether with A. Osiander, his Eyn wunderliche
weyssagung von dem Babstumb, trie es yhm biss an das
endl der welt gehen sol, in Figuren oder gemdl begrif-
fen, a work consisting ot thirty pictures and 150
verses by Hans Sachs. Luther highly approved the
production, but it was suppressed at Nuremberg,
and its author received a sharp warning from the
authorities. Nevertheless, he expressed similar
views two years later *n his Inhalt zweierlei Predigt,
jede in einer hurzen Summ begriffen, in which the
Lutheran doctrine of salvation was set forth in
fifty-five verees, while all the practises of the Roman
Catholic Church were pictured in an equal number
of strophes, the reader being invited, at the close,
to make his choice. To the same category belongs
his Der gut und der bds Hirt (1531), based on John x.f
in which the shepherd with the triple crown enters
the house by the roof, while the good shepherd (the
Lutheran pastor) comes in by the door. Of bitterly
polemic character was the Vergleichung des Babst
mil Christo, jr paider leben und passion (1551), in
seventy-five verses, and equally virulent was his
Epitaphium Lutheri (1546). Repeatedly in other
poems Hans Sachs assails usages and conditions in
the Roman Catholic Church of which he dis-
approved. His Heiltum fur das unfleissige HaushaU
ten was directed against relics, Der Ketzermeister
mix den viel Kesselsuppen against luxury in monastic
life, and Der Schwank vom verlornen und redeten
Gulden against the pope and indulgences, while
auricular confession, holy water, and monasticism
also came in for a share of his sarcasm. In the
comedy of Die ungleichen Kinder Evd the good
children repeat the Lutheran catechism by heart
and receive all earthly blessings, while the bad
answer with nonsense or in terms of atheism and
Roman Catholicism, and are condemned to servi-
tude and wretchedness.
In his lifetime Hans Sachs enjoyed wide esteem.
With the change in poetic structure in the early
seventeenth century, he sank into oblivion, but
was rescued by Goethe and Herder, and since then
he has been recognized as the first poet of the six-
teenth century. (G. Holz.)
Bibliography: M. S. Ranisch, Historisch-kritische Lebens-
beschreibung Hans Sachsens, Altenburg, 1765; R. Genee*
Hans Sachs und aeine Zeit, 2d ed., Leipsic, 1902; J. L.
Hoffmann, Hans Sachs. Sein Leben und Wirken, Nurem-
berg, 1847; O. Haupt, Leben und dichterische Wirksam-
keit dee Hana Sachs, Poaen, 1868; F. Ahlfeld and E.
Luthard, Hana Sachs und AUbrecht Durer, Leipsic, 1875;
F. Schultheiss, Hana Sachs in eeinem Verh<nisse zu
Reformation, Leipsic, 1879; W. Kawerau, Hana Sachs
und die Reformation, Halle, 1883; H. Nietschmann, Hans
Sachs, Ein Lebensbxid, Halle, 1889; E. Mummenhoff, Hans
Sachs, Nuremberg, 1894; J. Nover, Hans Sachs, Ham-
burg, 1895; L. B. Suphan, Hans Sachs, HumanxtaUeii
und Gegenwart, Weimar, 1895; L. Mettetal, Hans Sachs
et la ri formation, Paris, 1895; F. Fichler, Das Nachleben
des Hans Sachs, Leipsic, 1904; H. Holsschuher, Hans
Sachs in seiner Bedeutung fur unsere Zeit, Berlin, 1906.
SACHSSE, sdc'se, EU6EN: German Protestant;
b. at Cologne Aug. 20, 1839. He was educated at the
universities of Bonn and Berlin (lie. theol., 1863),
and after being pastor at Notho-on-the-Weser
(1863-69), and teacher at the normal school of
Hilchenbach (1869-71), was pastor at Hamm (1871-
1883) ; director and professor of the seminary for
preachers at Her born (1883-90), and was called
to his present post of professor of practical theology
in the Protestant faculty of the University of Bonn
in 1890. He has written Ursprung und Wesen des
Pietismus (Wiesbaden, 1884); Die ewige Erldsung
(sermons: 2 vols., Gutersloh, 1885-98); Ueber die
Moglichkeit Gott zu erkennen (Giessen, 1888);
Evangelische Katechik (Berlin, 1897), and Der
geschichtliche Wert der drei ersten Evangdien (1904);
and has published a German translation of A. Hy-
Baek Brothnui
THE HEW 9CHAFF-HERZOG
SACK BRETHREN (Fratrt* saccali, Saccopkori,
SaeheUi): An order of hermits formed early in tbe
thirteenth century for rigid asceticism and works of
mercy. They received their name from the rough
garments worn by them, though they were Also
known as "Penitential Brethren of Jesus Christ"
and Boni Haminea (q.v.). The Sack Brethren were
introduced into England by Henry III. in 1257,
though they hod existed in Spain in the pontificate
of Innocent III., and in France and Flanders. The
order seema to have been suppressed by the Council
of Lyons in 1275, probably because of heretical
"views rile among them, whereupon the brothers en-
tered other orders, such as the Servites. The Sack
Brethren lived extremely rigorously, abstaining
from the use of wine, drinking only water, and prac-
tising communism of property. By the end of the
fourteenth century their name had vanished from
history.
A similar order of nuns was founded by Louis IX.
of France in 12G1. They termed themselves the
" Penitent Daughters of Jesus," and were also
called, from their habit, Saccaria> or Sochettes.
Though the order survived only a short time in
France, where the nunneries were near St. Andre%
des-Arcs, Sack Sisters seem to nave had houses
in London as late as 1357. (0. Zocu.Ex.t-)
BiBLirnBAFiir: HeJyot. Ordrtt mwitigiiia, UL 175 »qq.;
Heuobuchor, Ordrn u nd Konjrtjalionrn. ii. 182; A. G.
Little, in Bnt/liih Historical Review, Jan., 1804, pp. 121 *qq.
SACK, sac, AUGUST FRIEDRICH WILHELM:
German Reformed; b. at Harzgerode (50 m. s.e. of
Brunswick) Feb. 4, 1703; d. at Berlin Apr. 23,
1786. He was educated at Frankfort and Leyden,
after which he was a private tutor in Gronmgen.
Returning to Germany, be became, in 172S, tutor
of the. hereditary priijee of IIi.'?so-Homburg, and in
1731 was called to be third minister of the German
Reformed church in Magdeburg, where he founded
a poorhouse and orphan asylum which still exist.
In 1738 he became first minister of the same church,
and consistorial councilor and inspector of the
Reformed churches in the duchy of Magdeburg.
From 1740 until hia retirement in 1780 he was court
and cathedral preacher at Berlin and member of
the consistory. Theologically he was orthodox in a
period of religious indifference and latitudinarian-
ism, yet possessed of characteristic Protestant in-
dependence of thought and averse to all forms of
eomjndajan. Though his mediating position ex-
posed him to severe criticism from adherents of
more one-sided views, he enjoyed, in general, the
support of men of all parties, many of whom he
counted among his personal friends and correspond-
ents. In 1745 Sack was chosen a member of the
physical section of the Berlin Academy of Sciences,
and from 1751 to 17GS, in addition to his other
duties, he was a visitor of the Reformed Joachims-
thal Gymnasium. He also directed for a time the
benevolent institutions connected with the cathe-
dral, and during tin? residence of the royal family at
M:ti!'it-I>urg during the Seven Years' War was not
only their chaplain, but also the religious teacher of
the princes and princesses.
Sack's theological convictions may be gathered
most fully from hia Yerteidigter Glaube der Chriiten
(Berlin, 1751), a popular presentation of apologetic*
and dogmatics, as well as from the notes and medi-
tations contained in his Lebentbetchnibung (ed. F.
S. G. Sack, 2 vols., Berlin, 1789). He was naturally
under the influence of the philosophy of Leibnitz and
Wolff, and consequently presupposed a natural
religion baaed on concepts of divine perfections, the
attainment of religious convictions by processes
of reason, and the like. At the same time, he re-
garded such natural religion as inadequate for the
needs of man, seeing perfection in the Bible alone,
and seeking the proof of its divine inspiration in its
contents and their effect on the human soul. The
central point of revelation he held to be the medi-
ation and the redemption by Christ; forgiveness
and blessedness ore possible only on condition of
repentance and true faith in Christ the mediator.
The doctrines of prevenient grace and justification
by faith, on the other hand, are comparatively
neglected, while regeneration is emphasized. His
sermons were collected in six volumes (1735-64).
(K H. SiCKt.)
BiBLioaiAPflT : The chief source is the Lebcnebeechreibvnff,
ut >up. Consult further: J. M. H. Dfirinit. Die dnJttkrn
Kaxztirtdnrr dee 18. and I*. Jat-rtnindcrU, pp. 3S3-300.
Natutadt. 1830; R. Rottae, QeeeJnehte drr Predial, p *21.
Wittenberg, 1881.
SACK, FRIEDRICH SAMUEL GOTTFRIED:
German Reformed; b. at Magdeburg Sept. 4, 173S;
d. at Berlin Oct. 2, 1817. He was educated at the
University of Frankfort (1755-57) and in England
(1758-59), and was appointed, in 1769, German
Reformed preacher in his native city. In 1777 he
was called to Berlin as fifth court and cathedral
preacher, becoming the Reformed member of the
supreme consistory in 1786. He gradually rose to
be first court preacher, but was chiefly active in
religious instruction and in official duties. In 1304
he was made chief Bchool councilor, and in 1814 was
appointed presiding officer of the committee for the
improvement of the Protestant church system; in
1816 he became a bishop of the Evangelical Church.
In his theological views he was slightly semi-Pelagian,
but an opponent of deism and of the speculation
and pantheistic tendencies of German philosophy
beginning with Fichte. In ecclesiastical adminis-
tration he sought to keep the Church from too
close connection with the State, and in 1788 was
one of the five who protested against the officializing
of orthodoxy enacted by the religious edict issued by
Wollner's ministry. He labored earnestly to revive
true religion among both Lutherans and Reformed,
as exemplified in his Gutachten titer die KeroesBerunj
de> Religionwuetande* in den kOnigliehen prtust-
Uchen Ldndern (Berlin, 1802). He also wrote Schrif-
ten art cinen Frennd den Ilcrrn Dr. Bahrdt und sein
Glauhensbekenntnit oetrtffend (1779); Ein Wort
der Ermttnterung an meine Mitbtirger (1807); and
t'edsr die Vereinigung der beiden proUttantuehrn
Kirchenparttien in der prmuiUehrn Monarehie
(1812). (K. H. Sxext.)
Bibuoqrapbt: M. S. L6we, BUdniuc . . . jeattebender
Berliner Oelchrten. lierlin. lRQfl-OT (sllpplirvi bv Baft
himself): F. Theremin. GetUchmietprediol auf Jen BiecMe!
P. S. O. Sack, Berlin, 1817; J. M. H. Dorioc Dm dm-
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
BMk Bnrthnm
t IS. JaArhundtrU, p. 365.
SACK, KARL HEIHRICH: German Lutheran,
son of the preceding; b. at Berlin Oct. 17, 1789;
d. at Bonn Oct. 16, 1875. He was educated at the
L i.ivi r-it v of Gattingen, returning to Berlin in 1S10.
Three years later he served aa a volunteer in the
Napoleonic war, where he gained the Iron Cross,
and in 1815 returned to the field as a chaplain. On
the dose of hostilities he spent a year and a half in
touring Germany, Holland, and England, and on
his return became privatniocent at the University
of Berlin. In 1818 he was called to Bonn as pro-
fessor of theology, and in the following year also
became Lutheran pastor in the same city. In 1834,
however, he resigned his pastorate that he might
devote himself to his professorial duties. In his
theology Sack was strongly influencd by Schleier-
macher, as is clear from his Idee und Entuwrf der
chrUUiehen Apologetik (Bonn, 1819), Chrutliche
Apologetik (Hamburg, 1829), and ChrUUiche Pah-
milt (1838). His rigid adherence to the Bible as the
foundation of the Church was evinced in his Vom
Worte Gotta (Bonn, 1825) and Ueber das Ansehen
der heiligen Schrifl (1S27; in collaboration with
Kitxech and Gottfried Christian Friedrich Locke),
white he attacked the myth-theory of Strauss in his
Daa Leben Jetu von Slraust (1830). Shortly after
1840 Sack visited Scotland, the results of his ob-
servations being embodied in his Die Kirche von
Schotland (2 parte, Heidelberg, 1844-45). In 1847
be accepted a call to Magdeburg as consistorial coun-
cilor. Here, in the face of many difficulties, he
strove faithfully to promote the cause of union, until,
in 1860, ho retired from active life, living hence-
forth first in Berlin, and later at Neuwied and Bonn.
During these years of retirement he wrote his last
work, Ueber die Geeehiehie der Predial von Mosheim
Ut Sddeiermacher (1866). (David EnoMANNt)
Biruooiufbt: W. Btywhlag, Kart Immanvtl NititcJi,
Berlin. 1872; \rut tfangrliirAr Kirellmi*iluno. 1875. pp.
772-773; L. Letnme, HtUtthaitachen und aiauticnirr-
fahrw, Heidelberg, 1305.
SACRAMENT.
Name and Early Church Theory (| 1
Medieval Development at -incrmnent
Nature of Sacrament* ({ 3).
" entiond*"
Doctrine (I I>.
Rm
(IS
Pro t« lan t Teachint (f
The name sacrament is given to seven sacred
Christian rites in the Roman Catholic and Eastern
churches, and to two, baptism and the Lord's
Supper, in the Protestant churches. The Greek
word mt/iterion, "mystery," used in the Eastern
Church to designate these rites, is taken from the
New Testament, and contains a reference to the
hidden virtue behind the outward
I. Hame symbol (see Mtotaoogical Theol-
and Early oot). The Latin word tacramrntum
Church means something that is consecrated.
Theory, more particularly an oath, especially
a military oath of allegiance to the
standard; and also the sum of money deposited in
court by the plaintiff and defendant previous to the
trial of a case, and kept in some sacred place. The
term was applied to Christian rites in the time of
Tertullian, but can not be traced further back by •
any distinct testimony. Jerome translated the
Greek work myslerion by encramentum (Eph. i. 9, iii.
3, 9, v. 32; I Tim. iii. 16; Rev. i. 20), and from the
Vulgate the word sacrament passed into the
Reims Version in Eph. v. 32, where marriage is
spoken of, and the translation is, "This is a great
sacrament." In other cases the Reims Version
retains the word "mystery."
The doctrine of the sacraments was not fully
developed till the Middle Ages, and tho Schoolmen
did for it what the Church Fathers did for the doc-
trines of the Trinity and for Christology. With
tho exception of Augustine, none of the Fathers i
gave more than passing attention to the definition/
and doctrine of sacraments; but the Eastern Church
held that there were two sacraments, baptism and
the Eucharist, although later the number seven
was accepted. St. Augustine has a number of
passages bearing on the definition, meaning, and
neosity of the sacraments, lie calls baptism and
the Eucharist sacraments "in an eminent sense"
(Epwt. ad JanuariTim, liv. 1, MPL, xxxiii. 2000),
and he likewise applied the term sacrament to or-
dination to I lie [lriotituo! i.'f '..■;. .v.; i jii.-.l. I'tiriiitiiwni,
II., xiii. 20; MPL, xliii. 70), to marriage (De bono
conjugali, 21 ; MPL, xl. 394 ; NPNF, 1 ser., iii. 408),
and to other rites. He assigned sacraments to the
Old Testament as well as to the New, and spoke of
the former as promising a Savior, and of the latter
as giving salvation (On Ps. lxxiv. 1 ; NPNF, 1 ser.
viii. 343). He defined a sacrament as a visible Hgn
of a thing divine {Dc atfechuandU rudibus, xxvi. 50; f
NPNF, 1 ser., iii. 312), and, commenting on John'
vi. 41-59, he declared: "The sacrament is one thing,
the virtue of the sacrament another" (In JoannU
E,angdium Tractaius, xxvi. 11; NPNF, vii. 171).
He did not, however, write a connected treatise on
the sacraments; this task remained for the School-
The sacramental system was one of the inspiring
cunstnjoti'.>!i> "!' Ilie Hi'lji'mliuen ami (.'neaped their
most careful and profound speculation. To no other
one branch of theology did they give more attention,
and their conclusions determined the dogma of the
Latin Church, especially when reaffirmed by the
Council of Trent. The theologians most prominent )
in developing the sacramental system were Hugo of /
St. Victor, who wrote the first formal treatise on thc-J
sacraments, (see Hugo of St. Victor, §{ 5-6), 7
Peter Lombard, Alexander of Hales, J
2. Medic- and Thomas Aquinas (qrj.v.). The/
val Devel- last-named did little more than clearly^
opment of reaffirm the views of his three prcdeces* I ~
Sacramental sors, especially Alexander of Hales;!
Doctrine, and with him the development may be
said to have come to an end, for though \
the Franciscan Duns Scotus (q.v.) modified some
parts of the doctrine, his teachings, were set aside
by the Council of Ferrara (1439) in favor of the
clearer statements of his great Dominican antago-
nist. Thomas Aquinas. The Schoolmen all started
with the definitions of Augustine and were not
conscious of having departed from him, although
they did so by laying emphasis upon the ex open ,
Sacrament
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
142
- operate theory of the efficiency of the sacraments
(see Opus Operantis, Opus Operatum) and by
reducing the prominence given by Augustine to the
operation of grace. The number was fixed at seven,
and thus the uncertainty which had been inherited
from the fathers and had been felt by the earlier
Schoolmen was removed, especially through the
influence of Peter Lombard and Thomas Aquinas.
Dionysius the Areopagite had given six sacraments
— baptism, the Eucharist, unction, the ordination of
priests, the ordination of monks, and burial rites.
Bernard of Clairvaux spoke of many sacraments
and enumerated ten, including foot- washing;
Abelard named five — baptism, confirmation, the
Eucharist, marriage, and extreme unction; and
Robert Pulleyn (q. v.) gave the same number. Hugo
of St. Victor likewise seems to recognize five in his
Summa — baptism, confirmation, Eucharist, pen-
ance, and extreme unction — but in his De sacra-
mentis Christiana fidei he enumerates thirty, taking
[the word sacrament in the wide sense of religious
rite. In this latter work he divided the sacraments
into three classes, among which, for instance, holy
water and the use of ashes on Ash Wednesday be-
long to the second class and are distinctly called
sacraments, Thomas Aquinas himself ascribing a
quasi-sacramental character to such rites. Councils
were equally undecided as to the number of the sac-
raments and the definition of the term. Thus the
Third Lateran Council (1179) included the investi-
ture of bishops and the rites of burial among the
sacraments, and the Roman Catholic Church to-day
makes a distinction between certain sacred rites
* called Sacramentals (q. v.) and the seven sacraments.
Peter Lombard was not the first to give the number
seven. About his time it had been given by Roland
Bandinelli (afterwards Alexander III.) in his Sen-
ten tice, and by Otto of Bamberg in a sermon of 1158,
as reported by his biographer, Herbord. The seven
sacraments are baptism, the Eucharist, confirma-
tion, extreme unction, penance, ordination, and
marriage. The number seven corresponds with the
• seven virtues and the seven deadly sins, and also
junites the number of the deity (three) and of crea-
jtion (four), thus illustrating the union of God and
man. This correspondence was called the "con-
^gruity" of the sacraments, that is, their correlation
to the spiritual maladies and needs of man. The
sacraments were not needed in man's estate of
innocence. With Augustine the Schoolmen repre-
sent the sacraments of the Old Testament as pre-
figuring the grace to come, and the sacraments of the
New as conferring grace.
In defining a sacrament, the Schoolmen started
with Augustine's definition that it is a visible symbol
Df an invisible grace, but went beyond him in the de-
gree of efficiency they ascribed to it. They assert
that the sacraments " contain and con-
3. Nature fer grace" and that they have a virtue
of Sacra- inherent in themselves. The favorite
ments. figure used to describe their operation
is medicine, so that Hugo of St. Victor
(De sacramentis, I., ix. 4; MPLt clxxvi. 325) could
term God the physician, man the invalid, the priest
the minister, grace the antidote, and the sacra-
ment the vessel. The physician gives, the minis-
ter dispenses, and the vessel contains the spiritual
medicine which cures the soul. The sacraments are,
however, more than channels of grace. They do
more than signify. They sanctify, and they are
the efficient causes of the operations of grace in
the recipient. The mode of this efficacy is ex j
opere operate, the expression used by such writers
as William of Auxerre and Alexander of Hales. \
Thomas Aquinas adopted the expression, and again
and again says that the sacraments make righteous
and confer grace ex opere operato, that is, by a virtues-
inherent in themselves. By this he did not mean
that the religious condition of the recipient"!! a mat-
ter of indifference, but that the sacraments impart /
virtue, if need be, without the operation of active*!/
faith. The sacraments are efficacious only If
to those who are of a religious disposition, but
they are always efficacious when properly adminis-
tered.
The relation the priest sustains to the sacraments
is vital to their efficacy, and, except in extraor-
dinary cases (as sometimes in baptism), his ministra-
tion is essential. The priest's personal character
does not affect the efficacy of the sacraments, so
that an unworthy priest confers grace, provided he
administers the sacrament according to the pre-
scribed rite of the Church. To use
4. Intention, the medieval illustration, water is
conveyed through a leaden pipe as
well as through a silver one. The priest acts in the
name of the Church, and in uttering the words of *
sacramental appointment he is giving voice to the\
intention of the Church. This intention is sufficient
for the perfect work of the sacrament and ultimate-
ly, as Augustine had said, it is Christ and not the
priest who gives effect to the sacrament. [But in-
tention is far more than merely sufficient for the
validity of a sacrament; it is absolutely essential
in all Roman Catholic teaching; and this intention
must invariably be present on the part of the
minister of the sacrament, and generally on the part >
of the recipient. It is possible, however, for infants
and idiots to receive the sacraments validly (though
such sacraments as orders would scarcely ever be
given them); those who subsequently lose their
reason, either permanently or temporarily (as in
unconsciousness), may validly receive extreme unc-
tion. All in possession of reason, however, must\
have intention if they are to receive a sacraments
validly. This intention again may be either "ac-
tual" or "virtual," the former being a conscious
intention, and the latter an intention which influ-
ences an act, even though this act be not recognized
as sacramental, as when a baptised Protestant con- __
tracts marriage and thus unwittingly receives the
sacrament of marriage. If there is no intention,
there is no reception of a sacrament, so that if one
eats consecrated hosts to satisfy hunger, he does not
receive the Eucharist.
Intention on the part of the minister is invariably
required by Roman Catholic teaching, whether this
minister be lay (as in the case of a midwife who bap-
tizes a new-born infant in immediate danger of
death) or clerical (as in the mass, ordination, etc.).
The intention must, moreover, be in accord with
the teaching of the Church, though even a heretic,
1
148
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
8aoramant
if possessing proper intention, may administer a
valid sacrament. While there is danger that there
may be, on the part of the minister, either a lack
of intention or even an intention of acting contrary
to the precept of the Church (both of which render
the sacrament null and void), it is maintained by
Roman Catholic dogmaticians (e.g., S. J. Hunter,
"^Outline* of Dogmatic Theology, iii. 208-212, New
York [1896]) that the chance of such invalidation is
so small as to be negligible. The "defect of inten-
tion " (see the rubric on this topic in the preface to
the missal), complicated by "defect of form,"
forms the basis of the condemnation of Anglican
orders in the bull Apostolicw cures of Leo XIII.
(Sept. 13, 1896), the special ground of invalidity
being sought in the failure of the Anglican ordinals
to express the concept of the sacrificial aspect of the
Eucharist.* Intention finds a place, of course, in
I every sacrament; every Protestant who maintains
lany form of the receptivist theory of the Lord's
[Supper holds the doctrine of the necessity of inten-
tion, however unwittingly, and it is equally implied
in such rites as the non-sacramental Protestant
ordination, etc. Intention finds its most usual
application, however, in the sacrifice of the mass
in the Roman Catholic Church; and it should also
be noted in this connection that in the High-church
school of the Anglican Church Holy Communion is
frequently celebrated "with intention/' as for the
promotion of the unity of Christendom or some other
pious purpose.]
To the Schoolmen Sacraments are not all of equal
. -necessity. Baptism alone is essential to salvation,
\ and baptism and the Eucharist are the mightiest.
Baptism, confirmation, and ordination
5. Necessity impart an indelible character. Their
of the mark can not be effaced, nor can they
Sacraments, be repeated. t The other four sacra-
ments are necessary to salvation as a
horse is necessary to a journey. The Schoolmen
were not agreed as to the author of all the sacra-
* " The Church does not judge about the mind and in-
tention in so far as it is something by its nature internal;
but in so far as it is manifested externally she is bound to
judge concerning it. When any one has rightly and seri-
ously made use of the due form and the matter requisite for
effecting or conferring the sacrament he is considered by
the very fact to do what the Church does. On this princi-
ple rests the doctrine that a sacrament is truly conferred by
the ministry of one who is a heretic or unbaptixed, pro-
vided the Catholic rite be employed. On the other hand,
if the rite be changed, with the manifest intention of intro-
ducing another rite not approved by the Church and of re-
jecting what the Church does, and what by the institution
of Christ belongs to the nature of the sacrament, then it is
clear that not only is the necessary intention wanting to the
sacrament, but that the intention is adverse to and destruc-
tive of the sacrament0 (Apoetolicm curat, tr. in The En-
cycHcal Letters of Pope Leo XIII. , New York, 1903, pp. 403-
404).
t In both the Roman and Anglican churches provision
is made for " conditional baptism *' if there is doubt whether
a former baptism was valid, i.e., administered in the name
of the Trinity. The Roman Catholic Church, not recognis-
ing the validity of Anglican or Greek confirmation, requires
the reconfirmation of all converts from those communions,
and for similar reasons both the Anglican and Roman
churches insist on the reordination of all clergy becoming
converts to them and desiring to exercise priestly func-
tions, the Anglican church accepting, however, the validity
of Greek and Roman ordination, and hence not requiring its
repetition.
ments. Peter Lombard expressly ascribed extreme
unction to the apostles, while Alexander of Hales,
Thomas Aquinas, and others held that they were
all instituted by Christ. In regard to the precedent
necessity of the sacraments, Hugo of St. Victor de-
clared that God might have saved man without
them, but now that they have been instituted, no
man can be saved except through them. The his-
tory of the doctrines of the seven sacraments is
given under Baptism, Lord's Supper, etc., but a
general statement belongs here. Baptism is the
door to the other sacraments and to the kingdom of
God; confirmation completes what baptism has
begun and confers the grace of ever-increasing
strength; the Eucharist confers the food of spiritual
life in the very body and blood of Christ; penance
deletes the guilt of actual transgressions as baptism
regenerates from the guilt of original sin; extreme
unction heals the soul from sin not already remitted
by penance, and is also intended to heal the body;
ordination empowers persons to administer the sac-
raments; and marriage makes the union between
two persons perpetual and in harmony with the
union between Christ and the Church; or, to use
the comparison employed by the Schoolmen, the
sacraments furnish grace for the spiritual struggle
and strengthen the Christian warrior at the various
stages of the conflict. Baptism equips him on en-
tering the conflict, confirmation strengthens him in
his purpose, extreme unction helps him at the close
of the struggle, the Eucharist and penance renew
his strength, orders introduce new recruits into
the ranks, and marriage prepares men to be
recruits.
The first blow against the sacramental system of
the medieval Church was given by Luther in his
"Babylonish Captivity," in which he declared the
rights and liberties of the Christian
6. Protes- believer to be fettered by the tradi-
tant Teach- tions of men. He rejected all the
ing. sacraments except baptism and the
Lord's Supper, and was followed in
this by all the Reformers of the continent and Great
Britain. All the Protestant confessions demand
active faith as a condition of the efficacy of the
sacrament. Faith apprehends and appropriates
the spiritual benefits accruing from them. The una-
nimity of the Reformers as to the number of the
sacraments and the conditions of their efficacious
reception did not, however, exclude differences of
doctrine which became the occasion of bitter con-
troversies that greatly injured the cause of Protes-
tantism.
There was general harmony regarding baptism,
except among the Anabaptists, who rejected
infant baptism and later demanded immersion;
but the doctrine of the Lord's Supper was the
cause of a dispute which has retarded or prevented
cordial Christian cooperation until this day. The
three main types of teaching on the Lord's Supper
were those of Luther, who took the view of con-
substantiation; of Zwingli, who made it a simple
memorial feast; and of Calvin, who insisted on the
mystical presence of Christ and a spiritual feeding
upon him. In England the views of Luther were
first adopted, but were later replaced, generally
9
Sacrament
Sacramental*
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
144
\
speaking, by thoee of Calvin.* The controversy be-
tween Zwingli and Luther came to a climax at the
conference held at Marburg in 1520, and the differ-
ence led to a long-lasting cleavage between the
Lutheran and Reformed types of Protestantism.
Certain religious bodies, of whom the most promi-
nent are the Quakers, reject all external celebration
of the sacraments as opposed to the spiritual inter-
pretation of religion, and hold only to an internal
baptism, or regeneration, by the Spirit and an in-
ternal communion with Christ. D. S. Schaff.
Bibuoo&apst: The primary sources are of course (1) the
works of the Fathers and Schoolmen mentioned in the
text — Augustine, Abelard, Hugo of 8t. Victor, Peter
Lombard, Albertus Magnus, Thomas Aquinas, Bonaven-
tura. Duns Scotus — all of whom are discussed in this work,
and usually also with reference to the subject of this
article; (2) the confessions of the various churches, in-
cluding the decrees of the Council of Trent, which are
collected and annotated in: Schaff, Creeds; and E. F. K.
Muller, Die Bekenntnisschriften der reformirten Kirche,
Leipsic, 1903. Secondary sources are also of two kinds:
(1) works on dogmatics and the history of dogma,
which will be found given very fully in and under the
articles Dogma, Dogmatics, and Doctkinb, History or;
and (2) works on the history of the Church, also very fully
given in and under Church Hibtort, to which should be
added the works on the history of the councils (see the
bibliography under Council* and Synods), and the
literature on the Fathers and Schoolmen named above
under the articles on them in this work, where many
monographs will be found devoted to the subject of this
article. A useful literature is that on Canon Law (q.v.),
the literature of which is noted in the article on that sub-
ject. Respecting this last it is to be said that reference
to this class of books is advised only for advanced stu-
dents, as the relation is neither so direct nor so obvious
as of the other literature named. In addition to the fore-
going, the literature on the several sacraments is to be
studied as given under the articles on them in this work.
Special treatises from the Protestant standpoint are:
R. Whately, The Scripture Doctrine concerning the Sacra-
ments, London, 1867; Q. L. Hahn, Die Lehre von den
Sacramenten in ihrer geschichtlichen Bntwickeiung inner-
haJb der abendl&ndischen Kirche bis sum KonrU von Trient,
Breslau, 1864; J. S. Stone, The Christian Sacraments,
New York, 1866; J. H. Blunt, The Sacraments and Sacra-
mental Ordinances of the Church, London, 1867; Q. G.
Perry , Vox ecclesim Anglicana, ib. 1868; 8. W. Critten-
den, Sacraments of the Church, Philadelphia, 1860; W. F.
Hook, The Church and its Ordinances, ed. W. Hook, 2 vols.,
London. 1876; R. Schmidt, in TSK, 1879, pp. 187 sqq.,
391 sqq. (on the Lutheran doctrine); G. D. Armstrong,
The Sacraments of the New Testament, New York, 1880;
R. Watson, The Sacraments: Baptism and the Lord's Sup-
per, ib. 1893; M. Dix, The Sacramental System Consid-
ered as the Extension of the Incarnation, ib. 1893; The
Church* s Ministry of Grace (lectures), ib. 1893; Q. Anrich,
Das antike Mysterienwesen in seinem Einfiuss auf das
Christentum, Gftttingen, 1894; G. Wobbermin, Religions-
geschlichtliche Studien tur Frage der Beeinfiussung des
Urchristentums durch das antike Mysterienwesen, Berlin,
1896; J. Grill, Die persische Mysterienreligion im romischen
Reich und das Christentum, Tubingen. 1903; J. C. Lam-
bert, The Sacraments in the New Testament, Edinburgh,
1903; K. G. Goets, Die Abendmahlsfrage in ihrer ge-
schichtlichen Entwickelung, Leipsic, 1904; A. Knox, Grace
of Sacraments, New York, 1905; J. A. Beet, The Church,
the Churches, and the Sacraments, London, 1907; H. C.
* While the Thirty-Nine Articles of the Anglican Church
are commonly held to teach only two sacraments, baptism
and the Eucharist (art. xxv.), it is maintained by many ad-
herents of the High-church school of that communion that
the wording of the article in question does not necessarily
militate against the doctrine of seven sacraments, although,
as in the Roman Catholic Church, baptism and the Eucha-
rist stand in a doss by themselves as sacraments preeminent
over all the rest. The seven sacraments of this Anglo-
Catholic school are identical with those of the Roman
Catholics.
Beeohing, The Bible Doctrine of the Sacraments, ib. 1908;
Hauck-Hersog, RE. xvii. 349-381; Schaff. Christian
Church, v. 1, pp. 701-748.
The Roman Catholic idea is presented in: F. Probst, Sak-
ramente und Sakramentalien in den drei ersten christlichen
Jahrhunderten, Tubingen, 1872; P. Schans, Die Lehre von j
den Sacramenten der katholischen Kirche, Freiburg, 1893;
J. H. Oswald, Die dogmatische Lehre von den heiligen Sac-
ramenten der katholischen Kirche, 5th ed., Monster, 189*>
8. J. Hunter, Outlines of Dogmatic Theology, in. 162 sqq..
New York [1896]; J. B. Sasse, De sacramentis ecdesia,
Freiburg. 1897; KL, x. 1481-1518.
SACRAMENTALS.
Development of the Doctrine (f 1).
The Anointing of Kings (f 2).
Doctrine of Royal Consecration (f 3).
Sacramental* in General (f 4).
Legal Aspects (J 5).
Occasions for Consecration (J 6).
Protestant Teachings (J 7).
" Sacramentals " is a term applied to certain
benedictions and consecrations in the Greek and
Roman Catholic Churches, or to the objects blessed,
from a partial resemblance between their purpose
and use and those of the sacraments proper (see
Benediction). Exorcisms, which in the name of
God undertake to remove the influence of evil spirits
from persons and things, are included under this
head (see Exorcism). The Roman Catholic Church,
however, apart from the connection of exorcism
with baptism and with certain blessings and con-
secrations (such as that of the sacred oil and chrism
by the bishop on Maundy Thursday), employs it as
an independent rite only in the supposedly possible
case of the demoniacal possession of a member of
the Church, and its exercise even then is frequently
limited to cases where the permission of ecclesias-
tical superiors is given after careful investigation.
The order of exorcists has long been a mere step-
ping-stone to the higher orders, and the function is
in practise performed by priests.
Before the development of the doctrine that the
sacraments are seven in number, and especially
from the beginning of the eleventh cen-
i. Develop- tury to the time of Peter Lombard,
ment of the benedictions of the kind here consid-
Doctrine. ered, or at least the more important of
them, were loosely included among the
sacraments; but with the more exact definition of
the term sacrament, these spiritual operations,
which, while no longer considered as sacraments
proper, were yet supposed to impart some special
grace to persons or things, became known as sacra-
mentals. The development of doctrine in the West
was subordinated to the desire of the Roman spiri-
tual power for domination. As in the doctrine of the
sacraments (after Peter Lombard) the Church
found expression for its claim of jurisdiction over ail
classes of persons, so the doctrine of sacramentals
expressed the relation of the Church to material ob-
jects; and from both sacrament and sacramental
grew up the doctrine of Sacrilege (q.v.).
As the power of holy orders takes a dominant
position in the system of the sacraments, so the
full significance of the sacramentals is most clearly
visible in the anointing of kings by the clergy. This
practise, connected with the Old-Testament custom,
occurs in the West as early as the coronation of
Wamba, king of the 'Visigoths, in 672; Egbert, king
146
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Sacramental*
Sacrament
of the Anglo-Saxons, is said to have been anointed
in 789, but this is uncertain. The practise was
not found among the Merovingian
2. The kings; in the Frankish kingdom it
Anointing was first used in the case of Pepin,
of Kings, and among the East Franks in that of
Louis the Child and Conrad I., while
Henry I. refused to submit to it, its connection
with the Old-Testament theocracy seeming sus-
picious to an ambitious temporal monarch. From
Otho I., however, unction accompanied coronation
in each case. The German king was anointed on
the head, breast, shoulders, arms, and hands; at
the imperial coronation in Rome the bishop of
Ostia anointed the emperor on the right arm and
between the shoulders. While Gregory the Great,
like Isidore of Seville and even Peter Damian (d.
1072) and Peter of Blois (d. 1200), designated the
anointing of kings and princes as a sacrament, as
did the Greeks also, the degradation of this rite to
a sacramental, compared with the sacrament of
orders, could but serve to emphasize the subordinate
position of the worldly rulers in relation to the
ecclesiastical hierarchy.
According to the view laid down in the Pontificate
Romanum, royal dignity is first conferred in its ful-
ness upon the king by the unction con-
3. Doctrine nected with the benediction; but this
of Royal view was not accepted, either at its
Consecra- promulgation or for any long period
tion. later; nor was the coronation which
in the ninth century was added to the
unction believed to have greater validity for con-
ferring regal rights in the Empire. Until the
eleventh century the choice of the princes, led by
the archbishop of Mains, was understood to confer
these rights, and the enthronisation by the Church
merely exhibited the king as in possession of them.
In opposition to the principle held by Charlemagne
and Louis I., it was a consequence of the dissen-
sions within. the Carolingian house that under the
later Carolingians the imperial title and dignity
were held to depend on coronation and unction at
Rome. From Otho I. the German kings claimed
the right to be thus crowned as inherent in their
office — a claim which was more than once (as by
Calixtus II.) admitted on the side of the Church.
But from the pontificate of Gregory VII. the preva-
lent curialist view tended to transfer the impor-
tance of the ceremony from unction to coronation.
The principle of free election won its victory with
the extinction of the Hohenstaufen dynasty. Con-
rad III. (1138) received unction and coronation as
German king, not as emperor, from the papal legate
at Aachen, the first instance of the kind. The con-
tested election of 1198 and the desuetude of the
earlier constitution gave the great popes from In-
nocent m. on a chance to dominate the elections,
while the claim of the popes to depose temporal
rulers brought the latter, even as to their political
functions, under the jurisdiction of the Church.
By this time the election was admitted to give only
a right to coronation, which was required for the
full possession of the office. In the ritual act, which
included unction and coronation, to which the tra-
dition of the imperial insignia and the enthronisa-
X.— 10
tion in the chair of Charlemagne at Aachen were
added, the coronation at Aachen became of decisive
importance. In the Sachsen&piegel the Roman view
as a whole is assumed — the elevation to the im-
perial throne connected with the coronation at
Aachen is considered effectively to confer the office.
The settlement of the German kingship as purely
elective in 1252 marked the complete domination
of the view that the right conferred by the pope
definitely established the possession of the royal
dignity; though in 1338 the electors rejected the
claim of the pope to investigate and confirm the
election. Nevertheless, although the constitution
Licet juris of Louis the Bavarian (1338) declared
that the election as German king conferred " the
plenitude of imperial power," and the Bulla aurea
spoke of the king as elected " to be promoted to
emperor," throughout the Middle Ages nothing
was more firmly established than the claim of the
king to the imperial crown. In 1508 Maximilian
I., without papal coronation and with the assent
of Julius II., assumed the title of " Roman emperor-
elect." This was borne also by his successors, of
whom only Charles V. (1530) was crowned by the
pope, thereafter dropping the " elect." After
Ferdinand I. (1558) the coronation took place no
longer at Aachen but in the same place as the elec-
tion, Frankfort-on-the-Main, and lost its special
character as a solemn induction into the kingly
office. Napoleon allowed himself to be anointed by
Pius VII. in 1804, but refused to be crowned by
him. In modern kingdoms, in so far as the cere-
mony of coronation is still preserved, the acquisi-
tion of royal dignity is no longer dependent upon
the ritual ecclesiastical act of unction or coronation,
but the law of the State is alone effective.
The sacramentals in general, like the sacraments,
have their individual recognized matter, form, and
minister; but unlike the sacraments,
4. Sacra- which are based upon the direct in-
mentals in stitution of Christ, they are derived
General from the authority of the Church,
under a general commission given by
God to bless in his name. In accordance with an-
cient oriental custom, anointing forms a part regu-
larly of consecrations and sometimes of benedic-
tions. For this olive-oil is used, either pure as in
the case of that employed for catechumens and the
sick, or mixed with balsam (in the Eastern Church
with other spices as well), when it is known as
Chrism (q.v.). The effect of consecration is the
definite setting apart by the rite of unction of a
person or thing for the service of God and the
Church. A constant feature of these ceremonies is
a solemn appeal to God to grant his grace to the
person or a salutary effect to the use of the thing.
Outside of the use of the simple oil in baptism and
the ordination of priests, and of chrism in confirma-
tion and the consecration of bishops, chrism is em-
ployed also in the consecration of churches, altars,
patens, and chalices. A simple benediction, coupled
with anointing, is given by bishops to kings. Church
bells are sprinkled with holy water and anointed.
The water used in baptism is blessed. Holy Water
(q.v.) is used in the blessing of abbots and abbesses,
pilgrims, man and wife at their marriage, and
Sacramental*
Sacred Heart
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
146
women after childbirth. Special blessings are im-
parted to certain objects destined for the service of
God — churches, cemeteries, vestments, palls, cor-
porals, pyxes, monstrances, crosses, images of the
saints, candles, and rosaries. Particular forms of
benediction are also provided for a number of
things connected with the daily occupations and
needs of men, as for houses, ships, locomotives,
battle-flags, fields, and bread, wine, salt, and other
edibles.
In the case of objects consecrated for the direct
service of God, the act has both a liturgical and a
legal aspect. Through consecration
5. Legal they are not merely prepared in a
Aspects, specially solemn way for their sacred
purpose but made externally inviolable
(res sacrce). The administration of the sacramen-
tals connected with the sacraments is reserved to
the person who administers the sacrament. In gen-
eral, however, the spiritual power to bless and con-
secrate is conferred on priests at their ordination,
when their hands are anointed with the prayer
" that whatsoever they bless may be blessed, and
whatsoever they consecrate may be consecrated
and hallowed." If a priest performs consecrations
reserved to bishops, they are merely irregular or
illicit, but not invalid as they would be if performed
by a layman. To the pope, as head of the universal
Church, is reserved (apart from the imperial coro-
nation, treated above) the blessing of the wax
figures known as Agni Dei (see Agnus Dei), of the
Pallium (q.v.) for metropolitans, of the golden
roses (see Golden Rose) sent to princes or churches,
and of swords for kings and princes. This reserva-
tion, however, is merely a mark of honor attached
to the papal primacy. As the possessor of jurisdic-
tion over the whole Church, the pope can perform
consecration or benediction for any part or any
member of it, or delegate his power to any qualified
person, while the bishop's authority in such cases is
limited to his own diocese. It is of practical signifi-
cance in the development of the modern Roman
Catholic system that there has been a marked tend-
ency to restrict the power of delegating authority
to bless or consecrate churches, altars, sacred ves-
sels, and the like, to the pope. This power is nowa-
days frequently conferred on the bishops by their
quinquennial faculties (see Faculties). In recent
times the Congregation of Rites has assumed the
power of sub-delegating certain privileges directly,
such as that of blessing bells to a priest of the dio-
cese, or sacred vessels to a mitered prelate.
It is an established principle of church law and
practise that whatever is supposed to be blessed
or consecrated must be; but numerous objects used
in Roman Catholic worship are not
6. Occasions blessed, e.g., hangings, candle-sticks,
for Con- and censors. Misuse or profanation
secretion, of blessed objects is subject to ecclesi-
astical penalties. A validly adminis-
tered sacramental is not allowed to be repeated
while the original conditions of its administration
remain; the common blessings, however, may be
repeated for the same person or thing as often as
there is reasonable ground. If the object has un-
dergone an essential change, especially if it can no
longer either in fact or in law subserve its liturgical
purpose, the sacramental operation of the conse-
cration or blessing is supposed to cease; the object
needs no formal desecration, but a declaration of
the circumstances is made to the proper authority.
A new consecration is required, as in the case of a
church, where the object is destroyed so far as to
affect its essential character and then restored.
The shedding of blood or the commission of gross
immorality in a church is held to pollute but not to
desecrate it; reconciliation, not a new consecration,
is required, which is accomplished with holy water
by the bishop. The pollution of a church affects
the churchyard as well, in which Christian burial is
not supposed to take place until the church has
been reconciled. The pollution of the churchyard,
on the other hand, has no effect on the church.
All that has been said above applies obviously to
the medieval or modern Roman Catholic Church.
The Evangelical Churches know no sacramentals in
the sense here discussed. They em-
7. Protes- ploy neither consecration nor benedic-
tant tion even for the immediate instru-
Teachings. ments of divine worship, such as would
impart to them any property of special
sanctity, although such objects, according to Prot-
estant church law, deserve special respect and are
to be protected from profane uses. A solemn dedi-
cation is indeed usual for churches and churchyards,
with a prayer of benediction. In regard to the set-
ting apart of particular objects (pulpits, sacred ves-
sels, organs, fonts), it has been held sufficient for the
officiating clergyman, on the first occasion of their
use, to address a few appropriate words to the con-
gregation, and then to ask God's blessing upon the
employment of the objects. In regard to benedic-
tions for objects of every-day use, the older Prot-
estant ordinances not infrequently declare expressly
against them, on account of the danger of super-
stition. (R. W. DovEt.)
Bibliography: T. Netter, Fasciculi suaniorum, ed. W.
Shirley, in Rolls Series, no. 5. London, 1858; J. Helfert,
RechU in Ansehung der heUigen Handlungen, Prague, 1843;
F. Probst, Kirchliche BenedicHonen und ihre Verwaltuna,
Tubingen, 1857; A. L. Riohter, Lehrbuch des . . .
KirchenrechU, ed. R. W. Dove, H 260, 306, Leipsic, 1871;
P. I. Wapelhorst, Compendium sacra litwraim, juxta ritum
Romanian, New York, 1887; P. Hinschius, System dee
. . . KirchenrechU, iv. 141-177, Berlin, 1888; A. A. Lam-
bing, Sacramental* of the Catholic Church, New York, 1892;
W. Wilmera, Lehrbuch der ReHown, iv. H 97-08, Munster,
1895; F. Loofs, Symbolxk, L 348 sqq.f Tubingen, 1902;
KLt x. 1469 sqq.
SACRED HEART OF JESUS, DEVOTION TO.
L History of the Devotion: The devotion to the
Sacred Heart of Jesus was practically, if not abso-
lutely, originated by the Jesuits. Under the influ-
ence of her director, the Jesuit La Colombiere,
Marguerite Marie Alacoque (d. 1690), a nun in the
Salesian convent at Paray-le-Monial in Burgundy,
practised a fervent mystical devotion to Christ
which resulted in ecstasy. According to her ac-
count, on June 16, 1675, when praying before the
sacrament, she saw Jesus " showing to her his heart
on a flaming throne, surrounded by thorns and sur-
mounted by a cross; and he told her it was his will
that a special devotion should be offered to his
Sacred Heart in reparation for irreverences com-
147
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Saoramentala
Sacred Heart
mitted against him in the most holy sacrament,
and that the Friday after the octave of Corpus
Christi should be set apart for this devotion." Fur-
ther revelations confirmed this, and the convent
became a seat of the devotion. Colombiere and his
successors Croiset and Rolin labored to spread it,
and Croiset published the first book on the subject
at Lyons in 1691. The new devotion was not well
received in Rome; Croiset 'a book was put on the
Index in 1704, while in 1697 the request of the
Salesians for a festival of the Sacred Heart with
proper office had been refused by the Congregation of
Rites, a refusal which was renewed in 1707 and
1727. Meantime, through confraternities (see be-,
low) the devotion spread through German Switzer-
land into Germany. Languet, then bishop of Sois-
8ons and later archbishop of Sens, defended it in his
biography of Marguerite Marie; and the Jesuit
Gallifet published the more important De cultu
sacrosancti cordis Dei (Rome, 1726). Miracles were
claimed as a result of it; kings and queens besought
the pope to grant a proper mass and office for the
festival, which was at last conceded, on the express
understanding that the cultus was paid to the heart
of Jesus only as the symbol of his love. Determined
opposition was made to the devotion under the in-
fluence of Scipione de' Ricci (q.v.), bishop of Pis-
toja, and of the rationalizing tendency which at the
end of the eighteenth century had spread from Tus-
cany through a large part of Italy, and a prolonged
literary warfare was carried on by the two parties.
The accession of Pius VI. in 1775 marked a turn-
ing-point. The bull Auctorem fidei of 1794 gave ad-
ditional sanction to the devotion. The Jesuits had
long pushed it vigorously, and after the restoration
of the order, they continued to work, with the result
that one diocese after another asked permission to
celebrate the festival, and an increasing number of
indulgences was attached to the devotion. Both
had become practically universal when Pius IX.
(Aug. 23, 1856) established the festival as a greater
double for the whole Church; and the beatification
of Marguerite Marie in 1S64 was another step in the
same direction. At the Vatican Council of 1870, the
majority of the bishops asked for the elevation of
the feast to the rank of a double (i.e., a feast at
which the antiphon is said both before and after the
psalm) of the first class (i.e., one which takes pre-
cedence in case two feasts fall on the same day) with
octave (i.e., lasting through eight days, with special
emphasis upon the celebration on the last day),
but it was then granted only to the Jesuit order,
in recognition of their services in spreading the de-
votion. The rank was extended to the whole
Church, though without an octave, by Leo XIII. in
1889. The devotion has constantly strengthened
its hold on the great body of Roman Catholics; and
the cautious expressions at first used have given
place to a full acceptance of the literal, material
heart of Jesus as its object.
IL Societies under the Name of the Sacred Heart:
The first Confraternity of the Sacred Heart was
founded at Paray-le-Monial in 1693; and by 1727
there were already as many as 400. That erected
by Gallifet in 1729 in the church of St. Theodore at
Rome became an archconfraternity in 1732. The
number of confraternities was 1,089 in 1765, 6,676
in 1865, and is now over 10,000. A special confra-
ternity is that founded at Bourg in France in 1863,
whose members are divided so that each has a par-
ticular hour set apart for the adoration of the Sa-
cred Heart and intercessory prayer which adora-
tion and prayer thus become continuous. The
most important of the confraternities which make
a point of intercessory prayer is the League of the
Sacred Heart or Apostleship of Prayer, founded in
1844 at Vals in France by the Jesuit Pere Gautrelet,
and provided with new constitutions by Leo XIII.
in 1879. In 1895 it had 50,000 branches all over
the world, with more than twenty million members.
The organ of the league, The Messenger of the Sa-
cred Heart, is published monthly in fourteen lan-
guages. Another important society is the French
Dames du sacre* cceur, founded in Paris in 1800 by
Madeleine Sophie Barat (d. 1865), under the influ-
ence of the Jesuit Pdre Varin. It serves the double
purpose of venerating the Sacred Heart and the ed-
ucation of girls. The statutes, drawn up by Varin,
are modeled on those of the Jesuits. The candidate
for admission spends three to six months in the
house as a postulant; then follows a two years'
novitiate, and then (since 1826) the taking of sim-
ple vows, an additional vowT of stability, i.e., life-
long adherence to the congregation, being made.
Besides the professed sisters, there are scturs coad-
jutrices for the household duties, and sceurs com-
missionaires for the necessary intercourse with the
outside world. The superior is chosen for life, and
resides at the mother-house in Paris, the former
H6tel de Biron in the Rue de Varennes. A general
chapter every six years watches over the strict ob-
servance of the constitutions. A peculiarity of this
congregation is that the members retain their orig-
inal names, with the prefix of " Madame." The
costume is a black dress, a cap with a white frill,
and a black veil. In 1839 they had 40 houses, in
1851, 65; in 1864, 86, with 3,500 members; in
1880, 105, with 4,700 members, divided into 18
vicariates. In 1910 the order numbered 212 houses
and 7,800 members. Three vicariates or provinces
are established in the United States with 39 houses
and 1 , 1 40 sisters. The influence exerted by them has
been of no slight importance in the revival of Roman
Catholicism, especially of an ultramontane or Jesuit
cast. (T. Kolde.)
Bibliography: F. 8. Hattler, Gcachichte dea Featea und der
Andacht zum Herzen-Jeau, Vienna, 1875; idem, Die bUd-
liche Darstellung dea gdttlichm Herzena und der Herz-Jeau'
Idee, Innsbruck, 1894; J. de Gallifet, Ueber die Andacht
turn hochhciligen Herzen . . . Jeau Chriati, ib. 1884; H.
E. Manning, The Divine Glory of the Sacred Heart, Lon-
don. 1873; idem, The Glories of the Sacred Heart, ib. 1876;
K. Martin, Die Lehre und Uebung der Andacht turn gdtt-
lichen Herzen Jeau, Cologne. 1876; N. Nilles, De rationibua
featorum aocrotiaaimi cordia Jeau et . . . Maria, 2 vols.,
Innsbruck, 1885; H. J. Nix. Cultus . . . cordia Jeau,
Freiburg, 1891; H. Reusch, Index der verbotenen B ticker,
ii. 983 sqq., Bonn, 1885; idem, Die deutache Bischdfe
und der Abernlaube, pp. 81 sqq., ib. 1879; Heimbucher,
Orden und Konareaationen, vol. iii. passim; F. Berin-
Kcr. Die AblAaae, ihr Weaen und Gebrauch, Paderborn,
1895.
SACRED HEART OF JESUS AND HART,
CONGREGATION OF. Sec Picpus, Congregation
or.
Sacred Xuslo
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOQ
148
A* Hebrew.
I. Stringed Instruments.
The Lyre (J 1).
The Harp (J 2).
Other Stringed Instruments (I 3).
II. Wind Instruments.
The Flute and the Pipe (| 1).
The Horn and the Trumpet (f 2).
HI. Instruments of Percussion.
IV. Uses,
For Marking Rhythm (| 1).
For Leading Melody (| 2).
V. Effects.
VI. Harmony and Rhythm.
B. Christian.
I. Character, Purpose, and Forms.
General Conception and Purpose
(§1).
The Roman Catholio Conception
(12).
The Protestant Conception (| 3).
SACRED MUSIC.
The Use of Instrumental Marie
(§4).
Solo 8inging (f 5).
Congregation and Choir (| 6).
The Churches of the Reformation
(§7).
German Singing Societies (f 8).
II. History.
1. The Liturgical Side.
a. The Choral Chant.
The Authorised Roman Hymnaries
(ID.
The Gregorian Chant (| 2).
b. The Evangelical Hymn.
Developed from the Folk-Song
(ID.
The Sixteenth and Seventeenth
Centuries (| 2).
The Eighteenth and Nineteenth
Centuries (| 3).
2. The Artistic Side.
Church Song Homophonio till the
Year 1000 (| 1).
Development of Polyphonic Song
(12).
The Reformation. The Motet and
Madrigal (| 3).
. Development of the Modern Hyma
Tune (| 4).
New Forms. The Cantata and the
Oratorio (| 5).
The Period of Rationalism and the
Nineteenth Century (§ 6).
3. In England and America.
The General Situation (| 1).
Character of English Church Music
(12).
Hymns and the Organ (§ 3).
The Sixteenth Century (| 4).
Seventeenth and Eighteenth Cen-
turies (| 5).
Nineteenth Century (§ 6).
A. Hebrew: The forms of musical instruments
of the Hebrews are known from imprints of in-
struments on Jewish coins during the insurrection
against the Romans (66-70 a.d.). Moreover,
trumpets are represented on the Arch of Titus.
Especially valuable are the manifold designs of
musical instruments on Egyptian, Babylonian,
and Assyrian monuments, since from these can be
inferred the form of their Hebrew parallels.
L Stringed Instruments: In the threefold cate-
gory of stringed, wind, and percussive or swaying
instruments, the stringed instruments (neghinoth,
titles of Ps. iv., vi., liv., etc.) rank first in importance
in Hebrew music. Their strings (minnim) were
made of intestines (of sheep; cf. Homer, Odyssey,
xxi. 408), or of twisted cords. It is not known
whether a particular kind of wood was used for
the framework, but among Solomon's luxuries
were instruments of the sandal wood that came from
Ethiopia (I Kings x. 12; II Chron. ix. 11). These
instruments were played either with the fingers,
as by pulling and twitching, or by striking with
the plectrum, a small rod of gold, ivory, or metal
(naggen, I Sam. xvi. 16, xviii. 10; Isa. xxiii. 16;
etc. In the Psalms, zamar is ordinarily used for
both playing and singing, Ps. bed. 22, cxliv. 0;
etc.).
Apart from the foreign sabbekha, " sackbut "
(Dan. iii. 5, 7, 10), the Greek eambyki, the Old Testa-
ment mentions two instruments that are purely
Israeli tish: kinnGr, "harp,0 and nebhel, "psaltery."
The Old Testament gives no indications respecting
their form, save that they could be
I. The Lyre, carried and played in processions (I
Sam. x. 5; II Sam. vi. 5; Isa. xxiii.
16). Hence they were relatively small; though
greater sizes of the harp, for instance, may have
existed collaterally. And it may be assumed that
among the Israelites, as among the Egyptians, the
forms, in turn, were not always, and at all peri-
ods, invariably the same. Possibly even those in-
struments designated by one name took different
shapes. In the Septuagint kinn&r is usually ren-
dered kithara (cf. I Cor. xiv. 7; Rev. v. 8); less
frequently (5 times), pealUrion. It was, there-
fore, probably an instrument similar to the Greek
cithara. The Church Fathers find a point of dis-
tinction as between this instrument and the nebhel,
in the position of the sounding-board. The kinndr
has this feature below; being a rotund, hollow
body, whose arched surface turns downward.
The strings are stretched over the concave portion
horizontally . And this arrangement quite cor-
rectly describes one class of stringed instruments
(lutes, guitars, etc.) in their essential outlines.
According to data transmitted by the Church
Fathers, the kinndr, unlike the Greek cithara, is
not played in an upright position, but held hori-
zontally. It is therefore quite similar to the gen-
erally familiar ancient lyre. Its oldest form is
shown in the famous and often copied group of
Bedouin immigrants into Egypt, as found in a
rock sepulcher of Beni Hassan (150 m. s. of Cairo)
dating from the time of the twelfth dynasty (c. 2000
b.c). The rather bulky instrument which one of
these Bedouins carries under his arm consists essen-
tially of a quadrangular board, one foot wide and
a foot and a half long, with a square excision at the
upper end, or part remote from the body; so that at
this end only a narrow frame of wood is left whole.
Eight strings are stretched parallel and lengthwise
over the board and the opening. The man plays
as he walks. He carries the instrument under the
left upper arm, and resting lengthwise. The per-
forated portion is also directed forward. The
strings are on the right side. His right hand
touches the strings with a plectrum about where
they are stretched over the lower part of the board,
the part serving as sounding-board. His left hand
reaches toward the strings through the excision.
The like instrument often recurs in Egyptian de-
signs. Notably from the times of the eighteenth-
twentieth dynasties, it assumed finer forms: the
upper part, or frame, showing variously waving
lines instead of the simple square. The lower part,
originally a mere board, developed into a resonant
box. The origin of this instrument is Asiatic, and is
found in Assyrian and Babylonian designs. The
simplest form is shown by a delineation, reproduced
by Rawlinson, of three Semitic captives playing
this lyre under surveillance of an Assyrian warrior.
It fully resembles the lyre of the Semitic Bedouins
149
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Stored Music
except that the frame grows wider above. It is
likewise carried under the left arm, and is played
with both hands. Other designs duly indicate
finer forms, just as in case of the Egyptian drawings,
and, in particular, the curved frame, with more
or less fantastic turns. The number of strings
varies; as from five to six or eight strings. From
this harmony between the Egyptian and Assyrian
delineations, both in the simpler and in the more
elaborate forms, a corresponding diversity of forms
may be assumed for the Israelitish kinndr. Neither
is it anything striking and improbable if the im-
prints on coins exhibit a frame which in the Grecian
period was fashioned according to Greek taste; cor-
responding now rather to the Grecian lyre, now
rather to the cithara. The early Hebrew instru-
ments, indeed, may have had simpler forms; in
primitive times they probably resembled the simple
Egyptian and Assyrian instruments.
In the case of the nebhel, it appears from the
Church Fathers, who style this instrument psal-
terium, that the sounding-board was furnished by
a hollow wooden body, at the upper end, as though
roofing the strings; the flat surface downward,
the convex arching above. The chief
2. The Harp, point is, that in this instrument the
strings are not stretched athwart the
sounding-board, but stand perpendicular, or else
at an acute angle to the resonant surface, and run
thence as uprights to their supporting arm at the
other end. This arrangement applies to instru-
ments of the harp class. The Egyptian harps, both
the stationary upright and the portable, have the
sounding-board below; the Babylonian and As-
syrian designs exhibit it above, and the Church
Fathers' account answers to the latter models.
The use of the harp in Asia and Egypt goes back
to primitive antiquity. The most ancient of all
representations of stringed instruments, a stone
from Telloh in Babylonia (c. 3000 B.C.), shows an
upright stationary instrument with a box-like
sounding-board, upon which rises a rude frame-
work, while the strings, two in number, run fairly
vertically from the sounding-board to the upper
cross-beam. The whole instrument is rather large,
about three-quarters of a man's stature, and has
rough embellishments. The later Babylonian harp,
carried upright, is more wieldy, as is also the simi-
larly carried Assyrian harp. Both distinctly ex-
hibit the characteristic features of all harps: the
strings run unobstructedly from beam to beam,
the frame sustaining them is not closed on all four
sides, as in case of the lyre, but open on one side,
and the instrument is played in a vertical position.
Yet the Assyrian designs also reveal a recumbent
harp; and here, too, the strings are superposed, not
side by side, but stretched like tendons between
two pieces of wood that form an angle. It is es-
pecially interesting to note how, from the simple
beam of the Babylonian harp, that holds the strings,
the Assyrian harp has developed a broad sound-
ing apparatus, which roofs the strings in the manner
of a shield. The Egyptian harp shows a great
diversity of forms. The ancient monarchy has
only the medium-sized harp with six or seven
strings, played in a sitting or kneeling position,
and the large harp, with twenty strings or upward,
and as tall as a man, or still taller; in playing this
harp, the player stood. All these harps distinctly
show the instrument's original form; a great bow,
whose harp-strings take the place of bowstrings.
In this case, again, and in the course of develop-
ment, the simple arching beam has expanded into
a sounding-board, occasionally assuming some-
what the fashion of a wooden chest. In contrast,
however, with the Assyrian harp, this Egyptian
sounding apparatus is placed below, and serves
at the same time as the harp's base of support.
The pegs for tightening or tuning the strings are
above. In the new monarchy appear also the
various portable small harps, both with and with-
out a sounding-board; now in the form of a strongly
curved bow, again, angular like the Assyrian
harps. They are borne before the breast, though
there is also a kind that is carried on the shoulder,
something between lute and harp. The manifold
designs of harps of all sorts attest that this instru-
ment was in great favor with the ancient Egyptians.
Two stringed instruments besides those al-
ready mentioned were probably not unknown to
the Israelites: the lute and the psaltery. The
lute is repeatedly understood within
3. Other the Hebrew term nebhel. For this
Stringed In- the warrant rests partly upon the
struments. bulging form which nebhel is supposed
to indicate; since the term elsewhere
denotes the leathern bottle in which wine was
preserved. But again, nebhel is often compared
with the Egyptian name for lute, and the transfer
of terms then readily suggests that of the objects
they signify. Be this as it may, the lute, at all
events , being an Egyptian instrument originally,
was there highly favored. Nevertheless it migrated
even quite early to Asia, and thus into Assyria,
and in essentially the same form as in Egypt — an
elongated, yet more or less bulging, hollow body
for sounding-board, with a decidedly long support,
or handle, for holding the few strings, only one
to three in number and in parallel arrangement.
The player holds the body of the instrument with
his upper right arm. With the right hand, the
strings are set swaying just above the hollow body;
the left hand, quite agreeably to our custom with
violins, grasps round about the upper end of the
neck, and gives different lengths to the vibrating
strings by downward pressure. This instrument
was hardly unknown to the Israelites. And since
apart from kinndr and nebhel there are no desig-
nations for a third stringed instrument, it must
be assumed that the lute was comprised under
one of these terms, hence probably under the
name nebhel. The dulcimer is an Assyrian instru-
ment, which the Egyptians do not appear to have
possessed. According to the representations, it is
played as the player walks along. It is a horizontal
instrument, with a low, slightly concave box by way
of sounding-board. Over this, and in parallel ar-
rangement, ten strings are stretched, with their
ends dependent across their supporting staff at the
forward side. The player carries the instrument
horizontally before him, with a band or belt at-
tached to his body. With the right hand ha
8acr«d Muslo
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
150
strikes the strings with a plectrum, while his left
hand also seizes or touches the strings. This
instrument found wide circulation. It became
later transmitted to the Greeks as their magadis and
was in use during the Middle Ages under the name
of psalterium. The name itself is very old; cf.
the Greek translation of nebhel by psalterium, and
the Aramaic pesanterin (Dan. iii. 5). Under this
name, in turn (sanflr), the instrument has main-
tained itself among the Arabs down to to-day.
As a foreign instrument, moreover, there is also
mention in the Old Testament of the sabbekha,
"sackbut" (Dan. iii. 5, 7, 10). Both name and
article reached the Greeks and Romans by way of
the East. The sambykS, indeed, was carried about
in the Roman Empire by oriental courtesans, ac-
cordingly styled sambudnce. The instrument is
described by Strabo as a triangular contrivance of
barbaric origin, with four sharp-toned strings.
IL Wind Instruments: The wind instruments
mentioned in the Old Testament are of the trumpet
order (horn, trumpet), or of the flute kind. Among
flutes, the Old Testament mentions 'ughabh, " or-
gan " or " flute," and halU, " pipe." The Egyptians
had the simple long flute of wood, which varied
greatly in length, however, and in number of stops.
There likewise occur the transverse or
x. The Flute German flutes, which are played like
and the modern flutes by means of a lateral
Pipe. hole at the upper end. Much favored
are the double flutes, that is, two
flutes either joined together throughout their length,
or else only at the mouthpiece and then diverging.
Each hand plays one flute, the stops, of course,
being only few. Quite similar double flutes occur
in the Assyrian designs. A distinctively Syrian
instrument is understood by the small flute, a span
in length, which had a sharp and wailing tone, and
was played in connection with the mourning for
Adonis (see Tammuz) ; though with the Athenians it
was employed also at banquets and carousals. The
modern Arabian flutes vary in length and are made
of reeds. Even nowadays the double flutes are still
in great favor, of the pattern joined throughout their
length. It is probable that various types of these
flutes are comprehended under the Hebrew term
Mill. It is possible, too, that 'ughabh denotes this
type of flute (Gen. iv. 21; Job xxi. 12, xxx. 31;
Ps. cl. 4). And as far as tradition goes, the same
term should undoubtedly cover the bagpipe as
well. Perhaps, again, the latter instrument is meant
in Dan. iii. 5, 7, 10, by the expression sumponyah
(cf. the Gk. symphonia). At the same time, over
against this tradition it should be borne in mind
that neither among the Assyrians nor among the
Egyptians are there designs of this instrument or
any other vouchers for its occurrence. With at
least the same right, indeed,, the 'ughabh might be
connected with the so-called "puff-cheek" pipe,
or Pan's pipe — the syrinx of the Greeks, which the
Septuagint recovers in the mashrokiha (Dan. iii.
5, 7, 10). The syrinx consists of seven to nine
reed pipes, arranged in a row, of varvins length
and thickness and of varying pitch. This instru-
ment is still in use in the East, notably with
shepherds.
The trumpet class of wind instruments can hardly
be designated now as musical instruments in the
strictest sense of the word, since both horn and
trumpet have only one tone, hence no melody can
be played on them. They both
2. The Horn served as signal instruments and to
and the reinforce loud shouts and cries of
Trumpet, exultation. As its name imports, the
horn (shophar, also keren; Josh. vi.
5; I Chron. xxv. 5; Dan. iii. 5) was originally noth-
ing more than a natural horn of an ox or a ram. In
later times it was also fashioned of other materials,
as metal, though constantly retaining the curved
form of the animal horn; a distinctive feature,
again, in contrast with the straight trumpet. The
Talmud knows of straight horns as well. For
blowing the horn the Hebrew has two expressions:
to " thrust " into the horn denotes short, spasmodic
blasts; to " draw " signifies prolonged tones. The
trumpet (hazozerah, Num. x. 1 sqq., xxxi. 6; II Kings
xL 14; etc.) is straight, and usually of metal.
According to Josephus (Ant., III., xiL 6), the thin
pipes or tubes were about an ell in length, and
widen below into a campanulate bell; the mouth-
piece also showing a slight enlargement. Herein
agree the trumpets on the Arch of Titus, which also
resemble those of ancient Ep-vpt. The trumpet de-
signs on coins from the time of Bar Kokba (q.v.)
are drawn decidedly shorter, and accordingly appear
quite stocky. Directly below the broad mouthpiece
they show a conical expansion, which doubtless
aims to strengthen the tone.
m. Instruments of Percussion: Percussive and
rattling instruments play a much greater part in
the ancient and modern Oriental orchestra toward
enhancing the rhythm than they do with us. The
most usual of these instruments was the timbrel,
tabret, or tambourine (Hebr. toph, Gen. xxxi. 27;
Ex. xv. 20; Judges xi 34; etc.). In the Egyptian
designs it is beaten mostly by women; in the
Assyrian designs, by men as well. These instru-
ments are mostly round, less frequently quadran-
gular. The membrane, stretched over a wooden or
metal rim, is held with one hand and beaten with
the fingers of the other hand. The modern tambou-
rines have thin metallic disks or small bells about
the rim, which jingle when shaken. Another kind
of drum that belongs to the orchestra appears in
the Assyrian delineation of drums; it is carried from
the belt, and struck with both hands. The cym-
bals (zelzelim, meziltayim, II Sam. vi. 5; I Chron.
xiii. 8, xv. 19; etc.) are described by Josephus (Ant.,
VII., xii. 13) as two great broad plates of bronze,
that are clashed together with both hands. They
serve as metronomic or time-beating instruments
in the orchestra (cf. I Chron. xxv. 1-6; II Chron.
v. 12). The Assyrian designs exhibit both bell-
shaped cymbals, with handles, which are struck
together from above downward; and also the
flat platter kind, which are struck laterally together.
According to the tradition attaching to the Septua-
gint and the Peshito, the shalishim are also a kind
of cymbals (I Srim. xviii. 6). On account of the
name others think of triangles. Castanets, or
small disks of metal, ivory, bone, or wood, that
are seized between the fingers and struck together,
151
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Sacred Music
are in great favor to-day and were also known to
the ancient Egyptians. Probably the Israelites
also had them, but whether the term zelzelinv-
thama signifies castanets is quite uncertain. The
sistra are probably meant by the term mena'ariim
(II Sam, vi 5). In Egypt they were notably in
use in the service of Isis, and then generally in
sacred rites. They are represented in the designs
as consisting of a broad, oval brass frame with
iron cross-bars. The latter support a number of
loose metal rings. A long handle, which, in turn,
supported the frame, served as motive rod, for
evoking sound by agitating the rings.
IV. Uses: As touching the use of these instru-
ments, it is obvious that neither horn and trumpets,
nor the percussive and rattling instruments, can
serve to accompany a vocal melody,
x For Mark- or even to play one in the orchestra;
ing Rhythm, they occur only as " noise " instruments
to produce a loud stress of sound and
to accentuate the rhythm. Horns answer prefer-
ably to secular ends, such as watchman's signals
(Jer. vi. 1; Hos. viii 1; Amos iiL 6), war signals
(Judges iiL 27, vi 34; I Sam. xiii 3; Amos. ii 2;
etc.); and still other signals (II Sam. xv. 10;
I Kings i 34 seq.; II Kings ix. 13). They serve
also to announce worship (II Sam. vi 15; I Chron.
xv. 28; etc.); and especially the new year and the
year of jubilee are proclaimed by the blowing of
trumpets (Lev. xxiii. 24; Num. xxix. 1). Other-
wise the trumpet appears as the properly sacred
instrument. Yet even in the ancient times, it
also naturally served secular ends as well: war
blasts and the like (II Kings xi 14; II Chron.
xxiii 13; Hos. v. 8). At the time of the second
Temple, however, the trumpet appears to have
served exclusively liturgical ends; above all, the
feasts and new moons are ushered in with the blare
of trumpets, and the sacrifices are accompanied
with trumpet blasts (Num. x. 2 seq., xxxi 6). For
this purpose, according to II Chron. v. 12, there
was a temple corps of 120 trumpeters. Tam-
bourines, or the timbrel, and cymbals, have their
place chiefly in the dance and processions (Ex.
xv. 20; Judges xi 34; I Sam. xviii 6; Jer. xxxi 4),
and with joyous festival singing (Gen. xxxi. 27;
Ps. lxxxi 3; Isa. v. 12). In the second Temple,
when the timbrel ceased to be used, its place was
taken by the cymbals, for beating time (I Chron.
xxv. 6; II Chron. v. 12).
The proper musical instruments on which melo-
dies could be played were the stringed instruments
and the flutes, hence they are termed keU shir,
"song instruments" (Amos vi 5; Neh. xii 36;
I Chron. xvi 42; II Chron. v. 13, etc.).
2. For Lead- In this connection the nebhel and
ing Melody, kinndr were played only with joyful
music, never in mourning for lamen-
tation or dirges; hence they appear at the festive
banquet, at family feasts, and at popular jollifi-
cations (Isa. v. 12; Gen. xxxi 27; Job xxi 12).
Spiritual songs, too, were accompanied with these
instruments, both in the liturgical worship (I Chron.
xxv. 6; Neh. xii. 27, etc.), and at religious popular
feasts (I Sam. x. 5; II Sam. vi 5). From its fre-
quent mention, the kinndr appears to have been the
favorite instrument in popular use (Gen. xxxi. 27;
Job xxi 12; etc.); and it was also the instrument
of the shepherd David (I Sam. xvi. 16 seq.). On
the other hand, where the playing of the nebhel
is alone in question, it was employed for liturgical
purposes (Amos v. 23; Ps. cxliv. 9), or in the hands
of " artists " (Amos vi 5; Isa. xiv. 11), at all events,
never at popular merry-makings, nor in the hands
of the people. In mourning, both are out of place;
they are " hanged upon the willows " (Ps. cxxxvii
2; Isa. xiv. 11, xxiv. 8; Lam. v. 14; Ezek. xxvi 13).
As a distinctively wailing, or elegiac, instrument
the flute was used, and in particular, the halll type.
In like manner, among other ancient peoples
(the Egyptians and Babylonians, for instance) the
playing of flutes was by no means to be omitted
on occasion of death dirges (Matt. ix. 23; Josephus,
War, IIL, x. 15). This is not saying, however,
that the flute was not used on many other occasions,
as it was a very popular instrument. Flute and
pipe occurred in all periods in connection with
popular rejoicings such as dancing, weddings, ban-
quets, and the like (I Kings i 40; Job xxi. 12, xxx.
31 ; Isa. v. 12). The " bands " of prophets animated
themselves with music of flutes (I Sam. x. 5);
while festal pilgrims accompany their songs with
the "pipe" (Isa. xxx. 29). On the other hand,
this instrument is wanting in the music of the
Temple.
V. Effects: The importance of music as affecting
the popular life, and the position it occupied both in
the common life and in the worship of the period
before the exile, are not to be so highly appraised
as with the Greeks, who constantly regarded music
as an educational medium of great value. Still
it may be said that the ancient Israelites loved
music. It was not absent from popular feasts
nor family festivals; neither from divine service
nor from lamentation and mourning. At the festi-
val of harvest, young men and maidens lead pro-
cessions of dancing with song and music (Judges
ix. 27. xxi 21); whereas the same features also
accompany the patriotic festivals (Judges xi 34;
I Sam. xviii. 6; I Kings i 39 sqq.; Ps. xiv. 8 sqq.;
I Mace. ix. 39). He that is a master in music and
song is sure to be surrounded by a constant circle
of grateful auditors (I Sam. xvi. 18; Lam. v. 14).
" Men singers " and " women singers " are not lack-
ing at the court of the king (II Sam. xix. 35; Eo-
cles. ii 8). Joyful song and strains of mirth adorn
the banquet (Ecclus. xxxii 5). True, the prophets
have no delight in such sumptuous entertainments
(Amos vi. 5; Isa. v. 12, xxiv. 8, xxiii. 16; Jer. vii
34, xxv. 10) because the vocation of professional
singers and dancers was not always followed by
reputable persons (Isa. xxiii. 16). Where the relig-
ious application of music best shows its impor-
tance is in connection with the popular life.
Doubtless that ancient hymn of praise in Ex.
xv. was by no means the only song to Yahweh
by the women of Israel at patriotic and relig-
ious festivals (II Sam. vi. 5, 14 sqq.). With the
prophets music serves direct religious objects: it
is amid music that they become transported into
holy exaltation (I Sam. x. 5, xix. 20 sqq. ; II Kings
iii 15; and see Ecstasy). With the same enchant-
Baered Kudo
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
162
ing tones it was also customary to exorcise the
evil spirit in men (I Sam. x. 5, xvi. 23). In the
divine service music still retained a leading sig-
nificance even in later times. A large and well-
organized gild of temple musicians was active in
the second Temple (I Chron. xxv. 6, xvi. 4 sqq.,
xxv. 1 sqq.). And if all this is traditionally re-
ferred back to David, at least so much is correct
that the beautifying of the kingly temple worship
with music reaches back to those ancient times.
After the exile, many singers and musicians re-
turned with Zerubbabel (Ezra ii. 41; Neh. vii.
44), a proof that the musical tradition had not been
dislodged in captivity. In this matter, the blowing
of the trumpets on feast days is committed to the
priests in the way of a high prerogative; though
even in the genealogies of Chronicles, musicians
are incorporated with the tribe of Levi. From King
Agrippa they later won the privilege of wearing
the white, and, in its origin, priestly robe (Josephus,
Ant. XX., ix. 6). Their sustenance is provided
by special prescription under Darius (Ezra vi. 6
sqq., vii. 20 sqq.; Neh. xi. 23), which attests their
importance. Their song was accompanied by the
Temple orchestra consisting of eight nebhel players
and six kinndr players. The chief musician marked
the time with cymbals (I Chron. xv. 19-21). In
the Temple of Herod the orchestra was composed of
two to six nebhel players, nine kinndr players, and
one beater of cymbals. And according to the
Talmud, there were also from two to twelve flute
players and two trumpeters. Most intimately
connected with the entire development of the
Temple music stands the composition of the
Psalms (q.v.; also see Psalmody).
VL Harmony and Rhythm: Concerning the char-
acter of Hebrew music, a few conclusions may be
reached alike from what has been said concerning
the instruments and from modern oriental music.
But in the first place it is necessary to remember
that harmony, which is based on the triad and on
the interplay and flow of consonant and dissonant
tones, is of very late origin (tenth century); and
that harmony, as such, is generally wanting in the
ancient music. To the oriental, even to-day, what
seems to us the harmonic blending of various tones
in chords, is a repulsive jumble. Hence the old
Hebrew music was played thoroughly in unison.
Both song and instruments run unisonally together,
or perhaps follow the octave, which also sounds
harmonious to them (cf. II Chron. v. 13). For
the distinction between men's and women's voices,
and their semblance of sounding a single tone
as they render the same tune, is supplied by
nature itself. This being so, it may be left as a
remote issue, whether the expression 'al lalamoth,
of playing the nebhel (I Chron. xv. 20), is to be
understood with reference to the natural pitch of
the " virginal voice "; and the same as to whether
the designation 'al-ha&heminith [8heminith\ " after
the eighth," is to be connected with the octave
as " eighth " tone, in case of other instruments.
But even apart from this, the division of the oc-
tave into a scale of seven tones is to be surely
assumed. At best, detailed consideration cannot
here be given to the connection between this scale
and the whole philosophy of the orient, with its
doctrine as to the harmony of the spheres; or the
tones produced by the seven planets in their
courses. In the place of harmony, rhythm plays
a leading part, even at the expense of melody.
Ancient songs, like the hymn of triumph in Ex.
xv. 20, were sung with the timbrel alone in the
way of accompaniment. The timbrels, however,
simply mark the rhythm. This shows that the
singing was mainly a sort of rhythmic declama-
tion. Incipiently, indeed, this was the case with
vocal music generally. Nor is this the place to
set forth the process of development step by step;
as from a regular variation of the tone into an
actual melody. Suffice it that the Hebrew popular
song stood on the plane where melody is overbal-
anced by rhythm. And this is still the situation
in respect to Arabian song.
Two traits that are now distinctive in the ren-
dering of oriental vocal music are nasalizing and vi-
bration. That the former trait is ancient may be
surmised on the ground of other observed qualities
of agreement between ancient and modern music.
On the other hand there is direct witness as to
vibration of the voice, from an Assyrian design,
wherein one of the singing women, quite in the man-
ner of Arabian singers to-day, holds one hand under
her chin, thus exercising a slight pressure against
the throat. This is done in order to produce
notably flat tones, and to impart to them a pe-
culiar vibration, not identical, however, with our
tremolo style. Sundry obscure data in the Psalms,
referring presumably to the delivery, are not cer-
tainly resolvable. Some of them, perhaps, involve
directions concerning the tune to be followed in
singing the Psalm (titles to Ps. ix., xxii., xlv., lvi.,
lvii., etc.). Selah (occurring seventy-one times
in forty Psalms) is rendered in the Septuagint by
diapealma, which possibly means "interlude."
At all events it may be assumed that, in rendering
songs, the singing was interrupted at that point,
and the pause filled in by playing of the orchestra.
The expression lamenazeah has lately been trans-
lated " for the liturgy "; but this, too, is uncertain,
though, indeed, the traditional interpretation,
" To the Chief Musician/' is still more questionable.
Else why do just those fifty-three Psalms, and not
the rest, need the like specification?
I. Benztnoer.
B. Christian. — L Character, Purpose, and Forms:
Sacred music is properly music which serves for
edification, either in the general sense or in the
narrower sense of edification as pertaining to divine
worship. It is distinguished from secular music,
which is designed to serve ends not specifically re-
ligious, such as those of art, social life,
i. General or instruction. From the distinction
Conception between religious edification in its
and Purpose, wider sense and edification in the
sanctuary arises a distinction between
sacred music in the wider and in the stricter sense:
that is, between what may be called spiritual music,
and the music of divine worship, church music or li-
turgical music. To the former class belongs all music
which has an edifying effect upon the feelings,
which incites to devotion, which directs the im-
153
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Sacred Music
agination toward the realm of the eternal and divine;
such as the Biblical oratorio, the spiritual song,
and serious instrumental music. The music of the
sanctuary comprises only such music as according
to its substance and form, object and character,
harmonizes with divine worship as a homogeneous
element of the same, not overstepping the sphere of
divine worship but essentially complementing it
and strengthening its effectiveness. The essential
mark of sacred music in the stricter sense is that
its artistic effect accords with the effect aimed at
in worship, producing a single combined effect.
This accord requires that the music heard in divine
worship shall not evoke in the hearer memories
and ideas that may divert from the object of
reverence. It excludes transfer of compositions
known to the hearer in other connections. It
requires on the composer's part subordination of
the artistic purpose to the end and conception of
divine worship. If divine worship be regarded
only as a means of converting the masses, music
is employed simply for its operation upon the
emotions; and nothing further is required of it
than exciting power, easy access to the mind, action
upon the nerves. Its esthetic value, its artistic
constitution, is not essentially in question. Ar-
tistic excellence and purity must frequently be
sacrificed for immediate effect and influence upon
the lower stratum of the congregation. This view
of church music obtains more or less where divine
service is regarded exclusively from the missionary
and pedagogical standpoint (e.g., among German
Methodists and the Salvation Army). Where divine
worship is an end in itself, either as consummating
a sacred act whose value properly inheres in the
strict observance of the form of its consummation
(the Roman Catholic conception), or as the vol-
untary assembling of the congregation before God
with preaching of the Gospel and prayer (the
Evangelical conception), the music is, in the one
instance, ecclesiastical in the sense of constituting
a portion of the liturgy; in the other instance, in
the degree that it animates and strengthens the
presentation of the Gospel, or as it unifies the con-
gregation's prayer in due liturgical process.
According to the Roman Catholic conception,
the Church decides what belongs to the essence of
divine worship; music is ecclesiastical in so far
as it answers to the " will of the Church in the
sphere of music." Roman Catholic church music
is liturgical song as appointed by the Church and
such artistic song as has been carefully examined
and admitted for use in divine wor-
2. The ship. This was expressed in no equiv-
Roman ocal manner by the decree of the
Catholic Congregation of Rites of Apr. 23 and
Conception. 26, 1883. According to this decree,
" only that form of Gregorian song
was to be regarded as authentic and regular, which
in virtue of the provisions of the Council of Trent
has been approved and confirmed by His Holiness
Pope Leo XIII., as likewise by the Congregation of
Sacred Rites, conformably to the edition prepared
at Regensburg, as the one used by the Roman
Church." [This decree, however, in so far as it
made the Regensburg edition " authentic " or au-
thoritative, was reversed by Pius X., who shortly
after his accession to the papal throne issued a most
important Motu Propria concerning the reform of
abuses in church music and embodying many posi-
tive instructions. Scientific students of plain-song,
especially the Benedictines, had already proved
conclusively that the Regensburg " authentic " edi-
tion was very imperfect and uncritical — that it by
no means represented the old traditional Gregorian
melodies. A critical edition of the latter, embody-
ing the results of long and painstaking labor on the
part of eminent scholars, was prepared from a com-
parative study of the ancient manuscripts by the
Benedictine Fathers of the monastery of Solesmes
in France, but while competent and disinterested
critics unanimously recognized its superiority over
the Regensburg edition, the latter still retained its
authoritative position in virtue of the above-men-
tioned decree of the Congregation of Rites. But
Pius X., who took a deep, intelligent interest in the
subject, cast the weight of his authority in favor of
the school of Solesmes, and the undeserved monop-
oly hitherto enjoyed by the Regensburg editors
came suddenly to an end. The pope appointed a
pontificial commission to supervise the carrying-out
of the instructions contained in the Motu Proprio,
and to look after the publication of a new " authen-
tic " edition of the liturgical plain-song, to be
known as the Vatican edition. The members of
this commission were all chosen from among the
experts representing the Benedictine school, and
the new edition (not yet completed) is based ex-
clusively on that of Solesmes. The Motu Proprio
deals at length and with not a little detail with the
entire question of church music in its various as-
pects. Many abuses are pointed out and reproved,'
and while modern music is not excluded from use
in church services, it is subjected to restrictions re-
quiring that it be religious and ecclesiastical in
character. Music of the Palestrinian style is com-
mended, but a strong preference is expressed in
favor of the traditional Gregorian or plain-song,
the use of which is prescribed for all those parts of
the service known as the " proper." This decree
was followed by a keen revival of interest in the
question of church music both in Europe and in
America, and in most of the dioceses musical com-
missions were appointed by the bishops with a view
to carry out the instructions contained in the papal
document. J. f. d.] Church music is ecclesiastical
according to its relation to the sanctioned choral
music. Its ecclesiastical quality is not involved in
the musical style of any specified epoch; or in any
specified harmonic form or musical mode of expres-
sion. Music is ecclesiastical in so far as it is an
artistic consummation and idealization of the li-
turgical song sanctioned by the Church.
According to the Evangelical conception, it is
essential to divine service that the word of God,
the Gospel, be proclaimed, and that the congre-
gation make its confession in prayer. Here music
becomes the art which expresses emotions that
strive in vain for words, as well as the art which
unifies and idealizes every form of expression. As
music supplements the spoken word, its tones
impart a vital, apprehensible quality to the
Sacred Haste
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
164
" unspeakable words " (I Cor. xii. 4) of the revela-
tion disclosed to the human soul in the divine word,
and the "groanings which can not
3. The be uttered" (Rom. viii. 26) which
Protestant accompany the prayer of faith. But
Conception, only to the extent that it serves to
attune the proclaiming of the Gospel
to its utmost, impressiveness, and to harmonize
the congregation's prayer by melodiously defi-
ning and rhythmically modulating the same, in
accord with the fundamental principle that "all
things be done decently and in order" (I Cor.
xiv. 40) — that is, only as a means, and not for
its own sake — has music its rightful place in
divine service. It is the "tongue" of art,
which edifies only where it utters " words easy
to be understood" (I Cor. xiv. 9), and is
made immediately intelligible by virtue of the
divine word, which it aids to expound, or unto
which it contributes a freely uplifting power. For
in divine service, the question is not one of artistic
edification; that is, of that intellectual stimulation
of life which contact with the beautiful evokes,
but of edification in the religious sense, or the
strengthening and enhancement of the life of faith,
as this is vouchsafed by the living realization of
the divine means of salvation in the Gospel, and
immediate contact with the same in prayer. Re-
ligious edification can be promoted only by music
which strengthens the impression made by the
Gospel, and fosters prayer; hence by music which
directs attention steadfastly not upon itself, but
upon the Gospel and prayer. Accordingly the
commonplace, frivolous, and sentimental are ex-
cluded, because these contradict the dignity, the
earnestness, and the sublimity of the object and
the sacredness of the end; and likewise there is
excluded whatever is technical and too refined
artistically or professionally, because this appeals
to musical interest exclusively, thus withdrawing
attention from the word of God, even depreciating
the same as a mere means of artistic exercise.
Moreover church music must speak to the congre-
gation; accordingly, as touching its content and
style, that quality which presupposes, in order to
be intelligently understood, a strictly technical
education is excluded. Church music does not
make its appeal to the professional musician or to
the concert public. The requirement of close con-
centration upon the aim in view becomes restricted
on the one hand to the requirement of musical
self-discipline and self-limitation, divesting itself
of every extraneous purpose; on the other hand,
to the requirement of noble simplicity and luminous
clearness in the form of composition. These funda-
mental requirements premised, no musical style
or species of music is in itself excluded which an-
swers to these requirements. If in many circles
there is a disposition to restrict the conception of
church music to the productions and style of the
sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the reason
is that this was in fact a period of productiveness in
classical church music, a time of concentrating the
creation upon church requisitions. But the works
of a Johann Sebastian Bach (q.v.) likewise bear
the impress of perfect devotion to the object and |
end of Evangelical divine service; and the motets
of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries are not
to be preferred simply because their style has be-
come strange (see below, II., 1, b).
If, furthermore, rigid practise would exclude
instrumental music from church music (the organ
excepted), and limit the conception of what is
ecclesiastical to the vocal choir, this in-
4. The Use heres in the fact that the use of instru-
of Instru- ments demands a far greater degree of
mental both foresight and restraint than the
Music, vocal choir. Choral song incites to
a mood in harmony with the Church,
because the very ideal roundness and detachment of
the choral sound gives an impression of pureness
above the prose of everyday routine. The sound
of orchestral instruments easily rouses in the hearer
the thought of secular occasions wherein they are
employed, and for this reason orchestral music has
for many people a somewhat mundane tone. But,
after all, this is merely a matter of convention,
and principally subjective. It is only necessary to
recall Bach's employment of the orchestra — his
passion music and his cantatas — to make clear
that the matter turns only upon the manner of the
employment. Bach knew how to devote this
mighty giant of instrumentation, commanding, as
it does, every harmonic effect and shade of tone,
every variety of expression, and every gradation
of tonic power, to the service of edification. It
is not abstract principles and theories, but only
practical difficulties, which oppose themselves to
the employment of the orchestra for church music,
and persuade most congregations to restrict them-
selves to the vocal choir and the organ. For the
latter instrument in Evangelical church music, see
Organ.
Many people would exclude solo singing from
church music for the reason that it tends to empha-
size the individual, to divert the hear-
5. Solo er's interest from divine worship, and
Singing, thus interfere with edification. Yet,
while this may easily happen, it does
not necessarily and always follow. The right use is
not abrogated by misuse. Solo song has its good
title in church music, provided it be not thrust for-
ward for its own sake, but is called for by the subject
matter and the musical composition, and accords
with the general design, helping to enrich and
deepen the total impression. On account of human
infirmity, not on abstract grounds, it is advisable,
as a rule, to keep solo song somewhat subordinated.
But to renounce a musical composition as unfitted
for church use merely because it requires solo
voices, is not Evangelical. The text holds good of
the forms and kinds of Evangelical church music,
" all things are yours, but ye are Christ's." All
things are to be admitted provided they consecrate
themselves to the sacred service. For the Church
of the Gospel, congregational singing, strictly re-
garded, is not a constituent integral element of
divine service. That is to say, the constituent
elements of the Evangelical worship are, as explained
above, the proclaiming of the word of God, the
Gospel, and the prayer of the congregation.
Whether the word of God reaches the congrcga-
166
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Sacred Music
tion in the way of oral discourse, or in the man-
ner of the Roman church chant in a melodiously
graduated delivery (or intonation), or
6. Congre- in the festival pomp of full-voiced
gation and choir music; whether the congregation
Choir. merely joins in spirit in the proffered
prayer, or directly expresses the same
in song, as in the congregational hymn, is determined
by custom and requirements, by circumstances and
means, being indeed a matter of significance with
reference to the practical effect and impressiveness
of worship, but not, as such, a part of its essence and
intrinsic value. Nevertheless, the Evangelical
worship being theoretically and essentially a con-
gregational act, this implies, of course, that the
congregation as such shall take part in the same.
And this it can best do in a collective way in the form
of singing which groups a diversity of voices into
a harmonic unity. Such singing is well established
in Evangelical worship as the most suitable form
for the congregation's collective activity. The
congregation as a vehicle of divine service is not
an indiscriminate mass of people, but consists of
a variety of living individuals and groups of peo-
ple, who differ in age and sex; accordingly it
contains within itself a diversity of gifts and powers.
Divine worship is an act or transaction of the con-
gregation in proportion as the separate individuals
actively and individually cooperate in the service;
it is a congregational act in the full sense of the
term according as the gifts and powers latent in
the congregation come into active play and min-
ister to the service of edification by means of a
lively presentation of the Gospel. Among gifts
vouchsafed to the congregation, the gift of song
stands in the front rank in relation to divine wor-
ship; especially the harmonic art when viewed as
a preeminent factor for enhancing the effect of
the Gospel to its utmost degree of impressiveness,
thus powerfully promoting edification. Viewed
in this light, as an instrument of edification of
singular power and effectiveness, harmonic art,
and, notably, cultivated singing, has its place in
Evangelical worship; while in the same service
the choir has its office in the way of expressive
leadership. In this worship the choir is the ex-
ponent of musical art in the divine service, being
a legitimate adjunct of the same only in so far as
the purpose of edification demands that this art
be coordinated as a homogeneous factor within the
sphere of worship. The choir is not a necessary
arrangement with reference to worship, its essence
and realization; all this is complete even without
the choir's cooperation. In fact the employment
of a choir presupposes that the congregation al-
ready contains the proper intelligence for the ar-
tistic performances of the choir, and that this
intelligence has been cultivated up to a certain
degree; where this is not the case, there is no need
of choir singing. But choir singing is a no
less powerful than blessed instrument of con-
gregational edification; and as such it has been
duly valued by the congregation from the very
outset.
The Reformation coincided with the age when the art of
polyphony wan ripening into classical perfection. This art
was quite distinctively the creation of the Church (see below
II., 2, S| 2-4); hence the Reformation found artistic choral
song at its height. Attached to the larger
7. The churches were permanent choirs, whose main-
Ghurches tenance was provided in part by the munifi-
of the cence of princes and magistrates, in part by
Reforma- means of endowments. But in case of the rising
tion. Evangelical church the primary interest was
not artistic singing, but congregational singing;
and for its exponent and leader in Germany, not the trained
choir was in question, but the school. All effort was accord-
ingly directed to the training of the growing congregation
for the tasks devolving upon it in the divine service, by
means of a zealous cultivation of singing in the school.
Nevertheless the importance of artistic singing was fully
valued by the Reformers. It was quite peculiarly owing to
Luther that this instrument of congregational edification
was retained. He urgently enjoined upon those in author,
ity the duty of sufficient provision to this end, in cases where
the congregations lacked resources and were not able to take
the initiative. " Kings, princes and lords must support
music, for it becomes great potentates and lords to maintain
good liberal arts and the laws." Where no choir is present
to serve the congregation with the glorious gift of music,
then the like service devolves as an honorable duty upon the
school. The princely chorister schools were expressly and
positively institutes of art, and liturgical singing engaged
only a part of their professional duties. Under their direc-
tion church music came to be more and more a concert per-
formance in the divine service. The artistic mission of the
school choirs, however, accorded with the other tasks which
the school had in charge. Their musical tasks were planned
according to the needs of the congregation in the sanctuary,
approximating more closely to the average intelligence and
becoming more familiar to the congregation than the per-
formances of the professional art choirs. Thus the school
choir came to serve as a musical training establishment for
the whole congregation, and from it the congregation de-
veloped the ability to help itself in case of need.
For example, when the choral institute, to which people
had been accustomed, closed its doors — as did the residen-
tial chorister school at Torgau in 1530 on account of finan-
cial considerations, musically endowed citizens of the town
associated themselves in the " Torgau Cboris-
8. German ter Society" with a view to practising and
Singing* rendering, under the leadership of the princely
Societies, vocal master and precentor Johann Walther,
the portions devolving upon the choir. The
example of Torgau was followed by other towns. At the
same time the growing delight in song and music led to as-
sociations which charged themselves with the cultivation
of singing and in some cases especially sacred song (as at
Reutiingen in Wurttemberg, 1609; St. Gallen, 1620; and
elsewhere). The popularity of Handel's oratorios toward
the close of the eighteenth century and the rise of male sing-
ing societies in the early decades of the nineteenth century
augmented the impulse to create musical associations, which
gladly lent their services to the Church; these societies, how-
ever, were primarily artistic and secular. The revival of re-
ligious and ecclesiastical interest after the wars of liberation,
which manifested itself particularly in the Reformation jubi-
lee festival (1817), led to the formation of societies devoted
specifically to church song. They soon extended over all
Germany and their activity has steadily become wider. In
1881 the first " General Convention of the German Evan-
gelical Church Singing Societies " met at Stuttgart, and in
the year of the Luther jubilee (1883) was organized the
" Evangelical Church Singing Society for Germany," which
in 1005 comprised twenty-two territorial and provincial
societies, and 1,996 local societies and church choirs. The
management is in the hands of a central committee whose
duties are defined to be: (1) To promote the cause of Evan-
gelical church song by spoken and written means; (2) to
work for cooperation of individual societies; (3) to assist
societies in selecting and securing their music; (4) to call a
general convention at least once every three years; (5) to
represent the general interests abroad. A periodical, tJbe
Korrcspondenxblatt dea evangeliachen KirchenoeaanQVtrtin*
fiir DcutJtchland, is published at Leipsic.
II. History: The essential ground form of the
Roman Catholic church song is the choral (cantvs
Gregorianus, because its regulation and systemati-
Stored Kuala
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
156
ration is traced back to Gregory I.; canius planus,
"plain-song," in distinction from figured song;
caniua choralis, because it is rendered in unison by
the aggregate of singers present in the choir), or
church song in the tone style of ancient music.
The Evangelical church makes some use of the Gre-
gorian song, as when it is used for the altar chant-
ing in German churches, and when particular
melodies are borrowed from it for congregational
song; but its own distinctive ground form is
the popular melody adapted to church use; the
modern, harmoniously tuned and harmonically
intelligible melodious hymn, or church hymn.
Upon these basic forms are constructed the artis-
tic forms of church music, which are proper to the
particular church in so far as their expressed ob-
ject is to adorn and idealize those basic forms by
process of elaborated tonal art; but they are gov-
erned by their respective standards, the choral
and the church hymn.
1. The Iiiturgical Side. a. The Choral Ohant:
The authentic sources of the liturgical song of the
Roman Church are the official hymnaries brought
out under Popes Gregory XIII. and
Itoman^ cil of Trent, and on the basis of the
HvmnftriM revision undertaken by Giovanni
*^ 'Guidetti (1532-92); viz, the Directo-
rium chari (1582); the Antiphonarium, containing
the liturgical songs for the breviary (1610); the
Graduate, with the liturgical songs for the mass
(1614 and 1615); and the Hymnarium, which fol-
lowed under Urban VIII. in 1644, after a revision
undertaken by Palestrina, Guidetti's teacher.
Their authentic edition, among the later ones, is
held to be that of Regensburg, 1872-1882. They
contain the "authentic and authorized form of
Gregorian song"; that is, that manner of song
" which the Roman Church uses," or has to use.
Whether the melodies thus pronounced to be
authentic are really those of the earlier time cor-
rectly transmitted is a matter which, in spite of
careful investigations, may not at present be de-
termined to a certainty (but see above, B, I., § 2).
The Gregorian choral, as distinguished from
modern melody, is conditioned in point of tune and
composition by the text, and is to be understood
in that light; being structurally monotonic, in
part mere musically graduated, stereotyped reci-
tative, wherein the rise and fall of
aJJjj^H^ *h© vocal tone, the choice of inter-
Ohant. va*8' ^e t°nic measure, are determined
not with reference to grace or ex-
pression of the melody, but simply by the textual
notation; in part, again, it is real song, melody
representing a musical ensemble, and following,
for that matter, a definite rule of construction ac-
cording to the tonal mode, or key, to which it
belongs, but conditioned in the composition by
the verbal structure of the text. The peculiarity
and significance of the melody — its musical charac-
ter, in a word — inheres in the manner in which the
tonal movement which the melody conveys pro-
gresses from the starting-point of the initial tone
through the tonal intervals of the (diatonic) scale
to the closing tone; and what in this case in-
terests the musical imagination is the feature of
the tone graduations combined with singleness of
effect by the melody as it glides along; and these
in relation to one another, not in their relation to
the basic triad of tonal values, as is the case in
modern melody — in respect to their melodious jux-
taposition and sequence, not in respect to their har-
monic significance. This entirely corresponds to
the antique theory of musical tones: Gregorian
song is church song in the tone language of ancient
(Greek and Roman) music. Its melodies belong to
the diatonic scheme of tones; that is, they are in-
variably composed of the tones of the diatonic
scales; these grouping themselves, in every in-
stance, with two and three whole steps and two
half-steps. Chromatic and enharmonic scales are
quite debarred. The Gregorian song, in contrast
with the secular music of the first Christian cen-
tury, thus reflects the reform of music in the direc-
tion of noble simplicity, the reaction to classical
style. The regulation and systematization of
church song for the Roman and so for the entire
Western Church is traditionally connected with the
name of Gregory the Great (590-604); though to
what extent rightly, leaves room for further elu-
cidation.
b. The Bvanffelioal Hymn: In contrast with the
ancient melody of Gregorian song, the musical form
of the church hymn, which constitutes the founda-
tion, soul, and center of Evangelical church music,
is the modern, harmoniously definite
** D6#w?" an<^ harmonically consistent hymn
??e<Lrv?m tune: harmonically consistent, that
the Folk- . / ~T i *. t^vTi *±u
Sontf # is, from the relation of the tones of the
melody to the basic tone, or more pre-
cisely, to the basio accord of the key to which the
melody belongs, governed by the cardinal points of
the tonic and dominant, and yielding a symmet-
rically coherent, rhythmically expressive, sono-
rously emotional fabric. It is the recognized musical
form for the song of the congregation; for the choral
prayer thereof in distinction from the choral (or
liturgical) prayer of the priestly singers assembled
in the choir, wherein the priestly Church has like-
wise its musical speech to utter. The Reformation
did not create this musical form; it found the same
at hand in the spiritual and secular folk-song, which
had gradually wrested itself loose from the fetters
of the ancient tone theory, and had developed, in
the period from the thirteenth century to the fif-
teenth, into luxuriant blossoming. It is true, the
Church of the Reformation, in order to obtain tunes
for congregational singing, did not limit itself to
the folk-song, but appropriated also some of the
melodious treasure of Gregorian song. But what
it borrowed from this for congregational singing
was recast according to the folk-song pattern. Pe-
culiar, if not essential to the folk-song, is the so-
called polyrhythm, by virtue of which in one and
the same melody double and triple time interchange,
thus producing rhythmical combinations which
can only with difficulty be conveyed in modern
measures.
The early period of the Reformation had plenty
to do in the way of adjusting for congregational use
the tunes which it borrowed from Gregorian song,
157
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Sacred Xuslo
from the treasure of Latin hymns, from the se-
quences, from the spiritual folk-song, as also from
the treasure of secular folk-song. What
8. The Six- little the Reformation period contrib-
teenth and uted to the treasure of melodies out of
teonth its own invention (Luther's Ein' feste
Centuries. Bwrgt for example) reflects the classical
type of the church folk-tune. Toward
the close of the sixteenth century there is an increase
of originators of new melodies (Selnecker, 1530-
1592; Philipp Nicolai, 1556-1608; Melchior Franck,
c. 1573-1639; Melchior Teschner, 1614; Melchior
Vulpius, c. 1560-1615; Johann Hermann Schein,
1586-1630; Michael Altenburg, 1584-1640; Mat-
th&us Apelles von LOwenstern, 1594-1648; Jo-
hannes Cruger, 1598-1662). The seventeenth cen-
tury increasingly exhibits, in the composition of
melodies, the influence of the aria song which
toward the end of the sixteenth century had arisen
in Italy (Heinrich Albert, 1604-51; Johann Georg
Ebeling, 1637-76; Jakob Hintze, 1622-1702; Jo-
hann Rudolf Ahle, 1625-73; Georg Neumark, 1621-
1681; Joachim Neander, 1650-80; Adam Drese,
1620-1701). The church melody as softened down
into the spiritual aria, with its sentimental or
" heart's revealing " nature, stands as far removed
from the compact force and the sonorous full tones
of the folk-song, as pietism, whose favorite mode it
becomes, from the Reformation. In evidence of
the lively and zealous activity which pietism dis-
played in behalf of church song, there are the
Darmstddter Kantional (1687); the Freylinghaus-
en'sche Gesangbuch (1704 sqq.); the ChoralbUcher of
Dretzel (1731), Kdnig (1738), and others; in evi-
dence of the religious vitality inherent in the move-
ment, there is a succession of hymns, which, if not
betokening vernacular simplicity and primitive-
ness, yet indicate hymnal buoyancy.
The " age of enlightenment " completes the
process of modernizing the church melody. It be-
comes a popularized art hymn, which is distin-
guished from the parallel secular art song only in
that it dispenses with all rhythmical charm, mer-
ging into the " slowest song " that " can fairly be
conceived " (Justin Heinrich Knecht, Preface of the
Choralbuch of 1799). In only particular instances
have the numerous melodies which the
3. The « agg 0f enlightenment " produced,
Eighteenth evmce^ vitality. It was a matter full
w«^^,*i, of portent, that the new trend of taste
nineteenth t ,r ' „ ,
Centuries, improved upon the transmitted
wealth of the Fathers. The character-
istic and ever charming polyrhythm of the old tunes
appeared to the modern conception of musical
measure hard and unintelligible; likewise it seemed
impracticable for popular use; while the rhythmical
vivacity seemed incompatible with the idea then
entertained of the sublimity and " dignity " of
music for the divine service. The old tunes were
approximated to the ideal of the " slowest song
that can fairly be conceived," being divested not
only of polyrhythm, but of rhythm altogether.
This leveling process for the church tune, at first
in the direction of isometry, then to the completely
unrhythmical plain-song, was at the same time
evoked and favored by means of the growing sway
of the organ in Evangelical worship. The revival
of religious life and the deepening of the ecclesias-
tical consciousness in the first decades of the
nineteenth century manifested itself less in the
production of new melodies (Bernhard Klein, 1793-
1832; Johann Georg Freeh, 1790-1864; Conrad
Kocher, 1786-1872; Heinrich Carl Breidenstein,
1796-1876; Arnold Mendelssohn, b. 1856; and
others) than in the growing intelligence in behalf
of distinctive charm, the historical as well as eccle-
siastical and esthetic justification of the original
form of the transmitted melodies; and in the zeal-
ous endeavor to recover for congregational singing
the rhythmical vivacity and original freshness of
the Reformation period. How far this endeavor,
which is thoroughly justified from the standpoint
of historic fidelity, is feasible in practise, and at
what point it becomes restricted by considerations
as to the nature of choral song, and of the charac-
teristic tones of the organ, still indispensable for
accompaniment, are matters which even to-day are
still subject to great differences of opinion. For
this reason, and because of the numberless variants
which have established themselves in the several
church provinces through venerable custom, at-
tempts to secure uniformity of usage in the Ger-
man churches have been successful only in a limited
degree.
8. The Artietio Side: The first ten centuries of
the Christian Church knew none but homophonic
song. For the non-Latin peoples who came into
the Church, tnis was artistic song, which required
expert schooling, and this was the reason why it
came to be more and more exclusively
1. Church aligned to the choir of singers trained
n? i " spsckUv for church song. It was ren-
"ttS the ° dered hi a language foreign to the con-
Tear 1000. gregation, and in a mode of musical
articulation unusual to them, viz., the
antique Greco-Roman. The liturgical song was
choir song. The people still had the canticum vul-
gar e, the song of their native speech; and from
the twelfth century onward this became more and
more independently developed, and on the chief
festivals, at least, was even tolerated in the liturgy
of the mass (between epistle and Gospel in place of
the psalm which succeeded the halleluiah; or, as
the case might be, in place of the sequence, and
subsequently also following the Gospel in the way
of a German creedal song, either instead of the
Latin credo or attached to the same).
From the eleventh century and continually
thenceforward, out of modest, and, according to
modern ideas of musical beauty, rude attempts, as
they appear in the light of the fifth and octave
parallels of the Benedictine monk Hucbald of St.
Amand (c. 840-930), there developed itself under
the fostering care of the Church, through the mid-
dle terms of the descant (principle of reciprocal har-
mony) and of fauxbourdon (habituation to the
harmonic euphony of thirds and sixths), the com-
posite or polyphonic choir song, which for the
most part aimed to be nothing more than the
artistic expansion and enrichment of the liturgical
song. By the end of the fourteenth century, poly-
phony, the art of counterpoint, had reached its
Sacred Xusio
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
168
complete development (first Netherland school,
c. 1380-1480: Wilhelm du Fay, Binchois, Dun-
stable, and othere) ; by the end of the
2. Devel- fifteenth century it came to its classic
opment of bloom (second Netherland school, c.
Polyphonio 1480-1565: Ockenheim, Josquin de
Son*. Pr&j Lassus, and others). It had
gained entrance to the papal chapel
during the exile at Avignon (1309-77). The art
of blending voices through the bond of musical
consonance, quite distinctively the creation of the
Middle Ages — the musical expression of the medi-
eval association and gild spirit — accorded with
the spirit of the Medieval Church. The creative
constructive power and the wanton constructive
impulse of the master composers brought matters
to such a pass that the artistic product became
an end in itself, and art forgot her subservient
position. Not only in the luxuriant, exuberant
maze of tones was the sacred text utterly lost
to the verge of unintelligibility, but also the
hallowed style of the choral came to be neglected.
The master composers elected the tenor parts,
and along these lines they built up their themes,
no longer subject to the liturgical point of
view, but to the purely esthetic standpoint of ar-
tistic effect, sometimes basing their masses upon
favorite and often secular popular tunes. Accord-
ingly the Roman Catholic Church, committing itself
as it did at the Council of Trent to the known Ro-
man chant, could allow full rights to the polyphonic
style in divine worship only under the proviso that
art should do justice to the liturgical demands of
the Church. These demands were thoroughly sat-
isfied by the masses which Palestrina (1526?-94;
see Palestrina, Giovanni Pierluigi da) com-
posed at the instance of the council, and submitted
to the committee appointed by the council for the
regulation of church music. In this master's Misaa
PapcB Marcelli (1565), the stricter school since that
time recognizes the classic type of Roman Catholic
Church music. It is true, the course of develop-
ment passed beyond its bounds, and Roman Church
music subsequently shared in all the transforma-
tions of tonal art. The strict Palestrina style, as
represented by the Roman school (Animuccia, Vit-
toria, Felice and Francesco Anerio, Nanini, lastly
Baini) had to yield to the style which emphasized
subjective pathos, over and above the beautiful
style which exhibits lofty detachment and massive
repose by striving toward individual expression.
The Cajcilian Society (Franz Witt, 1834-88; Franz
Xaver Haberl, 1840-1910) tried to reform the
Roman Church music by returning to the style of
Palestrina. Yet the Church itself, though actively
supporting that society's efforts, has not obstructed
the further development of church music; nor has
it even barred from the sanctuary productions of
the most modern tonal art of a Liszt and a Verdi.
The Reformation coincided with the flourishing
period of polyphony. Among its peculiar forms, the
nascent Evangelical church could consider, for use
in divine worship, only the motet, the hymn for
several voices; or the madrigal. The motet (Ital.
mottetto, diminutive of motto, " a word, a saying "),
a musical phrase constructed upon a more or less
brief refrain either borrowed from the liturgical
chant or the folk-song or even freely invented,
found its place in the mass, as a musi-
8. The Bef- caj g^ form, as the musical setting
Th?Motet for P*88**68 °f . Scripture that mark
and the contextual significance of the mass
Madrigal. m ^e calendar. In the Evangelical wor-
ship it occurred first by way of musical
setting for the sentences of the introit, the gradual,
or the epistle or Gospel sentence, and in the next
place as a form of choir song during the distribu-
tion of the Eucharist, as well as at marriages,
funerals, and other solemnities. The word motet
eventually came to signify elaborate choir song.
In a narrower sense, as artistic form for the musical
embodiment of a Bible sentence, that is, of the
sentence in the introit or lection that indicated the
day's calendar significance, the motet became the
form in which tonal art participated in proclaiming
the divine word in Evangelical worship. A form of
motet which was cultivated with special favor was
the polyphonic hymn (as elaborated in motet style).
The task of the musical phrase in this case is artis-
tically to modulate the harmonic suggestion already
given in the closed melody preceding, and to com-
prehend it somewhat in the manner of a costly
painting in elegantly carved framework. This form
adapted itself quite peculiarly to the musical elabo-
ration of the church tune, and therefore became
the hymn form in superior choirs. But the choir
song in Evangelical worship had now not only an
artistic task, it had above all an educational mis-
sion; it was to lead the tunes for the congregation,
in order to render them so familiar that the people
should make them their own and themselves join
in. The hymn tune, in this connection, ran tra-
ditionally in the tenor, which constituted the mid-
dle part. On practical grounds, it became advi-
sable to assign the tune to the upper voice, the
soprano. Everything, in this case, was left to the
free invention of the composer, who sought simply
to light upon the musical expression for the key-
note of the appertaining text. The art of composi-
tion, the blending and the direction of voices, be-
came an incidental, expression the chief thing. The
tuneful motives concentrated themselves more and
more upon the finished expressive melody, and this
became the vocal surface of the composition. The
artistic composition, the harmony proper, came to
be more and more a mere means of expression, the
chromatic tone. The decisive step toward trans-
posing the melody to the soprano part was accom-
plished by the Wurttemberg Court Preacher Lucas
Osiander, by his address to schoolmasters, Jan. 1,
1586 (see Osiander, 2), and the publication of the
work: FUnffzig geistliche Lieder und Psalwten. Mil
vier Stimmen, auf Contrapunctstveise. A succession
of notable composers followed his example: Gesius,
Raselius, Michael, Calvisius, Vulpius, Hassler,
Michael Pratorius, Johann Eccard.
It was natural that the hymn tune, heretofore
the foundation of the composition, should now
become its actual object, the remaining voices rece-
ding more and more to the province of accompani-
ment, as they followed the melody in regular coun-
terpoint; and the polyphonic motet style had to
160
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Sacred Musio
yield to the ambitious madrigal style of the modern
harmonized melody. On the border line between
the old and the new conception stand
4. Devel- ^e great composers Hans Leo Hassler
♦kP11£^ (1564-1612) and JohannEccard (1553-
HvnmTm^1611); a*30 Sethus Calvisius (1556-
y 1615), Melchior Vulpius (d. 1615),
Scandellus (1517-80), Joachim a Burgck (1541-
1610), Jakob Meiland (1542-77), David Scheide-
mann (c. 1585, in Hamburg), Le Maistre, Dulichius,
Johann Stobaus, Demantius, and others. They
still stand upon the art of the Netherland mas-
ters; Eccard was a pupil of the great Lassus; but
the congregational tune comes to its full rights.
In Luther's time it was the leader in the dancing
round of voices, where " one sings aloud a proper
tune, beside which three, four, or five other voices
likewise play round about, as it were with shouting;
and leap, and with all sorts of sound wonderfully
grace and adorn the same, and lead as it were a
heavenly dancing procession, encountering one an-
other cordially, and somehow caressing and lov-
ingly embracing each other " (Luther in Encomion
musices). It now becomes all-prevailing. The
charming work of the polyphonic hymn yields to
the merely harmonized four-voiced choral. Soon
the choir's place is taken by the organ; and the
four-voiced choral is succeeded by the homophonic
song of the congregation with organ accompani-
ment. For the most part, the polyphonic hymn, as
it still survives, is artistic song by the choir.
The tendency to emphasize distinctive expres-
sion, which came into vogue in Italy toward the
end of the sixteenth century and led to the mo-
nodic style, had its influence very early upon the
German Evangelical church music.
6. New Men like Rosenmuller (1610-84), Mi-
Th Jcutata chael Pratorius (1571-1621), and above
and the a^' *ne greatest German harmonist be-
Oratorio. ^ore Back, Heinrich Schutz (1585-
1 672) , transplanted the Italian forms of
the church concerto to Germany. In this way church
music acquired the means for an animated musical
interpretation of the divine word, such as was not
achieved by the purely polyphonic motet. The
barriers of the old church tones are broken through;
the harmony becomes closer, fuller, more charac-
teristic; the melody more pliant and expressive;
while the harmony is reinforced by the accompani-
ment of distinct instruments (trombones, violins).
Especially the arioso and the recitative enabled the
composer to enliven dramatically the musical in-
terpretation of the sacred text; to round out me-
lodiously the various indicated moods; to illustrate
musically the narrative events, and define musically
the persons introduced. Church music, which had
formerly elected to present to the congregation the
word of God in the sumptuously elaborated mon-
strance of artistic polyphonic composition, comes
to be more and more the independent interpreter of
that word, by combining, in the way of arias and
recitative, the motets and the polyphonic hymn
into a larger comprehensive unity. The " motet "
thus expands into the " spiritual dialogue " (An-
dreas Hammerechmidt, 1612-75); into the "spir-
itual conversation concerning the Gospel " for the
day (Johann Rudolf Ahle, 1625-73; Wolfgang
Briegel, 1626-1712); then into the "cantata,"
which in turn develops from a simple form into
richer and richer complexity (Johann Kuhnau,
1667-1722; Johann Philipp Krieger, 1649-1725;
Johann Krieger, 1652-1735; Dietrich Buxtehude,
1637-1707; Johann Christoph Bach, 1642-1703;
Johann Michael Bach, 1649-1693; Georg Philipp
Tclemann, 1681-1767; Reinhard Keiser, 1674-
1739; Gottfried Stolzel, 1690-1749, and others);
and becomes complete in the cantatas of Johann
Sebastian Bach (q.v.), the greatest harmonist of
the Evangelical church. In this case the cantata
has become divine service within the divine serv-
ice, transcending the bounds of the liturgy. In
connection with the cantata in its final manifesta-
tion, Evangelical church music steps outside the
church door, so to speak, and as spiritual music, in
the form of the oratorio, becomes a powerful wit-
ness of the Gospel before people who avoid that
witness when uttered in God's house. Upon the
broad stream of a powerful, robustly expansive
music, which for all its musical profundity continues
genuinely popular, Bach's greatest contemporary,
Georg Friedrich Handel (q.v.), displays to the eye
of the soul the story of divine revelation in his
Biblical oratorios; his Messiah is the Gospel in
monumental tone-speech, a most powerful herald-
ing of the Gospel, a monumental anthem. To-
gether with its intimate and lively relation to the
congregational hymn, Bach's church music is char-
acterized by its close union with the instrument of
Evangelical worship, the organ. As he fructifies
organ art (see Organ) through the congregational
hymn, and thus devotes the same to the Church,
adapting it to the religious mood, likewise his vocal
compositions that are intended for the divine serv-
ice are conceived and created out of the spirit of the
organ. Handel, too, had his start on the organ
bench, and from the organ received the polyphonic
spirit which imparts colossal volume and power to
his resounding choruses. But Bach's music is di-
rectly born of the organ, and for that very reason,
the same as through the congregational hymn, it is
inseparably connected with the divine service.
There came the time which no longer understood
either of these witnesses, for the primal notes of the
Gospel had themselves become strange.
6. The What came to be " church music "
Period of m divine service in the rationalistic
Batt?l^Mllperiod, though sincerely intended
Nineteenth mus*c ani^ technically " figural music,"
Century. was m {**& but a feeble imitation of
the contemporary stage or concert
music. Very capable masters devoted their best
strength to the oratorio (Karl Heinrich Graun, 1701-
1759; Friedrich Schneider, 1786-1853; Bernhard
Klein, 1793-1832; Karl Loewe, 1796-1869; Lud-
wig Spohr, 1784-1859), and thus attested, in their
way, the inexhaustible power and glory of the di-
vinely revealed word; although their tone-language
stood remote from that of a Handel. It was Felix
Mendelssohn-Bartholdy (1809-47) who in 1829
roused Bach's Passion Music from the sleep of a
hundred years, and thereby recalled the Evangel-
ical church of Germany to its greatest musical wit-
Baered Husio
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
160
ness. His oratorios St. Paul and Elijah, wherein
he makes music serve the Biblical text in masterly
fashion, have become typical for a series of com-
petent masters (Eckert, 1820-79; Reinthaler, 1822-
1890; Eheinberger, and others). For the one school,
which gives more study to Handel, the oratorio is
the Biblical drama without stage scenery. Pro-
priety and fidelity in the musical interpretation,
force and fulness of expression, are the tasks to
which the music is committed. The oratorio style
is distinguished from that of the musical drama
only and exclusively by the peculiar nature of the
subject requirements. This theory later leads log-
ically to the " spiritual opera " of Rubinstein.
The others, who consciously or unconsciously bear
the mark of Bach, are more or less overshadowed,
even in the oratorio, by the relation to the congre-
gation, to the house of God, to divine worship,
whether they have the house of God expressly in
view and aim at a combination of oratorio with
congregational singing (as, for instance, F. Zimmer,
Ludwig Meinardus, Albert Becker, Hermann
Francke, Bernecker, Schwalm, Zierau, R. Succo,
but above all, Heinrich von Herzogenberg, 1843-
1900) ; or whether they allow the thought of edifying
the congregation to operate only ideally upon their
creation (Brahms, 1833-96; Kiel, 1821-85) without
restricting themselves as musicians; or whether
their musical creation seeks closer or more distant
affinity with the elements of congregational edifi-
cation (Felix Woyrsch; Wolf rum). Mendelssohn,
again, prompted by King Frederick William IV., im-
parted new life to and exerted fresh influence upon
Evangelical church music in its more limited sense
of music for the divine service, by means of a num-
ber of compositions. And the list of serious and
praiseworthy composers of extremely diverging
tendencies who have placed themselves at the dis-
posal of the German Evangelical church in later
time is a long and imposing one. See also Hym-
nology; Psalmody. H. A. KOstun.
8. In England and America: Church music in
England has had a history peculiar to itself, usually
quite distinct from that in Germany, though with
obvious analogies. Although music has always
been a stated feature in ecclesiastical
1. The life, its official and professional culti-
•^^t^ vation has varied greatly in quality at
Situation. ,.~ . . ,»...
different periods, so that its progress
has been somewhat fitful and inconsistent. It has
not been surrounded by so rich and stimulating an
atmosphere of popular aptitude for and interest in
musical activity as in Germany. Yet, on the other
hand, English church music, being a part of the
liturgical practise of the national church, has had
always a certain traditional dignity, and, at times
when other musical fields have been but slightly
emphasized, it has provided room for the artistic
effort of many worthy musicians. There has nat-
urally been a marked difference between the serv-
ices of the cathedrals and those of the parish
churches. The former have usually been main-
tained with much more elaboration than the latter.
In tracing the history of English church music, then,
it is almost inevitable to dwell more upon what is
found in the diocesan or metropolitan centers, in-
cluding the chapels of the great universities of Ox-
ford and Cambridge, than upon the usages of the
far more numerous parochial or rural churches.
As in the Roman system of worship, much of the
scope and character of Anglican church music is
directly determined by the character of the liturgy
of the Church of England. This liturgy is con-
tained in the Book of Common Prayer (see Common
Prater, Book of), which originated about the mid-
dle of the sixteenth century. This important man-
ual provides services for daily worship, morning
and evening, for the Holy Communion, and for a
variety of special rites and observances, its details
being evolved with much freedom and originality
from the Missal, Breviary, and other service-books
of the medieval Church. The Prayer Book ex-
plicitly ordains the use of music at various points in
all the principal services, and common custom has
sanctioned some musical usages that are not thus
prescribed. All Anglican church music, then, like
that of the Roman Church, is essentially a part of
the liturgical system embodied in the Prayer Book.
A considerable number of formulas, especially cer-
tain canticles, etc., are fixed and invariable, recur-
ring at every service; but to these are usually added
others of different kinds that are suited to particu-
lar days or seasons, and that are not definitely
prescribed.
Practically, as in other countries, English church
music may be regarded as consisting of (a) choir
music, including sentences, responses, canticles, etc.,
liturgically prescribed (and to be read,
8. Character if singing is not feasible), and " an-
° Ohrch thems," which are optional additions
Mamie. *° ^e ^urgy; (°) congregational
music, including prose canticles or
psalms, usually set to brief harmonic forms known
as " chants," metrical psalms and hymns, set to
more elaborate forms known as " tunes," and occa-
sionally some freer forms of the " anthem " class;
and (c) organ music, usually consisting of service
preludes and postludes. In theory, the liturgy of
the Prayer Book is strongly congregational, that
is, its exercises are conceived, as far as possible,
as proceeding from the assembly, even when actu-
ally spoken through the minister or sung through
the choir. The choir, therefore, is normally to
be regarded as the agent of the laity, as is
demanded by the whole Protestant theory of
public worship, rather than as the agent of the
hierarchy, as in the Roman theory. In the ab-
sence of a congregation, or in its silence, the choir
performs the musical functions of the congrega-
tion. But wherever the congregation can be drawn
into actual musical activity, it is assumed that the
musical worship belongs to it and its action is to be
encouraged. Yet, on the other hand, in cathedral
services the choir is so closely associated in action
with the stated clerical ministrants, usually officia-
ting with the latter in the chancel, that the tradi-
tional rule against female officiants is enforced — all
cathedral choirs consisting of men and boys only.
Furthermore, in cathedral and collegiate services,
and now also in many parochial services, there has
been a decided tendency to work out a " full choral
service," in which all or nearly all of the exercises,
101
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Sacred Musio
except, of course, the lessons and the sermon, are
delivered with the singing voice — intoned, chanted,
or sung in figured harmony. In such a service ac-
tual congregational participation is immaterial, and,
in fact, the daily service in cathedrals is often car-
ried forward with but few or even no persons pres-
ent except the clergy and the choir. And in all
cases where a choral service is much elaborated the
tendency is to minimize the function of the congre-
gation, except that of passive listening. This ap-
proximates rather closely to the practise of the
Roman Church.
In the rubrics of the Prayer-Book hymns are but
slightly provided for, and organ music is not men-
tioned. But both have been customary from the
first. As manuals for congregational
8" ^^h11" smgm8 many metrical psalters have
^™*~e been " authorized," beginning with
that of Sternhold and Hopkins (" the
Old Version "; see Hymnologt, IX., § 2) in 1562.
There has never been an " authorized " hymnal,
however, and, indeed, the use of " hymns " as dis-
tinct from " psalms " crept in somewhat gradually
in the later eighteenth century, and under more or
less protest. But the popularity of hymn-singing
has led to a remarkable series of hymnals, of which
without doubt Hymns Ancient and Modern, first
published in 1861 and since repeatedly augmented
or revised, is the most conspicuous. The earliest
psalter contained the melodies of some tunes, and
in the recent hymnals, at least in the fuller editions,
tunes are provided for all the hymns. Associated
with the more or less officially sanctioned liturgy
of verse has accumulated a large and varied liturgy
of congregational tunes, which is a feature of Eng-
lish church music analogous to the still larger treas-
ury of German chorales.
The status of organ music is but vaguely defined
in English practise. The appointment to the post
of organist and choirmaster rests with the rector
or other clerical authority of the particular church
or cathedral, and his work is understood to be under
clerical direction. Organs are everywhere regarded
as essential parts of ecclesiastical apparatus, and
their utility is emphasized, not only for accompani-
ment to choir and congregational singing, but also
for independent use before and after services.
What is here said refers especially to the musical
usages of the Church of England, which is the na-
tional or " established " church not only in Great
Britain, but also in all British colonial possessions,
including Canada, India, South Africa, Australia,
New Zealand, etc. All these have for the most part
derived their habits in public worship directly from
the mother country. The same is true in a more
remote sense of the Protestant Episcopal Church in
the United States, which became an independent
church in 1789. For a very extensive section of the
Protestant population of the world, therefore, the
liturgical usages of the Church of England, including
everything that pertains to music, have been either
authoritative or exceedingly influential. Inasmuch,
also, as they constitute the most consistent and
definite body of usages among all the churches in
English-speaking countries, their further indirect
influence has been remarkably wide, affecting espc-
X.-U
cially the hymnody and music of many non-episcopal
communions.
For convenience, the history of the subject can
be divided roughly into three main periods: (a) the
sixteenth century, with a small part of the early
seventeenth, during which musical practises, except
in one or two particulars, were still dominated by
the traditions of the time before the Reformation;
(b) the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, dur-
ing which, for various reasons, church music was
relatively unprogressive and feeble; and (c) the
nineteenth century, during which there was gradu-
ally established a fresh line of development, result-
ing in a notable literature, which has great individ-
uality and spiritual power.
Since the English Church emerged at the Refor-
mation without losing its sense of continuity with
the medieval Church, it was natural that its new
Prayer-Book should be musically treated, in part at
4 Th ai ^eas*» m ways consonant with medieval
teenth "tradrtum* Hence arose before 1553
Century, plain-song settings of numerous formu-
las, which have been extensively re-
tained ever since. Hence, also, came a considerable
literature of contrapuntal choir music, much of
which compared favorably with similar writing in
both Italy and Germany, and which has often been
exalted by later musicians as embodying a sort of
ideal (analogous in some degree with the superiority
attributed in the Roman Church to the Palestrina
style). Among the composers of this period may
be named Christopher Tye, c. 1510-72; Thomas
Tallis, c. 1515-85; John Merbecke, 1523-85?; Rob-
ert Whyte, d. 1574; William Byrd, 1543-1623,
and several writers of the madrigal era, like Thomas
Morley, 1557-1602?; and Orlando Gibbons, 1583-
1625. But, on the other hand, there were two mu-
sical movements of a different sort, due to the in-
fluence upon the English Church of the Reformed
Church as it had developed under Calvin at Geneva
and Strasburg. One of these was the introduction
of psalm-singing, the tunes being either borrowed
from Calvinistic sources or imitated from their
style — opening a line of development in tunes anal-
ogous to that of the German chorales, though much
inferior to the latter in variety and in intrinsic
artistic worth. The other was the tendency for a
brief period after 1560 to magnify a plain, " syl-
labic," uncontrapuntal method of setting canticles
and other prose texts for choir use, this being a
reaction in the direction of liturgical and artistic
simplicity. This tendency was short-lived, though
its essential principle reappeared later in a finer
artistic form.
Throughout the seventeenth century church
music aroused only a fluctuating interest. The
period of the Civil Wars checked all progress, not
so much because the Puritans were averse to music,
as because they were against the
5* S^en", ecclesiastical system to which it be-
BiirhtMuth longed* MtGT the Restoration in 1660
Centuries. interest revived to some extent, though
with confused results, owing in part to
the heedless imitation by some of French and Italian
models. At this point begins to be felt the drift
toward solo singing in choir music which grows more
Baored Xusio
Sacrifice
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
162
pronounced in the eighteenth century — a drift that
tended to set aside those broad choral effects that
keep church music from too close similarity to
secular music. During the latter part of this cen-
tury became established in usage that special form
of " chant " which is usually called " Anglican/' a
form which is doubtless historically connected with
the " Psalm-tones " of the Gregorian system but
has been developed along different lines from the
latter. The stock of psalm tunes was also grad-
ually augmented, though their variety was restricted
by the fact that the metrical versions to which they
belonged were in but a few meters. Prominent
names in this period are Michael Wise, c. 16*48-87;
Pelham Humphrey, 1647-74; Henry Purcell, 1658-
1695; John Blow, 1648-1708; and Jeremiah Clarke,
d. 1707. The whole of the eighteenth century was
a time of lethargy and barrenness, except for the
work of a few sterling composers, like William
Croft, 1678-1727; Maurice Greene, 1695-1755; and
William Boyce, 1710-79. During this century, how-
ever, came the prodigious influence of Handel upon
the musical life of England, which in many ways
affected the whole standard of church music by
magnifying the choral oratorio as a characteristic
musical form. During this century, too, occurred
the notable defections from the Church of England
that established the Independent and Methodist
forms of dissent, with some others, as influential
elements in English religious life. The dissenters
generally were eager for congregational hymn-sing-
ing, and it was their interest that brought about
the multiplication of " hymns " as distinct from
" psalms," together with the consequent multipli-
cation of much more flexible tunes than had been
earlier attempted. It is here that is to be sought
the origin of that type of hymn-tune which is some-
times called the " part-song " tune, to di«t.ingiii»h
it from the heavier " chorale," which later devel-
oped into a striking feature of English church music.
During the nineteenth century there was a steady
and vigorous advance in the quality of English in-
terest in things musical. At the outset this was
promoted largely from within the Church, but later
it received impetus more from without,
temtif" **u* *ne en?ec* uPon tne musical aspects
Century. °* Pu^^c worship has been continuous.
With the rapid advance in methods of
musical instruction of all kinds, including the foun-
dation of many strong music-schools, and with the
increase in such facilities for musical knowledge as
popular choral societies, public concerts of various
degree, including the opera, etc., the number of
competent musicians has been greatly augmented
and the whole standard of popular appreciation
elevated. Even when the objects in view were not
at all churchly, the gains have been unmistakable
for church music.
In the field of choir music, the century begins
with a serious effort on the part of certain cathedral
musicians, like Thomas Attwood, 1765-1838; Sam-
uel Wesley, 1766-1837, and others, to provide a
new literature of anthems and other service music,
of different degrees of elaboration, which should be
at once devotional and expressed in modern musical
idiom. Still more fertile was the middle portion of
the century, under leaders like John Goss, 1800-80;
Samuel Sebastian Wesley, 1810-76; Henry Smart,
1813-79; Frederick Arthur Gore Ouseley, 1825-89,
and many more. The current style of expression
during this period was strongly influenced, perhaps
too much so, by the extreme popularity of Mendels-
sohn in England and the vogue of his concert ora-
torios. Almost all church composers exercised their
talents in the field of oratorio-writing as well as in
church music proper. In the latter part of the cen-
tury the general current of production moves on
with volume and momentum, but with a steadily
increasing amount of attention to striking emo-
tional effects, sometimes verging upon the theatrical
and merely sensational, yet on the whole with an
earnest purpose to make the resources of modern
musical utterance genuinely serviceable in religious
worship. Prominent composers in this time are
John Bacchus Dykes, 1823-76; Joseph Barnby,
1838-96; John Stainer, 1840-1901; Arthur Sey-
mour Sullivan, 1842-1900; and Charles Hubert
Hastings Parry, b. 1848. Besides the fine list of
anthems and services, of cantatas and oratorios,
from these writers, many of them contributed
worthily to the remarkable body of hymn-tunes for
congregational use which has brought the impress
of English church music to bear everywhere through-
out the English-speaking world and among churches
of every name. It is during this latest period, also,
that the advance of English organ music has be-
come most noticeable, bringing into view a large
number of expert players, with an immense quantity
of works, usually devised with special reference to
effectiveness in connection with public worship.
In all this nineteenth-century development, there
was less of that ideality and technical intensity
which marked the greater periods of German church
music, but one may fairly claim that in practical
efficiency for the specific uses in view modern
English music affords its finest examples of true
worship-music. Waldo S. Pratt.
Biblzogkatot: On Hebrew music consult: J. L. Saalchuts,
Oeschichte und Wurdigung der Muaik bei den Hebraem,
Berlin, 1829; C. Engel, Music of the Most Ancient Nation*,
London, 1864; E. Hutchinson, Music of the Bible, Boston,
1864; F. Delitssch, Phyeiologie und Muaik in ihrer Be-
deutung, Leipsic, 1868; E. David, La Muaique chez lea
Jim/*, Paris, 1873; F. Jacox, Bible Music, London and
Boston, 1872, new ed., London, 1878; F. L. Cohen, Rise
and Development of Synagogue Music, in Anglo-Jetcinh
Historical Paper*, pp. 80-135, London, 1888; Sir John
Stainer, The Music of the Bible, New York, 1890; F. Con-
solo, IXbro dei canti a" I erode, Florence, 1892; J. Weiss,
Die musikaliechen Instruments in den heUigen Schriften
dm A. T., Ores, 1895; E. Pauer, Traditional Hebrew
Melodise, London, 1896; F. Vigouroux, La Bible et lea
dScoupertea modemes, iv. 305-322, Paris, 1896; idem, Dic-
fumnatre, xxvii. 1347-60, Paris, 1906; Buchler, in ZATW,
xix.-xx., 1899-1900; H. Grossman, Muaik und Muaik-
instrumenU im Alien Testament, Oiessen, 1903; H. Smith,
The World? s Earliest Music, London, 1904; C. H. Comill,
Music in the O. T.t Chicago, 1909; C. Engel, Muaic of the
most Ancient Notions, particularly f the Assyrians, Egyp-
tians, and Hebrew, with special Reference to the recent
Discoveries in Western Asia and Egypt, New York, 1910; P.
Wagner, Judaism in Music, London, 1910; J. Wellhausen
in SBOT, vol. on Psalms; Bensinger, ArchAologie, pp. 237-
246; DB, iii. 456-163; SB, iii. 3225-43; JE, ix. 118-135;
the commentaries on the passages named in the text.
On II., works of an encyclopedic character are: S.
Kuemmerle, Bncydopadie der evangelischen Kirchenmuaik,
4 vols., OQtersloh, 1888-95; Q. Schilling, UniversoUexikon
dm TonkumsU 2d ed* 7 vols., Stuttgart, 1840-42; J. W.
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Moon, Complete Encyclopedia o) Music, Boston, 1854;
F. J. Fetis, Biagrophit unircrtcHc da musiciens, <* fcio-
(iotfrajiW genlr-af* itr la IHUSWU*. 10 vols., Paris. 1840-
1851; H. Mendel and A. Reisamann, Mutikaliteha Con-
vtstotioni-Letikon. 12 vols., Berlin, 1889-83; J, D. Brown.
Biographical Dictionary of Musician/. London, 1H80;
J. D. Cbamplin and W. F. Aptborp, Cyclopedia of Music
and Musicians, 3 vols.. New York, 1888-90; J. Stainer
and W. J. Barrett, Dictionary of Musical Term: new ed..
London, 1808; R. Eitner. BioffraphiKJi-tnblioffraphitcJieo
Qustten-Lexikon, 10 vols.. Leipoic. 1000-04; G. Grove,
Dictionary of Music end Musicians, od. J. A. F. Mait-
land. B vols., London, 1904-10; T. Baker. Biographical
Dictionary of Musicians. 2d ed., New York, 1905; H.
Ricnaann. Musik-Lccikon. flth ed.. Leipsic. 1905.
On the music or the Latin Church consult: J. Pothier.
Dtr oreoorianisclic Choral, Tournay. 1881; J. Tnrdif.
Mrthode theorioue tt pratique dt Plain-Chant, Angers.
1883; Thin?, fyude sue It chant grtgorirn, Bruges. 1883;
W. I. Walsh. Grammar of Gregorian Music, Dublin. 1885;
J. N. Lenunens. Ou Chant yreoorien, Ghent. 1888; E.
Bumouf. La Chants do Ctatisc lotine, Paris. 1887; F. A.
Gevnert, Le Chant lituraigut dans I'eglise latino, Brussels,
1880; idem. La Originet du chant titurgiquc dant I'tglitt
latint, ChenL 1800; V. J. Coomaert. Traill dt Plain-
chant tatri. B fuses, 1800; T. E. X. Nonnand. Torts,
L'Arehtologie musicals tt It vrai chant artaorien, Paris.
1880; T. Nisard, L' Archtologit musicals tt It vrai chant
grnjorim. Paris, 1890; L. Looteus, La thiorie musicals du
e*nnl oriaorirn. Paris, 1895; P. Wagner. Einfahrunn in
dis greaarianischen Mrtodien. Bin Banaouch dtr Charal-
kunde, Freiburg, 1805; A. Gastoue, La Origines du chant
romain; I'antipfionairc crtyorien, Paris, 1008.
GeoenJ works on the history of music are; F. W. Mar-
ping, Hiloritch-lcritiicho Beitroge mr Goichichte dtr Mutik,
5 vols- Berlin, 1744-02; C. Bumey, Hittory of Music
from At Earliest Ages to the Present Time, 4 vols., London,
1770-1780; 8ir John Hawkins. History of the Science and
Practice of Untie, 5 vols., London, 1770, new Issue, re-
edited, 1853-75; M. Gerbert, Scriptoret ecclesiastici dt
musica sacra, 3 vols.. St. Blasiou, 1784 sqq.; J. N. Forkel,
AUgemeine OetcJiichte dtr Mutik, 2 vols.. Wnsle L7S3
IB01; T. Busby. General Hittory of Music, 2 vols., London,
1819; J. «ebb. Choral Service of the United Church of
England and Ireland, ib. 1843; C. von Winterfeld, Der
emigttiseht Kirchtnaetang. 3 parts. Laipsic. 1843-47;
idem. ZurGachicMeheiliaen Tonkunst, 2 parts, ib., 1850-52;
H. G. ntieswetter. History of the Modem Music of Western
Europe, London, 1848; N. E. Cornwall, Music at it inn
and as it it. New York, 1851; C. E. H. de Couseemaker,
Hist, dt tharmonit an moyen floe, Paris, 1852; idesn, V In
harrsjmiirist II.-I3. tittles, ib. IsoS; Austin Phelps. Ed-
wards A, Park, Daniel L. Furber. Hymm and Chain. An-
dover, 1800; J. Schlnter. Allgemeint Gesrhichte der Mutik,
Leipsic. 1863, Eng. trans!., General History of Music, Lon-
don. 1885; G. von Tucher. Viber dm Gemcindtgcsang der
erangrlischrn Kirche. Leipsir, 1887: E. Neumann. Die
Tonkunst in der KuUurgachiehte, Berlin. JSfW-Tii; He*.
Hlustrirte Musikgcschiehte. Stuttgart, 18*0-85; F. J. FStis.
Bug. generate de la musujut, 5 vols., Paris, 1859-70; F. I..
Bitter. History of Music, 2 vols., Boston. 1874: O. Doucn.
Clement Marot etls Ptautier Huguenot: flude tillCrmrr, mu-
sieale et btbliographiquc. Paris. 1878-79: J. llnlbti. The
Transition Period of Musical Hittory, London and New
York. 3 vols., with supplement, 1879-J883; J. siuard.
Compendium dtr Geschichts der Kirchrnmusi' , 1( lit til 1 1
1S81; W. A. Barrett, English Church Composeri, Loudon.
18831 F. A. T. Klinkhardt. Die Kunst, intonderheit die
Tonkunst. alt Dienerin im Hriliotum. Leipeic, 1883; J, 8.
Cunren. Studies in Worship Jfusie, 2 series, London. 1>V.-
;• — : I'. M l'.:h;M.IHc';cc!.l.-i,!r ,1 r,,!n.;N,:,,,i; ..,.,-..
loh, 1887; E.L. Taunton. History of Church Music, Lon-
don, 1887; F, G. Edwards. Common Praise; a (tracheal
Handbook i>f Nonconformist Church Music, ib. 1887: A. W
Aojbros. Gttrhiehtt dtr Mutik, 3d i-d., 3 vol*.. I.cir»jr. ]vs7-
18B3; Mrs. M. E. and W. A. Brown. Musical Instrument!
and their Hornet, New York, 1888; P. Krutschek, Die Kirch-
enmusik neck den Willen dtr Kirche, Regensburg. 1889;
F. L. Humphreys, The Evolution of Church Music. Loudon.
1890: P. Wulfrum. Die EnttteJiung da deutschen evan-
getitehen Kirthtnliedes in mutikalitchtn Beziehung, Letp-
ne. 1800: J. Love, Scottish Church Music. Edinburgh.
1BSI (on hymn tunes); R. B. Daniel, Chapters on Church
J. LaadoB. UMi Bxuy Da-vgy. Bid. of Bnirlit*
Music, ib. 1865; F. Bnchmann. Grundlagen und Grund-
fragentur tvanglischcn Kirch. -nmu/ik. Giitersloh. 1809; H.
Biemann, Btruhmte Mu/iker. I^bens- and Charakteroilder,
Barlin. 1900; A. A. Cbapin, Matters of Music, London,
1001; W. 8. Pratt, Musical Ministries in the Church:
Studies in History. Theory, and Adminutrarion of Sacred
Music, New York. 1901; idem. Hist, of Music, ib. 1907
(contains bibliography); A. Proems, Compendium der
Mutikgctchichle. 2d ed., Vienna. 1901 sqq.; H. E. Woold-
ridge, SirC. H. H. Parry. J. A. F. Maitland, W. H. Hadow,
and E. Dannreuther, The Oxford Hittory of Music, B vols.,
Oxford, 1901-051 K.J. Crowest, The Story of Music, Ion-
don. 1902; E.Dickinson, Music in the History of the Wat-
andanritnt Peoples, New York. 1902; F. Brendei, Gctchichtt
der Mutik. Leipeic. 1903: 0. Keller, lllustrierte Gctchichtt
derMusik, 2 vols.. Munich, l'.)iV.i-04; H. Riemann. Hand-
buch der Musikgeschichte, Leipaic, 1904-05; W. J. BoltscU,
A Complete History Bf Music, Philndelphia. 1005; C. H. II.
Party. The Art of Music. 4th ed.. London. 1905: E. Dick-
inson, Croirta and Development of Music, ib. 1905; P.
Viardot. Hittoirc de la musu,uc Paris. 1905: E. Walker,
Rial, of Music in England, London. 1007; J. 3. Bumpus,
Hist, of Eng. Cathedral Music, IS4B-1SS9, 2 vols,, London,
1908: J. H. Edwards. Cod and Music. New York, 1008:
E. fi. Lorens, Practical CAarcA Music, ib. 1909; P. C.
Lutkin, Music in the Church, Milwaukee. 1910.
SACRIFICATI. See Lapsed.
Old-Teatament Data ((2).
Bloody SaeriQces and Meal Offerings (I 3).
The Burnt Offering and Communal Meal (f 41
Sin and Guilt Offerings (| 51.
Development of Iaruelitic -Sacrifice (| 8).
Ancient peoples generally, including tlio Hebrews,
were convinced that worship of a deity consisted
not only in words, but above all in offering some-
thing dear to the worshiper, which he
i. Origin of denied himself in favor of his god. The
Sacrifice, sincerity and earnestness of worship
were usually measured by the extent
of self-denial which man was willing to make for the
object of worship, particularly where the deity in
question had been offended by some trnn.-i:ri^:-ioN
of man, so that propitiation had become necessary.
In the earlier forms of religion the gods are sup-
posed not only to be well pleased with such sacri-
fices of gratitude or expiation, but actually to need
them, since they are regarded as hungry am) lliii-i v
and thus as dependent to a certain extent on man
and his offerings. Even when, at later stages of
development, the worthlessness of material Roods
lo the deity is recognized, the conviction still sur-
vives that their surrender by man for the sake of
his divinity is as pleasing as any other form of re-
nunciation and self-mortification. The attempt has
been made tx» derive nil sacrifice from ancestor-
worship or from the communal meal of the god and
his worshipers, but both these theories are unten-
able and can not be brought into harmony with the
data of the Old Testament. The real solution of
the theory of sacrifice, the origin of which is prehis-
toric, must be sought in the childlike dependence of
man upon the gods.
In the oldest portions of the Old Testament Yah-
weh is represented as at lea.st enjoying the savor of
the sacrifices (Gen. viii. 21; Lev. 5. 9, 13, 17); when
he he primes manifest to man, he must receive hos-
pitality in the form of a sacrifice (Judges vi. 17
Saorifioe
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
164
sqq., xiii. 15); and his wrath must be averted by
the same means (Gen. viii. 20-21; I Sam. xxvi.
19). The whole, or burnt, offering is
2. Old- at least as ancient as the communal
Testament meal (e.g., Gen. xxxi. 54) ; and it was
Data. the custom from the earliest times
to express gratitude to the divinity by
both bloody and bloodless sacrifices (Gen. iv. 3-4).
As early as the patriarchal period the sacrificial
meal arose, sealing human organizations in the
sight of the divinity and employed especially
in covenants, alliances, and treaties of peace.
All important undertakings were accompanied
by sacrifices (Gen. xlvi. 1), and religious festivals
were inconceivable without them (Ex. x. 25).
Like the feasts, moreover, the sacrifices tended
to become periodical. The covenant of the chil-
dren of Israel at Sinai was also accompanied
by a formal sacrifice (Ex. xxiv. 5 sqq.; cf. Ps. 1. 5);
and from the time of Moses to the exile the worship
of Yahweh in Israel was never without sacrifice.
The place in which sacrifice should be offered was
from the very first a matter of moment, altars be-
ing erected preferably in places where there had
been some divine manifestation (Gen. xxviii. 10
sqq.; Ex. xvii. 8 sqq.; Judges vi. 11 sqq.). As
early as Moses the center of Israelitic sacrifice was
the tabernacle of Yahweh, and Lev. xvii. 1 sqq.
even forbade the killing of an animal at any other
place, although Deut. xii. 10 sqq. restricted this
prohibition to sacrificial victims. In Ex. xx. 24,
on the other hand, a number of places of sacrifice
are implied, even though Ex. xxiii. 14 sqq. (cf.
xxxiv. 23 sqq.) indicates that the central sanctuary
already existed. Many Canaanitic shrines were like-
wise transferred to the worship of Yahweh, but
pagan rites were still performed at them, so that it
again became necessary to restrict sacrifice to the
central tabernacle. The concept of a central seat
of Yahweh was never abandoned (cf. Joel iii. 16;
Amos i. 2; Isa. xxviii. 16, xix. 1, xxxi. 9, xxxiii.
14), and centralizing reforms were also proclaimed
by the theocratic kings Asa (II Chron. xiv. 3, but
cf. xv. 17), Jehoshaphat (II Chron. xvii. 6, but cf.
xx. 33), Hezekiah (II Kings xviii. 4, 22), and Josiah
(II Kings xxiii. 8). This centralization of worship
made sacrifice more formal and solemn at the ex-
pense of spontaneity. See Altar; Hexateuch.
The sacrifices of the Israelites were of two gen-
eral types, bloody and unbloody, the former being
animals and the latter the fruits of the land. Bloody
sacrifices, moreover, are also classified (Ex. xx. 24)
as burnt offerings and peace offerings, one object of
the latter being the communal meal. Human sac-
rifices, permitted by the other Semites, were for-
bidden by the Mosaic code, although there is an
obvious allusion to such a custom at
3. Bloody an early period in the account of the
Sacrifices contemplated sacrifice of Isaac by
and Meal Abraham (Gen. xxii.; cf. Mic. vi. 7;
Offerings. Lev. xvii. 11; II Kings iii. 27; and
see Family and Marriage Relations,
Hebrew, § 10; Gezer; Jephthah; Moloch). The
sacrifice of animals, on the other hand, was wide-
spread among the Israelites, although, unlike other
Semites, they sacrificed only domestic animals, and
of these only those which were ritually clean. The
only birds that might be sacrificed were doves, these
often instead of more expensive offerings in the case
of the poor (Lev. v. 7, xii. 8), although any small
clean birds might be used in the ceremony of cleans-
ing a leper (Lev. xiv. 4 sqq.). The sex of the sacri-
ficial victim, generally a male, was also prescribed
in many cases; and the animal was required to be
without blemish, except in the case of voluntary
offerings, where slight imperfections were over-
looked (Lev. xxii. 19 sqq.). The calf, lamb, or goat
should be at least eight days old (Lev. xxii. 27;
Ex. xxii. 30), and rabbinical authority required an
age of less than three years, while in some cases the
age was set at a year (Lev. ix. 3, xii. 6, xiv. 10;
Num. xv. 27, xxviii. 3, 9, 11). Meal (A. V. " meat ")
offerings were in the form of ears of corn parched or
bruised, with the addition of oil and incense (Lev.
ii. 14 sqq.); or as fine flour (Lev. ii. 1 sqq.); or as
unleavened cakes (Lev. ii. 4 sqq.). The use of
leaven or honey (both of which undergo fermenta-
tion) was forbidden, except in the sacrifice of first-
fruits and certain thank-offerings (Lev. ii. 11-12,
vii. 13, xxiii. 17; II Chron. xxxi. 5). The meal
offering might, however, be seasoned with salt
(Lev. ii. 13), as might, according to the Septuagint
of Lev. xxiv. 7, the showbread. According to some
readings of Mark ix. 49, all offerings were salted, as
were burnt offerings (Ezek. xliii. 24). Drink offer-
ings are mentioned in the codes only in connection
with other offerings, although there are traces of
simple libations of water (I Sam. vii. 6; II Sam.
xxiii. 17). The only instance of such libations in
the developed ritual of the Hebrews, however, was
the pouring-out of water from the Pool of Shiloah
at the altar during the feast of tabernacles. Oil
and wine were also important in libations (Gen.
xxviii. 18, xxxv. 14; Num. xxviii. 7, 14; Ecclus. 1.
15). All the materials of sacrifice proper were neces-
sities of life, and the peace offering is accordingly
even called the bread of God (Lev. iii. 11, 16, xxi.
6, 8, 17, xxii. 25; Num. xxviii. 2, 24; Ezek. xii v.
7), while the altar of burnt offering was the " table
that is before the Lord " (Ezek. xii. 22; cf. Mai. i.
7, 12).
The ritual of the sacrifice varied according to the
purpose of the offering, and in the case of sacrifice
of animals a distinction must be drawn between
burnt offerings and communal meals. The burnt
offering, or " whole burnt offering " (Deut. xxxiii.
10; I Sam. vii. 9; Ps. Ii. 21), is fully
4. The described in Lev. i. 3 sqq., and consti-
Burnt Offer- tutes a very ancient, perhaps even the
ing and most primitive, form of sacrifice, ex-
Communal pressing in the widest sense adoration
Meal. of the divinity, and in a manner in-
cluding all the other and more special
forms of sacrifice. This general character rendered
the burnt offering the form best adapted for daily
sacrifice in the name of the nation, and a yearling
lamb was accordingly offered each morning and
each evening (Ex. xxix. 38-42; Num. xxviii. 3-8).
Even gentiles, excluded from all other sacrifices,
might offer burnt offerings, though they were for-
bidden to be present during the ceremony. After
the time of Alexander the Great the pagan rulers of
165
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Saorlfioe
the Jews had burnt offerings sacrificed for them,
and when, on the outbreak of the war with Rome,
Eleaxar forbade any sacrifice to be accepted from
a non-Jew, his prohibition marked an open breach
with Roman sovereignty (Josephus, War, II., xvii. 2) .
The second Israelitic form of animal sacrifice was
the peace offering and communal meal. Regular
family feasts were held on such occasions as new
moons or annually (I Sam. xx. 5-6), and while these
were primarily social, the code of Lev. vii. 11 sqq.
recognizes a number of forms of communal meal with
a distinctly religious basis: thanksgivings, vows, and
freewill offerings, all comprised under the general
terms of " peace offerings " or " sacrifices " (in the
restricted sense of the term). Of these the first was
the most important, probably serving as a thanks-
giving for some special boon; the second was offered
in accordance with a vow made if some specific
prayer was granted; and the third seems to have
been a spontaneous impulse of piety. In the last-
named the strictness of the rule as to the physical
perfection of the sacrificial victim was somewhat
relaxed (Lev. xxii. 23) ; and while male victims were
preferred for the communal meal (Lev. ix. 4, 18;
Num. vii. 17 sqq.), female animals were not ex-
cluded (Lev. iii. 6). The communal sacrifices also
included offerings of food and drink, especially in
the thanksgiving offerings (Lev. vii. 12; Num. xv.
3 sqq.).
In sacrifices of this type the victim was not
slaughtered on the north side of the altar, as in the
burnt offering, but the chief difference between the
two categories was that in the communal sacrifice
the fat covering the intestines, kidneys, liver, etc.
(and, in the case of sheep, the tail), alone were
burned as being the choicest parts, and so most
acceptable to Yahweh (Lev. iii. 3-5, 9-11, 14-16,
ix. 19-20). The breast of the victim was devoted
to the " wave offering " (Lev. vii. 30), in which the
priest placed the object to be waved upon the hands
of the sacrificer, then put his own hands under the
hands of the one who brought the offering, and
moved them backward and forward, thus appar-
ently indicating the reciprocity of giving and ac-
cepting between the sacrificer and the divinity.
The upper part of the right hind leg (A. V., " shoul-
der ") was made a " heave offering," a term orig-
inally connoting, no doubt, some sort of dedicatory
gesture (Lev. vii. 32). The heave offering and the
wave offering were the share of the priests, who
might eat them with their families at any place rit-
ually clean (Lev. x. 14), the priests also receiving
one cake of each oblation (Lev. vii. 14) and the two
lambs of the Passover peace offering (Lev. xxiii.
19-20). As a rule, however, the sacrificers ate the
offering at a sacred meal celebrated by larger or '
smaller numbers (cf. Deut. xxvii. 7; I Kings viii.
03). To these communal meals guests, especially
Levites and the poor, were also invited (Deut. xvi.
11), although only those who were ritually pure
might partake (Lev. vii. 19-21). Such communal
meals were essentially joyous in character. What-
ever remained must be preserved from defilement.
The sacrifice of thanksgiving must be eaten on the
day it was offered (Lev. vii. 15; xxii. 30) ; all other
communal meals must be consumed at latest on the
second day; and on the third day all fragments re-
maining must be burned (Lev. vii. 16 sqq., xix. 6
sqq.), as must all sacrificial meat coming in contact
with anything unclean (Lev. vii. 19).
Among special sacrifices the most important were
the sin and the guilt (A.V.," trespass ") offerings, the
former primarily an expiation for some ethical fault,
the latter a satisfaction for the reparation of some
injury. The guilt offering was especially required in
case of defrauding or materially injuring
5. Sin and the temple or private individuals. In
Guilt case of defrauding the temple, restitu-
Offerings. tion should be made in full, with a fine of
one-fifth of the amount and a ram as
the guilt offering (Lev. v. 14-16); and a similar
punishment was imposed on one who had defrauded
or otherwise financially injured his fellow (Lev. vi.
1-7), Num. v. 5-10 also requiring public confession
on the part of the defendant and stipulating that
the fine should go to the priest if the man injured
should " have no kinsman to recompense the tres-
pass unto " (Num. v. 5-10). Other forms of in-
fringement of the rights of fellow Israelites were
also to be atoned for by guilt offerings (Lev. xix.
20-22), while a leper and an unclean Nazirite, as
having their capacity to worship Yahweh tempo-
rarily interrupted, were likewise obliged to offer
guilt offerings (Lev. xiv. 11 sqq.; Num. vi. 12). In
similar fashion Ezra required a ram as a guilt offer-
ing from those who had trespassed against Yahweh
by marrying gentile wives (Ezra x. 18-19); and
Lev. v. 17-19 also makes provision for a guilt offer-'
ing in case of unwitting transgression of the law.
The ritual of the guilt offering is given in Lev. vii.
1-7. The victim is a ram, except in the case of the
leper and the Nazirite, when it is a yearling lamb
(Num. vi. 12); and the laying on of hands was ob-
served (cf. Lev. iv. 33 with vii. 7), probably with
open acknowledgment of the transgression for which
the sacrifice was made. Throughout the ceremony
the form of the sacrifice was stressed as a debt to
Yahweh and his representatives.
The underlying concept of the sin offering, on the
other hand, is not so much that of paying a debt
as of cleansing the sacrificer from sin, so that the
chief factor is the use of the blood of the sacrificial
victim. The sacrifices here are far more varied
than in the guilt offering, depending both on the
circumstances of the sacrificer and on his particu-
lar fault. The victim in the case of very grave sins
was a young bullock, which was offered on the Day
of Atonement, in case the high priest sinned in his
official capacity of representative of the people, in
the event of a sin committed by the people as a
whole, and at the consecration of priests and Le-
vites (Lev. xvi. 3 sqq., iv. 3 sqq., 13 sqq.; Ex.
xxix. 10-14, 36; Num. vii. 8). A ram was sacri-
ficed for the people on the Day of Atonement (Lev.
xvi. 5), as well as at other feasts and new moons
(e.g., Num. xxviii. 15, 22, 30, xxix. 5), and in case
of unwitting sin on the part of a ruler or of the entire
people (Lev. iv. 23; Num. xv. 24). A she-goat or
young ewe was sufficient atonement for the sin of
an ordinary Israelite (Lev. iv. 28, 32, v. 6); while
a yearling ewe was required as a sin offering in
cleansing a leper (Lev. xiv. 10) and at the comple-
Saorinoe
Saoriatan
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
166
tion of a Nazirite's vow (Num. vi. 14). Turtledoves
and young pigeons were used in purifications (Lev.
zii. 6, xv. 14, 29; Num. vi. 10), and also served as
substitutes for a lamb (Lev. v. 7, xiv. 22) ; while if
any could not afford even a dove, he might offer,
in cases of ordinary sin, a tenth of an ephah of
meal. In the sin offering the blood of the victim
is not simply sprinkled on the altar, but is applied
to specified places. In the offering of an individual
Israelite (except the high priest), and in the con-
secration of a priest (probably also in the case of a
Levite), some of the blood of the goat or lamb was
smeared on the horns of the altar of burnt offering,
and the rest was poured on the ground (Ex. xxix.
12; Lev. iv. 25, 30, 34). At sin offerings for the
entire people or for the high priest (except on the
Day of Atonement, q.v.) the blood of the sacrificial
bullock was sprinkled seven times against the veil of
the sanctuary and smeared on the horns of the altar,
the remainder being poured on the ground (Lev.
iv. 5 sqq., 16 sqq.). The ritual of the sin offering
for the Day of Atonement is elaborately described
in Lev. xvi. The flesh of the sin offering was sacro-
sanct, and rigid regulations were laid down where
and by whom it might be eaten (Lev. vi. 25-26) or
burned (Ex. xxix. 14; Lev. iv. 11-12, 21, vi. 23,
xvi. 27). Any one besprinkled with the blood of a
sin offering must wash in a sacred place, and special
provision was protection of the flesh of the sacri-
ficial victim against defilement (Lev. vi. 27-28),
and he who burned the flesh must bathe and wash
his clothes before returning to the camp (Lev. xvi.
28). The exact details concerning the sin offering
of doves are uncertain; but in the meal offering of
the very poor the priest was to cast a handful upon
the altar, taking the residue as his share (Lev. v.
12-13).
It is evident, from Lev. xvii. 11, that the blood
of the sacrificial victim was held to protect the life
of the sacrificer in virtue of the animal's life in the
blood. The actual slaughtering of the victim was
merely to obtain the blood, not to inflict upon the
victim the penalty merited by the sinner, the essen-
tial basis of the act being the forfeiture of an ani-
mal instead of a human life to the deity. In the
sin offering, moreover, the blood is not merely im-
portant, as in the burnt offering and the communal
meal, but the one essential; and the sin offerings
are, accordingly, invariably bloody, except in the
case of the very poor. It must be noted, however,
that only involuntary sins are atoned for by these
sacrifices (cf. Lev. iv. 2-3, 22, 27, v. 15, 18, xxii.
14; Num. xv. 25-26). Accordingly, an involun-
tary homicide has provision made for him in the
" cities of refuge " (Num. xxxv. 11, 15; Josh. xx.
3, 9), but one who commits an intentional murder
must die (Num. xv. 30).
The pre-exilic ritual of sacrifice passed through
a process of development, Moses adapting to the
worship of Yahweh rites in use among the Israel-
ites from times immemorial. The theory is fre-
quently advanced, however, that all ritual develop-
ments connected with the sacrifice are post-exilic,
the sacrifice having previously been purely volun-
tary and regularly connected with joyous sacri-
ficial meals. Accordingly, it is held that the sole
distinctive feature in Israelite sacrifice was that
it was offered to Yahweh instead of to Baal or
Moloch; the Priest Code alone stresses
6. Develop- the form of the rite; passages like
ment of Amos iv. 4-5, v. 21 sqq.; Hos. vi. 6,
Israelitic viii. 11 sqq.; Isa. i. 11 sqq.; Jer. vi.
Sacrifice. 19-20, vii. 21 sqq. show that at the time
of the great prophets a ritual sacrificial
code was unknown, Ezekiel (especially xl.-xlviii.)
being the first to attach extreme importance to the
sacrifice. But this theory ignores the fact that
even in remotest antiquity the sacrifice is a rite of
prime importance; and the Book of the Covenant
itself contains ritual prescriptions concerning the
sacrifice (Ex. xx. 24-26, xxiii. 18-19, cf. xxxiv. 25-
26) which allow of no doubt either as regards the
importance attached to the sacrifice or as to the
previous existence of fully developed regulations
governing the sacrificial ritual. Again, the pas-
sages just listed from the prophets neither presup-
pose the non-existence of such a ritual, nor do they
polemize against either a liturgy of this character
or against sacrifice in itself, but only against a false
estimate of it, complicated by a refusal to render
due obedience to God. The prophetic passages,
therefore, like analogous ones which might readily
be quoted from the Psalms, are to be explained in
the spirit of I Sam. xv. 22. At the same time, even
after Moses there was greater freedom in sacrificial
ritual than is permitted by the Priest Code; and
there was also no rigid adherence to the Mosaic
regulations, but, on the one hand, a priestly de-
velopment which finds its culmination in the Priest
Code, and, on the other hand, popular deviations
from the use of the priests at the central sanctuary.
In the revision of the liturgy in Ezekiel, finally, the
conscious and sovereign freedom of God as the law-
giver finds expression in contrast to the letter of
the Mosaic code. There is, however, no reason to
suppose, as is frequently held, that sin and guilt
offerings are first mentioned by Ezekiel, for such a
hypothesis finds immediate refutation in Hos. iv.
8; and it is equally idle to hold that, because
frankincense is first mentioned (outside of the
Torah) in Jer. vi. 20, it was in any sense an innova-
tion.
For the ethnic concept and practise of sacrifice
see Comparative Religion, VI., 1, d; for the
Christian idea in connection with the death of Christ
see Atonement; and Jesus Christ, Threefold
Office of; and for Roman Catholic doctrines see
Mass. (C. von Orelu.)
Bibliography: On ethnic sacrifice, beside the literature
adduced under Comparative Religion, consult: C. F.
Nagelsbach, Homerische Theologie, Nuremberg, 1884;
H. Zimmern, BeUrage but Kenntniss der bobylonischen Re-
ligion, Leipsio, 1896; L. R. Faroell. Cults of the Greek
State*, vols, i.-v., Oxford, 1896-1007; W. W. Fowler,
Roman Festival* of the Period of the Republic, London,
1899; E. B. Tylor, Primitive Culture, 4th ed., ib. 1903;
E. Crawley, The Tree of Life, a Study of Religion, ib. 1905;
A. Bros, La Religion des peuples non civilises, pp. 132
sqq., Paris, 1907; Jane E. Harrison, Prolegomena to the
Study of Greek Religion, 2d ed., Cambridge, 1908; G.
Foucart, Methode comparative dans Vhist. des religions,
chap, iv., Paris. 1909; S. Reinach, Orpheus. Hist, gen-
erals des religions, ib. 1909, Eng. transl.. Orpheus, a Gen-
eral Hist, of Religions, London and New York, 1909; A. le
Boy, La Religion des primitifs, passim, Paris, 1909; P.
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Stengel. Op/erbrauclu der Qriechen, Leipsio. 1910; Woll-
bausen, Heidentum.
An important class of books on 0. T. sacrifice u that
watch deals with O. T. theology (Cully given in and under
Biblical Tniaiooir); the discussion of PeoUteuchnl
origins also brought out much which had to do with sacri-
fice (see Hrxatecch); besides the above, the commen-
taries on the Hexaleuch aro of course valuable. Special
works are: F. Babr. Symbotik da motaiechen Kultut, Li.
189 sqq.. Heidelberg. 1837; J, H. Kurts, Der aUteetanient-
liche Opferkultut. Milau. 1862, Eng. trust. . rtwsflftlflrl
ttVrsAip of the 0. T„ Edinburgh. 1863: J. A. Seise, The
Gaepct in Levilicut: or, an Exposition of the Hebrew Ritual,
3d ed.. Philadelphia, 1875: A. Stewart. The Mosaic Saeri-
fica, Edinburgh, 1883; H. C. Trumbull. The Blood Cove-
nant. New York. 1885; K. F. Willis. Tht Worehip of the
Old Covenant. London. 1887; J. 0. Murphy, Saer&SJ at
set forth in Scripture, ib. 1888; A. Cave. Scriptural Doc-
trine of Sacrifice, Edinburgh, 1890; E. W. Edersbeim,
The Rite* and Worehip of the Jewe. New York, 1891; A.
Scott, Sacrifice: its Prophecy and Fulfilment, Edinburgh,
1894: W. L. Baxter. Sanctuary and Sacrifice, London.
1835; A. Kampbauseu, Dae Verhaitnie* dee fJenechenap-
fert eur ieraditiechen Rdujion. Bonn. 189*1; K. Marti. Ge-
tchichtc der ieraeliluchen Religion. 3d ed., sirruirjurg. l»iL'i7;
Hubert and Muss, in L'Annle eociologiaue, 1S'J7- Wis,
pp. 29-138 (important): R. Smend, Lehrbuch der aUleila-
•nentlichen Heliaioniocechichte, Freiburg. 1809; H. Bnboftl
in AJT, iv (1900), 257 sqq.; R. C. Moberly, -4ronBn«il
and Ptrtmalitu. London, 1901: C. Mominort, Menechenop-
fer bei dm alien Bebratrn, Leipgic, 1905; C. F. Kent,
Student*- Q. T„ iv. 227 sqq., New York, 1907; H. L.
.Strnck, The Jew and Human Sacrifice: Human Blood and
Jewith Ritual, ib. 1S09; S. J. Smith. Religion in the Ma-
king, chnp. ix.. ib. 1910; O. Schmits. LHeOp/mmsenauuna
dss epateren Judenlwni tend die Opferaueiaoen da N.
T.. Tubingen, 1910; Beruiagsr, ArchHologic, pp. 302-
387; Nowack, Arehaologic, vol. ii.; Schmder, KAT. pp.
SIM sqq.; DB. iv. 329-349: SB, iv. 4183-4233; DCO.
ii. 542-648; JE. x. 816-4128; Vigouraux, Dictionnair*,
fssc. xxxv., oole. 1311-37 (a broad discussion).
SACRILEGE: In the wider sense, any injury or
dishonor done to a sacred object; in the narrower
and stricter sense, the theft of a sacred object (see
Sacramentals), without necessarily involving per-
sonal violence. The early Roman law imposed the
severest penalties upon this crime (" Let him be
treated as a parricide who steals or carries off aught
sacred or what is entrusted to a sacred person,"
Cicero, De Ugibus, ii. 9); a law of Julius Cesar, the
Lex Julia peeulatus, made more detailed provision
against it, and it was later definitely distinguished
from that of embezzlement, or the illegal appro-
priation of public funds. The Roman law, how-
ever, covered only the removal of a sacred object
from a sacred place, not from any other place or
that of an unconsec rated object from a sacred
place. In the imperial period the penalties were
graded according to the exact nature of the offense,
and culminated in the most severe forms of capital
punishment. The Germanic law, which punished
aeverely violations of sanctuary, extended the Ro-
man principle to cover all thefts of sacred objects
from any place, or of any object from a sacred
place; and the canon law took the same view. The
penalties, besides restoration or compensation, in-
cluded fines, penances, and excommunication. In
the Middle Ages sacrilege was regarded as a crime
against both Church and State, and might be pun-
ished by both. For example, the great ordinance
issued by Charles V. in 1572 prescribed penalties
varying with the offense; thus the theft of a mon-
strance with the host was punished by burning;
* that of other consecrated vessels of gold or silver,
or breaking into a consecrated church. IliIxitlhIc.
or sacristy with intent to steal, by death at the dis-
cretion of the court; and the theft of other hallowed
objects, or unconaecrated objects from u holy phice,
with severer penalties than ordinary stealing Such
an attitude was adapted only to the Roman Catho-
lic theory of an inherent sanctity in such objects;
but it exercised no little influence on the Protes-
tant state churches, ultliongh the severer penalties
gradually fell into disuse. (P. HiNScniust.)
BiBLToaruPnr: Bingham, Orioina, VIII., x„ XVI., vi. 23-
25; Gregory of Tours, De aloria martin-urn. chap, ivii (For
iWrecAl der Rimer. Leipsic. 1844: K. Binding, Lehrbuch
dee deultchen StrafrecAle, i. 157-158. ib. 1898: KL. x.
1519-21: DC4.ii. 1834-35 (gives list of acts classed ae sac-
rilegious); Vigouroux. Ditfionnaire. fssc. xxxv. 1337; JE,
SACRIST AH, SEXT0H: Two forms of what wm
originally the same word, differentiated in modern
English so that the former designates in Roman
Catholic churches especially the official who has
charge of the vestments and other property kept in
the sacristy, while the latter is in more general usage
for one who takes care of the whole church build-
ing. The title cvMos etxiesia seems to occur first in
the .Spanish monasteries, denoting the monk who
had charge of the conventual church. ThuB Isidore
of Seville [Regula, xix.) says: " It pertains to the
office of the guardian of the sacristy to have the
care of the church, to give the signals in the offices,
to take charge of the veils, sacred vestments and
vessels, books and other instruments, the oil for the
sanctuary lamps, the candles, and other lights."
The same term was commonly used in the Prank-
ish church, where it is sometimes applied to the
bishop or abbot or pastor of a parish church. From
this usage it is found in the Carolingian period fre-
quently used us synonymous with rector. The
term was used all through the Middle Ages in cathe-
dral and collegiate churches, but now no longer for
the abbot or provost, but for the monk or canon
who had the cure of souls. In the more important
cathedral churches, e.g., Cologne, the cathedral
castas took rank as a prelate. In many collegiate
churches his duties included the custody of the cor-
porate seal. In closer harmony with the il';;nili"ii
given by Isidore is the Carolingian usage of the
term cuslo* thi-Muri, (lie oftiriiil who h;i<] charge of
the church property, or that cited from an old Ordo
Romano* in the decretal of Gregory IX., where
the castas eccUsia is mentioned as a subordinate of
the archdeacon charged with such o
describes. The modem use of the ti
derived from this aspect of the functions of the
cusfos, and his duties are minutely prescribed not
only in the decrees of Roman Catholic provincial
councils but also in numerous Reformation church
constitutions, which lead up to the later German
precentor and schoolmaster, as to the English parish
clerk, who was such an important functionary down
to the middle of the nineteenth century.
(A. Haucx.)
Bibuoorhpht: A. L. Riehtor, Lehrbuch da katholitchen nod
tvanoditchen Kirchenmht,. 8th ed.. by W Knhl, p. 458,
Leipsio. 1388; F. Dreising, Dae Aral dee KVeteri in der
•vanaditehen Kirche, Berlin, 1864.
Saoy
Sailer
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
168
SACY, LOUIS ISAAC LEMAISTRE DE. See
Lemaistbe de Sacy, Louis Isaac.
SADDUCEES. See Pharisees and Sadducees.
SADOLETO, s^'do-te'to, JACOPO: Italian car-
dinal; b. at Modena 1477; d. at Rome Oct. 18,
1547. He received a humanistic training at Fer-
rara, which he completed at Rome during the pon-
tificate of Alexander VI., the earliest results being
the three treatises De Cajo Curtio, De Laocoontis
statua, and De laudibus philosophies. Here, too, he
was ordained to the priesthood and was soon ap-
pointed apostolic secretary by Leo X. to change
the style of the papal briefs from barbarous Latin-
ity to Ciceronian elegance. Though later raised to
the episcopate of Carpentras, Sadoleto remained in
Rome until after the death of Leo X., returning
once more at the request of Clement VII. He was
at Carpentras when Rome was sacked by the troops
of Charles V. in May, 1527, but the event turned
his thoughts to serious themes, evinced in his De
Uteris recte instituendis (Venice, 1533) and his Com-
mentarius in epistolam Sancti Pauli ad Romanes
(Lyons, 1535). In 1534 he was raised to the car-
dinalate by Paul III., and accordingly resumed
residence in Rome, where, in 1536, he took part in
the preparation of the Consilium de emendanda
ecclesia (see Paul III.), the result exposing him and
his colleagues to suspicion of heresy. His commen-
tary on Romans was forbidden as Semipelagian,
although the prohibition was withdrawn after
Sadoleto had appealed to the Sorbonne and had
modified certain passages. On June 19, 1537,
Sadoleto addressed a letter to Melanchthon urging
him to be reconciled with the Roman Catholic
Church, and in Mar., 1539, he wrote to the munic-
ipal council of Geneva to restore that city to the
Roman Catholic faith, an act which evoked
Calvin's brilliant Responsio ad SadoleU epistolam
(Sept. 1, 1539). Both letters are given in Eng-
lish in Tracts Relating to the Reformation by John
Calvin, transl. by H. Beveridge, i. 3-71, Edin-
burgh, 1844.
Sadoleto was one of the number who based all
hopes of the amelioration of the Church on the con-
vening of a general council, and while, as in the
sweeping inquiry into the existence of heresy at
Modena in 1542, he deprecated extreme measures,
he made no surrender of church doctrine. At the
same time, he was no friend of the Reformation,
and he was in hearty sympathy with the suppres-
sion of the Waldensians in Cabrieres and Mlrindol
in May, 1545; and letters written by Sadoleto 's
nephew in the preceding year show that influence
in this direction was brought to bear upon Francis
I. from Sadoleto himself. In 1543 he was recalled
to Rome to assist in the preparations for the Coun-
cil of Trent, and remained there until his death.
His principal writings, besides those already men-
tioned, were: De philosophia (Lyons, 1538); Philo-
sophical consolationes et meditationes in adversis;
Ad principes populosque Germanioz exhortatio; and
Epistolarum libri sedecim ad Paulum Sadoletum
(Lyons, 1550). His collected works were edited at
Mainz in 1607, and, more fully, at Verona in four
volumes in 1737. K. Benrath.
Bibliography: Lives are prefixed to the " Collected
Works," ut supra. Notices from contemporary and later
literature are given in A. Teissier, &loaes des hommes sa-
vants, vol. i., Leyden, 1715. Consult further: G. von
Schulthess-Rechberg, Der Kardinal Jacopo Sadoleto,
Zurich, 1909; F. Cancellieri, Vita del Cardinal Sadoleto,
Rome, 1823; A. Pencaud, Fragments biographiques sur
J. Sadolet, Lyons, 1849; A. Joly, ttude stir J. Sadolet,
Caen, 1856; A. Zimmermann, Kardinal Pole, sein Leben
und seine Schriften, p. 389, Regensburg, 1893; M. Haile.
Life of Reginald Pole, passim, London, 1910; KL, x. 1524-
1525; Lichtenberger, ESR, xi. 387-389.
SAEGMUELLER, seg'mul-ler, JOHANNES BAP-
TIST: German Roman Catholic; b. at Winterreute
(a village near Biberach, 23 m. s.s.w. of Ulm),
Wurttemberg, Feb. 24, 1860. He was educated at
the University of Tubingen (Ph.D., 1888) and the
theological seminary at Rottenburg; was curate at
Alpirsbach (1884-87); lecturer at the Wilhelm-
stift, Tubingen (1887-93); was appointed associate
professor of history in the University of Tubingen
(1893), where since 1896 he has been professor of
church history and pedagogics. In addition to his
work as associate editor of the Tubinger theologi-
sche Quartalschrift and the Archiv fur katholisches
Kirchenrecht, he has written Die Papstwahlen und
die Staaten von 1^7-1555 (Tubingen, 1890) ; Die
Papstwahlbullen und das staatliche Recht der Ex-
clusive (1892); Zur Geschichte des Kardinalats, ein
Traktat des Bischofs von Feltre und Treviso Teodoro
de' LeUi uber das Verhdltnis vom Primal und Kar-
dinalat (Freiburg, 1893); Die Th&tigkeit und Stel-
lung der Kardindle bei Papst Bonifaz VIII. (1896) ;
Lehrbuch des katholischen Kirchenrechts (1904, 2d
ed., 1909); Die kirchliche Aufkldrung am Hofe Her-
tog Karl Eugens von Wurttemberg (1906) ; Die Tren-
nung von Kirche und Stoat (Mainz, 1907); Die
Bischofswahl bei Gratian (Cologne, 1908); and
Wissenschaft und Glaube in der kirchlichen Auf-
kldrung (1910).
SAGITTARIUS, sa"gi^ta'ri-us (SCHUETZE),
KASPAR: German Lutheran theologian and his-
torian; b. at Luneburg (68 m. n.n.e. of Hanover)
Sept. 23, 1643; d. at Jena Mar. 9, 1694. He was
educated at the University of Helmstadt, where his
studies took the widest range, and after preaching
at Helmstadt, Luneburg, and elsewhere, and visit-
ing Brunswick, Magdeburg, Halberstadt, and Copen-
hagen, he completed his training at Leipsic, Witten-
berg, Jena, and Altdorf. In 1668 he accepted a call
to Saalfeld as rector of the school there, and three
years later was appointed to a professorship at
Jena, being transferred to the chair of history in
1674. His energy was thenceforth devoted pri-
marily to the history of German Protestantism,
especially in Saxony and Thuringia. Sagittarius
was also involved in a number of controversies, of
which the most noteworthy was his defense of Piet-
ism in and after 1691. Among his numerous wri-
tings special mention may be made of the following:
Harmonia historia passionis Jesu Christi (Jena,
1671; revised edition 1684); Historia antiquissima
urbis Bardevici (1674); Epistola de antiquo Thur-
ingia statu (1675); Nucleus historian Germanics
(1675) ; Dissertatio de prcecipius scriptoribus historia
Germanica (1675; the first attempt at a history of
German historiography); Antiquitates regni Thut
169
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Saoy
Salle
er
ingici (1684); Antiquitates gentilismi et christian-
ismi Thuringici (1685); Antiquitates Ducatus
Thuringici (1688); Memorabilia histories Gothance
(1689); and Theses theologian apologetica de promo-
vendo vero Ckristianismo (1692). His Introductio
in historiam ecclesiasticam et singvlas ejus partes,
which he began in 1692, was continued and com-
pleted by Johann Andreas Schmid (2 vols., Jena,
1718). (Paul Tschackert.)
Bibliography: J. A. Schmid, Commentarius de vita et
acriptis Casp. Sagittarius, Jena, 1713; M. J. C. Zeumer,
Vita pro/esaorum ... in ocademia Jenensi, ib. 1703-06;
Q. Frank, Geschichte der proteetantiechen Theologie, ii. 147,
Leipeic, 1865.
SAILER, sail'er, JOHANN MICHAEL VON: Ro-
man Catholic bishop of Regensburg; b. at Aresing (a
village near Schrobenhausen, 16 m. s.s.w. of Ingol-
stadt), Upper Bavaria, Nov. 17, 1751; d. at Re-
gensburg May 20, 1832. He was educated at the
Jesuit colleges of Landsberg (1770-72) and Ingol-
stadt (1773-77), having entered the Society of
Jesus as a novice. On Sept. 23, 1775, he was or-
dained to the priesthood, and in 1777 the Elector
Maximilian III. appointed him lee-
Prof essional turer on philosophy and theology at
Career. Ingolstadt. In 1782 he became sec-
ond professor of dogmatics, but two
years later he was retired on a pension of 240 gul-
dens, since the new elector, Charles Theodore, di-
verted the funds of the college to other uses. The
years immediately following were passed by Sailer
at Ingolstadt as a private scholar. He had already
published his Fragment zur Reformationsgeschichte
der christlichen Theologie (Ulm, 1779) and Theo-
logicB Christiana cum philosophia nexus (Augsburg,
1779), and he now issued his VoUstdndiges Lese- und
Gebetbuch fur katholische Christen (1783) and Ver-
nun/tlehre fur Menschen, wie sie sind, d. i. Anleitung
zur Erkenntnis und Liebe der Wahrheit (3 vols.,
Munich, 1783). In 1784 a new academic career was
opened to Sailer by his appointment as professor
of ethics at the reorganized University of Dillingen,
where the lectures on pastoral theology were soon
placed under his guidance. He contributed essen-
tially to the progress of the institution, but the
methods of teaching in vogue at Dillingen aroused
the suspicions of the faculty of the College of St.
Salvator at Augsburg, and in 1793 a committee of
investigation decided adversely to Dillingen. In
the year following Sailer was removed from his pro-
fessorship, especially as he was suspected, though
unjustly, of sympathy with the Enlightenment.
While professor at Dillingen, he had been active as
an author, writing, among other works, Ueber den
SeJbstmord (Munich, 1785); Predigten bei verschie-
denen Anldssen (3 vols., 1790-92); Kurzgefasste
Erinnerungen an junge Prediger (1792); Gluck-
seligkeitslehre aus VernunftgrUnden (2 parts, 1793);
and Vorlesungen aus der Pastoraltheologie (2 vols.,
1793-94). After being dismissed from Dillingen,
Sailer took up his residence in Munich, but the at-
tacks made upon him compromised his position
with the papal nuncio, Zoglio, as with Elector
Charles Theodore. Under these circumstances
Sailer gladly accepted an invitation, in Jan., 1795,
to the castle of Ebersberg, belonging to the Knights
of Malta. In this retirement he turned again to
literature, producing his Buck von der Nachfolge
Chris ti (Munich, 1794) and his Ecclesice catholicoe de
cultu sanctorum doctrina (1797), as well as his ex-
tremely popular Uebungen des Geistes zur GrUndung
und Forderung eines heiligen Sinnes und Lebens
(Mannheim, 1799), and Brief e aus alien Jahrhun-
derten der christlichen ZeUrechnung (Munich, 1804).
With the accession of Max Joseph I., in 1799, the
entire situation changed. The Enlightenment was
now officially adopted, and on the transfer of the
reorganized University from Ingolstadt to Lands-
hut Sailer was reappointed professor of ethics and
pastoral theology. He now published bis Ueber Erzie-
hung far Erzieher; oder Pddagogik (Munich, 1807);
Grundlehren der Religion (1805); and Handbuch der
christlichen Moral fur kUnftige katholische Seelsorger
(3 vols., 1817-18).
When, at the close of the Napoleonic wars, the
Roman Catholic Church entered upon a phase of
development most favorable for her revival, one of
her most pressing tasks was the filling of the nu-
merous vacant dioceses. In 1818 Sailer was twice
offered the archbishopric of Cologne
Bishop of by the Prussian government, but his
Regensburg. attachment to Bavaria led him to de-
cline. In the following year Max
Joseph proposed him as bishop of Augsburg, only to
have the nomination rejected by the papal nuncio
at Munich. Before long, however, this opposition
vanished, and in 1821 Sailer was made a canon of
the cathedral of Regensburg, and in the following
year (Oct. 28, 1822) he was consecrated titular
bishop of Germanicopolis as coadjutor to the aged
bishop of Regensburg, with right of succession. In
1825 he added to his other duties those of dean of
the cathedral, and, after having declined to be
transferred to the diocese of Passau in 1826, he be-
came full diocesan of Regensburg on Oct. 29, 1829.
His health was, however, already failing, and with-
in the year he was forced to have the assistance of
a bishop-coadjutor, Georg Michael Wittmann, who
succeeded him as full diocesan on his death in 1832.
The importance of Sailer in the German Roman
Catholic episcopate of the nineteenth century waa
due preeminently to the fact that he was the repre-
sentative of a definite type of Roman Catholicism
which enabled the church to recover
Character in a comparatively short time from
and the heavy losses she had incurred at
Influence, the beginning of the century. Deeply
religious and strongly contemplative
in character, he was more than a mere teacher of
theology or governing prelate. He sought to in-
spire others with his own enthusiasm and spirit, to
train up a clergy who should appeal to all that was
best in their parishes, and to lead the way in deeply
needed practical reforms. At the same time, while
manifesting a certain amount of sympathy with the
mystical movement rife at the opening of the nine-
teenth century, and while not unfriendly to Prot-
estants in many respects, he never forgot his con-
sciousness of the superiority and divine mission of
his own communion. Nevertheless, the orthodoxy
of his theological writings was not free from the
suspicion of a taint of the Enlightenment, and
Saint Albans
Saint Gall
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
170
opinion is still divided regarding them. Neither a
statesman of the church nor a polemic theologian,
Sailer's aim was rather the internal reform of his
communion and the revival of confidence and faith
in the Roman Catholic Church. In this he was suc-
cessful, while as a prelate he manfully combated the
contracting of mixed marriages, and through his
influence a school of priests was trained both for
Germany and for Switzerland who united theolog-
ical and secular learning with deep moral earnest-
ness. It may, in a word, be said that Sailer stands
for Roman Catholicism before the rise of Ultra-
montanism. His collected works were edited by
J. Widmer (40 vols., Sulzbach, 1830-41; supple-
mentary volume, 1845). Cabl Mirbt.
Bibliography: An account of Sailer's life by himself is re-
printed in his Werke (ut sup.), xxxix. 267 sqq., from F. J.
Waitsenegger's Gelehrten- und Schriftstellerlexikon, ii. 189-
213, Landshut, 1829. Biographies have been written by:
£. von Schenk, Regensburg, 1838; F. W. Bodemann,
Gotha, 1856; G. Aichinger, Freiburg, 1865; and J. A.
Measmer, Mannheim, 1876. Consult further: A. Lutolf,
Leben und Bekenntnisse dee J. L. Schiffmann, Lucerne,
1860; M. Jocham, Dr. Alois Buchner, Augsburg, 1870;
H. Schmid, Geschichte der katholischen Kirche Deutsch-
lands, pp. 257-314, Munich, 1874; J. H. Reinkens, M. von
Diepenbrock, Leipsic, 1881; F. Nielsen, Aus dem inneren
Leben der katholischen Kirche im 19. Jahrhundert, L 287-
344, Carlsruhe, 1882; J. N. von Ringseis, Brinnerungen,
2 vols., Amberg, 1886; J. Friedrioh, lonaz von DoUinger,
Munich, 1899; F. Nippold, Handbuch der neuesten Kirchen-
Oeschichte, i. 519 sqq., Berlin, 1901; A. Brack, Geechichte
der katholieehen Kirche im 19. Jahrhundert, 2 vols.. Mains
and Munster, 1902-03; KL, x. 1536 sqq.; ADB, zxx.
178-192.
SAINT ALBANS: A town of Hertfordshire,
twenty miles northwest of London, the seat of a
bishopric, with a population of 16,109 (1901). It
derives its name from Saint Alban of Verulam
(q.v.), the Roman town of Verulamium. The cathe-
dral was founded in 1077, and was restored in the
nineteenth century. Names connected with the
place are Matthew of Paris, Sir John Mandeville,
Pope Adrian IV., and Lord Bacon.
Bibliography: A. E. Oibbs, Historical Records of St. Al-
bans, St. Albans, 1888; C. H. Aahdown, St. Albans, His-
torical and Picturesque, ib. 1896; idem, The City of St.
Albans, London, 1907; D. W. Barrett, Sketches of Church
Life in the Diocese of St. Albans, ib. 1902; T. Perkins, The
Cathedral Church of St. Albans, ib. 1903.
SAINT CYRAN. See Du Veboieb, Jean.
SAINT GALL, sent gOl or son gOl,
MONASTERY OF.
Origin (| 1).
Early Services to Learning (| 2).
Increasing Secularisation (| 3).
The Reformation (f 4).
The Closing Struggle (| 5).
The Benedictine monastery of St. Gall, celebrated
for centuries as a center of learning, and situated
in the Swiss town of the same name (19 m. s.e. of
Constance), took its rise from a hermitage estab-
lished, probably in 613, by St. Gallus, a disciple of
Columban (q.v.), with a few companions. It would
seem, however, even from the legend-filled life of
the founder, written toward the end
I. Origin, of the eighth century, that his personal
activity was of only secondary impor-
tance, since he is represented as an anchorite rather
than as the " apostle of the Alemanni "; and
the Christian element was already so strong that he j
had no lack of associates and support. It was but
seldom that he could be induced to leave his cell,
and before many years he died on Oct. 16, probably
about 627. After this the hermitage continued to
exist uneventfully until the first half of the eighth
century, when the real history of the monastery of
St. Gail began with the first abbot, Otmar (720-
759), who, in 747 or 748, substituted the rule of St.
Benedict for that of St. Columban, and likewise re-
placed the Irish monks with his own compatriots,
the Rhaetians. Gifts of money and land were made
from far and near; but, on the other hand, the in-
dependence of the monastery had to be surrendered,
and it came under the control of the bishop of Con-
stance, Otmar's resistance exposing him to eccle-
siastical censure and the secular arm, so that he
died a prisoner on the little island of Werd in the
Rhine (Nov. 16, 759). In 816 the monastery was
made exempt from episcopal control by Louis the
Pious, and in 854 its annual payment of a tax to
Constance, the last remnant of its dependence upon
the see, was abolished.
Abbot Gozbert, elected by the monks themselves
(probably in 816), was the first of the long series
of abbots of St. Gall whose interests embraced the
whole intellectual culture of the period. In 830
Gozbert commenced the entire reconstruction of
the monastery, beginning with a larger
2. Early church to replace one erected appar-
Services to ently by Otmar. A plan of a great
Learning. Benedictine abbey with all accessories
was drawn in Italy especially for St.
Gall, although the topography forbade its entire
acceptance; and this plan, still preserved at St.
Gall (ed. F. Keller, Bauriss des Klosters St. Gallen
vein Jahr 820, Zurich, 1844), constitutes one of the
most important documents of the early Middle
Ages for architecture and culture-history. Gozbert
likewise provided for the increase of the library,
and under his successor, Grimald (841-872), the
first catalogue, listing some 400 books, was drawn
up. There was likewise a flourishing school, dating
back to Otmar and now consisting of a division for
the training of the future regular clergy and one
for the education of secular priests and laymen.
Close relations were also maintained with the in-
stitutions established by Alcuin, as well as with
Fulda, and especially with Reichenau. St. Gall's
rich historical literature began, during the abbacy
of Gozbert, with a Vita Sancti Oalli by the monk
Wettinus, who died in 824 (ed. MGH, Script, ii.,
1829, pp. 1-21), followed by the two works, revised
by Walafrid, of Gozbert's nephew, who bore the
same name: Miraculi Sancti Galli and Vita Sancti
Otmari abbatis Sangallensis (ed. MGH, Script., ii.,
1829, pp. 21-31, 40-47). In like manner Iso (d.
871) wrote a Miranda Sancti Otmari (ed. MGH,
Script., ii. 1829, pp. 47-^54); and Ratpert (d. prob-
ably shortly after 884), distinguished as a teacher,
a poet (even in German), and a historian, began the
great history of the monastery, the Casus Sancti
Galli (ed., with its continuations, MGH, Script.,
ii., 1829, pp. 75-183). To the succeeding genera-
tion of monks belong Notker the Stammerer (see
NoTXBK, 1) and Tuotilo, as well as such abbots as
Solomon III. (d. 920) and Hartmann (d. 925). The
171
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Saint Albans
Saint Gall
first-named gave new form to the services by his
systematic use of Sequences (q.v.), besides being,
according to later tradition, the author of the an-
tiphon Media vita, and also wrote the Ge&ta Karoli
Magni (ed. MGH, Script, ii., 1829, pp. 726-763);
Tuotilo was distinguished as artist; and Solomon,
like many of his monks, was conspicuous as a poet.
With the death of Solomon, however, the state of
the monastery changed, its steady progress being
hindered by the indifference of the secular rulers,
the frequent change of abbots and their inferior de-
gree of ability, the invasion of the Hungarians in
926, the fire of 937, and the Saracen inroads.
Nevertheless, in the tenth and early eleventh cen-
turies the monastery could again number first-class
men, especially Dean Ekkehard (d. 973) and his
four nephews. The first-named was not only a
distinguished economist, but also the author of the
Waltharius manufortis; and among the pupils of
his famous nephew Notker Labeo (see Notker, 4)
was Ekkehard IV. (d. about 1060), the author of
the Liber benedictionum and a busy glossator and
poet, as well as one of those who continued Rat-
pert's Casus Sancti Galli. Besides history and
literature, mathematics, astronomy, and medicine
were cultivated at St. Gall by Notker Medicus (see
Notker, 2). A reminiscence of the Irish origin of
the monastery, moreover, may perhaps be traced
in its cultivation of calligraphy and music. Waldo,
who resigned the abbacy of St. Gall for that of
Reichenau in 784, was remarkable for his skill in
calligraphy, and the miniatures and the drawings
of the Irish manuscripts of St. Gall clearly show
Celtic coloring and ornamentation. These were,
however, importations and exercised only a second-
ary influence, but when Grimald became abbot,
he initiated a revival both of calligraphy and mini-
ature painting which reached its acme in the Caro-
lingian style and lasted far into the dynasty of the
Ottos.
In 1034 St. Gall was placed by Conrad II. under
the Cluniac reform, but though the monks firmly
resisted the innovation, the unsuccessful attempt
being terminated by the voluntary
3. Increas- resignation of the Cluniac abbot, Nort-
ing Secular- pert, in 1072, the spiritual power of
ization. the monastery was broken. It became
involved in political strife after 1077,
Abbot Ulrich III. taking the side of Henry IV.
against the pope, and himself being opposed by
two anti-abbots. Ulrich's partisanship also brought
him into conflict both with Reichenau and with
Constance; the country about St. Gall was devas-
tated; and learning in the monastery sank to a low
level, even the Casus Sancti Galli being kept only
indifferently, and its concluding portion being
written in German by a layman, Christian Kuche-
meister. St. Gall had been completely secularized,
yet as a spiritual principality it maintained its im-
portance, embracing the territory between Ror-
schach and Wil and the mountain districts of Ap-
penzell. Among the abbots were many of ability,
though more knightly than spiritual in type, such
as Ulrich IV., Conrad of Busnang, and Berchtold.
Meanwhile, what in the tenth century had been the
little village of St. Gall had been steadily increasing in
importance, and simultaneously with the rise of Ru-
dolph of Hapsburg, it constituted itself an imperial
city, soon even attempting to effect a confederation
of the Swabian cities. The closing centuries of the
Middle Ages, moreover, brought the monastery of
St. Gall into conflict with the Swiss confederation;
and though the antithesis came to an end on the
incorporation of the spiritual principality of St.
Gall, as part of the German Empire, into the con-
federation, the abbots still maintained connection
with the empire and, when they judged it to their
advantage, assumed a peculiar intermediate posi-
tion. Under Swiss protection the Appenzell vas-
sals of St. Gall threw off their allegiance, but, on
the other hand, the uprising of the shepherds, which
for a time threatened the very existence of the mon-
astery, was suppressed in 1408. Such was the north-
eastern spread of the influence of the confederation,
however, that in 1451 Abbot Caspar formed an
alliance with the two cities of Zurich and Lucerne,
and the two cantons of Schwyz and Glarus, the
city of St. Gall, which had now become entirely in-
dependent, joining this league three years later.
Henceforth abbey and city, like Appenzell, which
entered their confederacy in 1452, took an active
part in Swiss affairs, as in the struggles against
Charles the Bold, Maximilian, and the Swabian
League.
The first abbot of St. Gall not of noble birth,
Ulrich Rdsch (1463-91), strove indefatigably to
unite all the prerogatives and possessions of his
monastery, and in 1469 purchased the suzerainty of
the Toggenburg from the heirs of the extinct house
which had held it. He thus came into
4. The conflict with the city of St. Gall and
Reforma- with Appenzell, and though circum-
tion. stances so favored him that he was
able to crush them, a generation after
his death the city seemed on the point of triumph-
ing over the abbey. Zwingli, born in the Toggenburg,
manifested special hatred of the monastery of St.
Gall, and in this he was abetted by the burgomas-
ter of the city of St. Gall, Joachim von Watt (q.v.),
an enthusiastic advocate of the new doctrines. In
1529 the cloisters, deserted by the monks, were
seized by the city, and Protestantism worked its
will in the abbey church; while from the archives
of the monastery were taken the materials which
enabled Watt (Vadianus) to write his Grdssere Chro-
nik der Aebte and Kleinere Chronik der Aebte (ed. E.
Gtf tzinger, St. Gall, 1875-77) . The death of Zwingli
and the end of the second Cappel war in 1531 trans-
formed the situation, and in the following year the
new abbot, Diethelm Blaarer, reentered his abbey.
The old faith was reembraced, except in the city of
St. Gall and in the Toggenburg, and both Diethelm
and his successors speedily revived the spiritual and
material preeminence of St. Gall. Joachim Opfer
(1577-94) was a martyr to his devotion to the suf-
ferers from pestilence; and Bernhard Mailer (1594-
1630) and Pius Reher (1630-54) brought the disci-
pline and administration of the abbey to such a
point that St. Gall was justly placed at the head of
the new Swiss Benedictine congregations, and lost
territory was regained. Learning was revived in
equal measure; the abbey had its own press after
Saint Gall
Saint-Xaur
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
172
1633; and the theological attainments of Abbot
Celestine, Count Sfondrati of Milan (1687-96),
were so great as to win him the cardinal's hat.
The last century of the monastery's existence
opened with the stormy period of the last great
civil war in Switzerland (1712), brought on mainly
by the confessional divisions and the demagogic
agitations among the Toggenburg vassals of the
abbey. The Protestants conquered,
5. The to the detriment of the monastery, and
Closing it was only after the death of the stern
Struggle. Abbot Leodegar Burgisser (1697-
1717) that St. Gall had peace. But in
succeeding years the abbey resumed its honored
career, so that Abbot Celestine Gugger (1740-67)
could carry out extensive architectural plans, not
only constructing the imposing granary in Ror-
schach, but also rebuilding the monastery itself,
especially the late renaissance church on the site
of the venerable medieval structure, and the re-
fectory. The next abbot, Beda Angehrn, sought
to introduce reforms in school and prison, but weak
economic administration plunged the monastery
into financial difficulties, and the abbot had to en-
counter strong opposition from the younger monks,
and later* even from the older ones, though he
emerged from tjie struggle triumphant, thanks to
the aid of the Confederation. The succeeding ab-
bacy of Pancratius Vorster was likewise marked
by storm, and though the literary treasures of the
monastery were saved both from the French Revo-
lution and from the greed of the municipality, and
though the abbot returned to his abbey with the
victorious imperial troops in 1799, the second battle
of Zurich forced him again to flee, and the doom of
St. Gall was foreshadowed. The abbot fought
bravely to regain his rights, but in 1805 the sup-
pression of the monastery was decreed. Even the
troublous times that came upon Switzerland after
Napoleon's fall could not aid Pancratius, who died
in the monastery of Muri in 1829. The plan of a
diocese of St. Gall, thwarted in great part by the
attitude assumed by Abbot Pancratius, was later
realized; and after the existence of the double
bishopric of Chur and St. Gall (1823-44), the latter
received independent diocesan rank in 1844. At
the suppression in 1805 the property of the founda-
tion was divided between the whole canton and its
Roman Catholic portion, the former receiving the
palace as a government building, and the latter the
treasures of the library and archives, which, after
many vicissitudes, had been regained in 1804. The
monastery itself, after being used as a spinning fac-
tory from 1801 to 1808, was made a Roman Catholic
gymnasium. (G. Meyer von Knonau.)
Bibliography: The chief sources are collected in MGH,
Script., vols, i.-ii., and MGH, Ltbri confraternitatum S.
Gatti (1884). Collections of sources of especial value are
to be found in the Mittheilungen and other publications of
the St. Gall Historischer Verein, 1862 sqq. Other sources
are: E. L. Dummler, Formdbuch des Bischofs Salomo III.,
Leipsic, 1857; H. Wartmann, Urkundenbuch der Abtei St.
Gotten, parts i.-iii., Zurich, 1863-82. Consult: I. von Arx,
Geschichte des Cantons St. Gotten, 3 vols., St. Gall, 1810-
1813 (still the best special history on any part of Switzer-
land); F. Weidmann, Geechichle . . . St. Gotten unter den
rtceen letzten F&ntabten, ib. 1834; idem, Geschichte der
Bxbliothek von St. Gotten, ib. 1841 (both based on Arx);
F. W. Rettberg. Observationes ad vitam S. Galli spectantes.
Marburg, 1842; A. Schubiger, Die Sangerschule St. Gal-
lent, Einaiedeln, 1858; J. H. A. Ebrard, Iro-schoUische
Missions- Kircf^e des 6. bis 8. Jahrhunderts, Gutersloh,
1873; J. R. Rahn, Geschichte der bildenden KUnste in der
Schweii, Zurich, 1876; F. X. Wetsel, Die Wissenschajt und
Kunst im Kloster St. Gotten im 9. und 10. Jahrhundert,
Lindau, 1877; G. Meier, in Jahrbuch f&r schweizerische
Geschichte, x (1885) (a good history of the school in the
Middle Ages) ; J. Bachtold, Geschichte der deutschen Litera-
tur in der Schweis, Frauenfeld, 1892; E. Egli, Kirchenge-
schichte der Schweis, Zurich, 1893; L. Knappert, La Vie
de S. Gall et le paganisms germanique, Paris, 1894; Zieg-
ler, Abt Othmar II. von St. Gotten, St. Gall, 1896; F. L.
Wetsel, Das goldene Zeitalter des Klosters St. Gotten*
Ravensburg, 1900; H. Miles, Die Chronik des Hermann
Miles von St. Gall, St. Gall, 1903; A. Scheiwiler, Abt
Ulrich Rdsch der zweite Grander des Klosters St. Gotten,
1463-01, ib. 1903; Beitrage tur St. Gattischen Geschichte,
ib. 1904; the KD, of Hauck, Friedrich, and Rettberg re-
spectively; KL, v. 4J-66.
SAINT JOHN, KNIGHTS OF. See Military
Religious Orders.
SAINT-MARTIN, san-mOr-tan', LOUIS CLAUDE
DE: French mystic; b. at Amboise Jan. 18, 1743;
d. at Paris Oct. 13, 1803. After studying law, he
entered the army and at Bordeaux became ac-
quainted with a Portuguese Jew named Martinez de
Pasqualis, whose freemasonry increased St. Mar-
tin's tendency to mysticism. At Lyons and Paris
St. Martin communicated, in mysterious phraseol-
ogy and ceremony, his " revelation " on God, the
spirit world, the fall, and original sin. Among his
hearers was a Count d'Hauterive, on whom St.
Martin tried all sorts of experiments at Lyons
(1774-76) to gain fellowship with the Logos. Mean-
while, he gradually withdrew from Pasqualis and
his followers, formed a cautious friendship with
Cagliostro, and read Swedenborg. At this period
he published his first work, under the pseudonym
of " un philosophe inc(onnu)," Des erreurs et de la
veriU, ou les hommes rappellts au principe universel
de la science (Lyons, 1775), a book which aroused
the anger of Voltaire.
To propagate his views St. Martin now removed
to Paris, where he moved in aristocratic circles,
writing his emanational tenets in his Tableau nat-
urel des rapports qui existent entre Dieu, Vhomme et
Vunivers (Lyons [ostensibly Edinburgh], 1782). His
travels gained him new acquaintances. In England
he met William Law and Best; he accompanied
Prince Gallitzin to Italy in 1787; in 1788 he re-
sided in Montbeliard with Duchess Dorothea of
Wurttemberg. Until 1791 he lived in Strasburg,
where he studied the writings of Jacob Bohme, but
in the latter year his father's illness forced him to
return to Amboise, where his theories found little
sympathy. To this period of his career belong his
U Homme de disir (Lyons, 1790), Ecce homo (Paris,
1792), and Le Nouvel Homme (1792).
St. Martin's last close friendship was formed with
Baron Kirchberger of Bern, through whom he was
kept informed of mystic movements abroad during
the French Revolution. This latter upheaval was
greeted by him with joy, and after being appointed
tutor, with Condorcet, Sieves, and Bernardin de
St. Pierre, to the Dauphin in 1791, he became one of
his jailers two years later. St. Martin himself was
later imprisoned and exiled to Amboise. Before
long, however, he was sent back to Paris as a teacher
173
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Saint Gall
Saint- Ujrar
at the new normal school there. This position he
held until his death, and during his incumbency he
wrote Lettre a un ami, considerations politique*, phi-
losophiques et relimeuses sur la revolution francaise
(Paris, 1795); Eclair sur V association humaine
(1797); Esprit des choses ou coup d'cril philoso-
phique sur la nature des itres et sur Vobjet de leur
existence (1800); Ministers de I'homme esprit (1802),
besides translating a number of the works of Bohme.
St. Martin's views, a mixture of cabalistic, Gnos-
tic, and neoplatonic doctrines on a Christian basis,
can scarcely be reduced to a system. At the same
time, he bitterly hated the Church, yet fell into all
sorts of clairvoyance, conjuring, and juggling with
numbers and the tetragrammaton. His favorite
sphere was anthropology; he held it the aim of
man to be still higher than Christ, the highest type
of humanity; in his daily life St. Martin sought
simply to live like a pious Christian. For his follow-
ing see Mabtinist Order. (C. Pfender.)
Bibliography: La Correspondence inSdite de L. C. de Saint-
Martin, . . . ed. L. Schauer and A. Chuquet, Amsterdam,
1862, cf. Mystical Philosophy and Spirit-Manifestations.
Selections from the . . . Correspondence between . . .
Saint-Martin . . . and Kirchberger, Exeter, 1863; J. B. M.
Gence, Notice biographique star L. C. de Saint Martin, Paris,
1823; L. Moreau, Rifiexions sur Us idee* de L. C. de Saint-
Martin, ib. 1850; E. M. Caro, Du mysticisms au xviii.
siecle. Essai star la vie et la doctrine de Saint-Martin, ib.
1852; J. Matter, Saint-Martin, le philosophe inconnu, ib.
1862; A. Franck, La Philosophie mystique en France a la
fin du xviii. siecle. Saint-Martin et son mattre Martinez
Pasqualis, ib. 1866.
SAINT-MAUR, san-moV, CONGREGATION OF:
The name of a branch of the Benedictine order, dis-
tinguished by reform in discipline and great serv-
ices to learning. At the beginning of the seventeenth
century the monastery of Saint- Vanne
Foundation near Verdun was reformed by Didier
of the de la Cour. Soon the famous old mon-
Congrega- astery of Moyenmoutier and others
tion. joined the movement, and Clement
VIII. in 1604 confirmed the organiza-
tion of a congregation within the order under the
name of Congregatio SS. Vitonis et Hidulphi. In
1614 the general assembly of the French clergy ex-
pressed the wish that all the Benedictine monas-
teries associate themselves with this congregation;
but its general chapter, fearing danger to its spirit
from too large a growth, advised the formation of
a second congregation, and in 1618 Dom Blnard, a
monk of Saint- Vanne, was charged with the forma-
tion of such a union. It adopted the name of St.
Maur, the companion of St. Benedict, and was con-
firmed by Gregory XV. in 1621, and again by Urban
VIII. in 1627. By 1652 the new congregation num-
bered forty houses, and before the end of the eight-
eenth century it had grown to 191, divided into six
provinces. The most influential was the abbey of
SaintrGermain-des-Pres in Paris, the seat of the
superior-general. Dom Blnard had not proposed
to make the congregation predominantly a learned
one; it was the first superior-general, Dom Tarisse
(1630-48), who laid the foundations of the splendid
edifice of learning which was gradually reared by
the monks. Their activity has embraced all de-
partments of knowledge, but especially the history
of France and of the Church. Besides the general
outline given here of the long series of master-works
which they produced by their indefatigable and
intelligent labors, further information will be found
in separate articles on the more distinguished
members.
They made their own the science of paleography,
or, as it was then called, diplomatics; Mabiilon is
regarded as its actual founder, with his De re dip-
lomatica (1681) and its supplement (1704). As these
works had special reference to France,
Contribu- Dom Tassin published a general trea-
sons to tise under the title Nouveau traiU de
Paleogra- diplomatique (6 vols., 1750-65); and
phy and what this did for Latin paleography
Chronology. Montf aucon attempted to do for Greek
in his Palceographia Grceca (1708).
Modern scientific chronology may also be said to
have taken its rise from them. Every historian
knows the value of the Art de verifier les dates, be-
gun by Dantine and finished by Clemencet (1750;
1770; 1783-92; 1818 sqq.), which has been called
the most noteworthy monument of eighteenth-cen-
tury French scholarship. To the knowledge of an-
tiquity a considerable contribution was made by
Montfaucon's AntiquiU expliqule en figures (10
vols., 1719). In the history of language, the con-
gregation took part in, though it did not originate,
Du Cange's great Glossarium medics et infimes Latin-
itatiSy which, originally published in 1687, was in-
creased one-half by Dantine and Carpentier (6 vols.,
1733-36, with a supplement by Carpentier, 4 vols.,
1766; and two revised and enlarged editions, 1840
sqq. by Henschel, and 1883 sqq. by Henschel and
Fabre).
The most extensive labors, however, were given
to history. Colbert had sought in vain for able
scholars to continue the undertaking of a collection
of the sources of French history, until
Contribu- Chancellor d'Aguesseau persuaded the
tions to congregation of Saint-Maur to take it
History, up. Martene and then Bouquet had
charge of this branch, and their work
resulted in the publication of fifteen folio volumes
of Scriptores rerum GaUicarum et Francicarum be-
tween 1738 and 1818, since which time it has been
carried on by the Acad6mie des Inscriptions. This
body has also, since 1814, taken charge of the His-
toire litteraire de la France, begun by Dom Rivet
and extending to thirteen volumes between 1733
and 1763, a collection of sources which has immense
value for the literary history not only of France
but of all medieval Europe. Provincial histories
surpassing those of any other country are also due
to the congregation. Their researches in the li-
braries of their own monasteries and their travels
in quest of documents (especially Mabillon's jour-
ney to Italy and Montfaucon's to Germany) gave
them an opportunity to bring together unpublished
material of the highest importance. The most fa-
mous of their works in this department are D'Ach-
ery's SpicUegium veterum aliquot scriptorum (13
vols., 1653-77); the Vetera analecta of Mabiilon (4
vols., 1675-85); Martene's CoUectio nova veterum
scriptorum (1700) ; the Thesaurus novus anecdotorum
by Marine and Durand (5 vols., 1717), as well as
their Voyage lititraire de deux religieux bHitdictins
Saint-Maur
Saints
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
174
(1724) ; the Diarium Italicum of Montfaucon (1702),
and his Bibliotheca bibliothecarum manuscriptorum
nova (2 vols., 1739).
In the field of church history, their first noted
work was the continuation and revision of the Gallia
Christiana originally published by a Benedictine
not connected with the Maurists, Dom de Sainte-
Marthe, in 1656. They carried it on
Contribu- from Sainte-Marthe's death in 1725 to
tions to 1785, by which time thirteen volumes
Church had appeared, forming a model on
History and which similar works for other coun-
Patristics. tries have since been planned. The
work was taken up anew in 1856 (16
vols., Paris, 1715-1865, vols. xiv.,-xvi. by B. Hau-
reau). The history of the martyrs was treated by
Dom Ruinart in his Acta primorum martyrum (1689) .
Much was done in the way of editing primitive lit-
urgies; the best^known works in this department
are Menard's Sacramentary of St. Gregory (1642),
Mabillon's De liturgia OaUicana (1685), Martene's
De antiquis monachorum ritibus (2 vols., 1700 sqq.),
and De antiquis ecclesice ritibus (4 vols., 1700 sqq.).
In this connection may be mentioned the Acta sanc-
torum ordinis S. Benedicti, begun by D'Achery and
continued by Mabillon and Ruinart (9 vols., 1668
sqq.), and the Annates ordinis S. Benedicti, Mabil-
lon's most famous work, completed by Massuet (6
vols., 1703 sqq.). The most enduring service ren-
dered by the congregation was its editions of eccle-
siastical writers of the early Church and of the
Middle Ages, which are remarkable monuments of
scholarship, distinguished by enlightened criticism,
careful translation from the Greek, and admirable
introductions and excursuses. They originally con-
templated only the publication of medieval writers,
principally those of their own order. The first was
the Concordia regularum of Benedict of Aniane,
edited by Menard (1628). But the general favor
shown to these editions, the wish to put thoroughly
good texts into the hands of their novices, and the
wealth of manuscripts accessible to them induced
them to extend the plan. Augustine was the first
of the Latin Fathers to be published (11 vols., 1679-
1700) ; the choice of this author in the midst of the
Jansenistic controversy is significant of the attitude
of the congregation toward the vexed questions of
the day, which, in fact, was one of scarcely concealed
sympathy with Port-Royal, if not with Jansenism
in general. The first early Greek text published was
the Epistle of Barnabas by D'Achery and Menard
in 1645; but no special attention was paid to this
department until near the end of the century, when
Montfaucon edited Athanasius (3 vols., 1698). The
work continued until the publication of the Opera
of Gregory Nazianzen, begun by Maran in 1788,
was interrupted by the Revolution. Useful work
was done also on the old Bible versions; included
were the Hexapla of Origen, ed. Montfaucon (2
vols., 1713), the Bibliotheca divina of Jerome, ed.
Martianay (vol. i. of Jerome's works, 1693), and the
Latince ver stones antiquce, ed. Sabatier, Baillard, and
Vincent de la Rue (3 vols., 1743-49).
Lack of space excludes detailed account of a great
mass of other works, partly of an edifying nature,
partly dealing with various subjects in classical
literature, Hebrew, the arts, geography, and even
the natural sciences. In controversy, to which
they were not seldom exposed, the
Other Maurists showed the same calm mod-
Labors, eration and intellectual superiority
that mark all their work. An attack
by De Ranee*, the founder of the Trappists, on devo-
tion to mere learning among monks, called forth
Mabillon's admirable TraiU des etudes monastiques
(1691). They were often engaged in disputes with
the Jesuits, provoked especially by their edition of
Augustine, and wrote not a few strong criticisms of
the constitution Unigenitus. They exposed them-
selves to attack also by a tendency to follow the
Cartesian philosophy, and some of their members
even inclined in the latter half of the eighteenth
century to fraternize with Voltaire and the Ency-
clopedists (qq.v.). The congregation was dispersed
by the suppression of monastic orders at the Revo-
lution; the last member, Dom Brial, died in 1828.
After his death some friends of Lamennais, with the
approval of the bishop of Mons, bought the abbey
of Solesmes near Cambrai with a view to reviving
the congregation. In 1837 it was made a regular
abbey of the restored Benedictine order in France,
the head of which its abbot was to be. Under Dom
Gueranger (1805-75) a new start was made in the
old Maurist direction; but up to the present the
early excellence has not been reached. The most
distinguished of Dom Gue'ranger's associates was
Jean-Baptiste Pitra (q.v.), whose most noteworthy
achievement is the Spicilegium Solesmenset a col-
lection of unpublished writings of the Fathers and
ecclesiastical writers (4 vols., 1852-58, followed by 8
vols, of Analecta spicilegio Solesmensi paratat 1876-
1891, and by 2 vols, of Analecta novissima, 1885-
1888). (O. ZocxLERf.)
Bibliography: Helyot, Ordres monastiques, vi. 286 sqq.;
B. Pes, Bibliotheca Benedicto-Mauriana, Augsburg, 1716;
P. Le Cerf, Bibliotheque historique et critique des auteurs
de la congregation de St. Maur. The Hague, 1726; R. P.
Tassin, Hist, litteraire de la congregation de S. Maur, Brus-
sels, 1770; Herfost, in TQS, 1833, parts 1-3, 1834, part
1 ; E. C. de Malan, Hist, de Mabillon et de la eonorSgation
de St. Maur, Paris, 1843; U. Robert, Supplement a Fhis-
toire de la congregation de St. Maur, Paris, 1881; C. de
Lama, Bibliotheque des ecrivains de la congregation de St.
Maur, Paris, 1882; A. Sicard, Le* ttudea clossiques ovant
la revolution, Paris, 1887; E. de Broglie, Mabillon et la
sociSte de Vabbaye de St. Germain des Pris, 2 vols., Paris,
1888; E. Gigas, Lettres des benSdicline de la congregation
de St. -Maur 17 At **•* Copenhagen, 1893; J. B. Van el, Lea
Benedictine de St.-Oermain-des-Pres et let savants lyon-
nais, Paris, 1894; idem, Necrologe de relioieux de . - .St.
Maur, ib. 1896; idem, Lea Binidictins de Saint-Maur,
Paris, 1896; J. A. Endres, Korrespondenz der Mauriner
mit dem Emmeramern, Stuttgart, 1899; J. M. Besse, in
Revue des sciences eccUsiastiques, ii (1902), 143 sqq., 230
sqq., 532 sqq.; Heimbueher, Orden und Kongregationen,
i. 306-313.
SAINT-SIMON, san-sfrnta or sent-sai'mun,
CLAUDE HENRI, COUNT DE: French socialist;
b. at Paris Oct. 17, 1760; d. there May 19, 1825.
He served as an officer in the American Revolution,
and after many adventures was major and com-
mandant at Metz at the age of twenty-three. Weary
of military life, he traveled through Holland and
Spain, and was an enthusiastic supporter of the
French Revolution. In 1802, after an unhappy
marriage, he resumed his scientific studies, fancying
175
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Saint-Matur
Saints
that he could accomplish his intended social renova-
tion through an alliance of science and industry.
With this end in view, he traveled in Germany and
England, but found nothing to reward his pains. By
this time he had lost his property. He now wrote,
among other works, Lettres d'un habitant de Geneve
a ses contemporairut (1802); Introduction aux tra-
vaux 8cientifiques du dixneuvieme siede (2 vols.,
1808); De la reorganisation de la siciiti europtenne
(1814); and Ulndustrie, ou discussions poliHques,
morales et philosophiques (1817). His appeals for
financial aid to scholars, bankers, and Napoleon
himself were in vain. Cuvier alone encouraged him,
while Lafitte and Ternaux helped defray the ex-
pense of publishing his writings. All his efforts to
attract the attention of the public were equally
fruitless, even his daring Le Politique, Vorganisateur,
systems industriel des Bourbons et des Stuarts (1820).
In despair he was about to commit suicide, but was
prevented from so doing. Henceforth his fortunes
were better, and with the help of his devoted
adherent, Olinde Rodrigues, he published his CaU~
chisme politique (1823-24) and Nouveau christian^
isme (1825; Eng. transl., New Christianity, Lon-
don, 1834).
In St. Simon's ideal society industry was to rule
all. By " industry," however, he understood all
labor, scientific as well as manual, so that among
the working classes scholars and artists were to con-
stitute the aristocracy. While recognising the
power of the medieval Church as a factor of civil-
ization, however, he failed to understand the basal
doctrines of Christianity, holding that the princi-
ple of Christ and the apostles afforded " the quickest
possible amelioration of material conditions among
the poorer classes." He was equally blind to the
course of history, maintaining that the gradual
changes in doctrine, dogma, and mode of thought
were the results of capricious interference on the
part of individuals.
The teachings of St. Simon were propagated by
his followers, the St. Simonists, who included Rod-
rigues, Auguste Comte (see Positivism), Bazard,
and Enfant in. Their place of meeting was closed
by the government because of their radicalism, and
Enfantin established at Menilmontant, which was
then a suburb of Paris, a sort of monastery, where
he, as " pcre supr&me," ruled a community in mot-
ley. But it was closed for offenses against morality,
and Enfantin and his colleague, Michel Chevalier,
were sentenced to a year's imprisonment, thus
breaking the spirit of the* entire movement. His
works have been collected in (Euvres de Saint-Simon
et df Enfantin (47 vols., Paris, 1865-78), to which a
life is prefixed. (C. Pfendeb.)
Bibliography: F. W. Carowe, Der Saint-Simoniemue und
die heutige franxoeieche Philosophic Leipeic, 1831 , L. Stein,
Der Soxialiemue und Kommunismus dee hevtioen Frank'
reieh, ib. 1842; C. Des Guerrois. ttudee litUrairee et bio-
graphiquee, Paris. 1856; N. G. Hubbard, Saint-Simon, m
vie, see travaux, ib. 1857; Marie Reoourt, Resurrection du
Pere Enfantin. Quetquee lumieree eur la doctrine de Saint-
Simon, ib. 1858; W. R. L. Reybaud. ttudee eur lee ri/orma-
teure contemporains, ib. 1864; A. J. Booth, Saint Simon,
and Saint Simoniem, London, 1871; P. Janet, Saint-
Simon et le Saint-Simonieme, Paris, 1878; O. Warachauer,
Saint-Simon und der Saint-Simonismus, Leipeic, 1892;
G. Weil. Un Precureeur du eocialieme, Saint-Simon et eon
awvre, Paris, 1894; idem. VtcoU saint-eimonienne, eon
hiet.f eon influence jueq'a noe jours, ib. 1896; P. Weisen-
gruen, Die soxiaiwissenschafUichen Ideen Saint-Simons,
Basel, 1895; 8. Chariety, Hist, du Saint-Simonisme (18*6-
1864). Paris, 1896; L. Paoli, Le Saint-Simonisme en Italie,
ib. 1898; La Grande Encyclopedic, vol. xxix., ib. 1901;
F. Muckle, Saint-Simon und die dkonomieche Oeschichts-
theorie, Jena, 1906.
SAINTS, VENERATION OF: In accordance with
Old-Testament usage (e.g., Dan. vii. 18 sqq.) the
name " saints " (Gk. hagioit Lat., sancti) is applied
in the New Testament to the members of the Chris-
tian community, and especially to those dwelling
in Jerusalem. This use occurs as late as Hippoly-
tus. At an early time attention was directed to in-
dividuals who by deeds and lives of extraordinary
piety seemed to reveal the presence of the Spirit in
exceptional fulness. Naturally this character was
ascribed to those whose lives were
Before crowned with the glory of martyrdom,
Constantine. a view definitely expressed for the first
time in the account rendered by the
community at Smyrna of the death of Polycarp
(about 155). The reproach advanced by the Jews
that the Christians of Smyrna seemed desirous of
adoring Polycarp in place of Christ caused the com-
munity to define their attitude toward the martyrs
whom they declared they " did not worship as they
did Christ the son of God, but regarded them with
fond affection as witnesses and imitators of the
Lord." Yet Lucian bears testimony to the rever-
ence with which the confessors were regarded even
in their lifetime. Between them, as representatives
of the highest ideals of Christian saintliness, and the
officials of the Church a certain measure of rivalry
prevailed; on the theory that their superabundant
merit might atone for the failings of others, they
came to exercise to a certain extent the power of
the keys.
With the conversion of Constantine and the ces-
sation of persecution in the State the early con-
fessors together with the prophets and apostles at-
tained an unprecedented authority,
Rise of and names of hitherto local vogue be-
the Cultus. gan to receive the veneration of the
entire Church. Through the venera-
tion of saints heathenism made its way into the
Church which had supplanted it. Pagan worship of
the dead became Christian martyrolatry, and the
birthday feasts of the martyrs were but modifica-
tions of the banquets signalizing the pagan parenta-
Via (V. Schultze, Geschichte des Untergangs des
griechisch-rdmischen Heidenthums, ii. 351-353, Jena,
1892). Aphrodite became the source of legends con-
nected with the names of Pelagia, Maria, Marina,
Margaret, Anthusa, and Eugenia, and during the
last years of an expiring paganism marked by the
wide-spread worship of female divinities greater
emphasis came to be laid on the worship of the
" Mother of God." With the gods came also the
heroes; the hymn to the martyr was but a substi-
tute for the hymn to the hero, the translation of one
was the deification of the other, and the pagan
statue was replaced by the Christian relic, in the
adoration of which such enlightened spirits as
Gregory of Nywa engaged. The host of saints, in-
creased by th< accession of a new category, that of
V
Salnta
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
176
ascetics, is addressed by Gregory Nazianzen, by
Basil, and by Jerome as intercessors between man
and God. Not alone their bones but their graves
and their shrines are instruments of blessing; they
appear to those who invoke them or are represented
by angels who assume their form; and though
Augustine issues a warning against the adoration of
the dead and argues that the saints are to be rev-
erenced as models, and not worshiped as gods, with
him, too, the prayers for the saints at the eucharis-
tic oblations become transformed into an appeal
addressed to the saints for their intercession. Julian
was in a position to reproach the Christians with
having abandoned the service of the gods for that
of mere men. In his time every altar had its relics
and the sick were laid in the chapels of the saints
as formerly they were placed in the temples of
iEsculapius. The opposition of a Eunomius, a Eu-
stathius, or a Vigilantius could not check the rapid
increase of the cult. The wearing of relics as amu-
lets became common, the aid of the saints was in-
voked before the inception of important measures,
and formal gratitude was rendered them on the
successful completion of an adventure. Particular
lands and particular trades and professions adopted
their patron saints.
The veneration of the saints was formally sanc-
tioned by the second Nicene Council (787) which
distinguished, however, between the proskynesis or
douleia, the reverence due to the saints and the
absolute worship, latreia, to be ren-
in the dered to God alone (see Dulia). In
Middle the West, though the Caroline Books
Ages. (q.v.) pronounced for the veneration
of the saints, Charlemagne was no
friend of the cult in its extreme form, and the Synod
of Frankfort in 794 declared against the addition of
new names to the list of those venerated. But under
Louis the Pious (814-840) the translation of saints
became common, and though protests against the
abuses connected with the cult are found after 1104
the principle of the practise was not assailed. In
the case of a Bernard or Francis of Assisi venera-
tion was paid to a saintly character even in his life-
time. It was the voice of the people that at first
bestowed the title of holiness; Ulrich of Augsburg
was the first to receive the papal canonization.
Scholasticism supplied the dogmatic basis for the
worship of saints by describing them as friends of
God and intercessors before his throne. The dis-
tinction between douleia and latreia was preserved
and the saints were divided into six categories, pa-
triarchs and prophets, apostles, martyrs, confes-
sors, virgins, and holy women. Indeed the close of
the Middle Ages was marked by the appearance of
many new saints, the worship of Anna, the mother
of Mary, becoming at that time the basis of a
separate cult in Germany.
The Reformation in transforming the ideal of the
religious and moral life struck at the roots of saint
worship. The certainty of salvation obtained
through faith in Christ made the intercession of
saints not only superfluous, but derogatory to the
character of Christ as the sole advocate. The
Augsburg Confession declares itself clearly on the
point. The Apology would permit the rendering
of honors to the saints though it finds no Scriptural
basis for their invocation, and Luther in the Schmal-
kald Articles declares definitely against
The Refor- the practise. The Council of Trent
mation and contented itself with declaring the
After. practise " good and useful," and de-
cisively rejected a proposal looking to
its abandonment. In fact, however, saint worship
continued to be a very essential part of the religious
life of the southern peoples. In the Greek Orthodox
Church the saints are invoked " not as gods but as
friends of God." Altars are not dedicated to them.
In practise the worshiper addresses himself to his
name saint after the Virgin, and the feast days of
the saints have pushed the Sabbath day into the
background. The Russian Church has added many
saints to those it received from the Greek Church,
but it knows no actual process of canonization. It
considers the most important mark of sanctity to
be the delay in, or the total absence of, physical
decomposition following death, together with exhi-
bition of miraculous powers. See Canonization;
Communion op Saints; and Acta Martyrum and
Acta Sanctorum. (N. Bonwetsch.)
Bibliography: The literature of first importance is given
in Acta Marttrum, Acta Sanctorum, which the stu-
dent can not afford to miss. Further treatises (selected
from an immense literature) of a general nature are: C.
Cabier, Caracteristiques des taint* dans Vart populaire, 2
vols., Paris, 1867; H. Usener, Legenden der heUigen Pela-
gia, Bonn, 1879; W. H. Anderdon, Evenings with the
Saints, London, 1883; O. F. L. Du Broc, Les Saints pa-
trons des corporations, 2 vols., Paris, 1887; H. Samson, Die
SchuUheUigen, Paderborn, 1889; idem, Die HeUigen alt
Kirchenpatrone, ib. 1892; T. Trede, Das Heidentum in
der rCmischen Kirche. BUder axis dem religidsen und sitt-
liehen Leben Suditaliens, 4 vols., Gotha, 1889-91; S.
Biessel, Die Verehrung der HeUigen und ihrer Reliquien in
Deutschland, ib. 1890; F. Kattenbusch, Vergleichende
Konfessionskunde, i. 456 sqq., Freiburg, 1892; H. R.
Percival, The Invocation of Saints, London, 1896; O.
Pfleiderer, Die Attribute der HeUigen, Ulm. 1897; H.
Leclercq, Les Martyrs. RecueU de pieces authentiques
sur les martyrs, 3 vols., Paris, 1902-04; E. Hells, Studies
in Saintship, London, 1903; H. P. Brewster, Saints and
Festivals of the Christian Church, New York, 1904; E. A.
Greene, Saints and their Symbols, London, 1904; J. Hahn-
Hahn, Die Martyrer, Regensburg, 1904; E. Lucius, Die
Anfange des HeUigenkults in der christlichen Kirche, Tu-
bingen, 1904; H. Delehaye, Les Legends hagiographiques,
Brussels, 1905; D. H. Kerler, Die Patronate der HeUigen,
Ulm, 1905; H. Siebert, Beitrage zur vorreformatorischen
HeUigen- und Rdiquienverehrung, Freiburg, 1907.
For eastern hagiology consult: A. Ehrhardt, Die Lc
gendensammlungen, Freiburg, 1896; idem, Forschungen zur
Hagiographie der griechischen Kirche, in RQS, 1897, pp. 67
sqq.; L. Clugnet, Bibliotheque hagiographique orientale,
Paris, 1901 sqq.; G. Rabeau, Le Culte des saints dans
VAfrique chretienne, ib. 1903. For England: John Wilson.
The English Martyrologe, Conteyning a Summary of the Lives
of the . . . Saintes of the Three Kingdomes, England, Scot-
kind, and Ireland collected . . . into moneths after the Form
of a Callendar according to every Sainte's Festivity, London,
1608; idem. The Roman Martyrologe, according to the Re-
formed Calendar, ib. 1627; John Bowden, Oratorian Lives
of the Saints, 4 vols., ib. 1873-75; T. Walsh, The Church
of Erin. Her Saints, 3 parts, New York, 1885; R. Stanton,
Menology of England and Wales, London, 1887; F. Heit-
emeyer, Die HeUigen Deutschlands, Paderborn, 1888; John
Pinkerton, Vita antiques sanctorum qui habitaverunt in ea
parte Britannia nunc vocata Scotia vel ejus insulis, ed. W.
M. Mitcalfe, 2 vols., Paisley, 1890; The Book of Lismore,
Oxford, 1890; F. A. Smallpiece, The English Saints of the
English Calendar, ib. 1894; F. E. Arnold-Foreter, Studies
in Church Dedications, or, England's Patron Saints, 3 vols.,
London, 1899; W. Fleming, A Complete Calendar of the
English Saints, ib. 1902; W. H. Hutton, Influence ofChri*-
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
tianily upon National Character Illustrated by the Livci of tht
Enolith Sainu, ib. 1002. For other countries: G.8*Jn»U,
Vita dii Santi rtati ntlla Dioeiti Pieana, Vita, 1884.; E.
Xoyea, Sainu of Italy, London. 1901; E. P. M. Souvnee.
Acta da tainlri de Rouen, Rouen, 1S84 sqq.; C. A. Ber-
noulli, Die Heiligtn dtr Mrnirinacr, Tubingen, 1900; A.
lypgrand. Lea Vies dca aainU de la Bretaone Armarique,
Quimpcr, 1001: Mary Hamilton, Greek i'ain/i and their
Feativala, London, 1'jli); T. I" Motion, The Canoniialion
of Sail
nauit tl
On tl
i*D Chchch; Pujmso.Ii
CnniBTijiN; and Scuutchb. Christian Ubh oc; and the
following: C. £, Clement, The SainU in Art, London.
1S99; H. BeU, The SaMi in ChrUtinn Art. 3 voli., ib.
1901-04; Margaret E. Tabor. Tht SainU in Art; •eith
thrir Attribute* and Symbol* alphabetically arranged, New
York. 1008.
i Insignia, Ec-
SALEM WITCHCRAFT. See Witchciujt.
SALIG, Bfl'Iig, CHRISTIAN AUGUST: German
Lutheran church historian; b. at Domcrsleben, near
Magdeburg, Apr. 6, 1692; <J. at Wolfenbiittcl (33
m. s.e. of Hanover) Oct. 3, 1738. He mi educated
at tbe universities of Halle (1707-10) and Jena
(1710-11'), and, after preaching in his native town
for two years, returned to Halle, where he lectured
on philology, theology, and history. Here he pub-
lished his I'hilozophumtna velerum et Teccntiorum
de anima et ejus immorlalilate (Halle, 1714) and
took part in editing the Neue Itall-i.icL* HMUtthck.
In 1717 he became associate rector of the- lyecum at
Wolfeubiittal, a position which he held until his
■death. Drawing his materials almost entirely from
the great library at Wnlfeiiliiitt.cl, Sahg wrote his
De Eutychianismo ante Euh/chium (Wolfeiibuttcl.
1723), a work which drew upon him the suspicion of
Xestorianism, and thus inspired him to write a
voluminous Eulychianixmi hialoria, which was never
published. He wrote also De diptyc/iis vcterum, tarn
profanis quam sacrix (Halle, 1731), but his fame is
chiefly due to his labors in the history of the Refor-
mation. He began with the Vollstdndige Hislorie
der avgaburyivcL'i Kon/cuHioit iiik! iltn-i/lien Apologie
(Halle, 1730). This was followed in 1733-35 by the
\'rjfU-tih:ilii)e Historic der augsburyixrhen Koufi ;■.•>■ i»»
•und derselbcn zugelhancn Kitchen (omitting the
Scandinavian churches), in which an unmistakable
sympathy is shown for the followers of C. Schwenk-
feld (see Schwenkfeld von Ossio, Caspar,
Schwenkfeldians) and V. Krautwnld. The con-
clusion of the scries appeared posthumously under
the title Vollstdndige Historic des trident: iiisch.i:
KontWunu (3 vols., ed. S. A. Ballenstcdt and J, S.
Baumgarten, Halle, 1741-45). (T. Kolde.)
Bibuoorapht: J. A. Ballenatedt, De vita tl obUu . . .
C. A. Saiigii, UcliMtadt. 173S; V. K. HiwMime. Hi-
loriaeli-lilterariarhea Handbuch. t. 79. Lolpsie. 1807: ' H.
H. Daring. Die Getthrten Theoiogen Deuttchlandi, iii. 692.
Neustadt, 1S33.
SALISBURY, se-lz'birr-i (HEW SARUM) : Capital
of Wiltshire, England (78 m. w.s.w. of London),
the seat of a bishopric, with a population of 21,600
(1901). The cathedral, one of the best examples of
carlv English architecture, was built 1220-58 and
X— 12
restored since 18C8. The cloisters, of the thirteenth
century, are the most perfect in England, and con-
stitute a square with sides of 181 feet.
BimjooftAPtiT: W. H. R. Jones, Docwncnu Itluttrating At
Hint, of the Cathedral, City and Divcete of Salisbury in th*
l&h and ISth Centuries Salisbury. LS'.II; O. D. Boyle,
Salidnay Cathedral. Lnndon. 1997; I.'. Wonhwurdi. fere-
mania and Proceseion, of the Cathedral Church of tSalif
b ury. Cambridge. 1901.
SALLE, JEAH BAPTISTE DE LA. See Christian
Brothers.
SALMAMTICEHSES, sal-man-ti-Ben'sis: Two ex-
tensive scholastic compilations of the seVE'nteenth
and eighteenth centuries, prepared by Di.scalccd
f.';iiinelitc- at Salamanca. The first was a presen-
tation of Tliomistic ilupiiuttics, and the second a
compend of Roman Catholic moral theology. The
two were preceded by the Disciilccd Carmelite Corny
plutciixrn, or CoUc'liuM Coiiijilulrtix,' phituffifiliiriii/l,
hoc est, artium cursus five disputationes in AristO-
tftl 'll'rfccticam el philotophiam naluralem juxta an-
ij: liri doctor U din Tlioma doclrinam et ejus scholar*
(5 vols., Alcala, 16*24-25). The dogmatic work of
the Salamanca Carmelites hore the title of Cur&M
theologicus, Summam theolagicam dii-i Tliomce doo-
toris angelici complectens (9 vols., Salamanca, 1631
sqq.; 3d ed., by Palmi, Paris, 20 vols., 1871-85).
The theological standpoint of the dogmatics is strict-
ly Thomiatic, frequently assailing the scnii-lVlrigian-
ism of Mohna, and more or less opposed to the
Jeauita. The moral compend, or Cursus theologies
moralis (6 vols., Salamanca, 1665 sqq), on the other
hand, ia more akin to tbe Jesuit scholastic in its
[■iri ii.-i! iili-rn. Tin' chief cilhiborators on the dog-
matics were Antonius de Olivero (Antonius a Matre
Dei), Dominicus a Santa Theresa, and Johannes ab
Annuntiatione; and on the morals Franc iscus a
Jesu Maria, Andreas a Matre Dei, Sebastianus a
Joachim, and Ildefonsua ab Angelis.
(O. ZOCKLERf)
BlBLloaRAFHr: N. Antonius, Bibliotheca Hitpanica, i. 113,
U it). Rao,* l«71, K W»fD»f fVim mi .leu*, al.
361 sqq.. Regensburg. 1SSB; J. J. I. von D.-.ltii^r.,- :.i,d
F. II. Reuech, GeKhichte der Moralttreitigkeiten in der
TUmitch-kathalitehen Kirche, i. 61. 410 >qq., Bonn, 1887;
Heimhuchor. Ordm und Kongrenalionen. ii. 664: KL. «.
1565.
SALMASIUS, sal-mfshi-DB, CLAUDIUS (CLAUDS
DE SAUMAISE): French Protestant polyliistor;
b. at Semuren-Auxois (128 m. s.e. of Paris) Apr,
15, 1588; d. at Spaa (18 m. s.e. of Liege), Belgium,
Sept. 3, 165'i. While a student of philusupliy at
Paris (1604-06), he professed Calvinism, and later
studied jurisprudence at Heidelberg (1606-09).
Returning to France, he became an advocate at
Dijon, but feeling himself Impeded in such a career
by his Protestantism, he turned to literature, and
quickly became renowned throughout Europe. He
accepted, in 1632, the offer to succeed Joseph Scali-
ger at Leyden. Here his scope as an author spread
constantly. At the height of his fame he defended
the cause of the Stuarts and Charles 1 nj-atnst the
commonwealth, tn his anonymous Defensia rcgia
pro Carolo I. (Leyden, 1649), which provoked the
anger of Milton, to whom he replied in his posthu>
moua Ad Miltonum responmo (Divione, 1660). In
I860 he accepted the call of Christina of Sweden to
* — — -.1— I
<■-•
■ ■ t* ■*
•;
•m^f.
- _ " >«
— _ c
'. —
■ ..,,..,-
-s: ••
.' " *-
,? •:' ." .
■ -■T
t
* +- .* ' r ..... *-.-,-■
« ^ .- » ■ " ■ '■■:."
*'"-»■ * * .. • '.- > W / •
• - ^y . ■ ■ •»-- ■
1 1>_
« » •
-f*~-
*fls»— .
>. . .■■«./..
•'i«- ■< .' - / -• ' ■ ■ ■ ■
*.-«* «■. »■ /.I J '
.-.■- : -«-
■ •
■ ■ r •• • ■•■- ■ i. :*..:»•'
V _■ -_1"
• • ,*»■ * •■.*,.■ » # . i .. r/ if t -,r " "t*
•■ •
*.* * t. s •* . *■ * •
y ' • <'■-■■'. fs0*~~
« ' •■• ■ » . -r. f * '. . V *■■».•"■.*
.<<ft J l .'A: %•.. ' >■■ '.-• '■;. ;...■■.»- '.'■'■
*/••-. '." . . '«•■: v.-' - '.■■'/• y . ■. * /:*'• • .*
-.-*
-« ^ •
": ". I ""pi"" ; t — __!!•*" 1 ~ :-r""." "~"m ".-*" '"L* ■ ".. ~ J'™~J«r,.,,i.'*
•• ■- i_- •- ■.„- v*r* ■ -'^i : c --i*1 s!cr: : .:■■ 7 •■•.*. :
•\ "M'-f ii." *: ^-c ii.t -*" ~"~>«: -. S - ". "'
«..". .".."""..•".i*j:cl :r "::ij">r r:.~ v*!-^ "_i»i ^ ■« - Tr" ---
'•..i;.-; v.i'.» LsiiZf'. "^L"1- "_i»f ~r.>f< i. :»■«„" * :»- 7»f:-.:
•■o;* ",i— i 2-T". ~ "T— L " " "" ~~"~iT *T": '•: .'2 S;.~ l. "."" "i"*r "■■r
*/. '. Vfi." t -"• t. .= i "■..-: \ :.- - ••;•" :r. sj.-
179
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
S&lxneron
Salvation
There are in the Bible a few allusions to salt as
a seasoning (Job vi. 6). The prophet Elisha threw
salt into an unhealthy well (II Kings ii. 19 sqq.).
To eat one' b salt (Ezra iv. 14) was the same as to
eat a person's bread, and when a guest had tasted
bread and salt, he was under the protection of the
tribe. Salt was accordingly used in making a treaty,
possibly as a symbol of purity combined with the
inviolable relation established by eating the salt of
a host. The covenant of salt could not be broken
(Lev. ii. 13; Num. xviii. 19; II Chron. xiii. 5).
What was salted, being preserved from corruption,
could be regarded as ritually pure and as worthy
to be dedicated to the deity. Herein lies the ex-
planation of the use of salt in the ban and in the
sacrifice. When the ban was placed upon a dis-
trict, it was sown with salt to imply that the ground
in question was dedicated to the divinity. It was
extremely perilous to occupy land thus devoted to
God (I Kings xvi. 34; cf. Josh. vi. 26). In like
manner, an animal was sprinkled with salt to make
it fit to be a burnt offering to Yahweh (Ezek. xliii.
44; Mark ix. 49). Though this ceremony is not
mentioned in the older portions of the Bible, it may
well have been practised at a very early period.
The only allusions to salted sacrifices in early times
are those of the meal offering (Lev. ii. 13) and of
the shewbread (Lev. xxiv. 7, LXX.). The oriental
custom of rubbing the new-born child with salt
must be regarded as a religious ceremony to purify
the infant defiled by contact with the impurity of
childbirth and to dedicate the babe to God and pro-
tect it against demonic influence.
The Bible frequently alludes figuratively to the
properties of salt. When Jesus terms the disciples
" the salt of the earth," he regards them as a new
purifying element to counteract moral foulness.
Other allusions are to be found in Mark ix. 49-50;
Luke xiv. 44; Col. iv. 6. The Hebrews were like-
wise acquainted with the fondness of cattle for salt
(Isa. xxx. 24). The salt of Palestine is inferior to
that of Europe, since it contains a larger proportion
of gypsum, magnesia, and other minerals.
In the Roman Catholic Church salt is used in ex-
orcism, and as the salt of wisdom is placed on the
tongue at baptism. Salt is likewise put in holy
water with reference to II Kings ii. 21-22, and the
salt for cattle is duly blessed. (R. Zehnpfund.)
Bibliography : The two books of most value are H. C.
Trumbull, The Covenant of Salt, New York, 1899 (not to
be overlooked); and M. J. Schleiden, Das Salt, pp. 73
sqq., Leipeic, 1875. Consult further: 8halders, in Ex-
positor, xi (1880), 79 sqq.; H. H. Wendt, Teaching of
Jesus, ii. 62 sqq., London, 1892; Landberg, Arabiea, v.
134-157. Leyden. 1898; U. Wilcken, Orieehisehe Ostraoa
aus Aegvpten, i. 141 sqq., Leipsie, 1899; F. Schwally.
SemitiscAe Krtegsalteriumer, p. 32, ib. 1901; Smith, Rd.
of Sem., p. 479; Wellhauaen, Heidentum, pp. 124, 189;
Bensinger, Archaologie, pp. 69. 115, 377-378; DB, iv.
353; EB, iv. 4247-60; DCO, ii. 1838-39; KL, x. 1585-
1586; and the commentaries on the passages cited.
SALUTATIONS, HEBREW: The Hebrew salu-
tation is in its essence an invocation of good fortune,
joy, peace, the blessing of God (Gen. xxiv. 60, xlvii.
7). In form it was often a question after one's wel-
fare (Gen. xliii. 27), and might be given in person,
by letter, or by messenger, on arrival or at depar-
ture, or at a chance meeting on a journey (I Sam.
xiii. 10; II Kings x. 15; II Sam. viii. 10). At least
among later orientals greetings became so cere-
monious and protracted that they constituted seri-
ous interruption (II Kings iv. 29; Luke x. 4); Jews
seem not to have offered greetings to Gentiles (Matt,
v. 47). The simplest formula was: Is it well?
(II Sam. xx. 9), or: Peace be unto thee (Judges
xix. 20); on departure the expression was: Go in
peace (I Sam. i. 17). Specifically Hebraic was the
blessing which contained the name of Yahweh (Ps.
cxxix. 8). An honorific form is: Let the king live
for ever (I Kings i. 31), employed in Babylonia,
Persia, Phenicia, and Carthage.
The gestures which accompanied the salutation
varied according to station both in degree and in
the matter of repetition, and included the bowing
of the head (I Kings i. 16), deep obeisance (Gen.
xviii. 2; I Sam. xxiv. 9), and prostration (Gen.
xiii. 6). A horseman dismounts when meeting a
superior (Gen. xxiv. 64) and greets him with honor-
ific bowing. Other forms, expressing humility, are
kissing the feet and bowing the knee (Luke vii. 38;
II Kings i. 13). Salutation, especially by a man of
lower degree, was often accompanied by gifts (Gen.
xxxiii. 11, xliii. 11), and in return gifts were made
by the superior on departure (I Kings x. 10 sqq.).
Other forms were kissing the hand, the beard, and
the mouth, and embracing. The kiss upon the face,
mouth, neck, and eyes were signs of friendship or of
the love of kinship. (E. Leyrer"T.)
Bibliography: C. M. Doughty, Travels in Arabia Deserta,
passim, 2 vols., Cambridge, 1888; G. M. Mackie, BibU
Manners and Customs, p. 150, London, 1900; Bensinger,
Archaologie, p. 171; DB, ii. 263, iv. 356-357; EB, iv.
4252 sqq.; JE, vi 88-90; DCO, i. 692-693; KL, v. 1318-
1319.
SALVADOR. See Central America.
SALVATION: In Biblical and ecclesiastical lan-
guage the purpose and result of the redeeming
activity of God. Of the corresponding Hebrew ex-
pressions, yesha and yeshu'ah signify help in gen-
eral; marpe, recovery from disease, but also in a
broader sense deliverance of any kind (as, for in-
stance, Jer. viii. 15; Mai. iii. 20, E. V., iv. 2). The
Greek adtSria (from 808, " safe ") means security of
personal life by protection from any injury. This
expression corresponds exactly to the German Heil,
since Gothic hoik, Old High Germ, heil, Eng.
"whole," means " safe, sound, intact."
In Old-Testament prophecy the salvation of
Israel, which is to be effected by God's saving deed,
became the comprehensive expression of hope for
the future and the content of the Messianic activity
(see Messiah, Messianism). It means originally
deliverance from hostile oppression and realization
of lasting peace and welfare, but these external
acts of salvation on the part of God are conditioned
by the religious and moral attitude of the
people (Isa. xlv. 22, lix. 20). Thus salvation can
be realised fully only by an ideal religious and moral
order of life through the remission of guilt (Isa.
xxxiii. 24, xliii. 25) and moral renovation (Jer. xxxi.
33 sqq.). The spiritualization of the blessing of sal-
vation was completed in the New Testament, where
salvation denotes that forgiveness of sins which is
mediated by Christ's redeeming activity, saves from
Salvation Army
Salvia*
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
180
judgment, and admits to God's kingdom (Luke i.
77). The basis of salvation is God's love (Rom. v.
8 sqq.). The means by which God effects the indi-
vidual's salvation is the Gospel of Christ (Rom. i.
16; I Cor. i. 21). The condition of reception is
faith (Rom. x. 9; John iii. 16).
For the changes in the ecclesiastical conception
of salvation see Redemption. In dogmatic lan-
guage the term solus was not strictly defined. The
older Protestant dogmaticians used it to express
the total result of Christ's activity in the sense of
redemption, but also for the share of the individual
in redemption. After the Loci theclogici had made
room for a more logical disposition of dogmatic ma-
terial, the doctrine of salvation (soteriology) be-
came an independent part of the Christian system
of doctrines. (O. Kirn.)
Bibliography: R. H. Charles, Critical History of the Doc-
trine of a Future Life, London, 1899; G. F. Oehler, The-
ology of the O. T., i. 27, ii. 309, Edinburgh, 1875; C. A.
Briggs, Meeaianic Prophecy, New York, 1902; JE, x.
663-664; and, for the Christian conception, the literature
under Dogma.
SALVATION ARMY: An international organi-
zation having for its purpose the uplift of the mor-
ally, spiritually, and materially destitute. Its
founder was William Booth (q.v.), who in 1865 com-
menced holding meetings in a disused burial-ground
in London belonging to the Quakers. Its first name
was the Christian Mission, which was changed in
1878 to the present name, with the accompaniment
of military titles, uniforms, and paraphernalia. The
new title seemed to express more fittingly the pur-
pose of the organization, and also to infuse into the
workers an esprit de corps while at the same time
it caught the popular ear and gained a hearing
which otherwise might not have been secured. The
work extended in the notorious East End of London,
and conversions were made which showed that a
need had been met which was not supplied through
the channels of ordinary church work. The growth
of the work, which in 1878 had 81 corps, 127 offi-
cers, and 1,987 workers, aroused some opposition;
but the opposition was overcome and the activities
were extended to other parts of the metropolis, then
out into the country and to the other large cities of
England, over the entire United Kingdom, gained
a footing upon the continent, then in the United
States and Canada, into the British colonies in gen-
eral, until at the present all western Europe, Ice-
land, Italy, India, Ceylon, Java, Japan, Korea,
Australia and New Zealand, South Africa, South
America, and several of the West Indies are occu-
pied by the organization — in all fifty-four countries
in vhich twenty-eight languages are used in the
serv ces. In 1910 the reports indicated for the en-
tire organization 8,574 corps and outposts, 16,244
officers, cadets, and employees, and 56,867 local offi-
cers, and 21,681 bandsmen. It has received official
recognition from several of the crowned heads of
Europe, while in other quarters as exalted its work
has been commended.
The basis of the army doctrinally is that of ortho-
dox Christianity without the distinctions of sect.
Its object includes the betterment in all worthy re-
spects of those whom it can reach in its various
ways. It discards all distinctions except those of
piety and ability, men and women work side by
side; while the ordinary conventionalities employed
in the usual agencies of Christian work are, if the
case demands, entirely disregarded. The specific
directions its work takes are first religious, aiming
at the conversion of those who are either indifferent
to religion or are opposed to it; second, social, aim-
ing to reach especially the poor and destitute. In
carrying out its specifically missionary work, preach-
ing and exhorting in the vernacular of the country
are carried on in the open air, and also in the
halls which are provided by voluntary offerings.
As a result of this work many thousands of conver-
sions are reported yearly, converts being gathered
from all classes. The social work is very varied.
It includes the establishment and maintenance of
food and shelter depots and cheap restaurants
for the poor. In these the Army cares for many
thousands yearly, furnishing food and lodging, in-
sisting upon cleanliness in person and habit while
under the care of the institutions, while religious
services are held regularly for the inmates. In close
connection with this class of work is the home visi-
tation in the poorer districts of the cities, the women
entering the homes, ministering to the sick, supply-
ing medicines, washing and dressing children for
school, even cleansing the house and furniture, sup-
plying food, and on occasion preparing the dead for
burial. Work among prisoners, including the pro-
viding of employment upon their release, is an im-
portant branch of the work. The Army has also
established orphanages, especially in rural districts,
where the training of the children is both mental
and industrial. It also maintains a network of in-
dustrial homes in connection with which work is
furnished and the self-respect of the beneficiaries is
fostered. Salesrooms are kept in connection with
these in which articles suitable for use in the house-
hold are dispensed at prices which are a boon to the
poor and worthy. Those who enter these homes are
encouraged and helped to obtain work outside at the
earliest possible moment, and thus the idea of alms-
giving is eliminated so far as the nature of individual
cases permits. Farm colonies have been established
which supplement the other establishments for fur-
nishing work to the needy. One of the most success-
ful branches of the Army's operations is the rescue
work for fallen women, in which twenty-two homes
are maintained. It is claimed that between eighty
and ninety per cent of the rescue cases prove to be
permanent. Maternity wards are a part of the
equipment of these homes. The Salvation Army
has also employed its organization as a means for
collecting and disbursing funds in great emergencies
like those of the earthquake disasters at San Fran-
cisco and Messina and environs. A recognized prac-
tise with the Army is the furnishing of Christmas
dinners to the poor and unemployed, in the United
States alone 350,000 were the guests on a single
Christmas. Its funds in the course of a year are
large, $300,000 being spent in the single item of poor
relief. A careful system of bookkeeping is in vogue,
the accounts are regularly audited, and yearly re-
ports are issued and filed in accordance with the re-
quirements of the laws under which the Army is
incorporated.
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Salvation Army
Balvinn.
[In Germany in 1911 the army reports 190 sta-
tions, with twenty-eight institutions for social beU
terment, including twelve homes for men, seven
rescue homes for women, and three " Samaritan
homes," besides kindergartens and other organized
means of help.]
In the United States work was begun in 1880 by
Commissioner George Rail ton and seven women
officers. It reports S96 corps and outposts, 3,S7o
officers and employees, 75 workingmen s hotels, 4
women's hotels, and in these accommodation for
0.a02 is furnished nightly, and 1,901,677 beds each
year, 20 food depots. 107 industrial homes, 3 farm
eolonies with -\0<)0 colonized and M,J0 colonists;
there arc 20 employment bureaus which furnish
work for 1,500 persona each month, 107 second-
hand store-. 1 children'., homes, -1 day-nurseries, anil
2:i shim sctrl<-ments. In a single year in the United
State- ;',0!l,j>)l persons were afforded temporary re-
lief, summer outings were given to 3,972 mothers
and 24,373 children, employment was found for
05,124 men and 5,355 women, 1,593.834 pounds of
ice and 4,579,78S pounds of eoal were distributed.
Regular visitation of prisons, workhouses, and hos-
pitals is also carried on. At the Paris tExpodtiOB
a gold medid was awarded the organization for the
United Stales exhibit of the Sal villain Army's epil-
ations among the poor. WW. H. Cox.
Bmi.KKiriAi'iiv: Beside-* the literature by members of lbs
Booth family (ire Boom, (Jatiikhins Mciiioan, and
William, and Booth Tucker. Ehka Mobs, nod Fhed-
EBICK St. GKOnoK DE LaTOUR). whirti is mnvritly puli-
liiihin! and obtainable at the iirinj-ipul .s.tlvr.lkm Amy
depots, anil f It- lH.'n.lure under the articles on the Booths,
consult: J. E. Butler. The Saltation Army in Switzerland.
London. ISJM: I - KnLle, [),.■ HHtsnrmee. IvrliiiiKi-n. lssr.-
I. PeatsJoui, Wa. id die Heile-Arme.; [Lille, ISMS; L. It.
Swift. Drum Tap: London. 1887; J. O. Bairstow. 5m-
tational Religion, London, 1H80; B. Booth, From Ocean
laOccan; or, the Sidrntim .1™/.. M,,-,-h (,-.,m the Atlantic
U the Pacifi,-. New Vork. IK<>] ; J. Fehr, Die. fteitearmee.
Fmnkfort. 1891; Sir IV. Besant. The Farm and the City.
1000: J. Page, Coimil SoolA, ib. 1B01; G. 8.' Railttnv
Hud. of our Sooth American War. ib. 1902; J. Rollins.
The Saltation Army: a Study of it* Defect! and Posmotl-
ilitt. ib, 1903; F. St. G. de L. Booth Tucker, The Comul:
a Sketch of Emma Booth-Tucker, ib. 1004; H. R. Haggard.
The Poor and Hie Land; a Jfeport on the Salvation Army
CoUtnirj, ib- 1905; idem. Regeneration; beino an Account
of the Socio! Work of the Solvation Army in Great Britain,
ib. 1010; A. Goodrich. Life and Work of General Booth;
Story of the Satiation Army, ih. 1908-, J, Manaon. .Wninvn
Army and the Public; a reliffioue. locial and financial Study.
Not Vork. 1007 (eriticiioa Army's methods in Great Brit-
ain); Hulda Friislcricbs, The Romance of tht Salvation
Army. London. 1008; G. S. Railton. Day by Day in the
Work in mriaui Countries, ib. 1910: Order* and Rcgulalion*
for Field Offieert, ib. 1886: Solution Army Year Book.
.i::iiu;iliy [iiiiili-hi-l :i[ London.
SALVIAHUS, sal-vi-e'nus: Presbyter of Marseilles;
b. probably at Treves about 400; d. after 480. He
came of a highly respected, and probably Chris-
tian, family, but married a pagan wife. After her
conversion, the pair bound themselves to continence.
Salvianus' ascetic tendencies opened the way for
him to the monastic circles of southern Gaul, where
he formed a close friendship with Euchcrius, later
bishop of Lyons. During the latter portion of his
life Salvianus was a presbyter at Marseilles.
Gennadius (De vtr. ill., lxviii.) knew of the follow-
ing writings of Salvianus: De vtrginitatis bono ad
Marcellum pre&byterum; Adversus avaritiam; De
prownti judicio, and Pro eorum merilo satia/aclionis
ad Salonium episcopum (the latter title apparently
corrupt). Of these, except for nine letters, only the
Adversu* avaritiam and the De prawnti judicio
Oisnallv known as the Dc gitbernatione Dai) are ex-
tant (ed. C. Halm, MGfl. Auct. on.., I., i. 1877;
F. Pauly, CSEL, viii.). The letters are fragments
of a collection which was originally large. Of
the other two works the Advcnus avaritiam is the
older. It appeared pseudonym ously as TtmotiuA ad
fi-i-lcKt'nw liliri qttciiuor, and contributes to knowledge
of the moral ideals of monasticisrn in the fifth cen-
tury, and of the gulf between ordinary Christiana
and ascetics. Stress is laid by Salvianus on pov-
erty, i.e., on the communism of the primitive Church.
The religious were urged to renounce their earthly
j «.i -ws.s ions and were exhorted to leave their wealth
to the Church, this being recommended for the
moral effect, which such action would produce. The
D': •jiilu.niatiDiu- passes judgment on contemporary
conditions from the same point of view, and was
written, in all probability, between 439 and 451.
t lennadius, about 480, knew of only five books, but
the work as now extant breaks off abruptly in the
eighth hook. Its purpose is to show why God, in
the struggle between the Empire and the barbarians,
seemed to take the side of Arians or pagans against
Catholics. This was due to divine judgment on the
degeneracy of the Romans, a thought ever reiterated
by the author. Yet his very unworldlincss freed
him from many of the prejudices of his time. He
eould be fair to pagans, and even to heretics; and
was as exempt from contempt for barbarians and
slaves as he was unbiased in judgment on the Ro-
mans and the rich. He n* keenly aware of the evil
condition* of social and economic affairs, and in
this lies the historical value of his pictures of the
period. (A. HAttcK.)
Bibuoohapbv: W. Zsohimmer, Salmanwi, dcr Preibytcr von
Maeeilia. und 'cine Sehriflen. Halle. INTs; F. X ilimer.
Commentatia de Salviano tjutqw lih. 'If. l-'n-L.inii. Isii'i;
A. Ebert. AlUjtmeinc Geichichte der Literatur del Mitttl-
alteri. i. 45S aqq.. Leipsie. Isttl; ,1 I!. I llrj.l,. Ih W-'i«ni
•cripturai tarra vcreianibu*. Neustadt. 1892; A. Ham-
merlo, Sludicn iu Sainton. Prieetcr iion Majvtilia, Lands-
hut, 1S93; G. Vftlran. Quare Salrianua prctbyttr Mam-
lienjtic mwjieter epiacoporum a Gennadio dictut tit, Pari*,
1808: F. Pauly, in the SiUanaAeruhte of the Vienna
Aendcmv. xrviii.. part 1: Banlpntienir, 1'iitrolunir. ; p.
S33-A33, Eng. trans]., Si. Louis, 1908; Hif-I VMtiit*
dtla France, ii. ,'.17 s<iq.; IlCli. iv. Ml); Elnuek. KD, i.
66-71; Scbaff, Chrutian Church, iii. B8-8B.
SALVIUS: Name of several bishops.
1. Donatist bishop of Membresa (Meni!>rissa,
Membressa; 45 m, from Carthage] in the last decade
of the fourth century. He was one of the ordainera
of Maximianus and practised rebaptism (Auga-sine,
Contra rpixtalam I'armiarii, iii. 22), was deposed as
a. heretic, but resisted and the civil power was
called in to execute the decision. Salvius was greats
ly beloved by his townsmen, consequently the popu-
lace of a neighboring town (Abitina) forcibly car-
ried out the decree (39S), so heaping insults and
contumely as to lead Augustine strongly t<
demn it (Augustine, ut sup., iii. 2!>). This
often refers to bis case.
s father
Salzburg*
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
189
2. Fifth bishop of Martigny in Switzerland; flour-
ished in the middle of the fifth century. To him
Eucherius (q.v.)i bishop of Lyons, addressed the
history of St. Maurice (q.v.), and Salvius responded
by dedicating to Eucherius his only extant work,
the Laticulus (in part printed in ASB, Jan., i. 43-
44, June, vii. 178 sqq.; and in MPL, xiii. 671 sqq.;
cf. Histoire litUraire de la France, ii. 294-296; and
Ceillier, Auteurs sacrts, viii. 452), a calendar of
things sacred and profane.
3. Bishop of Alby; d. c. 584. He was an inti-
mate of Gregory of Tours (q.v.), began life as an
advocate, but was converted, became a monk, then
abbot, and hod a vision of heaven which Gregory
relates (Hist. Francorum, vii. 1). Gregory speaks of
him as a man of great sanctity and incessant char-
ity, and the church at Nevers (as also another) was
dedicated to him (ASB, Sept., Hi. 575 sqq.).
SALZBURG, sOlts'burg, ARCHDIOCESE OF: An
Austrian archbishopric, the see city of which is
Salzburg, the Juvavum of the Romans, who re-
duced it, together with the rest of the province of
Noricum, during the campaign of Tiberius and
Drusus in 15 b.c. The original Celtic population
was quickly Romanized, and Christianity early
found entrance, doubtless from Aquileia, although
there are no certain records of the new faith in the
city previous to Constantine. After the withdrawal
of the Romans, Salzburg, which evidently had not
become an episcopal city during this period, fell
into decay, nor did its medieval history begin until
the time of St. Rupert (q.v.). The diocese was first
formally organized by St. Boniface (q.v.) in 739,
although it was not until 987 that the dignities of
bishop or archbishop of Salzburg and abbot of St.
Peter's were made distinct. In 798 Salzburg was
elevated to archiepiscopal rank by Charlemagne, its
jurisdiction embracing the sees of Regensburg, Pas-
aau, Freising, Seben, and the short-lived Neuburg.
It was, accordingly, the largest German archbishop-
ric next to Mainz, its boundaries being the Inn on
the west and the Drau on the south, while on the
north and east it practically coincided with the
present northern boundary of Salzburg and Styria
and with the eastern boundary of Styria.
(A. Hauck.)
Throughout its history the archdiocese of Salz-
burg remained true to the Roman Catholic Church,
its rigorous treatment of Protestants exposing it
to much criticism from adherents of the newer doc-
trines (see Salzburg, Evangelicals of). In 1802
the archdiocese was secularized, and after belong-
ing in turn to Germany, Austria, and Bavaria,
finally passed, in 1814, under the control of the
latter country. The archdiocese was reerected in
1824, after having been vacant since 1812, and now
exercises jurisdiction over the dioceses of Trient,
Brixen, Gurk, Seckau, and Lavant. In 1909 it had
a population of 263,080 Roman Catholics and 1,637
Protestants, 491 secular and 130 regular clergy, 183
parishes, and a theological faculty in the see city.
Bibliography: Sources are contained in MOH, Script.,
I (1826), 86 sqq., ix (1851), 757 sqq.. xi (1854), 1 sqq.. 25
sqq., xiii (1881), 353 sqq.; ib. Nee., ii (1890), 45 sqq.; ib.
Log., II., Cap. teg. Franc., i (1883), 226; SaUburger Ur-
kundenbucK ed. W. Hauthaler, Salsburg, 1898; Regesta
archiepieccporum Salidburgenrium, ed. A. von Meiller,
Vienna, 1866. Consult: M. Hansig, Germania eacra,
vol. ii., Augsburg, 1729; G. A. Pichler, Salsburgs Landee-
geechichte, Salsburg, 1865; H. G. Gengler, Beitrage mut
Rechtsgeechichte Bayerru, part 1, Eriangen, 1889; F. von
Piche, Abhandlungen abcr die alteste Geechichie Salzburgs,
Innsbruck, 1889; J. Loserth, Salzburg und Steiermark im
letxten Vierid dee 16. JahrhunderU, Gras, 1905; H. Wid-
mann, Geechichte Salzburgs, 2 vols., Gotha, 1907-09 (goes
to 1519); Gams, Series epizcoporum, pp. 307-327; KLt
x. 1586-1642.
SALZBURG, EVANGELICALS OF: The name
applied to several thousand Protestants expelled
from the Archbishopric of Salzburg (q.v.) in the
eighteenth century. Protestantism early pene-
trated this region, especially the Salz-
Initial achthal and its vicinity. Matthaeus
Movements Lang, archbishop of Salzburg at the
for time of the Reformation, was at first
Repression, not hostile to the new movement. He
gave favorable reception to Johann
von Staupitz, Paulus Speratus, Urbanus Rhegius,
and Wolfgang Russ, and gained the approval of
Luther. But before long he changed his attitude,
in consequence of favors from the Curia. He now
roused enmity between Luther and Staupitz, ener-
getically opposed the Protestant preachers, and in
1520 obliged Speratus and Agricola (qq.v.) to flee.
A certain Matthaeus was captured, and an ex-Fran-
ciscan, Georg Scharer, was beheaded for contumacy.
In spite of every effort on the part of Lang and his
successors, Protestantism steadily increased; exile
and visitation were alike in vain; many of the clergy
broke their vows of celibacy. Yielding to repeated
demands, Archbishop Johann Jakob granted the
laity the cup, but was obliged by the Curia to re-
tract his position. In 1588 Archbishop Wolfgang
Dieterich visited Rome for instructions, and on his
return issued a " Reformation mandate " in which
he commanded all Protestants of the city of Salz-
burg either to recant or to leave the country within
a month, permission being given the recalcitrant to
convert their property into money. Since, however,
nearly all preferred exile to recantation, a second
mandate was issued confiscating their property. In
consequence of these measures, many of the wealth-
iest inhabitants of Salzburg emigrated to Austria,
Saxony, and elsewhere, while others, outwardly
complying with Roman Catholicism, secretly ad-
hered to Luther's teachings. In 1613-15 the man-
dates were extended by Archbishop Markus Sittich
to the entire region in view of the increase of Prot-
estantism. Throughout Pongau the churches stood
empty, while the people thronged to Schladming in
Styria to attend Lutheran gatherings; and in Rad-
stadt, where the Protestants were in the majority,
they demanded from the archbishop preachers of
their own.
The archbishop increased the sternness of his
measures to crush the Protestant movement. Ca-
puchins sought in vain to restore the Evangelicals
to the Roman Catholic Church, whereupon the Prot-
estants were required to recant within
Persecu- four weeks or fourteen days, or to be
tion 1615- banished with confiscation of their
1727. goods. At the same time, search was
made for Protestant books, and impris-
onment was enacted for those who circulated such
writings. Finally, the Evangelicals were subjected
188
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Salzburg
to the dragonade, many of whom feigned submis-
sion, though secretly maintaining Lutheran views.
A considerable number went into exile and poverty,
some 600 going from Radstadt and its vicinity to
Austria and Moravia. Of 2,500 in the valleys and
on the mountains of Gastein only about 300 prom-
ised to live and die in the Roman Catholic Church.
The archbishop, however, was deceived by appear-
ances. Public gatherings indeed ceased, but many
of those who ostensibly professed the old faith se-
cretly read Lutheran works which they had con-
cealed. The children were instructed in Lutheran
doctrines, and Protestantism spread under cover.
This was especially the case under the mild Arch-
bishop Paris Hadrian (1619-53), and after the peace
of Westphalia Protestants sentenced to exile from
Roman Catholic countries were allowed three years
in which to dispose of their property. Neverthe-
less, these prerogatives were disregarded by Arch-
bishop Maximilian Gandolf (1668-87). In 1683
Jesuits discovered a congregation of secret Luther-
ans, ostensibly professing Roman Catholicism, in
the Tefferegg Valley on the southern boundary of
the archdiocese. Attempts at conversion by Ca-
puchin monks and judicial endeavors to suppress
Lutheranism led only to a more stubborn adherence
to their beliefs under the guidance of the miner
Joseph Schaitberger (q.v.). The archbishop sought
to prove that these Protestants did not come under
the protection of the peace of Westphalia in that
they were a sect adhering neither to the Augsburg
nor the Reformed confession, but their represen-
tatives, when summoned to Hallein and Salzburg,
boldly declared themselves Lutherans. After being
imprisoned and made the objects of vain attempts
at conversion by Capuchins, they were released, the
archbishop requiring them to submit a written
statement of their belief. Sterner measures fol-
lowed without success, and the archbishop finally
issued a mandate in the middle of the winter of
1685 banishing the Protestants from the country,
and confiscating their property and children, some
600 in number. The exiles in bands of fifty or sixty
sought refuge in Ulm, Augsburg, Nuremberg, Frank-
fort, and elsewhere, the total number of those ban-
ished being over 1,000. This act of the archbishop
horrified all Protestant Germany, but neither the
intervention of Elector Frederick William of Bran-
denburg nor the protests of the Evangelical estates
in Regensburg were of avail. Under Archbishop
Franz Anton (1709-27) the Salzburg Protestants
fared better, and during this period Evangelical
doctrines were strengthened in the region by read-
ing Protestant books and the letters of Schaitber-
ger, as well as by the religious meetings which were
tolerated.
Under his successor, Leopold Anton (1727-44),
however, affairs resumed their wonted course.
Feigned conversions were extorted;
Increased their Bibles and books of edification
Pressure were burned; they were charged with
1727-31. being dangerous inciters to riot; they
were imprisoned, deprived of work,
fined, dragonaded, and compelled to emigrate leav-
ing property and children behind. Yet all this only
increased the determination of the Salzburg Protes-
tants. In Jan., 1730, the peasants Hans Lerchner
and Veit Breme appealed to the Evangelical estates
in Regensburg and sought for influence to be brought
to bear that the exiles might be allowed to regain
their wives and children. All was in vain, even the
charge that the archbishop had violated the peace
of Westphalia. In the following year the Protes-
tants sent a deputation from Radstadt, Wagrein,
Werffen, St. Johann, and Gastein to Regensburg
with new complaints, and with the demand that
either Evangelical preachers be given them and
that they be permitted to worship in their own
way, or that they be allowed to sell their property
and emigrate with their wives and children. Again
their demands were fruitless. Meanwhile the arch-
bishop, seeking to determine how far Protestant-
ism had spread, ordered that the complaints be
tried before a committee. All Protestants were
now summoned to appear before the commissioners
sent out from Salzburg, whereupon they declared
that they were willing to be the faithful subjects
of the archbishop in all things temporal, but that in
religion they desired freedom of conscience. The
commissioners thereupon required within three days
a list of all those who professed Lutheranism, the
total, to the amazement of all, being over 20,000.
The archbishop accordingly saw himself obliged to
put forth his utmost endeavors, while the Protes-
tants became still more firm in their resistance.
On Aug. 5, 1731, about 300 representative Luther-
ans took a solemn oath in the town of Swarzach,
and it was quickly resolved to send a committee
to the emperor at Vienna. The envoys, having no
passports, however, were arrested as rebels and
brought back to Salzburg. Since no relief could be
expected from either the archbishop or the em-
peror, the Lutheran envoys sought the interven-
tion of their princes. Frederick William I. of Prus-
sia accordingly threatened reprisals on his Roman
Catholic subjects, but the threat was an empty one,
and rigorous measures against the Salzburg Prot-
estants were renewed. The Evangelicals again ap-
pealed to the emperor, who declared he had warned
the archbishop to obey the laws of the empire. On
Oct. 31, 1731, the archbishop issued an order re-
quiring all non-householders over twelve years of
age to emigrate within eight days as being disobe-
dient and leagued to destroy the Roman Catholic
faith. All others were to follow them into exile
within one to three months. The plan of thus
financially ruining the well-to-do and forcibly con-
verting their dependents failed with but few
exceptions.
Meanwhile two Protestant delegates, Peter Hel-
densteiner and Nikolaus Forstreuter, had implored
the aid of the king at Berlin in Nov., 1731. In Feb-
ruary of the following year he issued a patent wel-
coming the exiles from Salzburg, re-
Emigration questing the archbishop to allow them
to Prussia, to depart freely, and urging all princes
through whose lands they should go
to aid them. He himself promised each person a
considerable sum daily for expenses, and at the
same time threatened severe reprisals for any injury
done them, being followed in the latter respect by
Denmark, Sweden, and Holland. The exiles now
Sam
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
1*4
thronged into Germany, everywhere joyfully wel-
comed by their fellow Protestants. The 4,000 who
first came were quickly followed by several thou-
sand more, so that from Apr. 30, 1732, to Apr. 15,
1733, no less than 14,728 passed through Berlin
alone on their way to Lithuania, increasing the
spirit of German Lutheranism as they went. A
collection was raised for them in all Protestant
countries at the instance of the king of England,
which amounted to 900,000 gulden. Thus more than
20,000 exiles from Salzburg repopulated the wide
Lithuanian plains devastated by a pestilence, and
the Prussian king was richly repaid by the agricul-
tural benefits received from his industrious and
intelligent immigrants. (D. Erdmann1\)
Bibliography :KC. F. Arnold, Die Auarottung dee Proteatan-
tismu* in Salzburg unter Erzbiechof Firmian, Halle, 2 parts,
1900-1901 ; idem, Vertreibung der Salzburger ProUetanten
undihre Aufnahme beidem Glaubenagenoaaen, Leipeic, 1900;
*^S. Urlsperger, AusfUhrliche Nochricht von den Salzburger
Emigranten, Halle, 1735; J. L. von Caspari, Actenmae-
eige Geachichte der Salzburger Emigranten, SaUburg, 1790;
J. K. F. Obstfelder, Die evangelischen Salzburger, Naum-
burg, 1857; L. Claras, Die Auewanderung der proteatan-
tiech-gcainnten Salzburger ; Innsbruck, 1864; T. F6roter,
Die evangelischen Salzburger, Halle, 1884; A. Hoeae and
H. Eichert, Die Salzburger. Geachichte der im Jahre 17S8
in Litiauen eingexvanderten Salzburger, Gumbinnen, 1902;
C. Blume, Die Vertreibung der evangdiachen Salzburger,
Leipsic, 1904; G. Nierits, Die proteetantiachen Salzburger
und deren Vertreibung, Constance, 1907. A bibliography
is provided in E. Dannappel, Die Literolur der Salzburger
Emigration, 1782-36, Stuttgart, 1886.
SAM (SOU, SAUM), KONRAD: Reformer of Ulm;
b. at Rottenacker (15 m. s.w. of Ulm) 1483; d. at
Ulm June 20, 1533. After studying at Freiburg,
Tubingen, and some other university (perhaps
Basel), he became parish preacher at Brackenheim
in Wurttemberg in 1520. He was already an adher-
ent of the Reformation, and his advocacy of the
new doctrines exposed him to such hostility that
only the encouragement of Luther kept him from
resigning his position. In May, 1524, however, he
was dismissed, ostensibly for harboring Johann
Eberlin (q.v.), whereupon his stepbrother, Sebas-
tian Fischer, secured for him an appointment at
Ulm " to preach the word of God in purity without
the addition of the doctrines of men, in peace and
without strife." Despite his many excellent qual-
ities, he lacked the power of organization and was
both harsh and violent, and his position was com-
plicated by his estrangement from Luther, with a
corresponding attraction to (Ecolampadius and
Zwingli. Nevertheless, Sam soon enjoyed high
favor throughout Upper Swabia, gaining entire
control of the church in Ulm in 1526 and also fur-
thering the cause of the Reformation in Memmingen.
In the same year the course adopted by the
Diet of Speyer encouraged the magistracy of Ulm
to proceed with the work of the Reformation in
their city, and private baptism and the marriage of
the clergy were now permitted, Sam himself taking
advantage of this opportunity to make public his
union with a Bavarian woman. In 1528 the new
schoolmaster, Michael Brodhag of Goppingen, pub-
lished Sam's Chri8tenlicke vnderweysung der Jungen,
a catechism based on the 130 questions of Agricola,
as well as on Capito and Althamer, but omitting all
discussion of the sacraments. A hymnal and a Ger-
man Psalter followed in 1529, but, on the other
hand, Anabaptism was rife, and the introduction of
Protestant communion was forbidden as late as
Feb., 1530. Meanwhile Sam was inveighing rabidly
against both Roman Catholic and Lutheran eucha-
ristic doctrine, his words incurring the opposition of
the Protestant Billican and Althamer (qq.v.) and
the Roman Catholic Johann Faber (q.v.), and Jo-
hann Ulrici. Johann Eck (q.v.) now demanded the
removal of Sam, whom he challenged to a disputa-
tion, and the Ulm magistracy in perplexity ap-
pealed to Nuremberg, which advised that Sam be
dismissed. The council, however, not only per-
mitted Sam to attend the disputation at Bern, but
remained wavering between the Swiss and Saxon
types of doctrine. After the Diet of Speyer in 1529
Ulm decided to join the Schmalkald League, and at
Augsburg it refused to accept either the Augsburg
or the Tetrapolitan Confession. Sam, in disgust,
thought of leaving Ulm, but the decision of the Diet
of Augsburg (1530) brought matters to a crisis;
Ulm went over to the Schmalkald League; the
municipality determined to carry out the Refor-
mation; and, at the instance of Sam, CEcolampa-
dius was summoned from Basel, Butzer from Stras-
burg, and Blaurer from Constance. On June 16,
1531, mass was abolished, and exactly a month
later the Lord's Supper was celebrated in Protes-
tant fashion. On Aug. 6 a new agenda, similar to
that of Basel, was promulgated, but though after
(Ecolampadius and Butzer returned home (Blaurer
remaining to promote the Reformation in Geis-
lingen) other men were called to Ulm to take their
places, a heavy burden still rested upon Sam. The
seal of the people and of the council relaxed, the
Roman Catholics and the Anabaptists redoubled
their activity, it proved difficult to secure capable
preachers, the magistracy ruled the Church arbi-
trarily, and the deaths of (Ecolampadius and
Zwingli were severe blows to the Protestants in
Ulm. The latter now sought Lutheran support, and
at a conference held at Schweinfurt in Apr., 1532,
they determined, in Sam's presence, to accept the
Augsburg Confession and Apology. Sam was in-
tensely embittered, especially against Luther, but
within the year he fell ill, and between March and
June, 1533, had three strokes of apoplexy, suc-
cumbing to the third. Sam's catechism was re-
printed, with a chapter on the sacraments and re-
vised in a Zwinglian spirit, at Augsburg in 1540;
his sermon at the disputation of Bern was printed
by K. Schmid in his Die Predigen so vonn denfr&mb-
den Predicanten . . . beschehen sind (Bern, 1528) ; his
three last sermons, Davids Ehebruch, Mord, Strafe,
und Busse, appeared at Ulm in 1534; and in 1569 his
communion sermon at Ulm in 1526 was reprinted by
the Heidelberg theologians. G. Bossert.
Bibliography: G. Veesenmeyer, Nachriehten von Konrad
Same Leben, Ulm, 1705; idem, Verauch eincr Geachichte
dee deutachen Kirchengeaangea in der Ulmer Kirche, ib.
1798; idem, Denkmal der einheimiachen und fremden Theo-
logen . . . in Ulm, ib. 1831; A. Weyermann, Nachriehten
von Gelehrten . . . aue Ulm, Bern. 1708; T. Keim, Die
Reformation der Reichetadt Ulm, Stuttgart, 1851; F. Dobel,
Memmingen in der Reformationxzeit, Augsburg, 1877;
T. Schiess, Briefwechael der BrQder Ambroaiua und Thomoa
Blaurer {1609-48), 2 vols., Freiburg, 1008-10; ADB,
304-305.
185
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Samaria
SAMARIA sa-me'ri-a, SAMARITANS.
I. The Region.
Name and History (5 1).
Area and Roads (J 2).
Shechem and Neighboring Cities
(5 3).
The City Samaria (5 4).
Other Inland Cities (55).
Cities of Western Samaria (56).
II. The People.
1. Origin and History.
Origins (5 1).
Josephus' Account (f 2).
History to 66 a.o. (5 3).
Later History (5 4).
2. Doctrine.
3. Language and Literature.
Pentateuch, Targum, and Arabic
Translations (5 1).
Other Early Writings (| 2).
4. Literature on the Samaritans.
On the History of the Samaritans
(5D.
On the Sacred or Semi-sacred Books
(5 2).
On Manuscripts and Other Works
(5 3).
I. The Region: Samaria denotes both the cen-
tral region of Palestine, between Judea and Galilee,
and the capital of this district. From the time of
Omri the city of Samaria became the
i. Name capital of the northern kingdom of
and History. Israel, so that the city-name was ex-
tended to the entire country (e.g.,
I Kings xiii. 32; II Kings xvii. 24, 26, 28; Jer. xxxi.
5; Hos. vii. 1; Amos viii. 14). The people dwelling
in the land of Samaria were called Samaritans
(II Kings xvii. 29). A similar usage is found in the
Assyrian Samerina, connoting both the city and
the land. When the city received the name of
Sebaste from Herod the Great in 27 B.C., Samaria
was in application restricted to the district. The
Arab conquest destroyed all traces of the name,
except among occidentals and in learned language.
The oldest form of the name, given in the Masso-
retic text as Shomeron, seems to have Shameran (cf .
I Kings xvi. 24, and the Assyr. Samerina, the Aram.
Shamerayin of Ezra iv. 10, 17, and the Gk. Sam-
areia). Originally synonymous with the kingdom
of Israel, the area of Samaria varied with the for-
tunes of that kingdom. In 734-733 Tiglath-pileser
so limited the territory that Hoshea retained only
the small district from Judah to the plain of Jez-
reel (cf. II Kings xv. 29, xvii. 24 sqq.; Ezra iv.
10). The rapid decline of Assyria after 640 seems
to have enabled Judah to extend its power over
this region (cf. II Kings xxiii. 15, 19 sqq.; II Chron.
xxxiv. 6-7), which it quickly lost after the battle
of Megiddo (608). The Seleucid Demetrius II. de-
tached three districts hitherto belonging to Sa-
maria (Apherema, Lydda, and Ramathaim) and
gave them to the Hasmonean Jonathan (145 B.C.).
In 128 b.c. John Hyrcanus subdued the whole of
Samaria and united it with the Judean kingdom;
but in 63 b.c. Pompey freed Samaria and incorpo-
rated it with the new province of Syria. " Sama-
ria " in this case means the city and the region from
Judah to the plain of Jezreel, excepting Scythopolis
and Carmel. In 30 b.c. Herod received Samaria
from Augustus, and after the tetrarch's death it,
together with Judea and Idumea, was placed under
the control of his son Archelaus. In 6 a.d. these
three districts formed part of the province of Syria,
though they were governed by a special procurator
at Csesarea, except in 41-44, when Samaria and its
vicinity were in the dominion of Agrippa. On the
outbreak of the Jewish revolt, Samaria was given
to Vespasian as a part of the province of Judea, and
its fortunes were henceforth identical with those of
Palestine.
The boundaries of Samaria to the east and west
may be regarded as the Jordan and the declivities |
of the mountain district respectively. During the
period of the dominion of Israel the mountain
district was inhabited by the tribes
2. Area and of Ephraim and Manasseh (Josh, xvi.-
Roads, xvii.) ; Josh. xvii. 14-18 implies that the
tribe of Joseph spread to the southern
region west of the Jordan. Josh. xvii. 16, 18 implies
another advance of the tribe of Joseph, this time
to the north, possibly to the southern border of the
great plain to the range of Ya?id. Here lay, ac-
cording to Judges i., the cities of Beth-shean, Ib-
leam, Taanach, Megiddo, and Dor, which later came
under the sway of Israel, even though they were not
actually occupied by Israelitic stocks (Josh. xvii.
11-13). According to Josh. xvii. 11, the district of
Manasseh extended along the southern side of the
plain of Jezreel from the Jordan (Beth-shean) to the
Mediterranean (Dor), and was consequently more
than thirty-six miles wide. The length of the dis-
trict of Ephraim was from north to south be-
tween twenty-one and twenty-four miles and the
territory embraced the richest and most fertile por-
tions of the mountain district (Josh. xvi. 6-8, xvii.
7-10; cf. Deut. xxxiii. 13-16). The region of
Ephraim, whose southern boundary has been given
in the article Judea (q.v.), stretched eighteen miles
from north to south, and thirty miles from the Jor-
dan on the east to the plain of Sharon on the west.
It was thus inferior to Manasseh both in area and
in fertility. Apparently there was no strict line of
demarcation between the districts of Manasseh and
of Ephraim (Josh. xvi. 9, xvii. 8). Samaria was
crossed by important highways. The continuation
of the road to the coast cut through the northwest
corner of Samaria from Megiddo in the direction of
Lydda; and another branch of the same road reached
Samaria by way of Jezreel near the present Janin,
where it again divided. One of these latter roads
reached the highway to Egypt at Kafr Kud, while
the other ran southward to the cities of Samaria
and Shechem. Shechem was at the junction of sev-
eral important roads. From the south came the
road from Judea (Jerusalem) by way of Bethel,
from the southwest a road from Jaffa, and from the
southeast a road from Jericho by way of the Wadi
al-Qumr and the plain of al-Ma^nah. To the north-
west, through the Wadi al-Sha'ir, a road led to Dor
and later to Ceesarea, while to the northeast ran a
road to Scythopolis, which was joined in the upper
portion of the Wadi Far'ah by a road from the ford
of the Jordan near Adama. The southern ranges of
Samaria, on the other hand, were far less accessible.
The ancient center of the district was Shechem,
which lay on the watershed not quite a mile east of
the modern Nablus. Its pre-Israelitic inhabitants
Samaria
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
186
are termed Canaanites by J (Gen. xii. 6, xxxiv. 30),
Amorites by E (Gen. xlviii. 22), and Hivites by P
(Gen. xxxiv. 2) ; and many contests for
3. Shechem its possession seem to have been waged
and Neigh- between Israel and the Canaanites.
boring Cities. The religious importance of Shechem
is implied by Gen. xxxiii. 19-20,
according to which Jacob there purchased ground
and erected an altar to Yahweh; it was also the
place of Joseph's burial (Josh. xxiv. 32). Another
sacred place at Shechem seems to have been the
oak mentioned in Gen. xii. 6-7, xxxv. 4; Deut. xi.
30; Josh. xxiv. 26 (possibly also Judges ix. 6, 37);
while assemblies of the people gathered in its sanc-
tuary (Josh. xxiv. 1; I Kings xii. 1; II Chron. x.
1). In the vicinity of the city was the well of Jacob
(John iv. 6), the modern Bir Ya'fcub at the foot of
Gerizim, almost south of the village of Bala^a. In
the beginning of the historical period Shechem,
though dependent on Gideon, was not occupied by
Israel (Judges viii. 31, ix. 1-2). When it revolted
against Abimelech, it was destroyed (Judges ix.
2? sqq.). The city then came under the control of
Manasseh (Num. xxvi. 31; Josh. xvii. 2). Jero-
boam I. fortified it and made it the royal seat
(I Kings xii. 25), thus the city could justly be reck-
oned to Ephraim (Josh. xx. 7, xxi. 21; I Chron.
vii. 28). The successor of the Biblical Shechem
was Flavia Neapolis, founded by Vespasian in 72
a.d., the modern Nablus in the valley between Ebal
and Gerizim. Sychar, the city nearest to the well
of Jacob (John iv. 5-6), is usually identified with
the modern village of 'Askar, a mile or two east of
Nablus and over half a mile north of Jacob's well.
The Gilgal of Deut. xi. 30; II Kings ii. 1, iv. 38, is
frequently identified with the small ruin IJirbat al-
Julai jil on the southern edge of the plain of al-Mab-
nah, but without sufficient reason. On the road to
'Afcrabah, two hours southeast of Nablus, lies the
lofty village of al-'Aurma, perhaps identical with
the Arumah of Judges ix. 41; while the little vil-
lage of Far'ata, six miles west of Nablus, is doubt-
less the Pirathon of Judges xii. 13 sqq.; II Sam.
xxiii. 30; I Chron. xxvii. 14, though scarcely the
Pharathoni fortified by Bacchides c. 160 B.C.
(I Mace. ix. 50). The village of $aryat Jitt, three
miles further north, is plainly synonymous with the
Gitto (I Apol. xxvi., Eng. transl., ANF, i. 171)
designated by Justin Martyr as the home of Simon
Magus, though the name also occurs at the foot of
the mountain district. About nine miles distant,
on the road to Jaffa, is the site of Kafr Tilt, which
has been identified with the Shalisha of I Sam. ix.
4 and II Kings iv. 42.
In the region north of Shechem the city of Sa-
maria first deserves notice. The hill on which the
city lay was connected to the northeast with the
opposite heights by a narrow ridge, but was sepa-
rated on all other sides by wide val-
4. The City leys (Isa. xxviii. 1). It had easy ac-
Samaria. cess to all important points, such as
Shechem in the southeast and the plain
of Jezreel in the north. The city contained altars
of Yahweh (Micah i. 5) and — after the reign of
Ahab — of Baal (I Kings xvi. 32; cf. II Kings xiii.
6); and as early as Omri the Arameans of Damas-
cus had their own quarter for trade there (I Kings
xx. 34). During the reign of Ahab the city was be-
leaguered by the Arameans (I Kings xx. 1 sqq.; cf.
II Kings vi. 24-vii. 20). Jehu, after his entry into
Samaria, had the prophets and priests of Baal slain,
and the idolatrous sites destroyed and desecrated
(II Kings x. 1-7, 18-27; II Chron. xxii. 8-9). The
last king, Hoshea, was shut up in Samaria by Shal-
maneser IV. in 724 b.c. (II Kings xvii. 5, xviii. 9),
though the city was reduced under Sargon. On his
return from Egypt in 331, Alexander the Great Hel-
lenized the city, but Ptolemy Lagos razed it in 312,
and Demetrius Poliorcetes again destroyed it in
296. In 27 B.C. Samaria was rebuilt by Herod, who
named it Sebaste, and it was the scene of the preach-
ing of Philip (Acts viii. 5-7). Under Septimius
Severus the city became a Roman colony, but it
became second in importance to Neapolis, though
having its own bishops. The Crusaders erected a
magnificent church there in honor of John the
Baptist.
The road to Janin cuts through the plain of
Dothan (Gen. xxxvii. 14-17; Judith iv. 6-7, vii.
3), which is now represented by Tell Dautan. The
name of Ibleam (Judges i. 27; II Kings
5. Other ix. 27; located in Issachar in Josh.
Inland xvii. 11), to which corresponds the
Cities. Bileam of I Chron. vi. 70 (the Belmaim
of Judith vii. 3), is preserved in the
IJirbat and Wadi BaTamah two miles south of
Janin. On the road from Shechem to Scythopolis,
in the upper part of the Wadi Far'ah, four miles
northeast of Nablus, is Talluzah, identified by Rob-
inson with Tirzah, the residence of the kings of
Israel to the time of Omri, though Conder seeks this
ancient capital in Tayasir, about twelve miles from
Nablus on the road to Beth-shean. The pilgrim
Brocardus (1332) mentions a Thersa three hours
east of Samaria, thus pointing to noteworthy ruins
in the vicinity of 'Ain al-Far'ah on the road to Beth-
shean northeast of Talluzah. About six miles be-
yond Talluzah lies the ancient village of Tubas,
which apparently corresponds to the Biblical Thebez
(Judges ix. 50; II Sam. xi. 21). To the north lie
the Ras Ibzife and Hirbat Ibzifc, corresponding to
the Bezek of I Sam. xi. 8 (cf. Judges i. 4). In the
Jordan valley, 285 feet lower than the surface of
the Mediterranean, is the flourishing village of
Baisan, representing the Biblical Beth-shean, a city
long independent of Israel, and reckoned to Manas-
seh, though lying in the district of Issachar (Josh,
xvii. 11-13; Judges i. 27; I Chron. vii. 29). After
the death of Saul, the city was taken by the Philis-
tines (I Sam. xxxi. 7-13), but with David's subju-
gation of the Philistines, it came under Israelitic
control, and formed part of one of the tributary dis-
tricts of Solomon (I Kings iv. 12). During the
Maccabean wars, Tryphon here sought to capture
Jonathan (I Mace. xii. 40). In the Greco-Roman
period the city was known as Scythopolis. It was
one of the cities of the federation of Decapolis, was
rebuilt by Gabinius, and contained many pagan in-
habitants (Josephus, War, III., vi. 7; Ant., XIV.,
v. 3). The " iEnon near to Salim," where John
baptized (John ill. 23), was located, according to
the Onomasticon of Eusebius, in the plain of Beth*
187
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Samaria
ahean, seven miles south of the city. Both Jerome
and the pilgrim Sylvia record a Salem in this vicin-
ity, and in 1852 Robinson found there the name
Shaih Salim. Abel-meholah, the home of Elisha
(I Kings xix. 16, iv. 12), which Judges vii. 22 seems
to locate south of Beth-shean, is identified by the
OnomasHcon with a village named Bethmaela or
Bethaula, nine miles south of Scythopolis in the
Jordan valley, thus pointing to the modern spring
'Ain al-IJalwah. The Gilboa of I Sam. xxviii. 4,
after which the mountain range was named (II Sam.
i. 21), corresponds to the modern Jalbaun on the
western declivity of the Jabal Fufcu'ah, which rises
abruptly above the plain of Beth-shean. Further
to the west, on the lower slopes, lies the little village
of Bait Kad, which may correspond to the Beth-
'Ekedh, " shearing house," of II Kings x. 12, 14.
Turning to the coast from the mouth of the Nahr
al-'Aujah to Carmel, some twelve miles north of
Jaffa is the ruined site of Arsuf , corresponding to
the ancient Apollonia which was claimed by Alex-
ander Jannseus for Judea and was rebuilt by Ga-
binius (Josephus, Ant., XIII., xv. 4;
6. Cities of War, I., viii. 4). The chief place on
Western the Samaritan coast, however, was
Samaria. Csesarea, also called Csesarea Palses-
tina, Csesarea Palsestinae, Csesarea ad
mare, or Sebaste. It was earlier known as Csesarea
Stratonis, and as Straton here represents 'abd {Aa-
tarUm, " servant of Astarte," it would seem to have
been founded by the Sidonians late in the Persian
period. Alexander Jannseus subjugated the city
and its vicinity as far as Dor, but it was " freed "
by Augustus and given to Herod, who must be re-
garded as the real founder of the city, which was
henceforth called Csesarea. On the deposition of
Archelaus, Csesarea became the seat of the Roman
procurators of Judea (6-41 a.d.), and again after
the death of Agrippa I. (44). Philip and the cen-
turion Cornelius lived there (Acts viii. 40, x. 1 sqq.,
xxi. 8), there Paul was imprisoned before being
taken to Rome, and there he appeared before
Agrippa II. and Berenice (Acts xxiii. 23-24, xxi v.
27, xxv. 14 sqq.). Vespasian made it a Roman
colony, and Alexander Severus gave it the title of
a metropolis (Tacitus, Hist., ii. 78). In consequence
of its wide harbor, trade from Jerusalem to the Med-
iterranean passed through it (Acts ix. 30, xviii. 22,
xxi. 8). The most famous bishop of the city was
Eusebius (q.v.). The relatively smaller Csesarea of
the Crusaders was destroyed by the sultan Bibars
in 1296. The site still bears the name of £aisariyah.
About nine miles north of Csesarea are the ruins,
now called Hirbat fanturah, which mark the site
of the ancient city of Dor, founded by the Pheni-
cians. Although the king of Dor was conquered by
Joshua (Josh. xii. 23), the city did not become trib-
utary to Israel until the regal period (Josh. xvii.
11-12; Judges i. 27), so that I Kings iv. 11 makes
the entire mountain region of Dor a tax-district of
Solomon. The "height of Dor" (Josh. xii. 23,
R. V.), apparently the southwestern slope of Car-
mel, must be distinguished from the city itself.
According to the Eshmunazar inscription the Per-
sian king gave Dor and the coast as far as Joppa
to the Sidonians. In the Maccabean period Trypho
1. Origins.
was vainly besieged at Dor by Antiochus Sidetes
(I Mace. xv. 10-14). Alexander Jannseus won the
city from Zoilus, but in 63 B.C. Pompey made it a
free city. It was, however, deserted in the days of
Jerome. The Migdal Mau>a of the Talmud, the Mag-
dihel of Jerome's Onomasticon, is represented by
the modern Hirbat Mali^ah, five miles north of
Tanturah. A Hebrew Migdal £1 was probably once
situated at the present ruins of 'Atlit, the Castellum
Peregrinorum of the Crusaders. (H. Guthe.)
H The People. — 1. Origin and History: The
account of the origin of the people (called in Greek
Samareitai, Samaritai, and in Latin Samaritani)
after the destruction of the northern kingdom is
given in II Kings xvii. 24 sqq., according to which
Sargon brought colonists from " Babylon, Cuthah,
Ava, Hamath, and Sepharvaim " to
take the place of the Jews who had
been deported. The account continues to the effect
that since these colonists did not fear Yahweh he
sent lions among them; representations of the facts
were then made to Sargon who had a Hebrew priest
from among the captives sent to teach them how
to worship Yahweh, " the god of the land." Yet
each nationality made for itself gods in each place,
while priests were appointed and offered sacrifice in
the high places. This account, so far as the settling
of colonists is concerned, is corroborated by the
annals of Sargon (cf. Schrader, KAT, pp. 276 sqq.),
which speak of two sets of colonists settled in the
West; Ezra iv. 2, 10, speaks of settlements made by
" Esar-haddon " and " Asnapper " (Asshurbanipal;
cf. Assyria, VI., 3, §§ 12-14). In view of the com-
posite character of the population thus derived, the
question has been raised how a people of such unity
of character and with so pronounced a Jewish stamp
could have been formed. Hengstenberg finds the
answer in the tenacity with which they held to
Jewish models, especially after they received the
Pentateuch. Josephus (Ant., IX., xiv. 3, X., ix.
7) claims a purely heathen origin for the Samari-
tans, and affirms that the Jews up to his time denied
any relationship with them, calling them Cutheans
(cf. II Kings xvii. 24). But this account must be
rejected in favor of the other story told in the
sources referred to above. Since the Hebrews de-
ported numbered only 27,290, it is clear that not
all the Hebrew population was carried away; the
remnant left must have been strong enough to ac-
count for the bringing of the heathen settlers over
to the practise of the religion of Yahweh. Very
early the Samaritans called themselves " children
of Israel " and descendants of Joseph. This con-
clusion is not contradicted by the few notices of the
early centuries. For by the end of the seventh cen-
tury b.c. there was rehabilitation of the Yahweh
worship in the northern kingdom (II Kings xxiii.
15, 19 sqq.); in the report of the high places in
Samaria there is no word of idolatry in connection
with Josiah's reform. In Ezra iv. 2 the Samaritans
make their appeal to Zerubbabel on the basis of
their worship of the God of Israel from the days of
Esar-haddon; and the Jews in their reply do not
accuse them of idolatry. Ezra vi. 21 shows a trace
of inclusion of a part of the Samaritans in associa-
tion with the returned exiles after the building of
ftmniiTln-
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
188
the second Temple. The schism and the mutual
hatred of Jews and Samaritans are most simply
accounted for by the old standing opposition be-
tween north and south.
Preeminent in importance in accounting for the
consolidation of the Samaritans were the recogni-
tion of the Pentateuch and the erection of the tem-
ple on Mt. Gerizim. Of the second matter Josephus
fl _ « , gives an account (Ant., XL, vii. 2,
Account^ v^# ^ ^M') much m need °f critical
investigation. According to him Darius
Codomannus sent as satrap to Samaria a certain
Sanaballetes, and he, to secure Jewish friendship,
gave his daughter in marriage to Manasseh, brother
of Jaddus, the high priest. In accordance with
Ezra ix., Manasseh was ordered to give up his wife
or his priesthood, and appealed to Sanballat; the lat-
ter then promised him a temple on Mt. Gerizim and
the high priesthood of it. Manasseh therefore took
up his residence in Samaria, whither other Jews,
priests and laymen, who had heathen wives followed
him and were joyously received by Sanaballetes
and given means of support. While Alexander was
besieging Tyre, the satrap went over to him and
secured Alexander's consent to his project, after
which he built the temple. After the death of Sana-
balletes, the Samaritans sent a deputation to Alex-
ander, invited him to their city, and asked immunity
from taxation in the sabbatical year, asserting that
they were Hebrews, though they disclaimed being
Jews. Alexander postponed granting their request,
but took the Samaritan soldiery with him to Egypt
and settled them there as guardians of the bound-
ary. But the temple at Gerizim became a refuge
and resort of Jews who in their own land were ac-
cused of breaking the laws of Judaism. This ac-
count does not make clear how a heathen people
through the shrewdness of their satrap and the ac-
cession of a fugitive Jewish priest permitted the
victory over them of a new religion. Rather, Ma-
nasseh, if he acted as is related, found existing an
idea of relationship to the Jews. The chronology
of Josephus raises questions, when compared with
Ezra ix., x. 5, and Neh. x. 31, xiii. 23 sqq. Neh.
xiii. 28 seems to have the same basis as the narra-
tive of Josephus; a son of Joiada, who was son of
the high priest Eliashab, was son-in-law of San-
ballat. Josephus makes Manasseh, son-in-law of
Sanaballetes and brother of the high priest Jaddus,
who was son of the high priest Johanan, the grand-
son of Joiada and great-grandson of Eliashab. That
is, Josephus puts Manasseh a century too late. If
Manasseh built the temple on Gerizim, he was not
son or grandson of Joiada. It seems historical that
the Gerizim temple was built under Alexander (cf .
Josephus, Ant., XIII., ix. 1). If Manasseh is iden-
tical with the son of the Joiada of Nehemiah, he
may have been active among the Samaritans, but
not as builder of the temple. At the cost of chron-
ology, identity has been assumed (by Josephus) be-
tween the founder of the temple and the object of
Nehemiah's anger. Reference to the Samaritan
temple has been seen in the " Trito-Isaiah " (chaps,
lvi.-lxvi.), as in lvii. 3 sqq., lxv. 3 sqq., lxvi. 1 sqq.,
16 sqq., and with considerable reason (cf. on this
A. Kuenen, Gesammelte Abhandlungen, pp. 229 sqq.,
Leipsic, 1894; T. K. Cheyne, Introduction to the
Book of Isaiah, pp. 316-317, 363 sqq., London, 1895,
and Jewish Religious Life after the Exile, pp. 25 sqq.,
ib. 1898).
When the Pentateuch was taken over by the
Samaritans is entirely unknown. It can no longer
be maintained that the hatred between Jews and
Samaritans after the time of Nehemiah necessitates
the acquisition by the Samaritans of the Pentateuch
earlier than the breach at that time; nor can Jo-
sephus' account be wholly rejected, nor may the
absolute completion of the Pentateuch be set be-
tween 444 and 432. The mutual hatred of the two
peoples, moreover, was not so great as to hinder the
Samaritans from adopting an unquestioned work
of Moses, since they derived their religion from him
as its founder. Moreover, in the Samaritan alpha-
bet there are to be seen indications that it dates
back to the forms of the fourth century b.c.
Under the Ptolemies and Seleucids the Samari-
tans shared the fortunes of the Jews (cf., e.g., Jo-
sephus, Ant., XII., i. 1). The hatred of the two
peoples manifested itself in acts of aggression
a Hiato (Josephus, Ant., XII., iv. 1; I Mace.
to 66 A. IX *"* *0) and in epithets (Ecclus. 1. 25-
* 26). Under Antiochus Epiphanes the
Samaritans denied kinship with the Jews and claimed
descent from Medes and Persians (Josephus, Ant.,
XII., v. 5) or Phenicians, while they contested with
the Jews in Egypt for precedence in behalf of their
own temple (Josephus, Ant., XIII., ill. 4). John
Hyrcanus overran Samaria and destroyed the tem-
ple at Gerizim and later the city of Samaria (Jo-
sephus, Ant., XIII., ix. 1, x. 2), and under Alexan-
der Jannseus (104-78 b.c.) the city was in the power
of the Jews. In 63 b.c. it was made a free city, that
is, was under the Roman governor of Syria. Under
Gabinius (57-55) it was rebuilt, and in 30 adorned
by Herod and named Sebaste in honor of Augustus.
After the death of Herod the district came under
Archelaus, but after his deposition came again under
direct Roman rule, except that in 41-44 a.d. it was
given by Claudius to Herod Agrippa. Testimony
to the continuing hatred of and for the Jews is found
in John viii. 48; Josephus, Ant., XVIII., ii. 2, XX.,
vi. 1; War, II., xii. 3, in which the recurring con-
flicts are in part narrated while they explain such in-
cidents as those of Luke ix. 53 and the remark in
John iv. 9. John iv. shows, however, that the sep-
aration and exclusiveness were not absolute, and
the circuit made by Galileans in going to Jerusalem
was caused less by the hostility of the Samaritans
than by the exposure to ceremonial defilement on
the part of Jews. That the Samaritans in the time
of Jesus were considered heathen follows neither
from Matt. x. 5 nor Luke xvii. 18; note that in
John iv. 12 the Samaritan woman speaks of " our
father Jacob." The New Testament nowhere
charges the Samaritans with idolatry. The report
in the Talmud (Chullin 6a) that the Samaritans
worshiped the image of a dove is a late invention,
and that they worshiped a god Ashima arose from
a misunderstanding. That worship continued on
Gerizim in the time of Jesus is clear. The signifi-
cance of Gerizim for the Samaritans is indicated by
Josephus (Ant., XVIII., iv.), according to whom in
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
35 a st. a false prophet promised to show the Samari-
tans the sacred vessels buried by Moses upon the
mountain; in consequence there was an assemblage
of people at a village near by called Tirathana which
Pilate attacked, slaying many, and his violence md
cruelty caused his deposition. That the mutual
hatred of the two peoples did not biir the Samaritans
Irom the Gospel is shown by Jesus' employment
of the Samaritan as the merciful man ill Luke x.
Further testimony is found in Luke xvit. 16; John
tv. 39 sqq.; Acts viii. 5 sqq., 14 sqq.
On the outbreak of the Jewish war in 66 the Sa-
maritans were undecided which of the two hated
pari ics I hey should choose as enemies. In June, 67
(Josephus, TFar, III., vii. 32), an armed assemblage
gathered on Gerizim, against which
History Vespasian sent Cerealis with 600 horse
and 3,000 foot, who stormed the hill
and killed 11,600 of them. After that the Samari-
tans dropped out of history for a time, but in 194
are heard of as partisans of Pcscennius Niger itgttna*
Septimius Severus. Roman laws of the end of the
fourth century show Samaritan communities in
Egypt, on some islands of the Red Sea, and else-
where; and In Rome at the beginning of the sixth
century they had a synagogue. Toward the end of
the fifth century began the insurrections of this peo-
ple which revealed their hare of the Christians and
led to their suppression. The Emperor Zeno re-
placed their synagogue on Gerizim with a church
to the Virgin, and under his successor they stormed
the mountain and slew the keepers of the church.
In 529 under Justinian they rebelled and crowned
their leader Julian king, plundered and burned
Christian villages and churches, until Justinian in a
pitched battle conquered and slew many of them,
and proclaimed severe lawn against them. The next
report concerning the Samaritans comes from Ben-
jamin of Tudela c. 1170, who says that the " Cu-
theans " of Shechem, about 100 in number, cele-
brate their Passover festival on Gerizim, and speaks
of about 900 Samaritans distributed in Ciesarea,
Ascalon, and Damascus (for the latter ef. A. Musil,
Siiben samarit. InschriftEtiaus Damascus, in SWA,
xxxix., 1903, pp. 127-128). Since the end of the
sixteenth century the Samaritans of Shechem and
Cairo have been in communication with Christian
travelers and scholars, the point of interest to the
latter being the Samaritan recension of the Penta-
teuch. In 1853 Hcinrich Pctennann reported the
number of Samaritans in Nablus as 122; in 1884
there were reported fifty- three men, forty-six
women, thirty-six boys, and sixteen girls, while in
1901 the total number was given as 175, but there
are no colonies of Samaritans outside Nablus. In
Nablus this people inhabits its own quarter in the
southwestern part of the city, living in great poverty,
with a priest (kokin) who claims to be a Lovite,
though the Aaronie line is conceded to have been ex-
tinct since i*i58. The present priest has the power,
either at his own initiative or at the wish of the
community, to anoint others to the office. He re-
ceives tithes from the community, and from this and
an accessory source the income is about sixty-four
Hollars. The clothing is white with a red turban.
The civil control is under a thophtt, " judge."
8. Doctrine i Their doctrine, apart from the
special significance of Mt. Gerizim. is like that of
the Jews. They emphasize the unity of God, and
reject all kinds of image worship, anthropomor-
phism, and anthropopathism, though between God
and man they conceive of mediating spirits. Hoaea
was the greatest of the prophets, whose law is holy.
The cultus on Gerizim they refer to Deut. xxvii. 4,
where they read " Gerizim " for " Ebal." The Mes-
siah (John iv. 25) is to come 6,000 years after the
creation, and he will establish the Tabernacle, holy
vessels, and manna on Gerizim, renew the worship,
and convert all people to the true faith; lie will live
to the age of one hundred and be buried on Gerizim.
The final judgment is to come at the end of 7,000
years, the result of which will be eternal, with a
period of penance in hell for those whose lives have
mingled good and evil. In the matter of the levi-
rate marriage (Deut. xxv. 5 sqq.) the Samaritans
construe " brother " as " nearest friend," and the
levirate is not binding if the friend has two wives
already (a second wife being allowed in case of ster-
ility of the first). Marriages are contracted early,
and divorce is extremely rare; the value or pur-
chase price of a bride is from $300 to 8115, which
the bride receives. Circumcision is on the eighth
day. The Samaritans follow for their religious fes-
tivals the calendar of Lev. xxiii., marking the three
chief ones by processions to Gerizim. They regard
the Hebrew (lacing the tongue of the Pentateuch) as
the holy language, and some of them possess a pass-
able knowledge of the text; their pronunciation in
some particulars serves to correct the Jewish-
Christian.
3. Language and Literature: The colloquial
language of the Samaritans from the last century
b.c. till the first centuries of the Mohammedan
hegemony was a dialect of the West Aramaic, usu-
ally designated Samaritan; it presented few dif-
ferences, apart from loan words from
1. Fenta- Hebrew, Greek, and Latin, as com-
teU° and" pared with the ordmarv Palestinian
^^blo Aramaic found in the Targums and in
Transla- certain parts of the Talmud. The fact
tions. that c. 1100 a.d. the Samaritan Penta-
teuch was translated into Arabic shows
that already the Samaritan had become a dead
tongue; even earlier than that, the Arabic version of
Saadia had been used. In their literature the Penta-
teuch takes first place. Among the tendencial text
alterations the most noticeable is that already noted
in Deut. xxvii. 4; there are also wide differences in
the term of life given the patriarchsin Gen. v. and xi.
It is said that the variants from the Hebrew text num-
ber 6,000. The theory that the Samaritan Penta-
teuch was the basis nf the Septuacint version, though
(his is regarded :is a falsified and corrupt recension
of the Hebrew, was restated by S. Kohn, De Pen-
Inlcucho Sanuiritaiio (Lcipsic, ISfij). Besides this
work, the Samaritans possess the Samaritan Tar-
gum, a translation of the Pentateuch into the Sa-
maritan; this the Samaritans claim to have been
made between 50 and 1 B.C.; really it was made in
the second or beginning of the third century A.d.
Field's r/eropia (prolegomena, pp. lxxxii.-l\ xxiii.)
remarks that of forty-three readings in thn Greek
Samaria
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
nut Last than thirty-six agree with the Samaritan
Targum exactly and seven others do not invalidate
thi: BOBUlIusdon stated above as to the relation of the
Greek to the Samaritan; this is, however, disputed
"by others (Monal&schrift Jar Gexchichte und Witsen-
*chaftdesJudenthums, ISM, pp. 1-7, 49^67; ZDMG,
Xlvii., 1893, pp. 850 sqq.). The investigations of
Kohn have shown that the views which have pre-
vailed respecting the Samaritan Targum were er-
roneous. The grammars and lexicons hitherto have
contained many false words and explanations, and
what has passed as the Samaritan Targum was a
Jioor exemplar of varied and unrelated writings,
corrupted and distorted, with attempted corrections,
the products of a time when Samaritan had long
been disused, with interpolations from the Targum
of Onkelos and with Arabisms; in short of the orig-
inal Targum probably only small fragments are
known. Tin' li-inlim-Ll rfiLinpi-!* ri'-prcscnt accom-
modations, running through centuries, to all pos-
eible variations in views (Sadducean, HwiMWi
Syrian, and Arabic), and are the work of a num-
ber of different hands; tlic indications are Dot that a
fundamental targum server* as the ba.-iis, but that by
different priest* partial translations were made for
practical purposes. There is also a translation of
the Pentateuch into Arabic, made in the eleventh
or twelfth century, probably to supersede that of
Baadia. The text current under the name of Abu
8a id in tin.1 result of two or more recensions. It does
not seem to have used the Targum, though tbc laV
ter may have received insertions from the transla-
tion; the Arabisms in the Targum, where they do
Oot agree with the translation, are possibly of the
time of Abu Said and rest upon another Arabic
version.
Another piece of Samaritan literature is the Ara-
bic Book of Joshua, perhaps of the thirteenth cen-
tury, dcalinn with history from the death of Moses
to that of Joshua in tljirty-i-iclit ■■! m ptors, often in
agreement with the Hebrew Joshua,
8- Other DUt n^th apocryphal additions, and an
Writings uPPc"d'x °f n'ne chapters carrying the
history down to the time of Alexan-
der Severus. It is claimed tliat it was written in
Hebrew originally, but possibly the whole work was
composed in Arabic. There is, moreover, also writ-
ten in Arabic, the Samaritan Chronicle of Abu'l Fath,
an apology for the Samaritans, based upon older
works in 1355 a.d., coming down to Mohammed,
and continued by another hand to the time of
Haniu al-Rasl.id. Both these works are historically
worthless. There is also the so-called Neubnuer
C'hroiii'-le. and the recently edited Samaritan-
Hebrew Chronicle issued by Adler and Seligsohn
(see below, 4, § 2, end).
4. Literature on the Samaritans! The following
Si vim tin- pirii„>i|>-,l work* .|i-ihrijt with the history and lii.-r-
aiureoftbeSnrunrilriri* Hi C. <_*.-ll:i riu' Cntltetanea hiitori*
lanra . . . rmigit illuttram, Halle. 1707
I. On the (these two lmok» ronsliluie the chief soum?] ;
History E. W. Honjtstenbcrg, Die Atilhenlir da Pm-
ofthe toleucAcs, i. 1-U, Berlin. ISM Ui-ol'w -riiv:
Samaritans. Robinson, Rararrha. vol. iii.: T. G. J.
Juynboll. Commentarii in hietoriam oentit
i. Uvden. IMfi (tin- lie.-t roller! inn of the older
■ A. Knobel, Zur Gachichte d<r Samaritatiee, Qiw
; J. W.
t. SieteA
•a, 1874;
■en, 1846; J- Grimm, Die S
WeUaeKhichle, Munich, 18S4
Orient, i. 280-292, Lei pair, 1
1 ierteljabriirhrift, L 9 sqq..
of Samaritan Himtom, Dogma,
A. Cowley, in JQIt. 1896. pp. 562 aqq. hi. A. .Montgomery.
The Samaritani, Philadelphia. 1007; Jacob, Son of Aaron
(high priest of the Samaritans). The Mutianic Hope of the
Samaritan!, film if, from the Ambit by Abdullah ten Stmt,
ed. with Introduction bg W. E. Barton, Chicago, 190S; J. W.
Hothstein. Juden und Satnaritaner. Die grundlearnde
Srheiduna eon Judenttan und Heidentum. Eine kritinJic
Studie turn Buehe Haogai und tur jaditehen Geicliichte in
ertttn naehexiliichen Jal^hundrri. Leipsie, ltHIS.] (2) On
individual \-<>ln\3 in history: J. F. Zacharii. D' .So. mania nil
eorumaue trmplo in motile GariAm, Jena, 1723: Schuli. Da
i.m;i?.t.- .-iiii.'i Jwlaorum in Samaritan odia, Wittenberg. 1758;
D. Mill. Dt miMu odii Judaxt inter ataue Samaritamt in
/>i.«i rliiti-mim etlata. Ley den, 1743; S. de Saay, Chrateina-
thit Arable, i, 103 sqq., ii. 177 sqq.. Paris. 1S[» (cast met from
Maliriiis " Description of Egypt"); idem, Mtmoire iv
rttat aetuel del Samaritaini, ib. 1812, in extended form in
Notice* et extraiti da manuaritt di la bibliotheaue da mi, pp.
1-39. ib. 183! (deals especially with the dogmatics of the
Samaritans) ; Gesenius, De Samaritanaram theatoffia ex
fontibiu ineditu. Halle. 1723: J. J. L. Barges. Let Samari-
taim de Naplome, Paris, 1855; G. H. A. von Ewold, Ge-
leJiichU del Volka lirati, iii 721 sqq., iv. 12!) sqq.. 197 iqq..
274 sqq.. GiittinBen. 1*04-6S; M. Appcl, QuaMiontt dt re-
but Samaritonorum lab imjirrio Romano perarlie, Bresbu.
1874: A, Briill. Zur Getehichte und LUteraluT da Samari-
tanrr, Frantfort, 1878; Gcigcr, in ZDMG, ii. 730 aqq., iii.
132 sqq.. xiv. 822 sqq.. ivi. 3S9 sqq.. ii. S27 aqq.: Tag-
licht, Der Kuthaer ale Btobaehter da GatUa. Erlangen.
1888: L. Wrwchner. Samaritanitehe Traditionrn, Berlin,
lUa 'hi'ludes tnateiialB from the twelfth century). (3) In-
terchange of correspondence between Samaritans and Euro-
irechmei, in Reprrtorium for biblitche und rnorgenlonditehe
/..rt.nKNr, i.v ] sqq.: S. ,L- Sarv, Litter* Samaritanorum ad
J. Sealiaerum, in the same. ziii. 257 sqq.: Allarius. Epit-
lola Samarilana Sichemitarum ad J. Ludolfum. ZeiU, 1088;
Brans. EpiMola Samarilami Xirh.mitarum tnlia ail J, Ludol-
I-.i-ik Hi -lin-itiidt. 1781; S. de Sacy, in Noticee et extraiti da
manueeritt dt la bibliotheque du roi, iii. 1-235. Paris. 1831:
7.1)Mi;, (Vat 375-376; Dtvltche VierteijahrachriSt, i. 78
■qq.: ZDPV , 1S85. 149 sqq. : JQR. vol. ivi. no. 63: Sta-
tion to King Oscar of Sweden, fpsala. 1897.
(1) On the grammar of tho language oonnult: F. Uble-
mann, IwHilutionea Hnauo: Samaritan*, Lcipsic. 1837: G. J.
NichoUs, A Grammar a/ the Samaritan Lan-
Z. On the guage uir'i A'j'rrjr.'., ami Vnxtlnihiry. London.
Sacred or IMS; H Peicnnnnn. Bracia lingua Samari-
Semi-Saored tana arammatiea, lilteratura, ehrettomathia.
Book*. cum glmmrio. Berlin. 1873; S. Kohn, Zur
Spraehe, Literatur, und Dogmatik der Samari-
taner, Leipsie. 1870: J. Iti.. i,t,.m, LrhrluA iter tamaritan-
tacAen Spraehe unit Literatur, Vienna, 1001. On leiieog-
mphy: Castelli, Lexicon Arplofl/otton, London, 1689; idem.
.1 .,,.,!,],/: /riotiona Samaritana. in the " London Poly-
glot," vol, vi.; 3, Kohn. S'nnaril„m., hi: Xtudien. Bfeslau,
1SBS. On Samaritan-Hebrew: T. NSIdeko. Utber tinige
betrrffend, Uottingen. 1S02; II. Petorrnnnn. Veetuth einer
hebraitchen Formenlehre nacn der Autepraehe der heutigen
Samaritaner nrbtt einer danaeh grbildvtm trantekriptian der
Geneiit, Leipsie, 1888. (2) On the Hebrew-Samaritan
IVntiilcucli: l.il>]icgrnjihy nnii.T Biulb Tbictb, A, IV.; the
reprint by B. Blaynny. Oiford, 1790: C. F. Houbigant
/,■,'„',„ ll.hr.,,,:,. iMri-, 17'.:;; ;i foliation hv Ii. K-nnicott
is in his Vttut Tatamenlum Ilebraiea, vol. i., Oiford. 1778.
in the Biuister edition of the O. T.. London. 1844. and in
Petermanu's Veriueh . . . Formenlehre. ut sup., pp. 219
sqq. On the manuscripts: J. <i Kithhom. Einlritnng ins
■ trie Testament, ii, 584 sqq., Leipsie. UOSi BjomstsJ. in
Rrperlorium fur bibliwhe und morgenUmditche LiUeratltr,
iii 84 aq.[ ; Rosrn, in ZD.Iff.', iviii. 5.42 sqq ; A. Hiirkavy.
" Tlie S:.mnrit.in U:inn-,-ri|ils jl the i'.-nl Hvilr.-h in the Im-
perial Lil.rnry at St. Petersbu^r.,,' St. Petersburg. 1875 (in
Russian): G. Mareoliouth. in JQR, July. 190,3. dp 632 sqq.;
and the literature under Rim.r Vehsiovs, A., IV. Critical
expositions are: W. Geeenius, Dt
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
indole, Halle, 1816; F. Blcek, Einlcituno in da, AlU Tttta-
■mml, ed. Kamphaunen. pp. 757 sqq,. Berlin, 1870; W. M.
i. de Wette, Einlrtlung ia J.t;, .li'l. Testament. I "
pp. 203 mm., Berlin, 130B; F. Bleck, EinJctfi
J. Wellhauscn, pp. 570, Cj:l. Berlin. 1-S7S; E. W. E. Reuss.
t;. ; ,-l,;,-h!,- ,1,7 htiliaen linriflrn ilea Allen TettamenU,
470 sqq.. Brunswick, 1S.SI; 11. 1'ick. in Bibliotheca Sacra.
Jim.. Ix77-Apr„ 1878; Kooig,
•a.
n-!.,n-.n<
printed tells are in the Paris and London Polyglots; an
edition wis bcpia by G. Petcrmann. Pmlatructtut Sanari-
tanue, of which lie jmuliili,.,! limestia and Eiodus, Berlin,
ls7L'-7.i, continued and completed by C. Vollers. isvr-m
ll'flcrm.LTii,-, t,L,rl imt i-rv well dime; cf. Kuhii in ZD.MG.
Ilvii. 6^6-807); A. Briil? . Dot Samnritanitchc Tarown rum
i'entateorh, 5 paru and two appending. Fninkfcri. ls7;i-
1S7B; idem. Krilitchc StuJicn uftcr .amarilorKscAe Praj-
•nou's ... in Oj/orJ. ib. 1K70; 3. Koha. Zu7 Sprnchc. etc.
Utsup., pp. ilamjq .: II. l[,-„l,-r,li.:im. in Bibliotheca Samari-
tan,,, vol. i„ l.cip-iu. 1MS1 (uncritical); A. Harkavy gives B.
i.'.i:,ii..,i „i the St. l-Vlerwburg fragments with the polyglot
teil in Katalag der hebraiir.hcn und tamarilaTiUchen HuTvi.
Khriltcn. Leipsic. 1S75; B. Kable, in ZA. ivi (1901). 83
•qq., ivii (1903), 1 sqq.; Kohn in ZDMO. 1800.
«qq.; P. Kahle. Texllrilitche and Itiikalincht Bern.
turn h marif nniscnm fcnta/tur/ifaroiim, Halle, IH'.
ibe works on i "
sr. Blee
-Kim
m,i iv.i,
.by
H. E. G. Paulus, in
8. de Saey, De certi.
in .l»simn'iu Bibli,
.Vfuci Rcpcrtoriun
ft de I'acudemie da it
, Berli
1B01
idamental);
st three books, Leydan, 1S51-54; J. Bloch,
i-arabUehe Pcntateuchltbersetiuna, Devi, i.-
' P. Kahle, in Znhchrift far hebrauche
Bibliographie. 1002, no, 1). On the Book of Joshi
Older literature the " Introduction " of Eichhom, iii. 412
«qq.. and oi l>e Wette-ni-hrader. pp. 307 sqq.; and Juyn-
boll. Chronicoa HamaritnniLia. Uydcn, 1848 (edits the only
t)at Buch Jothua in rit>>r.,,::,-h-s,imunbini*elter Baeruion,
tntdcett and cum rrsten Stole h<xnu*2roet*n. Leipik. I'JUS.
On the other chronicles: C. F, Schnurror edited twenty
pages of the text of Abu'l Fat£ in .Vtujn Bcpertorium (1790),
117 sqq.; E. Vilniar. Abulj'ithi annnles Samnritani. Gotha,
1805 (complete); the Bodleian codex by Payne Smith in
Vciilwhw Yiaifljahetachrift fUr eaotiM-h-thcologuKhe For-
Khuns, ii (ISfWt. ;:nl sqq., -I:ii' nqq.; and lie Wctte Hi-hni-
der. ut sup., pp. 30S-3O9. A. Ncubnucr edited a later mm-
"1 JA, jaV
[1SB9), 385-3S6; E. N. Adlcr and M. Seligsohn
REJ. iliv (1902)-xlvi (1903) a " new Samaritan Chron-
icle" (cf. ClermoDt-Ganncau. in Journal dee sarnn/s. Jan.,
190-1, pp. 3-1 -q.|„ nnd l/,<<„i/ rf nrrLioUwir nrimlalf, vol. vij.
On manuscnp'." -\\ itilicr li[,:T:Lf.ijri': Barton in Bil>lu>Lhetn
•acra, Oct., 1903. pp. SIS sqq.; Neubauer. in Chnnique
tamarUaine. pp. 497 sqq. (on JOB. in the
8, On Mann- Tbiii-li Mitseumi; ii. Man-"liouth, Detrrip-
•orlpta and fue Ltit of Hibrea and Samarir.in MSS.,
Other London, 1893 (on tho Bame); for the Bod-
Worka. leian Mss . Neubauer. C.ilalooue o/ Hebrew
AfSS., Oiford, 1853; for those at St. Peters-
burg, A. Harkavy. CVIecdbn of Samaritan MSS. at Si.
Peternburs. London. 1874. [Add R. Golthei]. iu JBL. xxv.
»J
On the
liturgy: W. Gesenius, Cormina Samarilana. Halle,
Dtu/Khrjt YitrMyihrwhrijt, \\u\h-.\.. lNrJ0-n7: ,'f. idi'rii, in
Bibliolheca Samnritona, ii.-iv.. t^eipsic, 1S.SJ-ST; A. Men,
Carmiau .SamoriJoToi, Rome, IS87; A. E. Oonley, in ./'.>/.'.
vii (IS'J-)l. 1 Lil sqq.; idem. The Samaritan Lilvrwt. 2 v„h .
New York, 1909, London, 1910: 8. Rappopost. La I.itm
J/1,0 »er..'ivi. L's-.i s,.,q.
the Pentateuch: here t
b> I'rn-rin-.i.FL in i"i;s f
Ii.rl.n. 1VS8; cf. E. Mu!
lin, 1«W1; \1. H..i.!,-nl,<
Bibliothrci Hi-nurihinn,
- fCtn.
, 1900; idem, i
On (he Haggada
longs the Samaritan IHarKah. in
Ary of the foT.rth eenlury. copied
mi a Nnblus MS., ed. H. Baneth.
(. Dm SamarOunen Aforoon. Ber-
m, Pit KorFirnmlnr Man/aJu, in
-ol. iii., Weimar, 1806; L. Em-
merich, Das Suaedied, cine SehriflcrklaTuno da Samari-
taneri Marqah. pan L. Berlin. UB7| L. Hildeaheimer, Da
Samaritanerm Maroon Bucn der »-wider, Berlin. 1SUS. C, F.
Schnurrcr published in the AVprrlorium fQr bibtische . . _
Litlcratvr, ivi (1785). 154 sqq.. Pre** rinss •amarit.-bibli-
«*m Kommentars on Gen. xtix.; Drahldn, Fragmenta cam-
mentarii ad penlat. Samanlrma-Arubici aei. Brealuu, 1875.
On halaeha: the chief work is the Kilab al-kafi, a work dated
1042 a.o„ in thirty-two chapters, compiled from the work of
the most esteemed Samnri tans ; N. Conn edilcd chap. I,
M Die ZaraatAeatUe der Bibel . . . , Frankfort. 1809;
H Klumel, " Miachpalin." Ein tamarit.-aTah. Kom-
menlar tu Ei. xci.-icii. IS, Berlin. 1903; S. Hanover, Dm
the Tul-.rh: the earlier works nn; given in Scbtlrer, <im:liicbte,
ii. 522; A. \ierr. Ein tamarit. Fragment tibcr den Tacb oder
Mct.iai aus der ColAoer Handtchri/I. Linden, 1S93 (cf. Ilil-
genfeld in ZWT. 1304, pp. 1*33 sqq.. ISiiri. p. 158); Cowley,
in Enwlor, Mar.. 18U5, pp. 181 sqq.; Goldiihcr, in ZliMtl.
Ivi (l'lirj). 411-112. On other (secular) literature, J.
Freudentnal, Hdltniitiiche Studien, heft 1. Brealau. 1S74.
(E, Kautzsch.)
SAMARITAH PENTATEUCH. See Bible Vkb-
sions, A., IV.
SAMSON: The son of Mtuioah, of the tribe of
Dan, and the last popular hero of the book of Judges
(xiii.-ivi.), which drew upon tpecial written
sources, apparently with only a few additions. The
special characteristic of Samson was his great and
divinely given strength, due to the fact lluit licfore
his birth he had lieen dedicated a lifelong Xuziritc,
his powers depending on his faithful observance of
his vows, particularly by refraining from cutting hia
hair. He was, moreover, quick of wit, and full of
biting irony, but he was also reckless and self-con-
fident, so that he « as finally overcome rather by the
craft than by the strength of his foes. In like fash-
ion he was unpractical, and though the spirit of
Yahweh moved him against the enemies of Israel
(Judges xiii. 25, riv. 4), his prowess was manifested
chiefly in deeds of mischief and in love adventures.
The spirit of Yahweh which aided him. r.speciallv
: of need (Judges n't. 6, 19, xv. 14; cf. xvi.
is often made to serve foolish and unworthy
ends, so that even his serious battles had no unify-
ing purpose, and his victories bore no adequate re-
sult. Only in a formal sense, to be in harmony with
the accounts of his predecessors, can he be said to
have " judged Israel " twenty years (Judges xv.
'. 31). He is never described as leading his
people, who received but slight profit from the en-
terprises which he undertook for his own glory
(Judges xiii. 5), and his character was marred by
Ins excessive amorousness. Samson thus presents
l dual aspect, the antithesis between divine calling
nnd the nature of man, the theories of oripu-it.ion
between pagan nature myth and monotheistic re-
working, or between popular account and religious
, being inadequate explanations,
s xiii. records a twofold appearance of an
angel of the Lord, announcing to Manoah and bis
barren wife the birth of a son who should be dedi-
cated to Yahweh from his birth and should " begin
i deliver Israel out of the hand of the I'll i lis lines."
The first cycle of Samson's deeds centers around his
wooing of and marriage with a Philistine bride liv-
ing at Timnath. On his way to her he lore asunder
. lion, an event which furnished him the basis for a
riddle with which he ptuded the Philistine wedding
uel
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
102
guests until his bride coaxed its solution from him,
whereupon he boldly slew thirty of the inhabitants
of Ashkelon to obtain the garments to pay his for-
feit (Judges xiv.). The marriage was abruptly
broken off, but Samson still regarded his bride as his
lawful wife (Judges xv. 1) and avenged the giving
of her to another man by burning the fields of the
Philistines. The latter thereupon destroyed both
father-in-law and wife, while Samson, in his turn,
slaughtered large numbers of them. Delivered into
the hands of the Philistines by the men of Judah, he
nevertheless slew a thousand more Philistines with
the jawbone of an ass (Judges xv.). Somewhat
later, when captured while enmeshed in an amour
in Gaza, Samson carried off the city gates by night
(Judges xvi. 1-4). He was finally destroyed, how-
ever, by his intrigue with a Philistine woman named
Delilah, who prevailed upon him to reveal the true
secret of his strength and then betrayed him to her
compatriots, who seised and blinded him, com-
pelling him to work as a slave in the prison at Gaza
(Judges xvi. 4-21). But the hair which Delilah
had shorn grew again, and with it his strength re-
turned, whereupon, with one last mighty revenge,
he destroyed both the Philistines and himself by
pulling down the temple of the god Dagon (Judges
xvi. 22 sqq.).
The attempt has been made to connect this story
with Semitic and Indo-Germanic myths, the hero's
name, as a derivative of shemesh, " sun," being
etymologized as " little sun " or as " sunlike " (al-
though others derive it from shamem, " to be laid
waste," while according to Josephus, Ant., V., viii.
4, it signifies " strong "), Samson being compared
with the Greek Herakles, a view early current in the
Church (Eusebius, Chron., ed. A. Schone, pp. 54-
65, Berlin, 1875-76; Philaster, Hcer., viii.; Geor-
gius Syncellus, ed. G. Dindorf, i. 309, Bonn, 1829),
which derived the Greek from the Hebrew story.
In accordance with this supposed resemblance, the
attempt has repeatedly been made to explain the
account of Samson as a sun myth, the hair wherein
Samson's strength lies being interpreted as the rays
of the sun, the lion of Judges xiv. 5 sqq., being the
zodiacal sign of Leo, Delilah representing Omphale,
and the gates of Gaza being the Pillars of Hercules,
etc. A common source of the traditions concern-
ing Samson and Heracles, or a Semitic bond of
union, has been sought in the Babylonian Gil-
gamesh epic; but since the points of difference
from the account of Samson are far stronger than
the points of similarity, which are often strained,
and since many details in the Hebrew story can
scarcely be explained as parts of a nature myth,
other scholars regard Samson as a historical per-
sonality, despite certain legendary accretions. Still
others exclude the nature myth entirely, although
attributing more or less scope to local tradition.
The life of Samson shows strong influence of local
coloring and was restricted to a limited territory
(cf. Judges xiv. 1, 5, 19, xv. 17 sqq., xvi. 1, 3-4);
his entire figure is genuinely Hebraic; and he was a
trueNazirite, whose wonderful power, vanishing with
his recreancy to his vows, is by this fact shown to
have been divine in origin (cf. Gen. vi. 4) even though
turned to unworthy purposes. (C. von Orelli.)
Bibliography: The most valuable treatment is given in
the commentaries named under Judges, particularly
those of Moore, Budde, and Nowack. For other discus-
sions consult: G. O. Roskoff, Die Simeoneage und der
Herakleemythue, Leipsic, 1860; Steinthal, in I. Goldxiher,
Hebrew Mythology, pp. 392-446, London, 1877; E.
Wietske, Der biblieehe Simeon und der doyptieche Horoe-
Ra, Wittenberg. 1888; F. Baethgen, Beitrage eur eemxti-
echen Rdigwnegeechichte, pp. 161 sqq., Berlin, 1889; Van
Doominck, in ThT, 1894, pp. 14-32, 1896, pp. 162-167;
F. Vigouroux, La Bible et lee dicouvertee modernee, ill. 172-
220, Paris, 1896; idem, Dictionnaire, fasc. zxxv. 1434-
1435; J. S. Reuser, Die Hauptpereonen dee Richterbuchee
in Talmud und Midraeeh, /., Simeon, Berlin, 1902; A.
Jeremiae, Dae Alte Teetament im Lichte dee alien Orienle.
pp. 287-288, Leipsic, 1904; D. Vdlter, Aegypten und die
Bibd, pp. 107 sqq., Ley den, 1904; P. Cams, The Story of
Sameon and ite Place in the Relioioue Development of Man-
kind, Chicago, 1907; H. Stahn, Die Simeoneage, Gdtting-
en, 1908; DB, iv. 377-381; EB, iv. 4268-70; JE, xi. 1-2.
SAMSON, BERNHARDIN. See Sanson.
SAMSON, GEORGE WHITEFIELD: Baptist; b.
at Harvard, Mass., Sept. 29, 1819; d. at New York
Aug. 8, 1896. He was graduated from Brown Uni-
versity, 1839, and Newton Theological Institution,
Newton Centre, Mass., 1843; was pastor of the E
Street Church, Washington, D. C, 1843-50; at Ja-
maica Plain, Boston, Mass., 1850-52; E Street,
Washington, D. C, 1853-59; president of Colum-
bian College, Washington, D. C, 1859-71 ; of Rut-
gers Female Seminary, New York, 1871-75; pastor
of First Church, Harlem, New York, 1873-81;
from 1883 he was secretary in charge of Liberia Col-
lege; after 1884 conducted private collegiate and
theological instruction; and after 1886 was acting
president of Rutgers Female College, New York.
After his death Rev. Dr. Leighton Williams con-
tinued his class in theology in expanded form as the
Amity Theological School, New York City. He was
the author of To daimonidn, or the Spiritual Medium
(Boston, 1852; 2d ed., under title Spiritualism
Tested, 1860); Elements of Art Criticism (Philadel-
phia, 1867); Physical Media in Spiritual Manifesta-
tions, illustrated from Ancient and Modern Testimony
(1869); The Atonement (1878); Divine Law as to
Wines (New York, 1880); Guide to Self Education
(1886) ; and Idols to Fashion and Culture (1888).
SAMUEL.
I. The Prophet.
Name, Lineage, Youth (§ 1).
Later Life; Character (} 2).
II. The Books of Samuel.
Form and Contents (} 1).
The Text (§ 2).
Sources and Composition (§3).
Date and Value (§ 4).
I. The Prophet: The name Samuel is of early
origin, pointing to pre-Hebraic times; its meaning
is "his name is El"; in I Sam. i. 20 it is given the
significance "asked of God," though strictly its
meaning is "heard of God." According to I Sam. i.
1, Samuel came of Ephraimitic lineage; but it is not
probable that the Ramathaim-zophim
i. Name, of that passage, the Ramah where
Lineage, Samuel was born, had his house, died,
Youth, and was buried, is to be identified
with the (Ephraimitic) Ramah in Ben-
jamin two hours north of Jerusalem, the modern
el-Ram, but rather with the place called in the New
Testament Arimathea, perhaps the present Beit-
193
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Samson
Samuel
Rima near Tibne. Against the Ephraimitic origin
of Samuel, I Chron. vi. 11 sqq., 18 sqq. speaks,
where unmistakably the same family-tree is given
as in I Sam. i., tracing the descent from the Levite
Kohath. Many regard this as an arbitrary arrange-
ment of the Chronicler, who desired to derive the
priest Samuel from the Levites according to " Mo-
saic" law. The arguments for the non-Levitical
origin of Samuel are not absolutely conclusive.
Samuel's continual residence at the sanctuary as
against the ordinary term of residence of Levites is
explained by his mother's vow (I Sam. i. 11); while
Rama was not a Levitical city, the Levites lived in
other than Levitical cities. Yet Elkanah's yearly
pilgrimage to the shrine might easily find other
explanation than that of Levitical duty, and I Sam.
i. 1 nowhere suggests Levitical origin. But Samuel's
grandson Heman, the celebrated singer, was a
Levite (I Chron. xxv. 4, cf. vi. 18-19); on the other
hand the boundaries between Levites and others
may not have been hard and fast at that period,
and men may have become Levites through a vow.
Such a vow Hannah registered in beseeching a son,
promising his lifelong service to God, and also that
he should be a Nazirite (q.v.). This vow she ful-
filled after her request had been granted and she had
weaned the child, and he became an attendant at
Shiloh, "girded with a linen ephod" (I Sam. ii. 18;
see Ephod). There he was speedily distinguished
by being made the recipient of divine revelations,
the first being that which concerned the judgment
of God on Eli and his house (I Sam. iii.). After the
death of Eli Samuel became the leader in Israel and
that people's judge, the reformer of its religion
(I Sam. vii. 3 sqq.), and by his answered prayer its
savior (verses 9 sqq.).
Concerning his later life little appears which is
striking, apart from I Sam. vii., which is contested
on critical grounds (see below). But if this portion
of the history be given up, attested though it is by
the stone Eben-ezer (verse 12), the title of father
which Samuel bears in his old age
2. Later vouches for his thorough and corn-
Life; prehensive activity. His journeys
Character, among the people and attendance at
their gatherings at Bethel, Gilgal,
Mizpah, where he acted as consccrator of the offer-
ings and as judge, tended to build up Mosaic tradi-
tion and prophetic illumination and to prepare for
a better ethical-religious situation in the land. To
this end the prophetic schools were a part of the
means. Through his worth and eminence he con-
tributed to the unifying of the people; and if the
Philistine yoke was not altogether broken, the lot
of Israelites was at least bearable. In his old age
sorrow assailed him through his sons' departure
from his upright course, and the people demanded
a king, which he at first opposed, and then, at a
higher bidding, granted (see Saul). His work,
however, was not at an end, his duty being to an-
nounce Saul's supersession and to anoint David
(q.v.). While David was being persecuted by Saul,
Samuel died, and Saul followed not long after. Since
Moses, alongside whom he is placed (Ps. xcix. 6;
Jer. xv. 1), no one had been endowed with so rich a
spirit and entrusted with so high and comprehen-
X.— 13
sive tasks as Samuel who gathered in himself all
the theocratic offices, officiating as priest, prophet,
and judge, and becoming the founder of the king-
dom. His office of priest came to him not by birth
but by an inner call and the external needs of the
times; the external organization of the cultus is
ascribed to him (I Chron. ix. 22), and his prophetic
activity was thorough and comprehensive, he being
possibly the founder of the prophetic schools. His
ethical deliverance in I Sam. xv. 22-23 became the
keynote of subsequent prophecy, while his work
had bearing upon the building up of the "Torah"
and upon prophetic writing. He appears as a true
servant of God, who subjected his own will to that
of the deity, and endeavored to lead the people to
realize its higher call over against the striving for
national greatness and worldly might.
IL The Books of Samuel: In the Hebrew these
books were originally one (cf. Origen, in Eusebius,
Hist, eccl., VI., xxv.), in the Septuagint they were
divided and called I and II Kings; this division
into two books appeared in the Hebrew text of D.
Bomberg's edition (Venice, 1517), but
i. Form the Masoretic remarks prove the orig-
and Con- inal unity, showing I Sam. xxviii. 24
tents. to be the middle verse of the book.
It bears the name of Samuel because in
the first part he is the principal character, not be-
cause he is the author, as later Baba Bathra (14b)
mistakenly declared. The contents of the books
connect closely with the contents of the Book of
Judges, showing how out of the confusion of those
times the Hebrew kingdom arose and soon reached
its highest point. They divide into three main
parts: (1) history of Samuel, the last judge and the
prophetic founder of the Kingdom (I., i.-xii.); (2)
history of Saul (I., xiii.-xxxi.) ; (3) history of David
(II., i.-xxiv.), though the latter part is not complete,
the closing days and death of David being de-
scribed in I Kings. But the author surely wrote
after the death of David (II Sam. v. 5), and certain
signs indicate that he wrote also the history of
Solomon; moreover, it is clear that he used various
written sources.
The form of the text of the book requires special
consideration, the Hebrew text being very often
defective and not seldom susceptible of
2. The Text correction from the Septuagint. Yet
in places this version follows a variant
recension. Sometimes the Hebrew text is the more
detailed, sometimes the Greek; the former is fullest
in the story of the youth and persecution of David
by Saul, and this raises the question whether the
Greek translators (or the writer of their Hebrew
exemplar) had in mind to simplify and harmonise
the text or whether the longer Hebrew text con-
tains insertions later than the Greek version. In the
latter case, the source of the additions is sought
either in a later midrash or in earlier books which
threw light upon the situation. In the reconstruc-
tion of the text Klostermann is too subjective,
while Thenius, Wellhausen, and Petri stress too
much the Septuagint. While in many passages
the Septuagint helps to the correct text, in others
the Masoretic points to the better reading, the Sep-
tuagint leaning on a variant text or not being exact.
Samuel
Sanbenlto
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
194
That the text is composite in its sources appears
from the dissimilarities of its parts, mingling de-
tailed narrative with brief notices of events. Thus
of the elevation of Saul to the throne late critics find
three narratives, I Sam. xi.; ix. 1-10, 16; viii. 10,
17-27, which should, however, be reduced to two,
viz., ix. 1-10, 16, x. 27b, xi. 11, 15, and, for the
second narrative, viii. 10, 17-27a, xi. 12-14. These
two reports are marked by strong characteristics.
According to the earliest of these Samuel shows
only joy in the erection of the kingdom, while the
more pessimistic account reflects either the exilic or
postexilic times (Wellhausen), the time of Hosea
(Kittel), or of Hesekiah (Kuenen). As a theocrat
Samuel must have had gloomy forebodings over the
new movement. Yet it is granted by several of the
critics that this doubling of the narrative does not
necessarily imply that either is false. Klostermann
sees in the two accounts only apparent, not real,
discrepancies. It is noteworthy that criticism
sees so often in I Samuel doublets or repeated ac-
counts of the same events. Some of these are: the
rending of the kingdom from Saul, xiii. 8-14 and
xv. 12 sqq.; the two accounts of the hurling
of the spear at David, xviii. 10-11 (not in the
Septuagint) and xix. 9-10; the double betrayal of
David by the Ziphites, xxiii. 19-28 and xxvi.; the
repetition of the proverb in x. 12 and xix. 24; the
double sparing of Saul by David, xxiv. and xxvi.;
the two flights of David to the Philistines, xxi. 10
sqq. and xxvii. 1 sqq. In most of these cases repeti-
tion of the occurrences is psychologically probable,
while each story has its own characteristics. But
in these books as in other historical books of the
Bible the union of varied accounts gives rise to
difficulties, to gaps, and to incongruities. Thus
I., vii. 13-14 does not agree with ix. 16, x. 5, xiii.,
dealing with the control of the land by the Philis-
tines, though the critics often press too far the con-
tent of the passage vii. 2-17. So in the history of
David the separate narratives are put together
without attempt to harmonise the differences (see
David). While II Samuel is wrought into a closer
unity, circumstances of this kind are not lacking.
While the Books of Kings often name their sources,
reference to a source is made only once in Samuel
(II., i. 18, where the book of Jasher is named, cf.
Josh. x. 13). There is no reason to hold that other
pieces of poetry given in Samuel are from this source,
such as the Song of Hannah (I Sam.
3. Sources ii.), an early psalm of victory, and the
and Com- lament over Abner (II Sam. ill. 33-34),
position, which is genuine. The piece in II
Sam. xxii. ( = Ps. xviii.) is among the
psalms best attested as Davidic; while the "last
words of David" (II Sam. xxiii. 1-7) are to be re-
garded as genuine. For the historical contents no
source is adduced. II Sam. viii. 16 first mentions
a "recorder," who appears to have been a perma-
nent official, so that annals of the reigns of David
and Solomon could have been available whence such
data as II Sam. xx. 23-26 might have been drawn.
But the chief sources were doubtless the prophetical
accounts such as those referred to in I Chron. xxix.
29, the " book of Samuel the Seer, and . . . Nathan
the prophet, and . . . Gad the seer." These
references can not be to the varied parts of the Books
of Samuel, but are rather prophetical narratives
which seem to have been accessible to the Chronicler
as parts of a greater work on the kings of Israel and
Judah. Whether the prophets named left historical
narratives or not, some such sources were used by
the author of the Books of Samuel, and the composi-
tion was governed by a divine pragmatism. Cornill
divides the chief material between J. and E., though
convincing proof is lacking. A Deuteronomic re-
daction like that of the Book of Judges is generally
accepted as fact, though parts of the contents do not
show the marks of this. Kittel distinguishes be-
tween an older and a later class of sources: the
first includes a Jerusalemitic history of David from
the time of Solomon or Rehoboam, another not
much later, and a history of Saul contemporary
with the second source; the later class includes an
Ephraimitic history of Samuel and David from the
time of Hosea; this material was worked over by
the Deuteronomic redactor of Judges, while another
Deuteronomist worked over the whole material.
Oettli sees an earlier and a later section in the book,
the earlier favorable to the kingdom and the later
prophetic in its interests; the whole was edited in
Deuteronomic style. Most important is the fact
that contemporary sources are generally recognized.
The time of the final composition of the book
from these various sources can be only approxi-
mated. In general, it was later than the death of
David (II Sam. v. 5), and subsequent to the division
of the kingdom (I Sam. xxvii. 6). A
4. Date and considerable time had elapsed Bince the
Value. events described, according to the fre-
quent use of the formula "unto this
day" (e.g., I Sam. v. 5) and the reference to ar-
cheological matters such as I Sam. ix. 9; yet such a
passage as I Sam. xxvii. 6 forbids a date in the
exile. Schrader would place these books with other
historical books shortly before the exile; the rabbis
ascribed them to Jeremiah; Stahelin puts them in
the time of Hezekiah, and they may be older than
this. The author was no mere compiler, but had a
definite plan and the prophetic standpoint in view.
Critics generally grant the historical value of the
work, while the Hebrew is pure and the narrative
simple and lively, presenting a truthful and not a
glossed history of the times and individuals.
(C. von Orelli.)
Bibliography: On the prophet the reader is referred to the
commentaries (see below) and to works on the history of
the Hebrews (under Ahab; and Israel, History or).
Of the following special notj may be made: G. C. M.
Douglas, Samuel and his Age; Study in the Constitutional
Hist, of Israel, London, 1901; F. B. Koster, Die Propheten
des Alien und Neuen Testaments, Altona, 1838; H. Ewald.
Otschichte des Volkes Israel, ii. 591 sqq., iii. 1 sqq., G&t-
tingen, 1865-66, Eng. tran si., London, 1883; F. E. Kdnig.
Offenbarungsbegriff des Alien Testament, pp. 69-70, Leip-
sic, 1882; J. Robertson, Early Religion of Israel, Edin-
burgh, 1892; H. Guthe, Geschichte des Volkes Israel, pp.
68 sqq., Tubingen, 1889; F. B. Meyer, Samuel the Prophet,
new ed., London, 1900; H. P. Smith, Old Testament Hut.,
New York, 1903; S. Oettli, Geschichte Israels bis auf
Alexander, Calw, 1905; Wellhausen, Prolegomena; DB,
iv. 381-382; EB, iv. 4270-73; JE, xi. 5-8; Vigouroux,
Dictionnaire, fasc. xxxv. 1435-1442.
On questions of introduction and text consult the litera-
ture in and under Biblical Introduction, especially
Driver. Kirkpatrick, Davidson, Cornill, and McFadyen;
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Sanbe'
mad the following: K. H. Gmf, Da Hbrorum Samuelii et
Regum campatitiane, Augsburg. 1842: G. E. Kara. Dt
fonlibm libroevm qui ferunlur SamurlU, Berlin. 1802; F.
Bottchrr, .Vi iif istt/cltxh-triliacht Aehrenleec turn A. T.,
vol. L Leipsie. 1SSJ: J. Wellhatuen. Der Tul der SuvAer
Somutl unifiucA!, Gottingen, 1871: C. H, Comill. to
ZKW, ISS.'i. pp, 112 Km.; idem, KimigditTDer Sludirn.
i. Z6«qq„KuniBsl)iTK. Isss; idem, f i'nJnfuiv tndu j4. 7\,
Freiliurg. 1801. Eiig. transl.. 2 vols.. New York. I9u7;
idem, in JT.-IT'IC. >: (ls'901, Wi.qq.; K. Budde. inZ.lTlF.
i-iii (ISS^i, L'iMwiq.; j.|,m, Die Illleber Rkhter und Samuel.
<J lessen. 1890; idem, in SHOT. 1894; li- Kittel. Geiehidilr
der Htbratr, ii. 2> sqq.. Gotha, 1888-92, Eng. transl.,
London. 1895: idi-ui, in 7's'A\ 1S92. pp. 4-1 sqq.: S. B.
Driver. jVo«M on ttr /Mr-tr- To* of the Book, of S«muel,
On/oni, IS'.m (in.|i.pii[i»:ihk>; A. Kuenen. Hiitorieih-
tnlucie Eiilriluna in die Blither dei A. T.. I., ii. 37-62.
Leipsie. 1891); T. K I'hcyne, /tifc (» <«e DiraiK ft info o/
''nVirinra, pp. 1-120. London. 1S92; N. Peter.. Hriir.ior
iw Tat- und lAtterarkritik, Freiburg. 1899; S. A. Cook,
in American Journal of Semitic Language*, 1900, pp. 145-
177; G. Stosrh, Die L'rkundm drr Tn»lllll<Jl»lfltrtht.
I'luliTsbh. 191)1: I'. X. ,-i-nl.wl. Mri .Siimurfii, Vionnn.
190S; E. S'itr.rs. .W--Ci.W,r .Sfudirrt, part IS. lJ.-i[wi.-.I!H)7;
Wellhnusen. Prolevamena; DB, iv, 383-391; BB, iv.
4373-81: Jff, ». 8-13.
O. Then
V York. 1
. Iiii-l. 3d ed. I,v M. Lohr, 1808 (th«
prefatory notes ore valuable); C. F. Keil and F. De-
linjii-h, i:duibur*h. 1878; C. F. D. Erdmann. in Laugc's
IWnieiitnry. New York. 1S77; A. F. KirLp:ilri..-k. in
Ctanbridae Bible. 3 vola.. Cambridge, 1880-c': R. Payne
Smith and others, ill Pulpit Commtnlary, 2 vol-., Nmdon
and New York, 1880-88; T. J. i'onanl. l'lail ■■.■!>■] i ■!■ >:■..
1884; A. KlOBleimann. Nurdlingcii. 1887; W. ii . lilaikie,
in frsMbr't Bible. 2 vols., London, 1887-88; K. Budde,
Tilbingrn, 1002; W. Xo.i.u-L <i;,iiiui;cu. iw>2; J. Witt.
Saul and Dorid. Eine ErkMruna drr Bueher Samuelii,
Kiel. l'JI.12; 11. Xoti'W, Minuter. 19W: ]'. N. Srl,li,El.
Vienna. 1901: A. R. S. K./nrifdv. in Crnlurv Mbit, Lon-
don, ion.',; P. IJhnrnic, l'arw. 1909: H. L. Wilier.!. Studia
in I. Samuel, Chicago, 1909.
SANBALLAT, san-bal'at (Babylonian, "Sin pre-
serves in life"): An opponent of Nehemiah, and a
Jcaili r MK;iin.-.t tin"' ,If-M"j( in llu'ir ut tempts to restore
Jerusalem after their return from the exile (Neh. ii.
10, 19-20, iii. 33 sqq., iv. 1 eqq., vi. 1 sqq., ]tiii. 28
Bqq.)- His special efforts were directed amiiiul the
protection of Jerusalem by the erection of the city
wall, in which he was aided by Tobiah the Am-
monite, Geshem (or Gatfatno) the Arabian, the
Pliili-tiors of Ashdod, and the Persians in posses-
sion of Samaria. Threats that the king of Persia
would regard the building of the wall as an act of
rebellion failing, the opponents of Nehemiah pro-
ceeded to violence when the wall was half finished.
This also proving unsuccessful, SanliaJlat en-
deavored by stratagem to get Nehemiah into his
power, and thus to ruin his plans. Some of Nehe-
miah *s pnrtizans were actually won over, e-iperially
:]x Sanballat had influential kinsmen in Jerusalem
(Neh. vi. 10 sqq., -tiii. 28 sqq.). According to
Josophus (Ant., XI., vii. 2), who apparently drew
from Jewish tradition, Sanballat lived in the reign
of Darius Codomannus, and after marrying his
daughter to the brother of the high priest Jaddua,
set up the temple and worship of the Samaritans
on Gerizim. Sanballat is described as a Horonite,
implying that he was an Ephraimite from Iteth-
horon. though some scholars have sought his home
in the Moabitic city of Horonaim.
(R. KlTTEL.)
Bibuoqiupht: H. Winekler, Aliarwnfaliat** Fortehunorn,
ii. 228 nqq„ Uipsie. 1804; A. A. van Hoonac.ker. Etvdr.
• nr la rrtlauralinn fuire aprii fail dt Bobylont, Parii.
1S90: T. E. Cheyne. Jtwith Reliniout Lift after the Exile,
New York. 1898; C. F. Kent, Hiit. of the JeicUK People.
7th ed., ib. 1B05; E. Sacbau, Dm aramltitche Papuw-
vrkundm au> Elephantine. lWriin. 1907; DB. iv. 371:
works dealing with this period of history cited under
Ahaii; and Ibhakl, Hiwronr or.
SABBEHITO, san"be-nI'to: A pentitential gar-
ment thewearing of which was one of the punish-
ments inflieU'd by the Tnquisition (q.v,). In its
final form it was "a kind of yellow tunic willi a red
Si. Andrew's cross [on the breast and on the back]
— a mark of infamy and a severe infliction, as it
largely impeded the efforts of the penitent to gjiin
a livelihood" (H. G. Lea, Inquisition of Sptriit, ii.
401, New York, 1906). Its origin is with proba-
bility to be traced to the habit of sackcloth worn
by penitents in times earlier than the Inquisition.
The -niilienetilli! was a stage in the inquisitorial de-
velopment of the sanbenito and was the device of
Torquemada in 1490, consisting of black or gray
cloth, eighteen inches long and nine wide, depend-
ing from the neck over breast and back, with the
red cross on each part. It was worn over the outer
garment and was therefore extremely conspicuous.
In 1514 Ximenes ordered that tho form of cross
used should be that of St. Andrew; and in 1501 the
"Instructions" (of the Inquisition) directed that
the material be yellow (apparently in Valencia and
Sicily, of green) linen or cloth, the aim being evi-
dently U.> iiKTi-as-i' the conspicuousness of the object
and the severity of the penalty. A variation that
came into use was a half-cross or diagonal bar, used
on the sanbenitos of those regarded as culpable in a
less degree. Those who were to be "relaxed" wore
a black sanbenito, on which were painted flames and
figures of devils thrusting the heretic into hell.
The punishment of wearing the garment was at
first inflicted for life. Later different, periods were as-
signed, and the wearing was somet inn's conterminous
with the period of imprisonment, sometimes only
during the period of the auto da f£, at other times
the punishment varied with the adjudged degree of
guilt or seriousness of the crime. The severity of
tlii> punishment can hardly be conceived in modern
times and in Protestant environment. It proclaimed
the wearer to have been guilty of that most de-
testahle of crimes, heresy. The wearer could with
extreme difficulty gain employment, he was an ob-
ject of general horror and ostracism, and it is prob-
able that many wore driven to death by starva-
tion. To discard the garment subjected the wearer
to rearrest as one who had recanted his subiniisiun
to Holy Church with all the penalties which that
involved. This led naturally to appeals for dispen-
sation from wearing the garment, and it came before
long to the situation that dispensation was made a
means of papal revenue and an instrument of ex-
action, as high as 1,000 florins having been paid in
order to avoid the wearing of the sanbenito.
In order to increase the detestation of heresy and
to deter from committing such a crime a new use
of the garment was devised. The sanbenito wai
inscribed with the name of the wearer and other
details and hung in the churches, this having in
view the perpetuation of the memory of the offense.
Sanchuniathon
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG*
196
This usage seems to have been followed with especial
malignity and persistence, gaps in the series being
filled from the records, and even those who had been
exempted from wearing the sanbenito were repre-
sented by the article in the church. That the crime
might be brought home to the family, a duplicate
was sometimes made and hung in the church which
was the parish home of the family. The inscrip-
tions were renewed as they faded through time and
handling. Naturally these articles were at times
stolen from the depositaries, but were often re-
placed by the Holy Office. This exhibition was at
times supplemented by lists made out and sus-
pended separately, in order the more securely to per-
petuate the memory of the heretic and his crime.
During the second half of the seventeenth and the
eighteenth century, the seal of the Inquisition in this
natter relaxed, and there was connivance at the
burial of the custom. The Cortes of Cadis, Jan. 22,
1813, abolished the Inquisition, and a decree of the
same date, citing Article 305 of the constitution,
called attention to the provision that punishment
was not to extend beyond the criminal, and directed
that records or articles perpetuating the memory of
punishment inflicted by the Inquisition be removed
or destroyed within three days. The condition of
Spain, however, could not ensure obedience to this
order, and not for some time subsequently was the
abolition of these garments completely carried out.
Bibliography: H. C. Lea, Inquisition of Spain, iii. 162-
172, i. 258, 280, ii. 401-402, 409, iii. 103. 126, 166, 163,
164, iv. 527, New York, 1906-07.
SANCHUNIATHON, san-cu-noi'a-then.
The Assumed Author (J 1).
Philo's Introduction (ft 2).
Pre-Hesiodic Theogony and Creation (ft 3).
Theogony Based on the Greek (ft 4).
Antiquity of Material not Supported (ft 5).
Complexity of Sources (ft 6).
Semitic Material Employed (ft 7).
Sanchuniathon is the name given to an assumed
Phenician writer, alleged to have belonged to the city
of Berytus (Beirut), the putative author of a work
cited as "Phenician History" or "Things Pheni-
cian." This work Philo Byblius (q.v.) claims to have
translated from the Phenician language
i. The As- into Greek, and it is known only by
sumed quotations from this alleged transla-
Author. tion extant principally in Eusebius'
Prceparatio Evangelica, 32c-41d (Eng.
transl., 2 vols., Oxford, 1903). The known frag-
ments are collected elsewhere, best in C. M Oiler,
Fragmenta historicorum Grceeorum, iii. 660 sqq.
(4 vols., Paris, 1841-51). According to Eusebius
(utsup., 31d), Philo Byblius describes Sanchunia-
thon as a man of great learning, given to research
into universal history, and especially interested in
the god Thoth (Taautos), the Hermes of the Greeks,
whom he held to be the inventor of letters and wri-
ting, with whom the writing of history began.
Eusebius (ut sup., 31a-c) cites also Porphyry, the
anti-Christian polemist, as asserting that the
"truest history of the affairs of the Jews" was
written by this Sanchuniathon, "who received the
records from Hierombalos, the priest of the god
Ieuo" and dedicated his history to King Abibalus of
Berytus. Porphyry adds that "the times of these
men [i.e., evidently of Sanchuniathon, Hierombalos,
and Abibalus] fall before the date of the Trojan war
and approach nearly to the time of Moses, as shown
by the succession of the kings of Phenicia [cf . Euse-
bius, ut sup., 484-486, where he uses these data to
confirm the antiquity of Moses]. And Sanchunia-
thon . . . lived in the days of Semiramis, queen of
the Assyrians, who is recorded as living before the
Trojan war or in those very times." Porphyry
further declares that his authority made "a com-
plete collection of ancient history from the records
in the various cities and from the registers in the
temples, and wrote in the Phenician language with a
love of truth." Porphyry adds his testimony that
these works were translated into Greek by Philo of
Byblos. Mention of Sanchuniathon appears to be
confined to post-Christian writers, such as the
grammarian Athemeus (fl. about 225 a.d.). The
character and intrinsic interest of the material
presented by Eusebius, the high antiquity claimed
for it, and the line of transmission by which it
has come down have combined to raise a number
of problems which are of more than usual interest
and are by no means merely academic. Renan
voices a quite general opinion, justified by the
amount of discussion the subject has raised, when
he remarks that "few problems in the circle of
Semitic studies and of ancient history . . . are of
more importance" (M&moirs, p. 6). The worth of
the material is surpassing if it be of the antiquity
claimed ; it is great if it be of a period anterior to
the Christian era; it is well worth study if it reflect
truly either the priestly or the popular belief of the
period of the "translator"; and it is in any case
worthy of study as a presentation of a theory of the
origin of religion if it date no earlier than the trans-
lator himself.
According to Eusebius (ut sup., 31d), the work
was by Philo divided into nine books; Porphyry
{De abstinentia) reports that it was in eight, pos-
sibly counting the first book merely
2. Philo's as an introduction. Eusebius makes
Introduc- it clear that Philo prefaced his" trans-
tion. la tion" with an introduction. This
describes Sanchuniathon as given to
historical research, and laying the foundation of his
history with Thoth-Hermes. Philo then asserts
that " the most recent " writers on religion [by whom
he means apparently those near the age of Sanchu-
niathon] rejected facts, invented allegories and
myths, employed fictitiously cosmic phenomena, and
overlaid them with absurdities. But Sanchu-
niathon happened on the "secret writings of the
Ammoneans" in the shrines, studied them, and put
aside the myths and allegories. But the priests who
followed him restored the mythical character of the
narratives, and this was the origin of the legends and
myths prevalent in the Greek world. Philo is then
quoted as setting forth briefly his syncretistic theory
of the origin of religion. He declares that the " most
ancient barbarians," especially the Phenicians and
Egyptians, who in these matters were the teachers
of mankind, regarded as the greatest gods those who
had discovered the necessaries of life or . . . done
good to the nations," worshiped them as gods after
197
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
SanohrujLathon
their death, consecrated pillars and staves "after
their names/1 applied the names of their kings to
the elements, and knew no other gods than those of
nature — sun, moon, and planets, so that "some of
their gods were mortal and some immortal.11 Euse-
bius then asserts that Philo " begins his interpreta-
tion of Sanchuniathon by setting forth the theology
of the Phenicians," and gives the following cos-
mogony and theogony.
The first principle was "an air dark with cloud
and wind/' and a "chaos dark as erebus," both
boundless. The wind fell in love with its parents,
and " Desire. " This was the beginning of creation.
Thus "Mot" was produced — either
3. Pre-He- mud or a " putrescence of watery com-
tiodic pound" — which contained the germs
Theogony of all creation. There were certain
and insensate animals from which the sen-
Creation, sate (called Zuphasemin, "observers
of heaven ") issued while Mot broke
forth into light, the heavenly bodies and the constel-
lations, sea and land became heated, causing storms
of wind and clouds and floods and whirlwinds, the
tumult of which awaked the intelligent animals that
then began to move. All this Sanchuniathon dis-
covered in Thoth's cosmogony and commentaries.
Here Eusebius summarizes, saying that the winds
Notus and Boreas and other things are called by
name. Then he proceeds again to quote to the pur-
port that these [intelligent animals? or " winds and
other things"?] were the first who consecrated the
productions of earth and worshiped them as gods
because they were the supporters of life, making
libations to them. From the wind Colpias and his
wife Baau ("Night," cf. Hebr. bohu, "chaos")
were born the men Aeon and Protogonus ("Age"
and "Firstborn"); Aeon discovered foods borne by
trees. Their offspring were Genos and Genea and
dwelt in Phenicia, worshiping the sun, calling him
Beelsamen (Hebr. Baal shamayim, "Lord of
heaven "), the Greek Zeus. From Genos were born
mortals named Light, Fire, and Flame, who discov-
ered fire by friction. They also begat giants, whose
names were applied to the mountains — Cassius, Leb-
anon, Antilebanon, and Brathy. These in turn
begat Memrumus who is also Hypsuranius, taking
their names from their mothers. He adds that inter-
course between men and women in those days was
free. Hypsuranius settled Tyre, and invented huts
of reeds and rushes. He quarreled with his brother
Ousous, who invented clothing from skins of wild
beasts, and first sailed the sea on a log, set up two
pillars in his worship of fire and wind, and poured on
them libations of blood from game. After the
death of Ousous and Hypsuranius, they were
deified and worshiped by their descendants at yearly
festivals, where cultic objects were pillars and staves.
From the race of Hypsuranius sprang Agreus and
Halieus, inventors of fishing and hunting, from
whom sprang two brothers who discovered iron and
how to work it; one was Chrysor, orator, magician,
and diviner, also called Hephaestus, inventor of
sailing on rafts, who is also Zeus Meilichios (cf . Jane
E. Harrison, Prolegomena to the Study of Oreek
Religion, chap, i., Cambridge, 1908). Two youths
of this race were Technites ("Artificer") and Geinos
Autochthon ("Earth-born Aboriginal") who mixed
straw with clay for bricks and invented roofs.
From them came Agros and Agrueros or Agrotes,
founders of agriculture, identified with the Titans;
their offspring were Amynos and Magus, who de-
veloped villages and sheepfolds; next came Misor
(Hebr. mishor, "uprightness") and Suduc (Hebr. ze-
dek, " righteousness "), who discovered salt. Misor's
son was Thoth-Hermes, who invented the alphabet
and writing. Suduc was the father of the first
builders of ships (the Dioscuri or Cabeiri or Cory-
bantes or Samothraci), from whom sprang the first
physician. Then were born Elioun (cf. the Hebr.
Elyon, "Most High") and the female Beruth
(? Hebr. berith, " covenant "), who dwelt near Byblos,
from whom came Epigeius or Autochthon (after-
wards called Ouranos, Uranus), whose sister was
G&, " Earth." These deified their father Elioun after
he had been killed by wild beasts, married, and
produced Elus (Hebrew El, "God") or Kronos,
B&tylus (Bethel, "shrine"), Dagon who is also
Siton, and Atlas.
From this point on the substratum of the "his-
tory" is the Greek mythology of Hesiod and later
writers. Uranus took other wives, and had a
numerous progeny. This offended G6 and she re-
proached Uranus, who separated from her and then
tried to destroy his offspring by her. Kronos, after
he had grown to manhood, with the
4. Theogony help of his secretary Hermes, avenged
Based on his mother. Kronos became the
the Greek, father of Persephone and Athena,
drove Uranus from his kingdom, and
founded Byblos by building a wall around his own
dwelling. Of a concubine of Uranus captured in the
war between Kronos and Uranus was born in the
house of Dagon the deity Demarus. The descend-
ants of the Dioscuri at this time put together rafts
and ships and made voyages, were shipwrecked
near Mt. Cassius, and consecrated a temple there.
The allies of Kronos in the war with Uranus were
called Eloim (cf. Hebr. Elohim, "God" or "gods").
Kronos then became the murderer of one of his sons
and one of his daughters. Meanwhile Uranus was
constantly intriguing for the overthrow and death
of Kronos, sending his daughters Astarte, Rhea, and
Dione for this purpose. But they were captured
and made the wives of Kronos and bore him the
Titanides and others. One of the Titanides married
Suduc and became the mother of Asclepius. In
Penea Kronos had the sons Kronos the Younger,
Zeus Belus, and Apollo, and issue from these were
Pontus, Typhon, Nereus, Sidon (inventor of song),
and Poseidon. To Demarus was born Melcathrus
(Melkart). Finally Uranus was waylaid, killed, and
deified. Astarte, Zeus Demarus, and Adodus
(Hadad, see Rimmon) ruled the country; the first
of these is by Phenicians identified with Aphrodite.
Kronos gave Attica to his daughter Athena. When a
pestilence occurred, he offered up his only begotten
son Iedud (see below § 8) to Uranus (thus beginning
the sacrifice of the firstborn) and introduced circum-
cision. When his son Muth (Thanatos, "Death,"
Pluto) died, he deified him. He gave Byblos to
Baaltis (Beltis, Dione) and Berytus to Poseidon.
Thoth had meanwhile invented portraiture and
Sanchuniathon
Sanotifioation
THE NEW 8CHAFF-HERZOG
108
devised symbols of royalty for Kronos, and had
received from him Egypt. The Cabeiri, Suduc's
seven sons, reduced these things to writing. But
the first Phenician hierophant, Thabion, allegorised
the narrative and made myths of them, the prophets
inaugurated the mysteries, while their successors
diffused myths and ceremonials. The Greeks, in
accordance with their genius, were most fertile in
carrying this process forward, especially Hesiod and
the Cyclic poets. Quotations from a work cited by
Eusebius as " History of the Jews" repeat the story
of Thoth's rescuing of the worship of the gods from
ignorance, and proceeds to relate that the ancients
used in crises to sacrifice their most beloved children
with mystic rites. Kronos (Elus) was deified as
Saturn, but had previously by Anobret a son Iedud,
whom he sacrificed on an occasion like that men-
tioned in II Kings iii. 26-27. The origin of serpent
worship is ascribed to Thoth, who saw in this
animal and in the dragon the divine nature.
The material here presented embodies an eclectic
theory of the origin of the gods, combining the
Euhemeristic theory (see Euhemerus) with the
naturalistic (deification of cosmic or stellar or
natural forces). The line of transmission of the
fragments is not altogether devoid of obscurity.
For centuries the opinion obtained that
5. Antiquity Eusebius quoted from Porphyry; but
of Material a closer examination warrants the con-
not Sup- elusion that Eusebius cited Porphyry
ported, only to establish the supposed antiq-
uity of Sanchuniathon, and that for the
rest he used Philo direct. The alleged antiquity is
implied by Philo in his statements that the results of
Sanchuniathon's researches had' long before been
perverted by the Greeks, and that Greek myths,
which go back to Hesiod, were derived from this
falsified material. Philo's task as he states it was to
recover once more the facts from the perverted
statement of them. But the fragments bear in-
ternal evidence that no such antiquity can be
granted. The incidents with which they are made
contemporary were not of the same period. Semi-
ramis (the Assyrian queen of Greek legend is prob-
ably to be identified with Sammuramat, consort of
Adad-nirari V., 812-783) was not a contemporary
of the Trojan war, but considerably later. Hierom-
balos is evidently the Greek form for Jerubbaal
(Judges ix.-x.), while by Abibalus is evidently
meant the father of Hiram of Tyre who was a
contemporary of Solomon (cf. Joseph us, Ant, VIII.,
v. 3); all of these are made nearly the contem-
poraries of Moses. Moreover the dedication of a
work of history in those times is almost certainly an
anachronism. It is beyond belief that Euhemerism
was so old as to have become the subject of so early
priestly falsification, which, moreover, reverses the
course of history. When to Euhemerism is added
so late a theory as the eclectic employed in this
narrative, the ascription of so great an antiquity falls
to the ground of its own weight.
It still remains to ask whether Philo reproduced
the work of a man much later in history. It is to be
noted that the processes of criticism reveal an evi-
dent complexity of sources. At least two cosmog-
onies are present besides the Greek (cf . Eusebius,
ut sup., 33c with 34c). There are present at least
three accounts of the invention of navigation
— by Ousous, Chrysor-Hephaestus, and
6. Complex- the Dioscuri. Similarly, there are
ity of triple accounts of the origin of hunting
Sources. — through Agreus and Halieus, Ousous,
and Agros and Agrueros, the first of
whom invented clothing from the skins of wild
animals he had slain. While so far this might have
existed in the supposed original of Philo's work, a
whole series of facts, viz., the distinct mingling of
two separate lines of tradition — the Semitic and the
Greek, the latter of which was not in existence at
the time implied by Philo himself for the composi-
tion; the facte that the whole work is a distinct echo
of Euhemerus (who claimed to have discovered his
basal material in a temple; the most notable in-
stance of Euhemerism in the assumption that Light,
Fire, and Flame were the names of three men
which were given to their discovery — a statement
truly Spencerian in its boldness 1); that the part
assigned to Hermes as the adviser of the gods be-
longs to late post-Alexandrian theology; that a
Greek play of words is found which involves the
material of tradition (astir, "star," Astarte); that
the method of handling Greek, especially Hes iodic,
theology is that of the period about the Christian
era; that the forms followed in Phenician names
are rarely old Phenician but rather Aramaic (cf.
the form Beelsamen instead of the true Phenician
Baalsameme), — all these considerations make it
practically certain that Sanchuniathon was a
fictitious personage upon whom Philo fathered the
material which embodied his own philosophy of
religion.
While there is little that is remarkable in the Greek
material which Philo employed, the use of Semitic
is interesting. The name Sanchuniathon reproduces
a correct formation and means " (the god) Sakkun
has given," and such a deity is abundantly attested
in Phenician and Carthaginian environment. The
deity Aion as discoverer of fruit finds a certain war-
rant in the inscription in Semitic en-
7. Semitic vironment on a late coin. Melcathrus
Material is evidently Melcarth-Herakles. Muth
Employed. (Semitic for "death") is punned upon.
Adodos is Hadad, but Aramaic rather
than Phenician. That Hebrew tradition is drawn
upon is shown not only by mention of Hierombalos
and Abibalus, but by the phrase " Iedud, the only
begotten being" (Eusebius, ut sup., 40c; cf. yahid,
"only son," Gen. xxii. 2, 12, 16, in the narrative of
the tempting of Abraham). Ieuo is as clearly Yah-
weh; Elus is the Hebrew El, "God " (or the Semitic
ilu, "god"). Is Ousous the hunter to be connected
with Esau the hunter or with Usu, the cunei-
form name for the mainland of Tyre? Misor and
Suduc are Semitic abstracts, "equity" and "right-
eousness," though there may have been a Phenician
deity Zdk. Zophasemim is correctly rendered "ob-
servers of heaven," Elioun and Eloim (Eusebius,
37b) have already been commented upon. The
reasoning of the introduction is of a piece with the
professed discussion, while the first part of the cos-
mogony is but the prologue to account for Greek
mythology, used in the second part. Moreover the
100
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Sanohuniathon
Sanotifloation
whole implies the current Greek conception of the
wisdom of the Egyptians, modifying this, however,
by putting on practically equal terms with the Egyp-
tians the Phenicians from whom part of the material
is obtained, and regarding them as disseminators of
knowledge. This fits with what might reasonably
be expected from an inquirer with a theory to sup-
port who found himself among the Phenicians, as
did Philo. Thus Sanchuniathon reduces to a pseu-
donym, behind which Philo hides as he rationalizes
the mythology of his times, against which he shows
a polemic bias. Geo. W. Gilmore.
Bibliography: For the earlier literature consult Fabricius-
Harles, Bibliotheca Grctca, i. 222-226, Hamburg, 1700.
The best discussions of the subject are: H. Ewald, in the
Abhandlungen of the Gdttingen Scientific Society, His-
torical-philosophical series, v (1851-52), 3-68; idem, in
GO A, 1859, pp. 1441-57; E. Renan, in the Memoir es of
the French Academy of Inscriptions, xxiii. 2 (1858), 241-
334; W. W. von Baudissin, Studien eur semitischen Re-
ligionsgeschichte, i. 1-46, Leipsic, 1876; O. Gruppe, Die
griechischen Cxdte und Mythen in ihren Beziehungen tu
den orientolischen Relioionen, pp. 347-409, Leipsic, 1887;
and R. P. Lagrange, Etude sur lee religion* semitiques, pp.
396-437, Paris, 1905. Consult further: J. G. von Herder,
Werke, vi. 139-154, Stuttgart, 1827; F. C. Movers, Die
PhOnixier, Bonn, 1841; idem, in Johrbucher fur Theologie
und chrietliche Philosophic, vii (1836), 51-94; F. L. Vibe.
Commentotio de Sanchoniothone, Christiania, 1842; E.
R6th, Geschichte unserer abendlandischen Philosophic, i.
243-277, Mannheim, 1846; Eckstein, in J A, V., xiv
(1859), 167-238, xv (1860), 67-92, 210-263, 399-414;
C. P. Tiele, Egyptieche en Mesopotamische Godsdiensten,
pp. 440-448, Amsterdam, 1872, Fr. transl., pp. 273-279,
Paris, 1882; P. Berger, L'Ange tTAstarte, in congratula-
tory volume in honor of E. Reuse, pp. 47 sqq., Paris,
1879; F. Lenormant, Lee Origines d'histoire, i. 536-552,
Paris, 1880, Eng. transl., Beginnings of History, London,
1883; J. Halevy, Melanges de critique et d'histoire, pp.
381-388. Paris, 1883; Robiou, in Memoir es presentee,
French Academy of Inscriptions, I., x. 2 (1897), 12-19;
Ersch and G ruber, EncyfUopadie, III., xxiv.; Biographic
universeUe, vol. xxxiv., s.v. " Philon de Byblos," and vol.
xl., s.v. " Sanchoniathon."
SAHCROFT, WILLIAM: Church of England; b.
at Fressingfield (84 m. n.e. of London), Suffolk, Jan.
30,1616-17; d. there Nov. 24, 1693. He graduated
from Emmanuel College, Cambridge (B.A., 1637;
M.A., 1641 ; B.D., 1648), where he obtained a fellow-
ship in 1642, which, however, he lost in 1649 for
refusing to sign the Solemn League and Covenant.
On leaving Cambridge he retired to Fressingfield,
where he remained nine years; went abroad in
1657; returned at the Restoration; became suc-
cessively chaplain to John Cosin (q.v.), bishop of
Durham, and university preacher, 1660; rector of
Houghton-de-Spring, and the king's chaplain,
1661 ; prebendary at Durham Cathedral, and master
of his college, 1662; dean of York, and of St. Paul's,
1664; archdeacon of Canterbury, 1668; and arch-
bishop of Canterbury, 1677. He attended Charles
II. on his death-bed, Feb., 1685; and crowned
James II., Apr. 23, 1685. He would not act on
James's ecclesiastical commission, and was one of
the famous seven bishops who refused to read
James's Declaration of Indulgence, and in con-
sequence were confined in the Tower and tried, but
were triumphantly acquitted. Sancroft also re-
fused to take the oath of allegiance to William and
Mary, 1688; and was deprived Feb. 1, 1691. The
Fur predestinatus (London, 1651; Eng. transl.,
The Predestined Thief, 1658) has been shown to have
been erroneously attributed to him, and to be a
translation of Den ghepredesHneerden Dieff (The
Hague, 1619-22). He left, Modern Policies (Lon-
don, 1652); Occasional Sermons (1694); and
Familiar Letters (1757).
Bibliography: Q. D'Oyley, Life of Archbishop Sancroft,
2 vols., London, 1821 ; J. Le Neve, Lives, Characters . . .
and . . . Benefactions of . . . Bishops of the Church of
England since the Reformation, ib. 1720; Agnes Strickland,
Lives of the Seven Bishops, pp. 1-103, ib. 1806; J. Stough-
ton, Religion in England, 2 vols., ib. 1884; W. H. Hutton,
The English Church {1626-171 A), pp. 228-233 et passim,
ib. 1903; DNB, 1. 244-250.
SANCTIFICATION: In common Christian usage
the deliverance of the personal life from the power
of sin accomplished by the faithful observance of
faith, by the earnest struggle against all temptation
to turn away from the living God, and by the prac-
tise of Christian piety. In technical language
sanctification means the operation of
Definition, the grace by which salvation is con-
veyed to man, enabling him to be freed
and to free himself from sin, and to become like God
in heart, will, and thought. The term is derived
from Scripture (I Thess. iv. 3, 7; II Thess. ii. 13;
Rom. vi. 19, 22). The Christian is admonished
to yield himself to Christ, "who is made unto us
sanctification" (I Cor. i. 30) and to prove his holi-
ness by his conduct (I Peter i. 15, 16; cf. I Cor. vii.
24; Eph. i. 4, v. 27). The divine work of salva-
tion is designated as sanctification especially in
Hebrews (ii. 11, ix. 13, 14, x. 10, xiv. 29). But the
sense of the term is not fixed with dogmatic preci-
sion; in Roman Catholic theology it is included
in the conception of justification; in Protestant
theology it follows justification, but in this case is
usually identified with renovation and good works.
According to the Roman Catholic doctrine, while
the saving grace of God is operative in sanctification,
the process neither follows logically upon Roman
Catholic justification nor differs essentially from it.
In accordance with the medieval and modern Roman
Catholic doctrine of justification, it is sanctifica-
tion which effects justification. Grace obliterates
sin in man and endows him with supernatural
righteousness and holiness through justification.
Sanctification, therefore, considered as sanctifying
grace, is the cause of justification, and the effects of
sanctification form the content of justification,
through which redemption from sin, as won by
Christ, is imparted to man. In opposition to the
Roman Catholic doctrine, the Formula of Concord
regards sanctification as following justification, but
scarcely differentiates it from renewal. Luther, on
the contrary, in his larger catechism, considers sanc-
tification as the office and work of the Holy Spirit,
agreeing with the scholastic and Roman theology
in so far as he looks upon sanctification as bestowal
of salvation; though by this last he understands
not the "infusion of righteousness," the bestowal
of a power of virtue, but the effect of faith. The
difference between Luther and the Formula of
Concord, is, however, more nominal than real, since
the Formula meant by the term sanctification ap-
parently only a part of that which Luther meant by
it. The doctrine of sanctification was not essen- .
tially changed in Pietism, but rationalism perverted ■
Sanotiflcation
Sanday
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
200
the whole conception. While the term formerly
denoted justification by faith and grace alone,
rationalism understood by it the inner disposition
which is to make man pleasing to God. Conse-
quently the rationalists laid stress upon sanctifica-
tion in the sense of man's efforts for his own moral
perfection. In opposition to this tendency Schleier-
macher once more emphasized faith as the truly
religious attitude toward God and his revelation,
as the condition of heart which is satisfied and feels
itself strong in communion with Christ. This condi-
tion was developed by the following theologians into
the germ of a new life on the basis of which man is
justified. Accordingly, the subjective faith of man
effects sanctification and lies at the basis of divine
justification. This teaching was far removed
from the doctrine of the Reformers. Ritschl and
his school, however, returned to the latter, especially
to that of Luther, by making sanctification depend-
ent upon the justification of God. But according
to Ritschl, man is justified only as a member of the
Church, his act of conformity to which, and hence
to the motives and purposes of God, constitutes the
faith which justifies him. Thus here, too, sanctifica-
tion, conceived as separation from sin, which takes
form and accomplishes itself, is made within man
and is the basis of justification.
In the Reformed Church and theology sanctifica-
tion comes into the doctrine of perseverance. Man
is justified, indeed, freely by grace; but the justified
must perform good works, which he is enabled to do
by a second act of grace, inseparably connected
with justification. This is regenera-
The tion, which sanctifies him. By this
Reformed regeneration or sanctification, how-
View, ever, man does not attain full per-
fection. His whole consolation rests
upon the fact of justification. Sanctification is
necessary for the elect and justified, in order to
preserve the grace of their justification, and thus
it follows justification with an inner divine necessity.
Here also, as in Lutheran theology after Luther,
sanctification is considered a special work of the
Holy Spirit, following justification and conditioned
by it. The distinction between the two is hardly
more than a technical and controversial one.
Owing to influences from England and America,
especially from the Methodists, Baptists, and Sal-
vation Army and the doctrine of Pearsall Smith, a
new doctrine of sanctification has become current,
according to which it is not only different from, but
even more important than, justification. It is con-
sidered as that act of divine grace in which the real
tendency of divine revelation finds its fullest ex-
pression, while justification is secondary to it.
Upon examination the view of the Lutheran as well
as of the Reformed theologians, that sanctification
is a special process to be distinguished from
justification and following it, is seen to be un-
scriptural. Just as little authority in Scripture can
be found for the view of the Pietists,
Conclusion, of the modern dogmaticians (including
Ritschl), and still less for that of the
"practical" tendency in church life, according to
which sanctification is the chief purpose of the
divine plan of salvation. Formal scriptural au-
thority can be found only for the view of Luther and
that of the medieval or Roman theology, which
designate the whole process of conveying salvation
to man as sanctification. Of these two, again,
Luther's alone is scriptural in so far as he looks upon
this bestowal of salvation as the effect of faith.
Bestowal of salvation is sanctification, because it
delivers man from sin and brings him into com-
munion with the God of redemption. It is to be
distinguished, though not separated, from the
divine sentence of justification, since it is that effect
of the grace of God on man which makes him
capable of faith and preserves it, which brings him
into communion with God and preserves him in it;
it is therefore not a single isolated operation but
a continuous one. The scriptural term hagiasmos
denotes the condition of being sanctified, the action
performed on the object as a condition proceeding
from and effected by the Holy Ghost who bestows
salvation (I Peter i. 2; cf. II Thess. ii. 13; I Thcss.
iv. 7). If it be asked what is the relation of sancti-
fication to the actuality of Christian life, it appears
that man stands by faith in communion with God,
and is thus placed in a position from which he is not
only able but obliged to resist sin and fulfil the will
of God out of love. The bestowal of grace, forgive-
ness, in a word justification, is actually sanctifica-
tion; for there is no mightier deliverance from sin
than that which is worked by the bestowal of
grace or forgiveness, or by faith in the operation of
its power. "Christ in us" is nothing else than
"Christ for us," realized and held fast in faith.
Such action as makes man a partaker of sanctifica-
tion is precisely the same action as that by which he
is made a partaker of justification ; it is clear, accord-
ingly, that in view of the position and meaning of
the latter in the scheme of Christian doctrine, the
term sanctification is non-essential, if not super-
fluous. (H. T. CREMEKf.)
Bibliography : The subject is generally treated in the works
on systematic theology (see under the article Dogma,
Dogmatics), while treatises on the Holy Spirit (q.v.)
necessarily deal with the topic; another class of works to
be used for the Biblical side is that on Biblical Theol-
ogy, especially W. Beyschlag's AT. T. Theology, Edin-
burgh, 1896. Consult further: Walter Marshall. Gospel
Mystery of Sanctification, London, 1692, often reprinted,
e.g., Edinburgh, 1887 (a classic); E. G. Marsh, The Chris-
tian Doctrine of Sanctification, London, 1848; J. Q. Adams,
Sanctification, new ed.. New York, 1863; G. Junkin, A
Treatise on Sanctification, Philadelphia, 1864; W. E.
Boardman, The " Higher Life " Sanctification Tried by the
Word of God, Philadelphia, 1877; J. A. Beet, Holiness as
Understood by the Writers of the Bible, London, 1880;
J. Hartley, Chapters on Holiness, London, 1883; J. H.
Collins, Sanctification, what it is, when it is, how it is,
Nashville, 1885; A. Murray, Holy in Christ, New York,
1888; J. Fraser, A Treatise on Sanctification, London,
1897; E. Hoare, Sanctification, 5th ed., ib., 1898; P.
T. Forsyth, Christian Perfection, New York, 1899; H.
W. Webb-Peploe, Calls to Holiness, London, 1900; A.
Kuyper, The Work of the Holy Spirit, New York, 1902;
W. R. Inge, Faith and Knowledge, Edinburgh, 1904;
H. C. G. Moule, Holiness by Faith, London, 1906; A. B.
O. Wilberforce, Sanctification by the Truth, London, 1906;
E. Tobac, Le Problhne de la justification dans S. Paul,
Louvain, 1908; DB, iv. 391-395; DCG, ii. 661-566 (adds
a bibliography of distinct homiletical value) ; Vigouroux,
Dictionnaire, fasc. xxxv. 1443-44.
SANCTIS, sOnc'tis, LUIGI DE: Italian Protes-
tant; b. at Rome Dec. 31, 1808; d. at Florence
Dec. 31, 1869. Of his youth little is known, but
201
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Sanottfioatton
Sanday
in 1831 he was ordained to the priesthood of the
Roman Catholic Church, and three years later was
appointed professor of philosophy and theology at
Genoa, where he manifested great heroism in the
care of the sick during an epidemic of cholera in
1835. In 1837 he received an appointment in the
Holy Office, only to have his faith gradually but
surely undermined by the books which his position
compelled him to read. Nevertheless, he gained a
high reputation as a pulpit orator, and from 1840
to 1847 was at the head of the parish of Santa Mad-
dalena alia Rotonda in Rome; but the doubts
already engendered were complicated by his sym-
pathy with the movement for the unification of
Italy and the overthrow of papal control, and in
1843 he was condemned to ten days' imprisonment
in the monastery of San Eusebio. The accession of
Pius IX. June 21, 1846, and the policy at first
adopted by the new pontiff, filled De Sanctis with
hope, which was speedily crushed by the encyclical
of Nov. 9, 1846, exalting the cult of the Virgin. De
Sanctis was now obliged to conceal his ever-in-
creasing doubts, both family ties and official position
combining to prevent him from openly breaking
with his church. At this juncture he came in con-
tact with a Scotch clergyman named Lowndes,
then resident in Malta, who brought him greetings
from the ex-monk Giovanni Giacinto Achilli, who
was endeavoring to propagate Protestantism in
Malta under British protection (see Newman, John
Henry). A second interview with Lowndes led
De Sanctis to gain permission to visit Ancona,
whence he surreptitiously sailed for Corfu, soon
leaving that island for Malta. Refusing every
inducement to return to Rome, he now passed
two years preaching in an Italian church in Malta,
but with the change of conditions in Italy he ac-
cepted an invitation to visit Tuscany, where he
preached in Florence, Leghorn, and the vicinity of
Lucca until ordered by the police to desist. He
then returned to Malta, where, on Nov. 1, 1848, he
began the publication of II CaUollico cristiano, a
sheet filled with denunciation of Roman Catholi-
cism and defense of Protestantism. In 1849 he
married, and in the same year published his La
Confessione (Malta, 1849; Eng. transl. by M. H. G.
Buckle, London, 1878), and in 1850 he accepted
a call to Geneva to preach among the Italian polit-
ical refugees, workmen, and ex-priests. He soon
after made a tour of Italian Switzerland, meeting
with special success in the Protestant Val Bregaglia.
The growth of the Waldensian community in Turin
(see Italy, II., § 1), however, led to the call of De
Sanctis to that city in 1853, and he was formally
ordained to the Waldensian ministry on Aug. 31
of the same year. But a split soon arose among the
Waldensians, one faction adhering to their original
principles, and the other, supported largely by
funds supplied by Baptists and Plymouth Brethren,
terming themselves "Free Italian Churches " (see
Italy, II., § 2) and claiming that they would quickly
turn all Italy to Protestantism. It was with this
radical wing that De Sanctis threw in his fortunes,
and in 1855, at the Paris conference of the Evan-
gelical Alliance, he secured recognition and financial
aid for his party. He also visited London in quest
of funds and was cordially received, and after a
tour of Piedmont took up his residence at Genoa,
where he and his friends established a Protestant
school. During this period he employed himself
in writing, the chief results being his Si pud leg-
gere la Bibliaf (3d ed., Florence, 1866); La Re-
ligions degli avi (1861); La Messa (Turin, 1862);
and Discussione pacifica (1863). He did not, how-
ever, approve of the hostility of the "Free Church"
to the Waldensians, and in 1863-64 events forced
him to protest publicly against an attack on Roman
Catholicism and Protestantism alike in favor of the
exclusive claim of the Plymouth Brethren to true
Christianity. The result was a fresh split in the
" Free Church," and De Sanctis withdrew to Flor-
ence, where he was soon appointed professor of
apologetic, polemic, and practical theology in the
Waldensian seminary, a position which he held until
his death.
The list of De Sanctis' writings is a long one.
His principal productions, in addition to those
already mentioned, are as follows: II Celibato dei
preti (n.p., 1850) ; Popery and Jesuitism at Rome in
the Nineteenth Century (London, 1852); LetUra a
Pio nono, vescovo di Roma (Turin, 1854) ; II Primato
del papa (Florence, 1861); Osservazioni dottrinali e
storiche (1865); Compendia di controversie tra la
parola Dio e la teologia romana (4th ed., 1870); R
Papa non e successors di son Pietro (4th ed., 1887);
II Purgatorio perche non e ammesso dagli evan-
gelici (1898) ; and the most important of all, Roma
papale (1865). (Paolo Calvino.)
SANCTUARY, RIGHT OF. See Asylum, Right
of.
SARD AT, WILLIAM: Church of England; b. at
Holme Pierrepont (20 m. n.e. of Nottingham),
Nottinghamshire, Aug. 1, 1843. He was educated
at Balliol College, Oxford, and Corpus Christi
College, Oxford (B.A., 1865), and was ordered dea-
con in 1867 and ordained priest two years later.
He was fellow of Trinity College, Oxford (1866-73);
in charge of Navestock, Romford (1869-71), lec-
turer of St. Nicholas, Abingdon (1871-72); vicar
of Great Waltham, Chelmsford (1872-73); rector
of Barton-on-the-Heath, Warwickshire (1873-76);
principal of Hatfield Hall, Durham (1876-83);
Dean Ireland's professor of the exegesis of Holy
Scripture in the University of Oxford and tutorial
fellow of Exeter College, Oxford (1883-95); and
since 1895 he has been Lady Margaret professor of
divinity and canon of Christ Church, Oxford.
He was also examining chaplain to the bishop of
Durham (1879-81), select preacher at Cambridge
in 1880, 1892, and 1903, Whitehall preacher in
1889-90, and Bampton lecturer in 1893. He has
been honorary fellow of Exeter College since 1898;
chaplain in ordinary to the king, and a fellow of the
British Academy since 1903. Besides being joint
editor of the Variorum Bible (London, 1880) ; Old
Latin Biblical Texts, u. (in collaboration with
Bishop John Wordsworth; 1886); Studia Biblica
et Ecclesiastica (Oxford, 1891); Commentary on
the Epistle to the Romans (in collaboration with
A. C. Headlam; London, 1886; 5th ed., 1909);
and editing the translation of select writings of
demandant
Bandsman
Banhediin
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
80S
Hilary of Ppictiera for the Library of Nicene and
PosUNicene Fathers (New York and Edinburgh,
1898) ; he has written The Authorship and Historical
Character of the Fourth Gospel (London, 1872) ; The
Gospels in the Second Century (1876); the sections
on Romans and Galatians in Bishop C. J. Ellicott's
Handy Commentary (London, 1878); Appendices
ad Novum Testamentum Stephanicum (1889); The
Oracles of God (1891); Two Present Day Questions
(1892); Inspiration (Bampton lectures; 1893);
The Conception of Priesthood in the Early Church
and in the Church of England (1898) ; An Examina-
tion of Harnack's "What is Christianity?" (1901);
Criticism of the New Testament (1902); Divisions
in the Church (1902); Sacred Sites of the Gospels
(in collaboration with P. Waterhouse; 1903); Out-
lines of the Life of Christ (Edinburgh, 1905); The
Criticism of the Fourth Gospel (London, 1905);
The Life of Christ in Recent Research (1907); and
Christologies, Ancient and Modern (1910).
SANDEMANIANS, san-de-m^'ni-ans or man'i-ans
(GLASSITES) : A sect founded in Scotland c. 1730
by John Glas (q.v.). The basal idea of the founder
was the restoration of the apostolic Church, realizing
the complete independence of each local church
from every other and from the State. Chief em-
phasis was laid upon the Lord's Supper, while
feet-washing, the kiss of charity, the lovefeast,
and a limited community of goods were introduced;
games of chance, eating of blood and things
strangled, and the use of the lot were forbidden, and
church government was placed in the hands of
bishops, elders, and teachers. The name came
from the son-in-law of Glas, Robert Sandeman (b.
at Perth, Scotland, 1718; d. at Danbury, Conn.,
Apr. 2, 1771), who was appointed an elder in the
new organization, exercised his ministry at Perth,
Dundee, and Edinburgh, and sailed in 1764 to
America, where he founded churches. The denom-
ination is now nearly or quite extinct.
(C. SCHOELLf.)
Bibliography: The Works of John Glas, especially his
Treatise on the Lord1 a Supper, Edinburgh, 1743, reprinted,
London, 1883; the literature under Glas, John; J. Bel-
lamy, Essay on the Nature and Glory of the Gospel of Jesus
Christ, i. 66-125, London, 1761. reprint 1841; A. Fuller,
Strictures on Sandemanianism, in his Complete Works, ib.
1853; J. B. Mareden, Hist, of Christian Churches and Sects,
ii. 297 sqq., ib. 1856; J. E. Ritchie, Religious Life of
London, ib. 1870.
SANDER, IMMANUBL FRIEDRICH EMIL:
Pulpit orator and polemist; b. in Saxony in 1797;
d. at Wittenberg Apr. 28, 1859. In early life he was
repelled by the current rationalism, and as a minor
official of St. Paul's Church in Leipsic, in the first
part of his career, he began to preach with emphasis
the Gospel of the Crucified One. In 1822 he was
called to Wichlinghausen in Wupperthal, where he
exerted his activities in the same direction, trans-
lating into German, in collaboration with C. H. F.
Bialloblotzky, Pusey's Enquiry into the Probable
Causes of the Rationalist Character lately Predominant
in the Theology of Germany (Elberfeld, 1829), and
following this up with his own Theologisches Gut-
achten (Barmen, 1836), which was preceded and
followed by several volumes of sermons and by
Beleuchiung (1836) aimed at the Prediger-Bibel of
Eduard Hulsmann (1835), which last brought him
into court on charges of libel. He also attacked
Droste-Vischering (q.v.) in Ueber den Frieden unter
der Kirche und den Staaten and Das Papstlhum in
seiner heutigen Gestalt, in seinen UrsprHngen und
endlichen Ausgdngen (Elberfeld, 1845). To this
period belongs also his treatise on Gal. iii. 20 (1840)
and Der Romanismus, seine Tendemen und seine
Methodik (Essen, 1843). About this time he ac-
cepted the ideas of Johann Tobias Beck (q.v.), and
placed the beginning of the parousia (see Millen-
nium, Millenarianism) in 1847. In 1854 he ac-
cepted a call to Wittenberg, where he came to
occupy the positions of city preacher, superintend-
ent, and director of the preachers' seminary till his
death. He continued to issue sermons, occasional
and others, the most significant based upon the
Revelation of John.
Bibliography: F. W. Krummaoher, Immanud Friedrich
Sander, Cologne, I860.
SANDERS, FRANK KNIGHT: Congregationalist;
b. at Batticotta (a village near Jaffna, 190 m. n. of
Colombo), Ceylon, June 5, 1861. He was educated
at Ripon College, Wis. (A. B., 1882) ; was instruc-
tor in Jaffna College, Ceylon (1882-86), and con-
tinued his studies at Yale (1886-89). He was then
successively assistant in Biblical literature (1889-
90), instructor in Semitic languages (1890-91),
and assistant professor of Biblical literature on
the Woolsey foundation (1891-93)— all at
Yale. In 1893 he was appointed Woolsey pro-
fessor of Biblical literature in Yale, a position
which he retained until 1901, when he resigned
it to become professor of Biblical history and
archeology and dean of Yale Divinity School,
both which offices he held until 1905, when he
became secretary of the Congregational Sunday-
school and Publishing Society. He has been presi-
dent of Washburn College, Topeka, Kan., since
1908. He has edited in collaboration with C. F.
Kent The Historical Series for Bible Students (10
vols., New York, 1897-1906) and The Messages of the
Bible (12 vols., 1898 sqq.), and together with the
same scholar has written The Messages of the Earlier
Prophets (New York, 1898) and The Messages of the
Later Prophets (1899). He has also written Outlines
for the Study of Biblical History and Literature (in
collaboration with H. T. Fowler, New York, 1906);
A Student's Life of Christ (1906); Historical Notes
on the Apostolic Leaders (1907); and Historical
Notes on the Life of Christ (1907).
SANDERSON, JOSEPH: Presbyterian; b. at
Ballybay (60 m. n.w. of Dublin), County Monaghan,
Ireland, May 23, 1823; graduated at the Royal
College, Belfast, 1845; emigrated to America, 1846;
was classical teacher in the Washington Institute,
New York, 1847-49; studied theology and became
pastor of the Associate Presbyterian Church, Provi-
dence, R. I., 1849; at New York, 1853-69; acting
pastor of Saugatuck Congregational Church, Conn.,
1872-78; assistant editor of the Homiletic Monthly,
New York, 1881-83; editor of the Pulpit Treasury,
New York, after 1883; and from 1895, secretary of
the Church Extension and Sustentation Committee,
New York Presbytery. He is the author of Jesus on
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
the Holy Mount (New York, 1869); Memorial Trib-
ute* (1883) ; The Story of Saint Patrick (1895) ; and
Man's Seal to God* Word (1902).
SAH DOMINGO. See West Indies.
SAHDYS, EDWTfl: Church of England, arch-
bishop of York; b. near Hawkshead (24 m. n.w. of
Lancaster). Lancashire, 1516; d. at York July 10,
1588. He was educated at St. John's College, Cam-
bridge; was converted to Protestantism; elected
master of Catherine Hall, 1547; became vicar of
Cevmahiin, 1548; canon of Peterborough, 1549;
[ ■ r ■ ■ I )■ ■ : i ■ J lu r \_ of Carlisle, 1552; and viee-cliaiieelkir
of Cambridge, 1553. He was imprisoned in the
Tower for espousing the cause of Lady Jane Grey,
escaped, and went into voluntary exile until Eliza-
beth's accession; became bishop of Worcester, 1558;
of London, 1570; and archbishop of York, 1576.
He took part in the preparation of the Bishops'
Bible (see Bible Versions, B, IV., § 4) in 1565;
translated Hosea, Joel, Amos, and Malachi in the
version of 1572; and assisted in the revision of the
Liturgy, 1559. A volume of Sermons (London, 1585;
1616) contains in its newer issue {by T. Whi taker,
1812) a life; this volume was reedited wilh life for
the Parker Society by J. Ayre (Cambridge, 1841).
Bibuookafby: William Thoouw, Surrey of the Cathedrat-
Church of Worrtttrr: uith an Account of Iht Bithopt, pp.
210-214, London. 1738; C. H. sntl T. Cooper, Athena
Canlabriaienten. ii. 24. 543, ib. 1881; F. G. Lee. The
Church UTulrr Qwcn Etiiahrlh. ib. IV.Mi; W flark, The
Anglican Reformation, Npw York. IS07; W. H. Frare,
Th, EnglM, Church . . . USSS-IBSo), London. 1904;
B. N. Bin, The Etiiabrthan Reliffioiu Settlement, ib. 1BQ7:
O.Vfl. I. 283-280.
SAHDYS, GEORGE; English poet and para-
phrast; b. at Bishopthorpe (2 m. s. of York) Mar. 2,
1577-78; d. at Boxley (32 m. s.e. of London), Kent,
Mar., 1G44. He was educated at Oxford ; traveled
in the East, 1610-12; was in Virginia, 1621-24, as
colonial treasurer; nominated to the colonial
council, 1024, 1026, and 1628, building there "the
first water-mill, the first iron-works, and the first
ship," but. involved in quarrels and disappointed in
not securing the appointment of secretary in 1631,
returned to England; and was for some years an
attendant of Charles I., and ended life in scholarly
retirement. He published a much-valued Relation
of a Journey (London 1015); translated Ovid's
Metamorphoses (1620), partly at Jamestown, Va.;
and G. Grotius' Christ's Passion (1O10); and para-
phrased the Psalms, Job, Canticles, Lcclesiastea, and
Lamentation (1630-41). In James Montgomery's
opinion "his psalms are incomparably the most
poetical in the English language, and yet they are
scarcely known." Fragments of one or two of them
may be found in some of the hymn-books. The
paraphrases were nearly inaccessible until II. J.
Todd's Selections from the Metrical Paraphrases on
the Psalms and Other Portions of Holy Scripture by
G. Sandys unth a Memoir (1839) appeared. The
Complete Poetical Works (1872) was published with
Memoir by R. Hooper in Library of Old Authors
(London, 1850-72).
BiauocRAmr. Braidr* the Mrmoiri named hi the tent,
rannult: Julian, ttumnoloou. Pp. 918. MMi DNB. 1. 200-
SANF0RD, ELIAS BEHJAMIN: Congrcgation-
atist; b. at Westbrook, Conn., June 6, 1M3. He
received his education at Wesley an University
(A.B., 1865; A.M., 1869) and Yale Divinity School;
served as pastor at Cornwall (1809-71), Thornaston
(1873-81), and Wcstbrook, all in Connecticut (1882-
1895), during this period being a contributor to
religious publications on subjects of impoxttJtMj
he was corresponding secretary of the Open and
Institutional Church League (1895-1900); was the
organiser of the National Federation of Churches
(see Church Federation) and general secretary of
the same since its founding (1900). At his sugges-
tion this organization took action that secured the
appointment of delegates from the highest judica-
tories and national conferences of thirty denomina-
tions representing the larger part of the Evangelical
church membership of the United States. These
delegates came together in an inter-church confer-
ence held in New York, Nov. 8-15, 1905, and
adopted the plan of federation described in the ar-
ticle referred to above. Since 1903 Dr. Sanford as
corresponding secretary has had in charge the cor-
rc.-pondi'nco and office details, under direction of
the executive committee, of the several conference*
He is the author of UUtory of Connecticut (Hartford,
1881); Concise Cyclopedia of IMiyimis Kiwirlrdgr
(1890); Church Federation. Report of Inter-Church
Conference on Federation (New York, 1905); and
Federal Council of the Churches. Report of the First
Meeting of the Federal Council of the Churches of
Christ in America (Philadelphia, 1908).
SANHEDRIN, san'he-drin, SANHEDRIM: The
term usually applied to the highest Jewish judica-
tory in Jerusalem at the time of Christ. The New
Testament in the Greek usually employs the term
synedrion to designate the court in which the ju-
dicial process against Jesus Christ was carried on
(Matt.xxvi.59; Mark xir. 55, xv. 1; Luke xxii. 66),
before which the apostles (Acts v. 21, 27, 34, 41),
especially Peter and John (Acts iv. 15), Stephen
(Acts vi. 12, 15), and Paul (Acts xxii. 30, xxiii. pas-
sun, xxiv. 20), had to answer for their faith in the
Risen One. In John xi. 47 the term is applied to a
session of this court. [I" the English version the
term "council" is usually applied to this court, and
generally with additional phrases, such as "elders,
scribes and the whole council," "elders, chief priests,
and scribes," "council and senate. "J In the pas-
sages cited above the reference is to one court alone.
But the plural form in Matt. x. 17; Mark xiii. 9;
cf . Matt. v. 22, refers to smaller judicatories. These
hnBei li-i'l the right to make arrests (Matt, xxvi,
47 sqq.; Mark xiv. 43 sqq.; cf. Acts v. 18, ix. 2),
to pronounce decision and to punish, except that
capital punishment required the confirmation of
the Roman procurator, by whom it seems to have
been executed (John xviii. 31); the only case of
capital punishment mentioned in connection with
ttm judicatory in the New Testament is that of
Jesus. Acta ix. 2 indicates that the mandates of the
great sanhedrin was recognized wherever Jews
dwelt — the high priest's directions reached at any
rate to Damascus. The great sanhedrin was com-
posed of elders (see Elders in Israel), Pcribes
THE NEW SCHAi'F-HERZOG
(q.v.), and the most eminent members of the high-
priestly Families. Joseph of Arimatlira is called a
counselor (Mark XV. 43; Luke Etiii. 50; Gk.
boideutls; bottle occurs in Josephus, Ant., XIX., Iii.
3 for the council itself). The high priest Caiapbas
appears ns president in the process against Jesus
(Matt, xxv'i. 3, 57) and the high priest Ananias
(Acts Jtxiii. 2, xxiv. 1) in the time of Paul.
The traditional Jewish view was that a supreme
court was created in the time of Moses, and that the
great sanhedrin was its legitimate successor; but,
tln'iis;!] learned and diligent attempts have been
made in modern times to defend this view, success
has not attended them. Even if Mtuhspfesl
erected a supreme court which lasted till the exile
(a doubtful fact; II Chron. xix.), such a judicatory
diil mil exist in the time of Ezra and Nehemiah,
or it would have left some traces in the reports con-
cerning the activities of these men. At the head
of the community then were the "elders of the
Jews'' (Ezra v. 5, vi. 7, 14), also known as "princes"
(Ezra is. 1, 2, x. 8; Neh. be. 38). From these
"princes." was formed an aristocratic senate, at the
head of which stuml 1 lie In-rnliliiry hir.li priest ; and
this body was known as the gerovMa (from Gk. gerSn,
"old man"), which appears under thiB name first
in a writing of Antiochus the Great (Josephus, Ant.,
XII., iii. 3). The letter of Jonathan the Maccabee
to the Spartans (I Mace. xii. 6) begins: "Jonathan
the high priest, and the gerousia (senate) of the
nation," etc., while I Mace. xii. 35 speaks of "the
elders of the people" as called together. But there
is no testimony an to the exact significance of the
gerousia under the Maccabean kings, though it is
probable that it continued to exist, Such contin-
uance would ejwly explain the division by Giihinius
(57-55 b.c.) of the Jewish territory into five dis-
tricts ruled by sy n rdria or synodal (Josephus, Ant.,
XIV., v. 4; War, I., viii. 5), a division set aside
by I taut in 47, uhen to the sanhc-drin at Jerusalem
was given general jurisdiction over the entire land
(cf. Josephus, Ant, XIV., ix. 3-5), before which
Herod appeared and on which he afterward took
bloody vi-rifciMiLi'i1. :i!tlu.niuli t lit- s;iiiheilrin continued
to exist under his rule (Josephus, Ant., XV., vi. 2).
Under Roman rule through procurators the sanhc-
drin had naturally great importance, receiving
recognition even from Jews not in Palestine. Be-
cause of the singular significance, :ifter the exile, of
the law for Jewish life, the importance of the san-
hedrin as the highest il logical and national court
of justice continually increased, and before it were
decided causes which affected the entire civil life
of the Jews.
Jewish tradition is summarized in the Talmud if
tract Siuilitihiri, the data from which supplement
well the scanty data obtainable from other sources.
It makes clear that the membership was seventy-
one, and it seems probable that the lesser sanhe-
drin had a membership of twenty-three. The place
of session seems according to some reports to have
been a hall inside the fore-court of the temple
IS, ml,, -driii, xi. 2), but was really outside the court
and to the west, as described by Josephus (below):
members are called bnuleiitni, "counselors," and
the body itself boull, "council." Josephus calls the
place of assemblage boide or bouhutiruin (War,
V., iv.2, VI., vi. 3). The tract Cftoffijo, ii- 2, makes
two Pliarisees, heads of schools, normally the
president and vice-president, and J. Levy and D.
Hoffmann (see bibliography) have defended this
view. But the testimony of the New Testament
and of Josephus is decisive that the high priest was
always the presiding officer. (H. L. Struck.)
Bibliography: The Jewish sou™ are the tracts San-
hedrin aad Makkoth in Mishna, Toseiihthn. iin.l Tulinuil.
The Miahna tent with Lat. tnuul. and notes is in the
Amsterdam ed. by Surenbuysen. iv. 205-21)1. published
1702; with Germ, tnnsl. in D, Hoffmann's Mischnajat,
iv. 145-21U, Berlin, IMS; I In.. Palestinian form lilti Lnt.
introduction is in Ugolini. Thetauna. XXV. 1-338, Fr.
MOIL in M. Sk-hwnd. /,.■ Talmud de Jtnsalem, vols. I,-lL,
Paris. 1888-89; the Babylonian Talmudic tract San-
hedrin is in Ugolini, ut sup., uv. 339-1102; both forms
with Genu, tiunsl. are in L. Goldschtnidt, Dcr babyton,
Talmud, vii. 1-010. Berlin, 1903.
Consult: A. Bilcbler, Dos Synedrion in Jerusalem,
Vienna, 1902; J. Selden, De •unednie, London, 1650-55;
Ogohni. Thaaurui. mv. 1103-1234; A. T. Bttinna,
Dit enae Verbindwig da A. Ti. mil dim Ntaen. pp. 168-
225. Rostock. 1831; L. Hcnfeld. Gachichte da Volket
Itrad, ii. 380-308, LeifB.e. 1855; J. Levy, in Manattechrift
far (JachicMe und IVinerucMfl da Judmtums, OSS, Bp,
288-274. 301-307, 339-358; J. M. Josi, tjmektehk da
Judenthumt. \. 120-128, 270-285. 403 sqq., ii. 13 sqq.. 2G
sqq., Leipsic, 1857-58; J. Langen, in 7'y. IStSi. pp. 411-
463; A. Kuenen. Over de SammiteUino '■an hrt Ska*) ■ •l.-in.
Amsterdam, 1888: J. Derenbourg. Hit. de la Palatini,
pp- 83-94, '85-488, Paris, 1887; D. Hoffmann. Der
oberste GtricJUlhof in drr Stadl da Heiliglhumi. Berlin.
1878; Stapfer, in Revue de tiitalogxe d .1,- iiltiLwiphit; Issl,
pp. 105-1111: H. firsts. Ce.:-hi.-hl. ,1,-r J u.t.-a. iii. KB) '.„]..
Leipaie. 1888; Blum, Lc Synhslrin au grand coneeil ds
Jerusalem, Strasburg. 1880: I. Jelski, Die inner e Effkhl-
uno da Braanen Sunedrians tu Jerusalem. Breslau. 1894;
A. Hauarath. Neutettanumtliche Zeitaachiehle, i, 83-72.
Heidelberg, 1873, Eog. transl.. Hit. of N. T. Timet,
London. 1895; M. Sulibenter, The Am ha-Arett, the An-
cient Hebrew Parliament; a Chapter in Ihe conniiiiiinn.-il
History of aneirnl Itr,:,l, J J ] j i I ■ l . 1 « - 1 r . = . i ■ . . |«!0; Kchurer.
Gesrhiehte. ii. 188-914, Eng. tnnsl., II., I. 183 sqq.; DB.
iv. 397-402; BB, iv. 4840-44; JE, xi. 41-44.
SAHKARACHARYA. See India, I., 2, J 2.
SANKEY, IRA DAVID: Methodist lay evangelist;
b. at Edinburgh, Lawrence County, Pa., Aug. 28,
1840; d. in Brooklyn Aug. 14, 1908. He entered
business at New Castle, Pa., 1855-71, and was active
as choir-leader, Sunday-school superintendent, and
president of the Young Men's Christian Associa-
tion; met D. L. Moody (q.v.) in 1870 at the inter-
national convention of that body at Inilianapi.il is.
He joined Moody in 1871 at Chicago and for years
was associated with htm in joint revival work in
the United States and abroad, his \i:u-l beirii; -iir.-in;;
solos, conducting the singing of the assembly, com-
posing "Gospel hymns," and rendering assistitnee in
the iin|i.iirv-toeetitij;s. In hi ter years he also lectured.
In 1903 he lost his eyesight. He compiled Goapel
Hi/nuts (1875-65), and Sacred Swigs and Suln.i
(London, 1873, and often), of which over 50.om.iNK>
copies were sold; translations have invn made into
many languages. He composed also many popular
songs, of which are ''There were ninety and nine."
anil "When the mists have rolled uway." He is
author of My Life and the Story of lite Gospel H'imns
and of Sacred Songs and Solos (Philadelphia, 1907).
Btit].In<;nAI-tlI: The litem lure is to In.. H.i.ii.-ii1. uri.liT M.inliv,
Moody invariably ti
t of his fellow-laborer. Note p
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
tieularlv R Nn«in. /..«• of (Ac Eminmf .4 *if7-vra>i ffron-
;..'j .'.■■ /J. t. Moodtf and /po 0. 5an*»v, BwIod, 1877.
Also see under Revivals.
SAHMIHIATELLI, san-min-yQ-telli, ZABAR-
ELLA, ALESSAHDHO: Cardinal; b. at Radicondoli
(Um.s.w. of Sienna), Tuscany, Italy, Aug. 4, 1840.
He was educated at the Collegio Romano and the
Accademia dei nobili ecclesiastici, and waa ordained
to the priesthood in 1863. In 1868 he was appointed
chamberlain to the pope, and in 1874 became grand
almoner and titular archbishop of Tyana. In 1887
he was made auditor general of the Apostolic
Chamber, and in 1899 was created cardinal priest of
Santi Pietro e Marcel lino.
SAMSON, san-BSn' (SAMSOH), BERNHARDINO:
Commissary of indulgences in Switzerland in 1518-
1519. He is said to have come from Brescia. He
was guardian of the Observantist Franciscans at San
Angolo, MiLiri, when In- \v;ls commissioned, in 1517,
to preach indulgences in the Swiss cantons, among
their confederates, and in the dioceses of Valais and
Chur. His course through Lugano, Uri, Schwyz,
Lucerne, Bugdorf, Bern, Solothurn, and Freiburg,
June, 1518, to Jan., 1519, met with much success.
In eastern Switzerland, however, he was less success-
ful; Zwingli directed sermons against him and his
practise, which in the more enlightened quarters
was regarded as both ridiculous and outrageous.
The bishop of Constance and his vicar, Johannes
Faber (q.v.), resisted Sanson, who was for-
bidden to enter the churches in Aargau, Feb., 1519.
In Baden he succeeded, but waa refused admis-
sion at Staufberg and Brengarten. He then went
to Zurich, where the diet of the federation had con-
vened. Here he met the united hostility of Zwingli.
Faber, and the bishop of Constance. The diet
took recognition of the complaint, which Sanson
met with his credentials and the request to ascer-
tain his authority at Rome at his expense. The
diet did not interpose any impediment and Sanson
appeared at Sofingen, Apr. 18. But the did ysked
the knight Felix U rebel of Zurich, who was about
to journey to Rome, to lay certain grievances before
the pope and make a thorough investigation. Before
Grebcl's arrival, the pope had appointed Sanson
commissary of indulgences to the end of October,
but upon taking knowledge of the missive of the
diet, he revoked the commission, and the diet was
privileged, if Sanson was objectionable, to request
his peaceable return to Italy, to be examined and
punished, if he exceeded his powers and committed
errors in the announcing of indulgences. The
matter of indulgences, although a factor in the rise
of the Reformation in Switzerland, played a less
important part than in Germany.
(Emil Eout-)
BieuooRAPffl; L. R. Bchmidlin, Bemhardin Saturn, der
Ablajaprrdiarr in der Schvrit. 1618-19, SoloLbura. 1808;
Behalf, Christian Church, vii. 31. 42-43.
SAPHIR, sfl'fir, ADOLPH: Presbyterian; b. at
Budapest, Hungary, Sept. 26, 1831 ; d. at Lon-
don Apr. 3, 1891. Son of a Jewish merchant
he, with the rest of his father's family, was
converted to Christianity by the Jewish mission of
the Church of Scotland; he studied at the Gymna-
sium of the Graue Kloeter, Berlin, 1844-18; at
Glasgow University, 1848-19 (M.A., 1854), at
Marischal College, Aberdeen, 1849-51, and was a
student of theology at the Free Church College,
Edinburgh, 1851-54. He was licensed in 1S54, and
sent as missionary to the Jews at Hamburg, Ger-
many; was German preacher at Glasgow, 1*33;
minister of the English Presbyterian Oiuivh. South
Shields. 1856-61; at Greenwich, London, 1861-72;
at Xotting Hill, London, 1872-80; and of Belgrave
Presbyterian Church, London, 1881-88. In later
(if. ;-;;[jiiir took mui'h interest in the efforts for the
conversion of the Jews in Hungary and southern
Russia, being president of the auxiliary in London,
the Rabinowich Council. In theology he was Evan-
gelical. He waa the author of From Death to Life
(Edinburgh, 1861; revised and published under
the title Conve~swn, London, 1865); Christ and
the- Scriptures (1864); Lectures on the Lord's Prayer
(1870); Christ Crucified (Lectures on I Cor. ii.,
1873); Expository Lectures on the Epistle to the
Hebrews (1874-76); and The Divine Unity of Scrip-
ture (1892); and of numerous tracts employed in
the mission to the Jews.
SARABAITES, sflr'a-boits (SARABITES): A
class of Egyptian hermits, mentioned by Jerome
(Epist., xxiii. 34) under the name of Remoboth.
The appellation Sarabaites is of unknown connota-
tion, although I'nssi.'in {('uttntiones palrum, XVIIL,
iv. 7-8) declares it to be Egyptian, and names three
classes of monks, cenobites, anchorites, and Sara-
baites. After Cassian, who thoroughly disapproved
of the Sarabaites, the only independent sources for
a knowledge of these hermits are Benedict of
Nursia (Regula, i.), who states that they were to be
found in Italy, and possibly the Diaiogus Zachaei
Christiani et Apullonii phihsophi of the late fifth
century. In the Middle Ages the epithet Sarabaites
(translated RenuUa? by Isidore of Seville, De officii*
rrrtrsitisticis, ii. 15) was frequently applied to
disoU.-dR-nt or turbulent monks, since their proto-
types lived without teacher and without discipline;
ainl they were likewise often confused with the Gyro-
vagi (q.V.).
The earliest sources concerning the rWl^ftfall
are invariably prejudiced against them and de.-ired
to replace them by those following the cenobitic
life. Nevertheless, the distinctive characteristics
which separated them from hermits and cenobites
are clear. They were generally considered monks,
like whom they were celibate, fasted, sang in
choir, and wore habits. On the other hand, they
did not live in monasteries or deserts, but in towns
or fortified places, sometimes in their own houses.
Neither did they form communities like the ceno-
bites, but lived alone or in groups of two or three
without any superior; nor were they rigidly separ-
ated from the world like hermits and cenobites.
Like other monks, they earned their livelihood by
manual labor, but sold the products independently
In the time of Cassian the Sarabaites of Egypt
r<(iiiilli:-d the cenobites in number, but in other lands
were far more numerous, eo that they were almost
the only class of monks, a statement which also
Sara via.
Sardioa
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
206
holds true for the days of Jerome. By the middle
of the sixth century their number had declined in
Italy.
The Sarabaites were essentially the successors of
the primitive ascetics, and long maintained their
existence in the West despite the spread of anchori-
tism and monasticism from the East, especially from
Egypt, thus explaining the intense hatred felt by
hermits and monks for them. Their freer mode of
life doubtless gave some ground for the charges
alleged against them, probably with some exaggera-
tion, by their opponents; and in the course of time
they sank before the more rigid ascetic ideals of
monasticism. See Monasticism.
(G. GrCtzmacher.)
Bibliography: C. W. F. Walch, in Novi commcntarii *o-
eietatia . . . acxentiarum Gottingensi*, vi. 1-34, Gottingen,
1776; Neander, Chrittian Church, ii. 283-284.
SAR AVI A, ADRIAN: Reformed (afterward Angli-
can) theologian; b. at Hesdin (35 m. n. of Amiens),
France, in 1531 ; d. at Westminster, London, Jan. 15,
1612-13. His father was a Spaniard, his mother a
Fleming, and both became Protestants; he was
trained for the Reformed ministry, and became pastor
at Antwerp, and later formed a Walloon church at
Brussels; he removed after 1560 with his family to
the Channel Islands, where he first acted as school-
master, and then in 1564 became assistant minister
of St. Peter's, Guernsey; he next became school-
master at Southampton, and, in 1582, professor of
divinity at the University of Leyden; because of
complicity in a political plot he was forced in 1587 to
flee to England, where he became rector of Tatten-
hill, Staffordshire; his De diversis gradibus minis-
trorum (see below) in 1500 brought him honor there,
and in 1591 he was made prebendary of Gloucester,
in 1505 of Canterbury and vicar of Lewisham, Kent,
and in 1601 of Worcester and of Westminster; he
was nominated in 1607 one of the translators for
the new version of the Bible; and in 1609-10 ex-
changed Lewisham for Great Chart, which he re-
tained till his death. He was buried in Canterbury
Cathedral. His promotion in England was no doubt
due in part to his vigorous assertion and defense of
episcopal church government, in his De diversis
gradibus (London, 1590; Eng. transl., 1502, re-
issued 1640), in his Defensio traciatus de . . . gradi-
bus (1504), and Examen Tractatus D. Bezwde triplici
episcoporum genere (1504), against the arguments of
Theodore Beza, who sought to secure its abolition
in Scotland. He is best known as -the earliest
modern advocate of worldwide evangelization,
which most of the Reformers thought either im-
practicable or unauthorized. In his first work
he devotes a chapter (xvii.) to establishing the
thesis " that the command to preach the Gospel to
all peoples is obligatory upon the Church since the
Apostles were taken up into Heaven, and that for
this purpose the apostolic office is needful." He
maintains that the obligation to evangelize all
peoples rests upon the Christians of every century
to the end of the world on the ground that Christ
in giving the commission promised to be with his
disciples all the days to the end of the world, that
the apostles left the work incomplete and provided
for its extension, that after the apostolic age the
Gospel was successfully preached to many new
peoples, etc. He insists that it is not fanaticism
but simple duty to try to carry out Christ's great
commission. Beza (1502) and Gerhard (1617)
sought by elaborate argumentation in opposition to
Saravia to prove that the commission of Christ
expired with the close of the apostolic age. In
the opinion of contemporaries they succeeded and
Saravia's plea made little impression. His Treatise
on the Christian Priesthood was republished in Lon-
don, 1845; and a Latin manuscript was translated
and published by Denison as Treatise on the Eucha-
rist (London, 1855). See Missions to the Heathen,
B, II., 1, § 2. A. H. Newman.
Bibliography: DNB, 1. 299-301, where are given references
to scattering notices.
SARCERIUS, sor-strf-UB (SORCK), ERASMUS:
German Lutheran; b. at Annaberg (18 m. s. of
Chemnitz) probably Apr. 19, 1501; d. at Magde-
burg Nov. 28, 1 559. He was matriculated at Leipsic
in 1522, but in 1524 seems to have migrated to Wit-
tenberg, and in 1528 was a teacher at Lubeck and a
firm supporter of Protestant tenets. He likewise
taught in Graz, and apparently received his master's
degree at Vienna, but was forced to leave because of
his religious convictions and in 1530 was matricu-
lated at Rostock. Finally completing his studies,
he was recalled to Lubeck, where he remained until
1536, when Count William of Nassau called him to
Siegen as rector of the Latin school. In the follow-
ing year he was appointed superintendent and chap-
lain to the count, and henceforth all his energies
were devoted to the cause of Lutheranism. He at
once began a system of frequent visitations and
regular pastoral synods according to the plan out-
lined in his Diahgus . . . reddens raiionem veterum
synodorum . . . item visitationum (n.p., 1539),
likewise promoting his cause not only by his Cate-
chismus of 1537, but also by his commentaries on
Matthew (Frankfort, 1538), Mark (Basel, 1539),
Luke (1539), John (1540), Acts (1540), Romans
(1541), Galatians and Ephesians (1542), Corinth-
ians (1542-44), Philippians, Colossians, and Thes-
salonians (1542), and Ecclesiasticus (1543), as well
as by his Methodus in prctcipuos Scriptura locos (2
parts, Basel, 1539-40), Nova methodus (1546), Ex-
positiones in epistolas dominicales etfestivales (1540),
In evangelia dominicalia postilla (1540), and Con-
dones annua rhetorica dispositions conscriptos (4 vols.,
1541). In 1541 Sarcerius was called to Dillenburg
as court chaplain and preacher at the city church,
besides being superintendent of the county. In
Mar., 1540, he had taken part in the Schmalkald
conference, and in 1542-46 he promoted the cause
of the Reformation in the archdiocese of Cologne.
He also came into momentary contact with the
English movement against the Roman Church, this
being the occasion of his Loci aliquot communes et
theologici (Frankfort [ 1538]; Eng. transl., under the
title CofHon places of scripture ordrely and after a
cOpendious forme of teachyng set forth," by R,
Taverner, London, 1538).
As a distinguished theologian Sarcerius could
boast that he had framed church orders for twenty-
four counties, and in 1541 he was obliged to decline
807
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
8aravia
Sardioa
the invitation to become professor of theology at
Leipsic. But the Interim ended his activity in Nas-
sau in 1548, and he then went first to Annaberg,
where he wrote his Creutzbuchlein, after which he be-
came pastor at the Thomaskirche in Leipsic, pub-
lishing four volumes of sermons in 1551-52, and his
Von Synodis and Buck vom heiligen Ehestand in 1553.
In 1551 he was one of the theologians to whom the
Saxon Confession was submitted for approval and
subscription, and in the following year was a mem-
ber of the unsuccessful delegation to the Council of
Trent, which got no further than Nuremberg. In
1553 he published his Hausbuch fur die einf&IHgen
Hausv&ter, which is of interest for a history of
Lutheran confirmation, and in the following year he
was chosen superintendent of Eisleben as the suc-
cessor of the adiaphoristic Georg Major (q.v.). He
now necessarily adopted an attitude of opposition
to the teachings of Melanchthon and completely
accepted the tenets of the Gnesio-Lutherans, being
active at the same time both in visitation and in
writing a number of treatises on church govern-
ment and discipline, the most of which were col-
lected by his son, Wilhelm Sarcerius, in the second
edition of his Pastorale oder Hirtenbuch von Amt,
We8en und Disziplin der Pastoren, published in 1562.
Meanwhile the course of events was leading him
further and further away from Melanchthon, and at
the colloquy of Worms in 1557 be was on the side
of the Weimar theologians. From Worms he hur-
ried to Heidelberg to prevent the threatened schism
in Protestantism, only to take part in the fatal
protestation which broke off the conference. In the
following year he was one of those called to Weimar
to make the final revision of the Weimar Confuta-
tion, but his position in Mansfeld was becoming in-
creasingly difficult and he was exposed to ceaseless
official interference. Nevertheless, in 1559 he
presided over a synod which formulated the inter-
esting Bekendnis der Prediger in der Graffschafft
Mans felt . . . under aller Secten, Rotten und falsche
Leren (Eisleben, 1560), and almost immediately
afterward he accepted a call to Magdeburg as pastor
of the Johanniskirche and senior of the ministerium,
but lived only long enough to deliver four sermons.
(G. Kawerau.)
Bibliography: The funeral .sermon was by J. Wigand,
Magdeburg, 1560, and Pirn lamentation** by Z. Prft tonus,
W. Sarcerius, and P. Spenlin, Eisleben, 1560; two mono-
graphs are A. W. Roselm Oiler, Leben und Wirktn de»
Erasmus Sarcerius, Annaberg, 1888, and Q. Eskuche,
Sarcerius aU Erxieher und Schulmann, Siegen, 1901 (worth -
ful). Compare further H. L. J. Heppe. Dogmatik des
deuischen Protestantismus, i. 49 sqq., Gotha, 1857.
SARDICA, STOOD OF: A synod held in 343-344
at Sardica (the modern Sophia, capital of Bulgaria).
The date given above is not that of the historians
Socrates (Hist. ecel.t ii. 20; NPNF, 2d ser. ii. 46-47)
and Sozomen (Hist, eccl., hi. 11-12; NPNF, 2d
ser., ii. 289-290), who assign the year 347. But the
Historia acephala (discovered in the eighteenth cen-
tury, ed. S. Maffei in Osservazioni litterarie, vol. ill-,
Verona, 1738) showed that Athanasius returned to
Alexandria from his second exile in 346 (see Atha-
nasius I., § 4) and this is corroborated by Jerome
(AfPL. xxix. 682), who places this return in the tenth
year of Constantius. The "Paschal letters*' of
Athanasius prove that the synod was held at least
two years before his return. The synod may have
met late in 343; it was in session in 344, for two
envoys sent by Constans arrived in Antioch at
Easter of that year (Athanasius, "Arian History,"
xx.; NPNF, 2d ser., iv. 276-277, footnote). It was
summoned by Constans and Constantinus (Athana-
sius, " Defence against the Arians," xliv.; NPNF,
2d ser., iv. 123) with the threefold object of re-
moving causes of dissension in the Church, rooting
out false doctrine, and confirming the tradition of
the true faith in Christ.
There is some debate as to the number of bishops
who attended. Two parties were represented,
Eusebians and the orthodox. The former in their
synodal letter (Mansi, Concilia, iii. 132) claim to
be eighty in number, but seventy-six is given by
Socrates and Sozomen (ut sup.) and this seems to
be right. Athanasius in his "Arian History" (xv.;
NPNF, iv. 274) reckons the entire attendance at
170 "more or less," which leaves ninety-four for the
orthodox party. The Eusebians were a compact
party, whose principal animus was against Athana-
sius. When they learned that he was to be present
and was expected to take part, they recognised that
the logic of events would lead him to take the ag-
gressive and to bring charges of unseemly conduct
against them. They therefore demanded on the
basis of the findings of the synods of Tyre and An-
tioch that Athanasius be excluded. The presidency
of the synod, in the absence of the bishop of Rome,
fell to Hosius of Cordova (q.v.) through whom
negotiations were conducted. Hosius warned the
Eusebians that their threat to abstain from partici-
pation might prove dangerous to them, and advised
them to submit their proofs against Athanasius to
him alone if they were unwilling to bring them
before the synod, promising that if they were con-
clusive, Athanasius should be excluded. But this
advice was rejected, and the Eusebians left the city
by night.
The synod proceeded to investigate the charges
of the Eusebians (1) against Athanasius and found
them baseless; (2) against Marcellus of Ancyra
(q.v.), and pronounced him orthodox; (3) against
Asclephas of Gaza (whom the Eusebians at Antioch
had deposed), and proved him innocent, acquitting
of blame also certain minor officials who were in-
volved in the major charges. Certain heads of the
Eusebian party were deposed and excommunicated,
viz., Theodore of Heraclea, Narcissus of Neronias,
Acacius of Csesarea, Ursacius of Singidunum, Valenr,
of Murcia, Menophantes of Ephesus, and George of
Laodicea. The alleged "creed of Sardica11 rests
upon a misunderstanding of a sketch of such a creed
by Hosius which was not adopted by the synod,
but came to be included in the Acta. The twenty
canons were drawn up in Greek and Latin, were
adopted by the second Trullan synod, and are usu-
ally appended to those of the council of Nicsea,
though they are not recognized as ecumenical.
The canons have to do with the rights and duties
of bishops, with the filling of vacant bishoprics,
the rights and duties of lower clergy, and make an
attempt to arrange for union on the date of
Easter.
Sardit
Satisfaction
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
308
Bdlioorapht: Original documents are the canons, with
history of the synod and discussion, in Hefele, ConeUien-
oeeehichte, L 633 sqq., Eng. tranaL, ii 80 sqq., Fr. trmnal.,
L 2, pp. 737 sqq. (especially valuable for the notes) ; the ac-
count of Athanasius in " Defence against the Arians," Eng.
transl., NPNF, 2d ser., iv. 100 sqq.; three letters to the
synod, summarised in Hefele, ut sup., given in Athanasius,
" Defence/' chap, iii., Eng. transl., ut sup., pp. 119 sqq.
The documents appear also in Mansi, Concilia, vol. iiL
(important) and Harduin, Concilia, vol. i. Consult fur-
ther: W. Beveridge, Synodieon, Oxford, 1672; Z. B. van
Espen, Commentariua in canonee et decreta juri§ veterie ac
novi, Cologne, 1755; idem, Jus ecclesiasticum univereum,
iii. 264 sqq., ib. 1777; L. T. von Spittler, Sammtliche
Werke, ed. K. Wachter, viii. 126 sqq., 15 vols., Stuttgart,
1827-37; F. Maassen, Geeehiehte der Quellen und der Litera-
tur dee canoniehen Reehts, i. 50 sqq., Leipsic, 1870; KL, x.
1705-11; Schaff, Christian Church, iii. 310-314.
SARDIS. See Asia Minor, IV.
SAR60N. See Assyria, VI., § 11; Babylonia,
VI., 3, § 1.
SARPI, soVpi, PAOLO (FRA PAOLO) : Venetian
patriot and opponent of the Jesuits; b. at Venice
Aug. 14, 1552; d. there Jan. 14, 1623. He ob-
tained his education in his native city, and in 1566
entered the order of the Servites. After an activity
of two years as teacher in Mantua he became priest,
in 1579 was made provincial of his order in the re-
public of Venice, and subsequently became general
procurator of the order with seat at Rome (1585-
1588) . But for a long time his mind had been grow-
ing increasingly hostile to the Jesuits, and he had
consequently come under suspicion of the Inquisi-
tion. After 1606 his views found expression in the
famous struggle of Venice with Pope Paul V. The
pope in his blindness tried for the last time to
gain supremacy over Venice by using the mightiest
weapon of medievalism, the interdict. The conse-
quence was that the Jesuits were expelled from
the republic, while the remaining clergy were in-
duced to continue the church services. This un-
expected victory of the republic would have been
impossible if public opinion had not been influenced
in its favor by Sarpi, whom his native city had
retained in its defense. Induced by patriotism and
by hatred of the Jesuits, Sarpi published master-
works of polemics. The attempt to assassinate
Sarpi on Oct. 5, 1607, shows that the authorities at
Rome knew to whom their defeat was due. His
principal work is htoria del concilio Tridentino di
Pietro Soave Polano (London, 1619; Eng. transl.,
History of The Council of Trent, 1676). Its hostility
to the popes is extreme; it has been translated into
the principal European languages. Other works of
his which have been translated into English from
his Opere or from separate publications are: A
Treatise of Matters Beneficiary (London, 1680; later
editions with slightly variant titles, 1727, 1730,
1736) ; The History of the Inquisition (1639) ; and The
Rights of Sovereigns and Subjects ( 1 722) . His Opere
were issued in 5 vols., Venice, 1677, better edition,
8 vols., " Helmstadt " (i.e., Verona), 1761 ; and his
Letter e at Verona, 1673; Letter e inedite, 1833, and ed.
S. and A. S. Contarini, Venice, 1892; and Lettere
raccoUe, Florence, 1863. An Eng. transl. of the Let-
ters appeared London, 1693. (P. Tschackebt.)
Bibliography: A. Robertson, Fra Paoli Sarpi, the Great-
eat of the Venetians, London, 1884; F. Micanxio, La Vie
du Pore Paul, Leyden, 1661; A. Bianchi-Giovini, Biografia
di Fra P. Sarpi, 2 vols., Brussels, 1836; J. N. Brischar,
Beurteilung der Kontrovereen Sarpie und Pallavicini, 2
parts, Tubingen, 1844; J. Kraenker, Essai eur la vie et
lee Scrite de Fra P. Sarpi, Strasburg, 1857; Arabella
Georgina Campbell, The Life of Fra Paolo Sarpi, London,
1869; L. Lavi, Fra Paolo Sarpi, Bergamo, 1873; M.
Broach, Qeechichte dee Kirehenetaatee, i. 354 sqq., Gotha,
1880; P. Balan, Fra P. Sarpi, Venice, 1887; A. Pasco-
lato, Fra P. Sarpi, Milan, 1893; G. Rein, Paoli Sarpi und
die Proteetanten, Helaingfors, 1904; A. D. White, Seven
Great Statesmen, New York, 1910; KL, x. 1720-26.
SARTORIUS, sOr-to'rt-us, ERNST WILHELM
CHRISTIAN: German Lutheran; b. at Darmstadt
May 10, 1797; d. at Kftnigsberg June 13, 1859. He
was educated at the University of Gottingen (1815-
1818), where he became lecturer in 1818. Three
years later he was called to Marburg as associate
professor, being promoted to a full professorship in
1823. He had already written Drei Abhandlungen
fiber unchtige Gegenstdnde der exegetischen und sys-
tematischen Theotogie (Gottingen, 1820), which
was quickly followed by his Die lutherische Lehre
vom Unvermdgen des freien WiUens zur hdheren Sitt-
lichkeit (1821), a work strongly emphasizing the
Augustinian concept of grace and criticizing
Schleiermacher's theory of election. During his
Marburg professorship he also wrote his Ueber die
Lehre der Protestanten von der heiligen WUrde der
weltlichen Obrigkeit (Marburg, 1822) and Die Religion
ausserhaJJb der Grenzen der blossen Vemunft nach den
Grunds&tzen des wahren Protestantismus und gegen
die eines falschen Rationalismus (1822). In 1824
Sartorius was called to the University of Dorpat,
where he remained until 1835, vigorously com-
bating rationalism, a tendency which he also
assailed in his Beitrdge zur Verteidigung der evangeU
ischen Rechtgldubigkeit (2 parts, Heidelberg, 1825-
1826). During this period he also delivered a
eulogy on the Augsburg Confession which was later
revised and enlarged as the Beitrdge zur Apologie
der augsburgischen Confession gegen alte und neue
Gegner (Gotha, 1853), and in 1831 he published at
Hamburg his Lehre von Christi Person und Werk
(Eng. transl., Doctrine of the Person and. Work of
Christ, London, 1838, and Boston, 1848), which led
to his call as general superintendent of the province
of Prussia and as first court chaplain of the castle
church at KOnigsberg. In these capacities he strove
earnestly for the defense of true Lutheran princi-
ples and sturdily opposed rationalism and kindred
developments, as in his Ueber die Notwendigkeit und
Verbindlichkeit der kirchlichen Glaubensbekenntnisse
(Stuttgart, 1845). The most noteworthy work of
Sartorius, however, was his Lehre von der heiligen
Liebe, oder GrundzUge der etangelisch-kirchlichen
Moraltheologie (2 parts, Stuttgart, 1840-44; Eng.
transl., Doctrine of Divine Love; or Outlines of the
Moral Theology of the Evangelical Churchy Edin-
burgh, 1884), which was followed by his Ueber den
alir und neutestamentlichen Cultus, insbesondere
Sabbath, Priestertum, Sacrament und Opfer (Stutt-
gart, 1852). The dissensions arising within his
communion in the latter years of his life called forth
his Meditationen fiber die Offenbarung der H err lich-
keit Gottes in seiner Kirche und besonders Hber die
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Gegtnwart ties verkl&rten Leibes und Blutes Chrisli
im heiligen Abendmahl (Stuttgart, 1855), and Mb
polemic attitude toward the Roman Catholic Church,
particularly in regard to justification, found ex-
pression in his last work, the Soli Deo gloria I ver-
gleichendc Wdrdigung cmngelisch-lutiierischer und
1'ftl'rt hlthllliaJxr Lchre nacA dem augsburgischen
-und tridentinischen Bekenntnis (Stuttgart, 1859).
(David E39Humt-]
Bibuooraphi: K. F. A. Knhnia. Lulntriaehe Dogmata.,
2 vols.. L-ipsic. IS01-6S; O. W. Frank, OtukkUt £r
1 |mili<ilMi'»illll Thealagit, ib. 1862-75; A. Miir-k*. D*l
Dogmalik da, 19. JnhrhundrrU. Golhn, 18fl7i I. A. Dor-
ner. Syitrm der chriitlichtn lllaubenalehre. 2 vols., B-rlin.
1879-81, Eng. trans!.. 4 vols.. Edinburgh. 1S10-.W;
M. A. von Lander--. Sm
SARUM USE: The name given to the hturgy in
use in the diocese of Sarum (i.e.. Salisbury) before
the Reformation of the Church of England. It con-
sists of several books, the direct or mediate work of
Suirit U.smund (q.v.), bishop of Salisbury, viz., the
Portiforium or Breviary of Sarum (containing the
Daily Services'), tin1 Sarum Missal (containing the
Communion Service), and possibly the Sarum Man-
ual (containing the Baptismal and "Occasional"
Offices). The Sarum use was adopted in Salisbury
in 1085, and by the middle of the thirteenth century
was the form of liturgy most used in England. The
Portiforium was the basis of the Book of Common
Prayer (see Common Prayeh, Book of, \ 1). Other
"uses" were those of Lincoln, Hereford, Durham
(?), Bangor, and York.
Hibuoohapbt: F. Procter «nd C. Wordsworth, The .Sarum
Breviary, Cambridge, 1882: F. Procter and W. H. Fr-re.
Jfnp Hitt. of At Book of Common Prayer, passim. London.
1905: J. H. FluQt, Annotated Book of Common Ptauer,
pp. 2-3. 301-363, ct puaim, New York, 1908.
SATAH. See Devil.
SATABAEL. See New Manicheans, I.
SATISFACTION A doctrine which seeks to ex-
plain how the justice and the mercy of God are
reconciled. The term "satisfaction" is traced to
Tertullian, although its reference was to the peni-
tence of man rather than the death of Christ. Man
is "released from penalty by the compensating c\-
change of repentance." Origin held
Various that God was rendered propitious by
Theories. Christ's offering of himself. Gregory
the Great taught that Christ assumed
the penalty of sin and so appeased the wrath of Clod.
Not until Anselm (q.v.), however, does the idea of
satisfaction become a dominant principle of roligiou-
thought. According to him (Cur Deus homo) the
honor of God, immeasurably injured, demanded
sati-faction — oil I lit pi mi-li merit of the sinner or an
equivalent. God chose the latter alternative.
Wherefore, the God-man who alone could fulfil the
perfect obligation and who needed not to die for his
sins, could and did die in behalf of men And thus
satisfied God for their debt and merited the salva-
tion which God offers. Thomas Aquinas (1274),
with other Schoolmen in distinction from Anselm,
denied that satisfaction was the line qua nan for the
forgiveness of sins; God might have redeemed men
X.— 14
in some other way than by the death of his Son. yet
he adopted this method as more fitting. On account
of the greatness of Christ's love, the dignity of his
person, and the scope of his passion, the satisfaction
was superabundant (Summit, pars, iii., qu. 40-49).
Duns Scotus (d. 1308) argued that, since the merit
of 1 'lirist belonged to his human nature, it was not
infinite, yet it availed for as much as God was
pleased to accept it ("Commentary on the Sentences
of Peter Lombard," lib. iii., dist. 19-20). According
to the authoritative Roman Catholic doctrine,
Christ merited justification for us by his holy passion
on the tree and made satisfaction to God the Father
for us. This .satisfaction extends, however, only to
those sins committed before baptism and to those
committed afterward which deserve eternal punish-
ment. Christians themselves make satisfaction for
sin as regards temporal punishment by punishments
either inflicted by Christ, or voluntarily undertaken,
or else enjoined by a priest according to their
ability or the quality of their sins, the aim of which
is to reduce the punishment which awaits the soul
in Purgatory (Decrees and Canons of the Council of
Trent, sess. VI., chap, vii., sess. XIV., chap, viii.-ix.;
cf. J. S. Hunter, Outlines of Dogmatic Theology, iii.
334-337). Faustus Socinus (1604) and the Socin-
iuns (Racorian Catechism, 1G05) rejected the idea,
of satisfaction, on the ground of the mutual con*
tradiction involved in satisfaction and remission,
of the incompatibility of puniBlimetrt with debt or
with sufferings of the innocent, of the personal and
non -transferable nature of obedience as well as of
guilt and punishment, and of redemption as not
saiisfai'tion but emancipation. The death of
Christ was only an example, a confirmation of divine
promises, a condition of his entering into glory.
In opposition to this view, Hugo Grotius (1645), in
his "Satisfaction of Christ," declared that God who
was the Bouree of the law could not let its violation
go unpunished. If, however, he rigorously and
exactly enforced punishment upon sinners, he would
destroy mankind from the face of the earth. In
order, therefore, to maintain "rectoral justice,"
he sets forth a penal example in which lie exhibits
his judgment against sin, which, for the preserva-
tion of his government, is of equal value as the pun-
ishment of the sinner and is substituted for this.
By this "singular method of relaxation" God is
enabled to forgive sin. According to Curcelheus
(d. 1859) in InsHluiio religionis Christiana, V., xix.,
and Limborch (1712) in Theologia Christiana, III.,
xxii., Christ's oblation was not a full satisfaction
for sin; he did not suffer all the punishment which
we deserve. Sacrifice does not liberate from debts;
but God graciously estimates Christ's sacrifice as
sufficient, and on this ground remits the punish-
ment due us.
The theory of penal satisfaction has had a long
history. It differs from the view of Anselm in
several particulars. The satisfaction was public
or juridical, rather than offered to a person. The
righteousness involved was the penal righteousness
of God. Instead of the Anselmio alternative — satis-
faction or punishments-satisfaction is by punish-
ment. As far back as Wyclif (d. 1384) it was as-
serted that God's justice demanded that each
Satisfaction
Saturninus
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
810
trespass be punished either on earth or in hell. Cal-
vin (d. 1564) held that Christ satisfied the justice
of God by suffering the punishment of
Penal our sin. Gerhard (d. 1637) affirmed
Satisfaction, that Christ effected the perfect satis-
faction by experiencing the wrath of
God, the curse of the law, and the penalties of hell
(Loci theolici, locus xvii., chap. ii. 54). Tobias Crisp
(d. 1643; Christ Made Sin, London, 1691, new ed., ib.
1832) and John Owen (q.v.; "The Death of Death
in the Death of Christ," in Works, vol. v., Lon-
don, 1826) claimed that Christ satisfied for our sins
by suffering the punishment and death our sin
deserved — "ejusdem." According to Quenstedt
(1688) Christ was substituted for debtors and " in his
satisfaction . . . felt even the very pangs of hell,
although not in hell or eternally " (Theologia didadi-
co-polemica, i. 39). Jonathan Edwards (d. 1758), who
marks the dividing line between the penal and the
New England view of the atonement, declared that
Christ made satisfaction for sin not by reason of any
excellency in his sufferings, but by the fulfilment
of the law in him whereby through his death the
nature, design, and perfection of the law, together
with the authority and truth of the law-giver, were
maintained (Works, vii. 512-516, New York, 1830).
The more recent advocates of the penal satisfac-
tion theory are: T. J. Crawford (The Doctrine of
the Holy Scriptures Respecting the Atonement, Ixmdon,
1871), George Smeaton (Doctrine of the Atonement
as Taught by Christ Himself, Edinburgh, 1868;
and. . . As Taught by the Apostles, Edinburgh, 1870),
Charles Hodge (Systematic Theology, New York,
1871-73), and W. G. T. Shedd (Dogmatic Theology,
New York, 1889). The following characteristic
features of their presentation are to be noted:
(1) a technical meaning is assigned to the terms
employed. Our " sins " and our " Guilt " (q.v.) were
transferred to Christ by "Imputation" (q.v.); on
him was inflicted the " punishment" which belonged
to us. (2) The relative values given to justice and
love: justice is " a principle of God's nature, not only
independent of love but superior to love." (3) The
satisfaction while sufficient for all is efficient for
the elect only. J. McL. Campbell (d. 1872), taking
a hint from Jonathan Edwards (Works, vii. 505),
that satisfaction may be made for sin either by an
adequate punishment or by an "answerable repent-
ance," declared that Christ, the "great Penitent in
humanity," made a perfect confession for human
sin; hence that is accorded to divine justice which
is its due and could alone satisfy it (Nature of the
Atonement, pp. 117-118, London, 1873). The New
England theory of the atonement (see Atonement;
New England Theology) held that the sufferings
of Christ satisfied the general or public, but not
distributive or individualizing, justice of God
(E. A. Park, The Atonement, Introductory Essay,
Andover, 1859).
Satisfaction has, however, been differently con-
ceived. The point of view is love instead of justice.
This presents love as the central principle of God,
by which he both affirms his own perfection and
blessedness and wills that all his creatures and
especially man shall share his love in the measure
of their capacity — a purpose which is perfectly
disclosed in his revelation of grace in Christ. Here
love is absolute and justice relative; or love and
justice are regarded as complementary
Satisfaction aspects of the same gracious will,
from the Abelard (1142) maintained that Christ
View-point satisfied the divine benevolence by
of Love, overcoming the rebellion and the guilty
fear of sinners by his immeasurable
love. Schleiermacher (d. 1834) conceives of Christ
as our "satisfaction-making substitute" (Der
Chrisliche Glaube, ii. 103 sqq., 128-129, Berlin, 1831-
1832). According to Albrecht Ritschl (1889), since
God's righteousness is essentially identical with his
grace, satisfaction can only signify the fulfilment of
his eternal purpose of love (Rechtfertigung und Ver-
sdhnung, p. 474, Bonn, 1888-89; Eng. transl.,
Edinburgh, 1900). Samuel Harris (d. 1899) presents
the satisfaction of God as the normal consummation
of all his revealed action rendering service in con-
formity with the law of love (God, the Creator and
Lord of All, p. 375, New York, 1896). William
Newton Clarke (q.v.) affirms that God is eternally
satisfied with the suffering of love in behalf of sin-
ners (Outline of Christian Theology, p. 348, ib., 1898).
According to John Scott Lidgett, satisfaction is de-
fined in terms of fatherhood; the fatherly is satis-
fied in perfecting the filial (The Spiritual Principle of
the Atonement, p. 301, London, 1898).
In all the above-mentioned theories the interpre-
tation of the ethical nature of God and that of satis-
faction go hand in hand. The following statement
contains, therefore, the truth which they endeavor
to present: " the satisfaction of God's ethical nature
is realised in three respects: (1) so far as there has
been made in Christ an adequate expression of the
divine character and of the divine love in relation
to sin, as well as a disclosure of the nature of sin
and of God's hostility to it; (2) not when the Father
can see in another than the sinner the suffering and
death which belong to sin, but when he can forgive
and restore the child to his loving fellowship; (3)
God will be perfectly satisfied when the divine pur-
pose of grace manifested through the death of Christ
shall have found in all souls a perfect Amen " (Isa.
liii. 11; cf. II Cor. i. 20; C. A. Beckwith, Realities
of Christian Theology, pp. 228-229, Boston, 1906).
See Atonement, § 10. C. A. Beckwtth.
Bibliography: For the development of the doctrine read-
era are referred to the works named in and under Doc-
trine, History or — e.g., Harnack, Dogma, vi. 54-78,
190 sqq., 257 sqq. et passim. As a theme in systematic
theology the subject is discussed in the works named in
and under Dogma, Dogmatics, e.g., W. G. T. Shedd,
Dogmatic Theology, ii. 433-434. New York, 1889. The
literature under Atonement, with that already noted,
gives practically all that is necessary. Special mention
may be made of: F. C. Baur, Die chrisUiche Lehrt von der
Veraohnung, Tubingen, 1838; G. B. Stevens. The Chris-
tian Doctrine of Sacrifice, New York, 1905; K. Staab, Dim
Lehrt von der steUvertretenden Genugtuung ChrUti, Pader-
born, 1908.
SATOLLI, sa-to'li, FRANCESCO DI PAOLO:
Cardinal; b. at Marsciano (14 m. s.w. of
Perugia), Umbria, Italy, July 21, 1839; d. in
Rome Jan. 8, 1910. He was educated at the
seminary of Perugia, the Roman Seminary, and
the College of the Propaganda; after which he was
professor, and later rector, of the Greek College.
Rome, and 'later still president of the Accademia
211
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Satisfaction
Saturninus
dei nobili eoclesiastici. Appointed domestic prelate
to the pope and consecrated titular archbishop of
Lepanto, Satolli was sent to the United States in
1890 as the papal representative at the dedication
of the Catholic University of America, Washington,
D. C, and in 1892 again visited America, where he
was appointed papal delegate of the Propaganda at
Washington. In 1895 he was created cardinal priest
of Santa Maria in Araceli and shortly afterward re-
turned to Rome, and was created cardinal bishop of
Frascati, archpriest of the Basilica of San Giovanni
in Laterano, prefect of the Congregation of Studies,
and president of the Theological Academy.
SATORNILOS. See Saturninus.
SATTERLEE, HENRY YATES: Protestant Epis-
copal bishop of Washington; b. in New York
City Jan. 11, 144; d. at Washington, D. C, Feb.
22, 1908. He was graduated from Columbia
College (A.B., 1863) and the General Theological
Seminary (1866) ; was ordered deacon in 1865 and
advanced to the priesthood in 1867. He was as-
sistant minister of Zion Church, Wappinger's Fall,
N. Y. (1865-74), and rector (1874-82); rector of
Calvary Church, New York City (1882-96); and
was consecrated bishop of Washington, D. C. (1896).
Among his writings special mention may be made of
A Creedless Gospel and a Gospel Creed (New York,
1894) and The Calling of a Christian (1902).
SATTLER, MICHAEL: Leader of the South
German Anabaptists; b. at Staufen (10 m. s.s.w. of
Freiburg-im-Brcisgau) about 1500; executed at
Rottenburg (23 m. s.w. of Stuttgart) May 20 or 21,
1527. He apparently studied at Freiburg, and then
entered the monastery of St. Peter in the vicinity
of the same city. Here diligent reading of the
Pauline epistles led him to conclude that true
righteousness was to be attained in ways far different
from those taught by the Roman Catholic Church
and by monasticism, and, leaving the monastery in
1523, he went to Zurich, where he joined the Ana-
baptists and became a zealous proselytizer in 1525.
He was banished on Nov. 18 and retired to his native
town, only to be expelled by the Austrian govern-
ment, whereupon he was kindly received by Capito
at Strasburg. In 1526 he went with Wilhelm Reub-
lin (q.v.) to the lattcr's home in the district of
Hohenberg, south of Tubingen, and developed great
activity in the vicinity of Horb. At Schlatt-on-the-
Randen he participated, on Feb. 24, 1527, in a great
meeting at which he formulated in seven articles the
doctrines and the constitution of the South Ger-
man Anabaptists, who were to form a holy com-
munity without association with other sects, and
who were also to refrain from taking oaths, holding
office, or engaging in military service, the entire
scheme being one of high ideals but thoroughly im-
practicable. Returning to Horb, Sattler and his wife
were arrested and imprisoned at Binsdorf, whence
they were taken to Rottenburg and there executed,
Sattler at the stake and his wife by drowning. His
death created a wide-spread sensation and evoked
the sympathy of both Capito and Butzer, as well as
of some less well-known Protestants. The pam-
phlet Wie die Gschrift verstendiglich soil unterschieden
und erkldrt werden (n.p., n.d.) has been attributed
to him, as has the hymn Als Chris tus mil seiner
wahren Lehr, but the latter is certainly not his work.
G. Bosskrt.
Bibliography: Sources are: J. Beck, in Fontee rerum Au*~
triaearum, vol. xliii., the series published at Vienna, 1840
sqq.; the Werke of Zwingli, iii. 357 sqq.; E. Egli, Akten-
eammlung zur Geachichte der ZQreher Reformation, Zurich,
1879; and Ein Sendbrief Michael Sattlere an cine Gemeinde
Gottee, ed. W. Koiler, Halle, 1905. Consult: G. Bossert,
in Blatter fur vmrttemburgieche Kirchengeechichte, 1891,
passim, and 1892. pp. 1-4, 9-10; idem, in Christliche Well,
1891, pp. 22 sqq.; A. H. Newman, Hi*, of Anti-Pedo-
baptism, pp. 137. 243 sqq., Philadelphia, 1897; C. Ger-
bert, Geechiehte der Strauburger Sectenbewegung zur Zeit
der Reformation, Strasburg, 1889; idem, in W. Kohlham-
mer, Beechreibung dee Oberamts Rottenburg, i. 409 sqq.,
Stuttgart, 1900; R. Wolkan, Der Lieder der Wiedertaufer,
Berlin, 1903; Flugechriften aue den ersten Jahren der Re-
formation, vol. ii., part 3, Leipsic, 1908.
SATURDAY, HOLY. See Holy Week, § 8.
SATURN. See Remphan; and Stabs, II.
SATURNINUS, sa-tur'ni-nus (SATORNILOS) :
The head of a Gnostic school of the second century.
Little is known of his sect, but the infrequency of
polemic against it and the fact that it is scarcely
more than an item in the catalogue of heresies imply
that it was of secondary importance. Saturninus
distinguished a supreme God, or "one unknown
Father," and his creations, the lower "angels, arch-
angels, powers, and potentates," chief among whom
were the seven demiurges, including the God of the
Jews, who sometimes appeared as hostile to the
Father and sometimes midway between him and
their adversary, Satan, but whose part in the cosmic
process is unclear. The sole innovation known in the
system of Saturninus is* his concept of the creation
of man. For an instant the demiurges perceived an
image of the Father from the upper world of light.
This awakened their longing for the higher spheres,
and they sought to preserve their memory of the
vision by creating man, but though he was formed
in the image of the Father, he could only crawl on
the earth like a worm until the Father, taking pity
on him, gave him a scintillation of life. At death
this scintillation returns to its home, while the earth-
ly components of man are resolved into their original
elements.
The account of Irenseus is too meager to permit of
a clear knowledge of Saturninus' soteriology. It is
evident, however, that he taught that the demiurges
created two sorts of men, good and bad. The latter
were aided by the demons, whereupon the Savior
(whose merely apparent humanity is stressed) came
to render them and the demons harmless and to save
the good, those who, possessing the scintilla-
tion of life, believed on him. The sect is also de-
scribed as ascetic; marriage and generation were
traced to Satan; and some of the school were vege-
tarians. Prophecy (i.e., the Old Testament) was
regarded as given partly by Satan and partly by
the demiurges, although this statement does not
exclude the possibility that Saturninus also found
divine elements in it.
The data concerning Saturninus are too scanty
to trace either his sources or his influence: only a
fuller knowledge of the nature of his dualism would
A
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
pL'rrait oven an approximate conclusion as to
whether it was derived from Zoroastrianism or from
Platoniam or from some syncretism in which both
elements had already been blended.
R. LlECBTENHAN.
Bibliogr»i-ut: The eourcea an: Inmsug, Bar.. I., ixiv.
1-2. Ens. tnnal. in A.\'F. i. 318-340; TertiiUiM. Ot
anima. xitu'.. in ANF. iii. 203: Hippolytus, Hat.. VII.,
ivi.. in ANF, v. 109-110; Euaebiua. Hi*, nri., IV., *&
3-4. in SPSf, i. 178; Epiphaniua. Bar., xiiii. Con-
lult further: DCB. iv. £87-588; and the literature under
SATURNINDS, SAIHT: Missionary and martyr
of the third century. He was a native of Italy
and was sent as a missionary to Gaul by Pope
Fabian (c. 245). He settled at Toulouse and there
labored with considerable success, liecoming first
bishop of the town. Later hi- pre;n'!;ina infuriated
the mob, and he was martyred by being bound to
a bull which was maddened by goads. He became
the patron saint of Toulouse, and is commemorated
on Nov. 29.
SADER, sau'er, JOSEPH: German Roman Catho-
lic; b. at Unzhurst (a village near Bilh], 25 m. b.b.w.
of Carlsruhe), Baden, June 7, 1872. He was edu-
cated at University of Freiburg (1891-94, 1896-97;
CD., 1900), and, after being a parish priest and
teacher at Sasbach, Baden, in 1898-90, studied in
France and Italy in 1900-02, devoting himself es-
pecially io Christian archeology. In 1902 he be-
came privat-docent for church history and archeol-
ogy in the theological faculty of the University of
Freiburg, where he was promoted to his present
position of associate professor of the same subjects
in 1905. In addition to editing the Lilerarische
Rundschaitfiir dun kstllmttfrhr Drutschland since 1905
Qnd preparing and editing the second part of the
second volume of 1". X. Kraus' GeseJiirhte der chrisl-
lirliiii Kiut.it (Freiburg, 1907), he has written
Xwiiluit )'t '/'■■ Kiri-l-fitq-litiiitlm mid miner Ausatat-
tung in drr A ujjasfunij iffj Mittdallen (1902).
SAUL, ssl: First king of Israel. His dates,
according to the old chronology, are 1000 1080;
later chronograph ers brine down the end of his reign
to 1017, and gi\<> nnii'h Irs* than the forty years as-
erihi'd to him (Ads xiii. 21). His dates are in con-
fusion; in his third year his son Jonathan was old
enmicb to have command of a body of men ([ Sam.
xiii. 1'}; Josi'phus (Ant., X., viii. 4) gives the length
of his reign as twenty years; modern seh<'li:ship
reduces even this to ten or nine years.
Saul was the son of Kisli, a Ilnijurnimte of Gibeah.
The sources describe, him as of unusual height and
of prepi:-M'>.-in^ :ipp<.-a ranee, while in the lir.-t years
of his reign be distinguished himself by his modest
bearing, ability, and coarage. In obedience to a
divine revelation Samuel secretly anointed him
king, and had this ratified at a later assembly of the
people at Minpah, where the use of the lot resulted
in the choice of Saul. The latter continued for a
time his residence in Gibeah, accompanied by a
small volunteer guard. When the Ammonites as-
sjiih'd Jabeah-jjilead, lie summoned all Israel to the
defense and utterly defeated the assailants. The
kingdom was thus securely eBtabliabed, and Samuel
retired (see Samuel).
Nearly the whole of Saul's reign was filled with
wars, particularly against the Philistines who had
attained such supremacy that the Israelites were
not permitted to bear arms. Saul assembled an
army of 3,000 men, 2,000 of whom he took with him
to Hichmash, and 1,000 he sent under Jonathan to
Gibeah. Jonathan began the war by assaulting the
garrison of the Philistines at Gibeah. When the
Israelite army was assembled at Gilgal awaiting
the appearance of Samuel, who was to offer the
sacrifice, Samuel did not appear at the time he had
set anil Saul became impatient and himself niTered
the sacrifice. For this he was Htemly rebuked by
the prophet and the end of his reign foretold. Saul
on this occasion for the first time showed his self'
willed character, which was incompatible with the
position which the anointed of the Lord was to
take in Israel. There are some difficulties in the
text, no directions appearing to have issued from
Samuel before I Sam. xiii. 8 to the effect that Saul
was to await him (cf. I Sam. x. 8). The most likely
solution is that the latter passage has been trans-
posed in editing and properly belongs immediately
before xiii. 7. The war was continued by a bold feat
of arms on the part of Jonathan, which came near
costing him his life because of an imprudent oath of
Saul's. Another act of disobedience to the voice
of God was committed by Saul in the war with the
Amalekites. This war was to bt a holy war of
vengeance for old acts of aggression and for new
insults. Saul was victorious and took Agag prisoner,
whereby Num. xxiv. 7, 20 was fulfilled; but he
failed to carry out the command of extermination.
Samuel met him again at Gilgal and foretold the
loss of his kingdom (xv. 22-23).
After this second conflict Saul's degeneration was
rapid. Samuel secretly anointed David king, and
a melancholy fell upon Saul which could be dis-
pelled only by David's playing. Driven by jealousy,
Saul sought to destroy David. He refused to fulfil
his promise to give him his daughter Mirab in
marriage but gave him her sister Michal. David
then bad a narrow escape with the help of Michal
from the emissaries of Saul, and Saul pursued the
fugitive as far as Ramah, the borne of Samuel.
There, the spirit of the prophetic school that had
settled in the place seised upon him as it had once
before his accession to the throne. But the bitter-
ness of Saul's spirit is shown by his slaughtering the
eighty-five innocent priests of Nob. During his
subsequent pursuit of David ho was forced in shame
to endure the latter's magnanimity, but his re-
pentance was only transient.
Saul's end was sad. Abandoned by all good
spirits, he sought out the witch of Endor to learn
from the lips of the departed Samuel what his fate
was to be. Hostilities had again broken out with
the Philistines, and Saul learned that he and his
sons were to periBh the next day on the battle-field.
The prophecy was fulfilled. Saul's sons were slain
and he fell on his own sword. David recovered his
body and buried it in the family tomb.
The personality of Saul rests on the firm basis of
218
REUGI0U8 ENCYCLOPEDIA
Saturninua
Savage
history. The narrative is supported by contempo-
rary songs like those given or suggested in I Sam.
xviii. 7 ; II Sam. i. 17 sqq., and it is a misapprehension
of its realistic character to assert ( Winckler) that the
name Saul is not the name of a man but of a moon-
god. Cheyne's fantastic assertion (EB., iv. 4305)
that Saul was a Jerahmeelite is just as unfounded.
Saul's reign began promisingly and remained power-
ful to the end. He secured Hebrew independence
and fought victoriously against Philistines, Amalek-
ites, Moabites, Ammonites, Edomites, and Aram
Zoba. He also did good service in rooting out
heathen practises (I Sam. xxviii. 3). His downfall
was due to the loss of that humility with which
he began his reign and to his growing self-will.
His degeneration can be traced step by step, al-
though he was not wanting in greatness of soul
even to the end. (C. vonOrelu.)
Bibliography: The commentaries and other works on
I Samuel; the literature under David; and the works on
that period of Hebrew history cited under Ahab; Isbjucl,
History or; and Samukl. Consult further: J. A. Miller,
Saul the First King of I trad, London, 1866; W. J. Deane,
Samuel and Saul, ib. 1888; T. K. Cheyne, Aide to the De-
vout Study of Criticism, pp. 1-126, ib. 1892; F. Schwally,
Semitische KriegsaUertumer, Leipsic, 1901; H. P. Smith,
Old Testament History, chap, vii.. New York, 1903; O.
Beer, Saul, David, Solomon, Tubingen, 1906; 8. A. Cook,
Critical Notes on O. T. Hietory; the Traditions of Saul and
David, London, 1907; DB, iv. 412-415; SB, iv. 4302-14
(elaborate); JE, ». 74-78; Vigouroux, Dictionnaire,
fasc. xzzv. 1500-07.
SATJM, KONRAD. See Sam.
SAUMTJR, so'mur: A town of France (155 m.
8.w. of Paris) on the IiOire, famous as the seat of the
Protestant academy founded in 1508 by the national
synod of Montpellier, and suppressed by royal edict
Jan. 8, 1685. The academy, which developed the
first fertile school of criticism in modern theology,
owed to a certain extent both its existence and its
scientific character to Philippe Duplessis-Mornay,
the governor of the place, who watched the young
institution with great tenderness (see Du Plebsis-
Mornay, Philippe, § 5). The Scotchman John
Cameron (q.v.) became one of its first professors, and
brought with him that spirit of free and independent
research which afterward characterized the acade-
my. Three of his disciples became professors there
nearly at the same time, Molse Amyraut (q.v.), Josue"
de la Place (see Placeus), and Louis Cappel (see
Cappel, 3). The theological significance of the
school is in large part due to the theory of hypo-
thetical universalism connected with the name of
Amyraut, and the Biblical researches of Cappel.
Bibliography: A. Schweiser, Die proteetantieche Central-
dogmen in ihrer Entwicklung innerhoJb der refbrmirten
Kirche, ii. 430-563, Zurich, 1850; Schaff, Creeds, L 478
sqq.; Licbtenberger, ESR, xi. 467-472.
SAUR, CHRISTOPH. See Sower.
SAURIN, so-ran', JACQUES: The greatest pulpit
orator of French Protestantism; b. at Ntmee Jan. 6,
1677; d. at The Hague Dec. 30, 1730. He was edu-
cated at Geneva, to which he had been taken as a
child on the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, and
in 1701 was ordained to the ministry. He immedi-
ately went to England, and for four years was pastor
of the Walloon congregation in London, until a
position was especially created for him at The
Hague in 1705, which he filled until his death.
Through all these years his fame as a preacher
steadily increased, and multitudes listened to his
sermons, attracted not only by the diction, logic, and
delivery of his addresses, but even more by the deep
religious conviction and adherence to the Gospel
which pervaded him. Apart from his sermons, his
two chief works were his Discours historiques, cri-
tiques, th&dogiques et moraux sur les 6v6nements les
plus mimorables du Vieux et du Nouveau Testament
(4 vols., with 7 vols, of continuations by P. Roques
and C. S. de Beausobre, Amsterdam, 1720-39;
Eng. transl. of vol. i., on the Pentateuch, by I.
Chamberlayne, London, 1723) and L'£tat du Chris-
tianisme en France (part L, The Hague, 1725-27).
By far his most important productions, however,
were his sermons, of which he himself published
five volumes, and his son, Philippe Saurin, seven
(best ed., The Hague, 1749; Eng. transl. by R.
Robinson, H. Hunter, and J. Sutcliffe, 7 vols.,
Blackburn and London, 1800-06, and by S. Burder,
6 vols., London, 1824). These addresses, many
of which have also been published individually
and in selections, both in the original and in trans-
lation, range over the most diverse themes, from
dogmatic theology to Christian social life. The
underlying spirit in them all is essentially that of
the French Reformed type of Biblical Christianity,
though with a strongly ethical and practical, even a
subjective and mystical, strain, while the apologetic
element is also often present. The sermons are of
great length, many of them doubtless requiring two
hours to deliver; yet they are so compact that even
their minutest subdivisions would frequently
furnish material for a large number of sermons of
ordinary preachers. On the other hand, both style
and diction are often careless and hasty, and his
sermons share the common fault of the time in the
display of learning which burdens them, especially
in the opening portions. In the exposi tion, however,
and still more in the peroration, Saurin's genius
reaches its climax, but in form and taste he is in-
ferior to Bossuet, in delicacy and depth he falls be-
low Bourdaloue, and in pathos he can not compare
with Massillon. His worst fault, however, was lack
of sympathy, despite his loftiness, his intellectuality,
and his earnestness, and it was due to this deficiency
that he never became popular and that he is now
little read. (C. Pfendeb.)
Bibliography: Biographies are by: J. J. van Oostenee,
Brussels, 1856; J. P. Gaberel and Dee Houra-Farel.
Geneva, 1864. Consult further: C. A. Coquerel, Hiet.
dee Solise* du desert, i. 241 sqq., Paris, 1841 ; P. A. Sayous,
Hiet. de la litUrature francaiee, ii. 106 sqq., Paris, 1853;
C. Weiss, Hid. dee rifugies proteetantee de France, ii. 63
sqq., Paris, 1853; A. R. Vinet, Hiet. de la predication
parmi lee rSformee de France au 17. siecle, pp. 597-714,
Paris, 1860; E. A. Berthault, Saurin et la prSdication
proteetante, Paris, 1875; E. Lambert, Eeeai homUttique
sur la prSdication de Saurin, Montauban, 1892; Lichten-
berger, ESR, xi. 472-475.
SAUSSAYR, PIERRE DANIEL CHANTEPIE DE
LA. See Chantepie de la Saussate.
SAVAGE, HTNOT JUDSON: Unitarian; b. at
Norridgewock, Me., June 10, 1841; graduated at
Bangor Theological Seminary, 1864; became Ocm-
Savonarola
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
214
gregational home missionary in California, 1864; was
pastor at Framingham, Mass., 1867-69; at Han-
nibal, Mo., 1869-73; Unitarian pastor in Chicago,
1873-74; of the Church of the Unity, Boston, 1874-
1896; and of the Church of the Messiah, New York,
1896-1906, when he retired from the ministry on
account of the failure of his health. He is the author
of Christianity the Science of Manhood (Boston,
1873); The Religion of Evolution (1876); Light
on the Cloud (1876); Bluffton, a Story of To-Day
(1878); Life Questions (1879); The Morals of Evolu-
tion (1880); Talks about Jesus (1880); Minister's
Handbook (1880); Belief in God (1881); Beliefs
about Man (1882); Poems (1882 and 1905); Beliefs
about the Bible (1883); The Modern Sphinx (1883);
Sacred Songs for Public Worship, edited with H. M.
Dow (1883); A/an, Woman, and Child (1884); The
Religious Life (1886); Social Problems (1886); My
Creed (1887); Life (1890); Four Great Questions
Concerning God (1891); The Irrepressible Conflict
between Two World Theories (1891); The Evolution
of Christianity (1892); Jesus and Modern Life
(1893); Life beyond Death (New York, 1901); and
Life's Dark Problems (1905).
SAVONAROLA, sa-v6"no-r6'la, GIROLAMO
(HIERONYMUS).
Life till 1491 ({ 1).
His Preaching (§ 2).
His Prophecies (J 3).
As a Reformer of the Church (§ 4).
Lorenzo de Medici; Charles VII. (§ 5).
The Florentine Theocracy (§ 6).
Relations with Alexander VI. (§ 7).
Turn of Sentiment against Savonarola (§ 8).
The End (§ 9).
His Character and Work (§ 10).
Girolamo (or Hieronymus) Savonarola, Italian
Roman Catholic, origniator and victim of an eccle-
siastical-political reform, was born at Ferrara Sept.
21, 1452; d. at Florence May 23, 1498. He has
been variously represented as an inspired prophet,
as a precursor of the Reformation, and as an ambi-
tious demagogue and deluded fanatic. His right
place is among the fearless preachers of
z. Life till righteousness and moral reform at the
1491. side of Nathan, Elijah, John the Bap-
tist, and John Knox. Destined by his
parents for the study of medicine, he was led to seek
a religious life in the seclusion of the convent through
a deepening sense of the corruption of society and the
refusal of a family of the Strozzi living in Ferrara
to give him their daughter in marriage. In 1475 he
secretly left the parental home and betook himself
to Bologna, where he entered the Dominican con-
vent. His subsequent letters to his parents were
full of filial affection and begged forgiveness for the
suddenness of his flight and his failure to make
known his intention. To the usual routine of con-
ventual life, he added the study of Augustine and
the great Dominican, Thomas Aquinas, and also
of the Bible, with which he became thoroughly
conversant. In 1481 he was sent to Ferrara, where
he discovered that a prophet may not expect honor
in his own country. The same year he went to
Florence and became an inmate of the convent of
St. Mark's. His preaching attracted no attention
in Florence, and his audiences during Lenten season
in San Lorenzo were reduced to twenty-five persons.
Suddenly in 1486, while preaching in Brescia, his
eloquence broke forth in all its wealth. In 1489 he
returned to the convent in Florence, Lorenzo de
Medici, at the representation of Pico della Mirandola,
urging his return. In 1491 he became prior of St.
Mark's.
During the next nine years Florence was filled
with Savonarola's personality, and he became the
most conspicuous religious figure in Italy. During
the first part of this period, he had conflicts with
Lorenzo de Medici, the political despot
2. His of the city, and during the second part
Preaching, with Alexander VI., all the while
seeking by his exhortations and start-
ling prophecies to bring about the civic and moral
regeneration of the city. He preached first in St.
Mark's and then in the cathedral, immense audiences
pressing to hear him expound the Hebrew prophets
and the Book of Revelation. At the time of his
greatest popularity throngs waited hours for his
appearance and his biographer Villari estimates
his audiences at from 10,000 to 12,000. "Your
sins make me a prophet," he cried out, and from
the depths of that stirring, brilliant half-pagan life
which the Medicis had fostered in Florence he con-
jured up a stinging sense of its emptiness and desola-
tion. His message was addressed to the clergy as
well as to the people, and the flashes of his indigna-
tion often fell upon the palace of Lorenzo. In the
last sermon he preached during Advent season,
1492, he portrayed a vision he had had the night
before of a sword held by a hand in the heavens and
bearing the inscription "Behold the sword of the
Lord will descend quickly and suddenly upon the
earth." He heard many voices proclaiming mercy
for the good and judgment for the wicked. Then
suddenly the sword was turned toward the earth, the
sky was darkened, and swords, arrows, and flames
rained down. The preacher was commanded to
preach these things. This was one of those visions
the description of which from the pulpit of the ca-
thedral impressed and terrified the great audiences.
The severity of his warnings upon the pleasure-
loving city was at times so fearful that Savonarola
himself shrank back from delivering them.
To his gifts of vivid description, pure language,
and fervor of heart he added as a chief element of
his power unshaken confidence in his divinely ap-
pointed mission. He felt that he received communi-
cations directly from God, and he
3. His stood forth as a divinely commissioned
Prophecies, prophet. His prophecies of future
events were the amazement of Flor-
ence, though not all joined in accepting the preacher
as an inspired seer. He, however, applied to these
prophecies the words of Scripture that not one jot
or tittle of them should fail till they were fulfilled.
These prophecies were usually given to him in
visions or transports of the soul. His views on
prophecy in general and on his own prophetic en-
dowment found utterance from the pulpit and also
in two works, Compendium revelationum (1495) and
Dialogus de veritate et prophetica ( 1497) . Savonarola's
most famous prophecy was of the coming of a new
Cyrus from across the Alps who should bring about
915
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Savonarola
the political emancipation of Florence and Italy.
Most of the prophecies were in general terms and
predicted times of dire chastisement for Florence,
followed by a time of righteousness and extension of
the Church. One of the proofs Savonarola gave for
his prophetic gift was the fulfilment of his predic-
tions. On this very point, however, there is doubt.
In certain cases, his prophecies were certainly not
fulfilled, such as his prediction of the speedy con-
version of the Jews and Moors. As to whether other
so-called prophecies were real is open to question.
The Cyrus from the West came into Italy, Charles
VIII. of France, but it is a question whether Savo-
narola's prediction was anything more than the fore-
cast of an observer carefully watching the progress
of political movements in Italy and alert to detect
the signs of impending events. Certain it is that,
while Charles' advent was followed by the expulsion
of the Medicis from Florence, his Italian campaign
ended in failure and the independence of Florence
lasted but a short period. Another consideration
that casts suspicion upon the prophetic nature of his
predictions is that many of them concerned political
events such as belong to the selfish policy of nations,
as when he predicted that Florence would again
secure sovereignty over Pisa. A large party in
Florence held Savonarola to be a prophet. Men like
Landucci, the apothecary, fully accepted his pro-
phetic endowment. Some of the distinguished men
of the age, like the Frenchman Commines, either
accepted it or acknowledged their inability to ac-
count for the forecast. The judgment of most of
Savonarola's recent biographers, such as Villari and
Lucas, and of historians, such as Pastor and Creigh-
ton, Roman Catholic and Protestant, is that Savo-
narola was self-deceived. But while his prophetic
claims were a delusion, he had none of the spirit of
the impostor. What men moving amidst the com-
mon realities of life called dreams of fancy, Savo-
narola, longing with all the intensity of his being for
the reformation of Florence, took for real visions of
the soul. Much as he impressed his own age with
the reality of his prophetic endowment, to modern
times his glory consists in his being a preacher of
righteousness in an age of deep dissoluteness and
religious effrontery.
As a reformer, his vision ended with the moral
reform of the city and of Italy and its adoption of
righteousness in private conduct and
4. As a in civil management. A radical doc-
Reformer trinal reform such as was achieved by
of the Luther and Calvin was not in Savo-
Church. narola's program. In all essential
points of doctrine he agreed with the
medieval Church. He did not call in question a
single one of its dogmas (cf. Pastor, Popes, vi.
51). His only departure from the ecclesiastical
belief of his time was his denial of the pope's
infallibility and his appeal to a council as the final
court of arbitrament in Christendom.
The internal history of Italian affairs in 1492 was
marked by the death of Lorenzo the Magnificent
(the most accomplished diplomat of his time) and
the elevation of Alexander VI. to the pontifical
throne. When Lorenzo knew that he was dying,
he sent for Savonarola. The monk had kept at a
distance from the prince, and Lorenzo had said with
reference to him, "a stranger has come into my
house, yet he will not stop to pay me a
5. Lorenzo visit." Rich gifts sent to the con vent of
de Medici; St. Mark's failed to win its prior. Now,
Charles VH. facing the issues of eternity, Lorenzo
sent for Savonarola as " the only hon-
est friar ' ' he knew. He wanted to make confession of
three crimes. The spiritual adviser instead proposed
three terms of shrift. The first was a confident trust
in God's mercy. To this the dying man assented.
The second was the restoration of his ill-gotten
wealth. To this also assent was given. The third
required that he give back to Florence her liberties.
To this Lorenzo gave no response and turned his face
to the wall. The priest passed out without giving
absolution. The account as thus given is based
upon the earliest lives of Savonarola, by Burla-
macchi and Mirandola. A different account was
given by Politian in a letter to Jacopo Antiquario.
Politian makes no mention of the third condition
and reports that Savonarola left the dying man
after giving his blessing. This version is accepted by
Roscoe, Creighton (Popes, iv. 172 sqq.), and Lucas
(pp. 83-84) . The version adopted here is accepted
by Villari (i. 168-169), Hase (p. 20), Clark (p. 116);
Pastor (Popes, v. 92) seems to proceed upon the
theory of its truth. Ranke wavers, but declared he
did not see his way clear to deny it. During the
three years 1494-97, Savonarola's ascendency was
at its height. According to Guicciardini, his in-
fluence was most extraordinary. During this period
Charles VII. came into Italy, Lorenzo's son Piero
and the Medicis were banished from Florence and a
theocratic government was established in the city.
Fra Girolamo thundered from the pulpit against the
rule of the Medicis and pleaded for their expulsion.
When Charles was encamped near Florence, Savona-
rola, by the appointment of the Florentine seignory,
met him and made a deep impression upon the
monarch. The French army, through the monk's
appeals to the king and his threats, restrained them-
selves from their usual violence in Florence, and
Charles left the city, and pursued "his onward
journey without delay." On the king's return from
Naples to upper Italy, Savonarola again commu-
nicated with him in five letters, bidding the sover-
eign grant her liberties to Florence, a city of which
he said " God had chosen her and had determined to
magnify her so that who dared to touch her, touched
the apple of His eye." No city ever had a more
ardent lover than Florence had in Savonarola.
The expulsion of the Medicis involved a reorgan-
ization of the state, and in this work Savonarola had
a part of prime importance. He was called upon as
the chief citizen of Florence by the seigniory to pro-
pose a new constitution. Reluctantly
6. The he set himself to the task and took
Florentine the government of Venice as his model.
Theocracy. The supreme official, the doge, was
left out, that place being given to
Jesus Christ. "The government of the one in
Florence," so he cried out in the pulpit, "could re-
sult only in despotism." "God alone shall be thy
king, O Florence, as He was king of Israel under the
old covenant." Savonarola's government was a
Savonarola
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
916
theocracy; "its new head shall be Jesus Christ"
was the ringing cry with which he closed his ser-
mons on Haggai. Depicting this time of crisis,
Guicciardini called the prior of St. Mark's the savior
of his country (cf. Villari, i. 268, 298). The whole
social fabric of Florentine society seemed for the
moment to have undergone a change, and a millen-
nial reign of order and good-will seemed to be im-
pending. Love to Christ seemed to have become
the predominant impulse. Deadly foes fell upon
each other's necks; property illegitimately acquired
was returned; the churches overflowed; the con-
vents were filled up; profane amusements ceased.
Indeed, says a contemporary writer, "the people
of Florence seem to have become fools for Christ's
sake."
But while Savonarola's influence over the people
maintained itself for several years, the ideal ele-
ments of his government exposed him easily to at-
tack. In the latter part of the fifteenth century its
provisions seemed to be most impracticable. Be-
sides, the Medicis were pressing to re-
7. Relations turn to Florence as their rightful herit-
with age, and their party and other enemies
Alexander found abundant opportunity in Savo-
VL narola's unworldly peculiarities to in-
crease the disaffection in Florence.
Alexander VI. was the chief factor in the last stage
of Savonarola's career. The contrast between these
two men has been compared with the contrast be-
tween Christ and Herod and between St. Paul and
Nero. Moved by representations, reaching him
from Florence itself, and by appeals of the Medicean
princes, the pope summoned Savonarola to Rome
July 25, 1495, and promised to " welcome him with
love and fraternal affection." Savonarola refused,
alleging sickness and the dangers by the way. Then
followed papal briefs, Sept. 8, Oct. 16, inhibiting
him from preaching. For five months Savonarola
refrained from preaching, but on Feb. 17, 1496,
at the call of the seigniory he again ascended the
pulpit. He took the bold position that the pope
might err, and that when he spake as a man and
erred no man was bound to obey him. He entered
upon a course of severe denunciations upon the
Church and its representatives in Rome. Alexander
tried bribery and offered Savonarola the red hat if
he would keep silence, but in vain. Savonarola
stood in the pulpit and declared he would not have
mitres nor a cardinal's hat but only the red hat of
martyrdom which God gives to his saints. His
wonderful influence with the people had illustra-
tion in the carnival season of 1494. Boys who had
been brought under the new religious movement and
were grouped in brigades went from house to house,
calling upon the occupants to give up their cards,
dice, erotic books, and articles of adornment. They
marched up and down the streets singing hymns
which Savonarola had composed. In 1497, similar
scenes were enacted, and on the last day of carnival
week a great bonfire was made on the public square,
of a pyramid of such articles, the pile being sixty feet
high with a base of 240 square feet. This was known
as the "burning of the vanities." At these times,
Florence seemed to be going altogether to religion.
Wives left their husbands and betook themselves
to convents. Others, who were married, took the
vow of continence, and Savonarola even dreamed
the city might reach so perfect a condition that all
marriage would cease. People took the communion
daily. Fra Bartolomeo threw his studies of naked
figures into the fire and for a time thought it sinful to
use in painting hands which should be continually
folded in prayer.
With the year 1497 the troubles thickened around
the Florentine reformer. Insulting placards were
posted on the walls of his convent and distributed
through the city. Assassins moved by
8. Turn of political rancor and ambition gathered
Sentiment in the cathedral to take his life. Savo-
Against narola intensified his denunciations of
Savonarola, the "fornications in Italy, France,
Spain, and all other regions." Lust
had made of the Church a shameless courtesan.
Priests openly acknowledged their bastards as sons.
Alexander was evidently aimed at, and such open
arraignment the pope could not safely tolerate. On
May 12, 1497, Alexander declared Savonarola ex-
communicate as "one suspected of heresy." The
seigniory was still on Savonarola's side and espoused
his cause in letters to the Apostolic See. On Christ-
mas Day, 1497, the prior violated the papal curse
and celebrated mass three times, and on Feb. 11,
1498, he stood again in the pulpit and preached to an
immense concourse of people declaring that popes
might err as Boniface VIII. had erred. The heat
of his utterance increased, and frequently, from
this time on, he appealed to heaven as his witness
that he was willing to go into fire of hell, if his
motives were not pure, or to be struck dead on the
spot if he were not sincere. The pope had one more
weapon, the interdict, and this he threatened to
hurl against the disobedient city. The seigniory
sought to negotiate, but its membership became
divided and decided it expedient that Savonarola
should keep silence and the good- will of the Apostolic
See be retained with an eye to future favors. It,
however, refused to deliver up Savonarola to Alex-
ander as he had requested. Savonarola preached for
the last time Mar. 18, 1498. He in turn now deter-
mined to secure, if possible, the adjudication of an
ecumenical council. The letters to the kings of
France, England, and other countries, appealing to
them to convoke such a council, were written but
never sent.
At this juncture a completely new turn was given
to Savonarola's career. Florence was suddenly
startled with the report that an ordeal of fire was
impending to test the prophet's supernatural claims.
The Franciscan monk Francesco da
9. The Puglia, in a sermon in S. Croce, issued
End. the challenge. Savonarola hesitated
and declared that he did not depend
upon a miracle to attest his claims. Righteous
lives were the test. But the popular demand
forced him to accept the challenge. Fra Domenico,
his intimate friend and a monk of St. Mark's,
offered himself for the ordeal as did also many
others. The seigniory appointed a day and the two
parties filed their statements with this tribunal.
The place fixed was the public square, where two
pyres seventy feet in length, of inflammable mate*
217
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Savonarola.
rials, were built. All Florence was present to witness
the spectacle. The Franciscans and Dominicans
marched in solemn processions to the spot. The
ordeal was set for eleven o'clock, but there was de-
lay. Objection was made to Domenico's going
through the fire wearing his priestly garments, on
suspicion that they had been bewitched. The
Dominicans yielded. The second objection was
made that Domenico should not carry a crucifix or
the host with him. The parleying was protracted.
Rain fell, the day was declining, and the Francis-
can challenger did not appear. The seigniory de-
clared the ordeal abrogated. The spell of Savo-
narola's influence was gone. The mob now treated
him as a coward or an impostor. Florence was mad
with anger. A few, like Landucci, were bowed with
disappointment and sorrow. The next day St.
Mark's was assaulted. The resistance offered by
the monks, even with firearms, staved off the end
at best for a few hours. Savonarola and two of his
chief supporters, Fra Domenico and Fra Silvestro,
were imprisoned. Their first trial was before the
seigniory. Alexander wrote that they should be sent
to Rome but, if not, they should be tried "with
torture." The agonies of the torture induced
Savonarola to make confessions of imposture and
other ill-doing, which he denied as soon as the de-
lirium of the pain wore off. It was hard to manu-
facture, against the monk, charges deserving death.
Savonarola was no heretic. But a commission sent
by the pope — Turriano, the Venetian Dominican
general, and Bishop Francesco Romelino, after-
ward cardinal — were equal to the task of finding the
prisoners guilty of rank heresy. Letters came to
Florence stating that Alexander had declared Savo-
narola should " be put to death even if he were
another John the Baptist." The garbled records of
the trial make it uncertain what the exact process
was. Romelino's letters to Alexander show that
the prisoners were to be treated as pernicious here-
tics. The intervals between the applications of tor-
ture the prisoners spent in comparing expositions
on Pss. li. and xxxi. The three friends met and
prayed on the morning appointed for the execution,
May 23, 1498. Their bearing, that of humble trust
in Christ, was adapted to win universal sympathy.
The sentence ran that they should be hanged and
their bodies burned. Absolution was pronounced.
The bishop of Vasona in pronouncing the sentence of
deposition upon Savonarola said, "I separate thee
from the Church triumphant and the Church mili-
tant." Savonarola replied, "Not from the Church
triumphant. That is not in thy power to do."
The ashes of the three monks were cast into the
Arno.
Savonarola will be judged by the righteousness of
his message, the calm stability of his last hours, and
the environment in which he was placed. He stands
forth as the greatest master of pulpit
xo. His eloquence Italy has furnished. In an
Character age when the classical renaissance in-
and Work, traduced or fostered moral corruption,
he represented moral righteousness in
private life and in civil government. Lacking the
sagacity of the statesman, he was inspired with I
patriotism and the devotion of the religious reformer. '
In appealing from the decision of Alexander VI.,
he was taking the position which Julius II., in his
bull Cum ianto divino, 1505, justified. That bull
pronounced papal elections secured by bribery void.
If the bull was retroactive then Alexander was no
pope. He had secured his election by shameless
bribery. The world was at once divided between
admiration for, and condemnation of, Savonarola.
Even within the Dominican order the monk's mem-
ory was for a long time disparaged, and the Domin-
ican general Sisto Fabri of Lucca, 1585, issued an
order forbidding monks and nuns of his order to
mention his name or* retain any relic or book that
could remind them of him. But the feeling in the
Dominican order has changed and a warm and per-
sistent effort has been made by Dominicans to pre-
pare the way for the canonization of their most
eloquent preacher. Protestants are inclined to re-
gard him as in a sense a precursor of the Reforma-
tion, a seer of a new era in the Church. So Luther
regarded him, and wrote a preface to an edition
of his Meditation on Pss. li. and xxxi. (1523).
Rietechl included him in the monument at Worms
commemorating the Reformation, and placed
him in company with Wyclif and Hubs as
forerunners of that great movement. Savona-
rola's expositions of the two Psalms composed
durijig his imprisonment show him as a mem-
ber of the Church universal. Here he appeals
as a sinner directly to God's mercy. But in his
"Triumph of the Cross," he accepts the seven sacra-
ments and the other distinctive marks of the medie-
val Church. Schnitzer, the leading contemporary
authority on Savonarola in Germany, gives him
unstinted admiration. Pastor joins in admiring
the purity of his purpose but condemns him as an
unfaithful Roman Catholic in refusing obedience
to the Apostolic See. The general sentiment in the
Roman Catholic Church is represented by the judg-
ment of Hefele-Kndpfler (Kirchengeschichte p. 503),
that Savonarola's execution was a judicial murder.
Florence regards the memory of her adopted citizen
with love and has made every attempt to offer repa-
ration for his execution. In 1882 the seigniory
placed Girolamo's statue in the Hall of the Five
Hundred and again, 1901, honored him by placing
a tablet on the spot of execution with a statement
that there "by unrighteous sentence" he and his
two companions "were hanged and burned." On
the wall of his cell in St. Mark's a medallion has
been placed containing a head of the prior, and
opposite the place where he was seized another
memorial has been erected which the visitor often
finds hung with wreaths of fresh flowers.
(Philip ScHAFFf.) D. S. Schaff.
Biblxoorapht: On bibliography oonsult: A. Audin de
Rians, Btbliooraphia ddle opere e delT edinoni di fra J.
Savonarola, Florence, 1847; Potthast, Weovniter, pp.
1564-00.
Sources for a life are : Savonarola's Latin and Italian
writings, consisting of sermons, tracts, letters, and a few
poems. The largest collection of M88. and original edi-
tions is preserved in the Central National Library of
Florence. Printed works are: Eputolm tpirituaUt ef
aacrtxem, ed. Qu6ttf, Paris, 1674, Eng. transl., Spiritual
and Acetic Letter* of Savonarola, ed. B. W. Randolph,
London, 1007, new ed., 1000; the sermons were col-
lected by a friend, Lorense Vivoli, and published as they
came fresh from the preacher's lips — best ed. Sermoni e
Savonarola
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
818
prsdiche, Prate, 1846; also ed. Q. Baccini, Florence, 1889;
a selection ed. Villari and Casanova, Scelta di predichs et
scritti di O. Savonarola, Florenoe, 1898; Germ, transl. of
twelve sermons and of the poem De ririna mundi by H.
Schettm Oiler, Berlin, 1901; A. Gherardi, Nuovi docu-
menti e studi interna a O. Savonarola, 2d ed., Florence,
1887. " The Triumph of the Cross," ed. in Lat. L. Fer-
retti, Siena, 1899, Milan, 1901, Ens. transl. from this ed.
by J. Procter, London, 1901, St. Louis, 1902. " Exposi-
tion of Pss. li., xxxi.," Lat. text with Eng. transl. by E. H.
Perowne, London, 1900; Savonarola's poetry, ed. C.
Guasti, Florence, 1862; E. C. Bayonne, (Euvres spiri-
iueUes choisies de Savonarola, 3 vols., Paris, 1880.
An extended list of works is given in Potthast, Weo-
weiser, pp. 1564-66; other lists are noted in the literature
given below. Basal accounts are: P. Buriamacchi (d.
1519), Vita Hieronymi Savonarola (founded on an older
Latin life by an eye-witness), ed. Mansi, Lucca, 1761;
G. F. Pica della Mirandola (nephew of the celebrated
litterateur), completed 1520, published, Mirandola, 1530,
ed. Quetif, 2 vols., Paris, 1674; J. Nardi (a contempo-
rary), Le Storie delta citta di Firente, 1494-1681, Florence,
1584; Luca Landucci (an ardent admirer of Savonarola
and a Florentine apothecary), Diario Florentine, 1460-
1616, Florence, 1883.
Of later accounts the three biographies which have
made notable advance are: F. K. Meier, Berlin* 1836;
F. T. Perrens, 2 vols., Paris, 1852, 3d ed., 1859; P. Vil-
lari, Florence, 1859, 2d ed., 1887, Eng. transl., 2 vols.,
London, 1888, 1 vol., 1899 (combines results of previous
study with new material); idem, Studies Historical and
Critical, ib. 1907. Other biographies are: F. C. Bartoli,
Florence, 1782; A. G. Rudelbach, Hamburg, 1835; K.
Hase, Neue Propheten, Leipsic, 1851; F. T. Perrens, 2
vols., Paris and Turin, 1853, 3d ed., 1859; R. Madden,
2 vols., London, 1854; V. Marchese, Florence, 1855; B.
Aquarone, 2 vols., Alexandria, 1857; S. de Rorari, 2d ed.,
Legnago, 1868; E. C. Bayonne, Paris, 1879 (worthy); E.
Warren, London, 1879; W. R. Clark, Chicago, 1890; A.
G. Haygood, The Monk and the Prince, Atlanta, 1895; J. L.
O'Neil, Boston, 1898 (has extended bibliography); G.
McHardy, Edinburgh, 1901, New York, 1902; E. L. 8.
Horsburgh, London, 1901; N. Howard, ib. 1904; H Lucas,
ib., rev. ed., 1906 (has full bibliography); W. H. Crawford,
Cincinnati, 1907; W. E. Oliphant, London, 1907; H. Berg-
mann, Stockholm, 1909.
Other discussions, not simply biographical, but taking
up various phases, literary or critical, are: W. Roscoe,
Life of Lorenzo de* Medici, London, 1795, new issue,
1885; L. von Ranke, Historisch-biographische Studien,
pp. 183-257, Leipsic, 1877 (discusses the interrelations
of the works by Buriamacchi and Pica della Miran-
dola); C. Sickinger, Savonarola, aein Leben und seine
Zeit, WQraburg, 1877; E. Comba, Storia della Ri-
forma in Italia, Florence, 1881; Margaret Oliphant,
Makers of Florence, London, 1881; Pastor, Popes, vi.
3-54; idem, Zur Beurtheilung Savonarolas, Freibuig, 1896
(answers criticisms by Luotto and Feretti); P. Luotto,
Dello Studio di Scrittura sacra secondo G. Savonarola e
Leon XIII., Turin, 1896; idem, II vero Savonarola ed il
Savonarola di L. Pastor, Florence, 1897; Feretti, Per la
causa di Fra G. Savonarola, Milan, 1897; M. Glossncr,
Savonarola als Apologet und Philosoph, Paderbom, 1898;
J. L. O'Neil, Was Savonarola really excommunicated t
Boston, 1900; J. SchniUcr, Qucllen und Forschungen zur
Geschichte Savonarolas, vols, i.-iv., Leipsic, 1902-10;
Q. Biermann, KrUische Studie zur Geschichte des Fra G.
Savonarola, Rostock, 1901; E. S. Godkin, The Monastery
of San Marco, London, 1901; Cambridge Modern History,
chap, v., New York, 1902; Crcighton, Papacy, iv. 168
sqq. (discussion of the authorities, p. 351; the student
should not omit study of this useful note) ; Schaff, Church
History, v., 2 $ 76 (good list of literature, pp. 660-661).
SAVOY CONFERENCE: A conference between
twelve bishops and twelve Puritan divines, with
nine assistants on each side, at the Savoy Palace,
London, Apr. 15-July 25, 1661, the object being
to revise the Prayer-Book. The conference was
necessitated by the events leading to the Restora-
tion and the dissatisfaction of the Puritans with the
service as it stood. But after the Restoration the
sentiment of the country was strongly royalist,
and consequently the bishops were able to resist,
in their reliance upon popular feeling, the at-
tempts of the Puritans to do away with parts of
the service and with observances which to them
savored of Roman Catholicism, and the Conference
had as a result only the continued use of the
Prayer-Book. The proposals desired by the Puri-
tans were embodied by Baxter in his hastily com-
piled liturgy, which never came into use, but was
republished by C. W. Shields, Philadelphia, 1867,
New York, 1880.
Bibliography: D. Neal, History of the Puritans, ed. J.
Toulmin, part iv., chap, vi., Bath, 1793-97; W. H. Hut-
ton, The English Church 1026-1714, PP- 185-186, London,
1903; F. Procter and W. H. Frere, New Hist, of the Book
of Common Prayer, pp. 169-193 et passim, ib. 1905; J. H.
Blunt, Annotated Book of Common Prayer, pp. 30, 32, 97-
98, 183, New York, 1908.
SAVOY DECLARATION. See Conobeoation-
ALI8T8, III., J 1.
SAXON CONFEDERATION, LOWER. See
Lower Saxon Confederation.
SAXONS, CONVERSION OF THE: Of ail the
German tribes the Saxons longest preserved both
their independence and their national religion. It
is true that there are records of attempts to intro-
duce Christianity among them before the time of
Charlemagne, but these are either legendary, as the
account of the baptism of Saxon envoys by Bishop
Faro of Meaux at the court of Lothair II., or else
were frustrated by the disinclination of the Saxon
people to accept Christianity, as was the case with
the efforts of the Hewald brothers (see Hewald).
St. Boniface (q.v.) obtained a letter of recommen-
dation to the Saxons (Epist., xxii.), but his biog-
raphers do not relate that he worked among them.
It was only the Saxon wars of Charlemagne that
rendered a conversion of the Saxons both possible
and necessary. Whether Charlemagne intended to
incorporate Saxony in the Frankish empire when
he began his Saxon campaigns is doubtful, but at
all events he followed this course after 776, and he
was therefore forced at the same time to undertake
the Christianization of the people because of the
close connection between Church and State in his
domains. In his very first campaign (772) the de-
struction of the Irmensul accompanied the capture
of the Eresburg, whereupon the Saxons retorted
by attacking a church in Fritzlar and destroying
the church at Deventer. The religious question was
first treated in the peace of 776, when the Saxons,
probably as a proof of the sincerity of their subjec-
tion, agreed to accept baptism. In the following
year Charlemagne assembled an imperial diet at
Paderbom, in Saxon territory, and Saxony was di-
vided into missionary districts which were assigned
to various Frankish dioceses and monasteries,
Cologne receiving the land of the Boructeri, Mains
the districts of southern Saxony, bordering on its
own territory, Wurzburg the region about Pader-
bom, Abbot Sturm of Fulda the districts on the
Diemel, and the monastery of Amorbach in the
Odenwald the region about Verden. West Frank-
ish bishoprics, such as Reims and Chalons, seem
also to have shared in this missionary activity.
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Although the task thus systematically undertaken
was impeded by ever-recurring revolts against
foreign rule (778, 782, 783, 784), each new victory
of the Franks became the occasion for wholesale
baptisms. The most dangerous insurrection was
■that of 782, which threatened the very existence of
t In1 Savin Church and was suppressed only through
the victories won by Charlemagne at Dcttnold and
on the Hasc in 783. When, two years later, Widu-
kind and Abbio were baptized, the pacification and
( lir! ,i utilization of the land were regarded as assured.
Charlemagne sent word to Rome that the Saxons
were converted and sought by promulgating the
Capilidatio dt partibus Saxania (probably in 787)
to secure the position he had won. The punishment
of death, decreed by the old Saxon laws against
violators of the heathen sanctuaries, but a penalty
Unknown to I'rankish law, was now adopted for the
protection of the new faith, and this penalty was
decreed not only for the murderers of ecclesiastics,
but also for all who conspired against Christians,
damaged churches, observed the heathen custom
of burning the bodies of the dead, contemptuously
broke the commandment of the Church concern-
ing baptism, or avoided baptism. Each church
received rich allotments from the lands of its pa-
rishioners, tithes from private ami royal property,
and also the right of Asylum {q.v.). Besides this, it.
■was decreed that the death penalty might be remit-
teil in case of voluntary confession of guilt, that chil-
dren should be baptized before reaching the age of
one year, thai the Sabbath should be observed and
mass attended, and that Christians should be buried
In consecrated ground.
Nevertheless, a new revolt in 792 waa followed
by a relapse into heathenism, the destruction of
rlnirr'hi'S, and the murder of many of the clergy.
Alcuin, writing to Mcgcnfrid in 795 (Epiat., Ixix.),
laid the blame, at least it) part, on the execution of
tithes and extreme legal penalties, even while
■[on I ,t inn u hi'thcr I he S.,\on- hail really been elvelcd
into faith (Epist. Ixvii.), but finally Charlemagne
Eucceded in pacifying the land, largely by deport-
ing tii!iii>and> of Sa\on families to various parts of
Fraticonia and Swabia (795, 797-799, 804). At the
name time the severity of the law was modified, and
at the imperial diet of Aachen (Oct. 28, 797) the
death penalty was abolished and replaced by the
wergild of sixty soldi, usual among the Franks.
By 802 the land was considered to be entirely
'.'liri-tiaiii?i'd. As early lis 7S7 the missionary dis-
trict of Wiilchad (q.v.) at the mouth of the Weaer
had Itccn Created a diocese, of which Wiilchad him-
self had been consecrated bishop; the dioceses of
Verden and Mitnlen seem to have been organized
about the same time; the bishopric of Minister was
formed between 802 and 805; toward the close of
l 'liitii'magnc's reign the bishopric of Paderborn
was erected, the first bishop being Hathumar, a
Saxon educated at Wurzburg; and the remaining
dioceses, Osriabnick, Hildesheim, Halbcrslndt, and
Hamburg, were formed in the reign of Louis the
Pious. (A. Haucx.)
BiMjiMBirar: OriirinFil "Ourree are: Rmttta Mitoria Wat-
falioj, rd. H, A Ethard, 2 voli., Moaner. 18*7-51: Oe-
•chirhtK/urUm da Bathwnt Minuter vols. t. and iv., ih.
I8SI >qq Kautrurlundr* dtr Prariu Wattal.t ML R.
Wilmnni and F. Philippi. 2 voln., ib. 1887-81; Brrm-
Ucha Vrkvndenbuch. od. D. K. Ebmck and W. von Bip-
pen, Bremen, 1873 sqq., P. A. Ogg. Source Book of Modit-
Ml ttiUory, pp. 114-123, New York. 1908. Conmlt:
C. Stuve, Qwchieku da tiothttifti OwMtii Jena, 1B53;
B. Sinuoo, Jahrhtlchcr da frantixhrn Rtichi unttr Lud-
u-W. 2 voli., Leipaie. 187«-7o; Q. Dehio. Gaelticltlt da
lnU»M HamftuTB-Crrmm, vol. I., Berlin, 1876; W.
von Uioaebreclit. Gachictot drr drvltchtn Kaittneit, i. 110
aqq., Brunswick, 1881; S. Abel and B. Sinuon, JoJv
buchtr da Sltokuchen Rtichs unter Karl dm Groat. 2
vols., Leipeie, 1S83-NS; C. Itiiu-r. Karl da Groat und dU
Sachitn, 2 parU, Dessau. 1S91-95; G. Holler, Korveuer
Slvdiai, Minuter, 1808; Robinson, European Hittory,
i. 120 sqq.. 150 sqq.; Rettbeis. KI>. vol. U-; Haurk, KD,
li. .I*) sqq.; ill.-. lil.-ru.tiin- un,ler Ciubli-Uauve,
SAXONY: A kingdom of Germany, bounded
on the north and cast by Prussia, on the south by
liohemia, and on the west by the Thuringian states,
with two small exclaves, Zicgelhcim and Liebsch-
witz; area 5350 square miles; population (1900)
■J.2H2.218. Of thia there were 3.954,132 Lutherans;
Hi, USD Reformed; 197,005 Roman Catholics; 2.028
German Catholics; 1,280 Greek Catholics; 12,416
Jews, and 19,295 others, including members of the
fourteen Irvingite and fourteen New Apostolic
churches, as well as of the twelve Methodist and
finr Baptist, congregations. In 1905, of a popula-
tion of 4,508,801, there were 4,250.659 Lutherans,
Reformed, and Unionists; 218,275 Roman Catho-
lics; 266 Russian Orthodox; 1,331 Greek Catbo-
lics; '22,858 other Christians; and 14,697 Jews. In
recent years there has been a notable increase of
accessions from the Roman Catholic Church to the
Lutheran, the number advancing from 508 in 1N09
to 1,266 in 1903, while conversions from Lutheran-
ism to Roman Catholicism increased from 41 to 52
respectively. The Roman Catholic Church in-
crease is due almost entirely to the immigration of
laborers from Bohemia, Poland, Italy, and other
Roman Catholic countries. Roman Catholic dis-
tricts are found only in Saxon Upper Lusatia, about
the nunnery of Maricnstcrn east of Kamcn*. and
in the vicinity of the nunnery of Marientha! near
OstriU. On the increase is the influence of various
sects not only in the vicinity of Zwickau (see
Zwickau Prophets), a hotbed of sects since the
Reformation, but over all the kingdom. Particu-
larly aggressive in recent years has l>een the New
Apostolic Church (Geyerites and Krcbaites). In-
cluded in the statistics of the Methodist f'pi^i'opal-
are the AUtrtehtsleuU (sec Evangelical Associa-
tion), whose chief attraction is their close fellowship.
The established Church of Saxony is Lutheran,
So long aa the royal house is Roman Catholic the four
ministers of worship, justice, interior, ami finance
must be of the State Church. Since 1874 its control
has been vested in the national consistory, com-
posed of a judicial president and an equal number
of theological and judicial councilors, with the first
court preacher as vice-president, and with a num-
ber of extra members. Between this consistory and
the individual congregations stands the " inspec-
tion." consisting of the superintendent (ephorus)
of the diocese and the chief civic official of the dis-
trict. Upper Lusatia, which has no superintendent,
is controlled (subject to the national consistory) by
the prefecture of Bautsen. Since 1868 the laity
have been permitted to represent individual con-
Sotrboronffh
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOQ
•90
gregations, and quinquennial national syflods have
been held, the latter composed of 34 clergy and 43
laymen. In 1903 there were 1,460 clerical posi-
tions, 619 being under royal patronage, 832 con-
trolled by private patrons, and 18 alternating in
patronage. In 1903 the births of Evangelical paren-
tage numbered 142,641 and the baptisms 138,606;
in the same year there were 32,416 marriages,
and 32,047 betrothals of wholly Evangelical pairs.
By the law of Dec. 1, 1876, omission of baptism or
betrothal involves loss of the right to be a god-
parent, or to have either an active or a passive vote
in church affairs. The church attendance is, in
general, satisfactory; and there is an increasing
interest in missions and other forms of practical
religion. On the other hand, the number of com-
municants is unmistakably declining. Besides the
Evangelical Lutherans, official recognition has been
accorded since 1818 to the Evangelical Reformed,
represented by churches at Dresden and Leipsic.
The Roman Catholic Church in Saxony, which
has enjoyed freedom of worship and complete civil
equality with the Protestant denominations since
1807, has been controlled since 1763 by a vicar
apostolic and by a Roman Catholic consistory
under him. He resides in Dresden, but is at the
same time dean of the chapter of Bautsen, and is
a bishop in partibus. The State requires all meas-
ures, even those bearing simply on internal ad-
ministration, to be submitted to itself; and such
changes as touch in the remotest degree civil rela-
tions must be approved by the civil authorities.
The Roman Catholics have in Saxony seventy-five
places of worship and ninety-seven clergy. In
Upper Lusatia are the two Cistercian nunneries al-
ready mentioned, but the foundation of additional
religious houses is forbidden, and every religious
order is prohibited from entering the country. The
only exception to the latter restriction is that of the
law of Aug. 23, 1876, which admits, after approval
by, and under supervision of, the civil government,
such sisters as belong to orders settled in the Ger-
man Empire and devoting themselves exclusively
to the care of children and of the sick. The Ger-
man Catholic congregations in Dresden, Leipsic,
Chemnitz, and Gelenau, recognized since 1848, are
now controlled by the Landeskirchenvorstand in
Dresden, which convenes a synod triennially, and
by the elders of each congregation. They are rapid-
ly declining because of their increasing tendency to
free thought, and are so lax that, in case of conver-
sions to the Lutheran Church, baptism is required.
In case of change of confession among the recog-
nized bodies, the person concerned must declare
his intention to his clergyman, who must warn him
of the seriousness of his proposed step. If, after
four weeks, he still adheres to his resolve, he is fur-
nished a certificate of dismissal, which is sent the
clergymen of the confession to which he has be-
come a convert, and without this he can not be
received into any of the recognized churches. In
case the conversion is to an unrecognized church,
the name of the convert must be entered in the
official register of dissenters. This latter provision,
dating from 1870, renders the formation of new re-
ligious bodies possible. Advantage was taken of
it in 1871 by ik* " Separate Lutherans " (see Lu-
therans, II.)i who charged the State Church with
lapse from thUAthefan confession. They now have
six congregations In Dresden, Planiti, Chemnita,
Crimmitzschatf, Franhenberg, and Grttn, with a
membership of 1,600. (F. W. Ddbuus.)
BiBuoaEAMf^j! 11m best sourest of information u» the
Istisches Jahrbuch fur das KOntfrmch Seek-
published at Dresden, and KircfUiches Jahrbuch, pub-
lished at OflDindoh; and P. Draws, Das kirohHch* Lefts*
dsr evanfsidutherischen Landsskirche dm Konigrsichs
Sachsen, Ltlpsic, 1902.
SAYBRbbK PLATFORM. See Cokooowation-
ALISTS, III., | 1.
SAYCE, ses, ARCHIBALD HEHRY: Church of
England, archeological scholar; b. at Shirehampton
(4 m. n*w. of Bristol), CSouoestershire, Sept. 25,
1845. He was educated qft Queen's College (B.A.,
1869), and was ordered Mpm in 1870 and or-
dained priest in the foUowJWfyear. He was elected
fellow of Queen's Ckillefe Jll$B0, where he was also
tutor in 1870-79. He was deputy professor of com-
parative philology at Oxford (1876-1889), and since
1891 has been profeajptflf Aasyriology in the same
university. He wff ft mentber of the Old-Testa-
ment Revision Company, and was Hibbert lecturer
in 1887, Gifford lecturer in 1900-02, and Rhind lec-
turer in 1906. He is a member of very many learned
societies.
He hat edited O. Smith's sYVsfory of Babylonia (London,
1877) and Sennacherib (187$); Bscords of the Pott, second
series (5 vols., 1888-02); the ttlfUsh translation of O.
Maspero's Histoire ancienne dm pnmim de V orient classiqus
as The Dawn of Civilization (3 wots,, 1804-1900); Murray's
Handbook to Upper Egypt (1896); The Aramaic Papyri
Discovered at Assouan (1906); and The Tablet from Yusgat
in the Liverpool Institute of Arehmtdooy (1907). Among his
numerous independent writings, special mention may be
made of his Assyrian Grammar for Comparative Purposes
(London, 1872); Principles of Comparative Philology (1874);
Astronomy and Astrology of the Babylonians (1874); Elemen-
tary Assyrian Grammar (1874) ; Babylonian Literature (1877) ;
Lectures on the Assyrian Language and Syllabary (1877);
Introduction to the Science of Language (2 vols., 1879); The
Monuments of the HiUites (1881); The ancient Empires of
the East: Herodotus i.-iii (1883) ; Fresh Light from the Monu-
ments: A Sketch of the most striking Confirmations of the
Bible from recent Discoveries in Egypt, Assyria, Palestine*
Babylonia, and Asia Minor (1883); Assyria, its Princes,
Priests, and People (1885); An Introduction to the Books of
Ezra, Nehemiah, and Esther (1885; 5th ed.. 1909); Lectures
on the Origin and Growth of Religion as illustrated by the Re-
ligion of the ancient Babylonians (Hibbert lectures for 1887;
1887); The HiUites: or. The Story of a Forgotten People
(1888); The Races of the Old Testament (1891); Social Life
among the Assyrians and Babylonians (1893); The " Higher
Criticism" and the Verdict of the Monuments (1894); A
Primer of Assyriology (1894); Patriarchal Palestine (1895);
The Egypt of the Hebrews and Herodotus (1895); Early His-
tory of the Hebrews (1897); Israel and the Surrounding Na-
tions (1898); Babylonians and Assyrians (New York, 1899);
Genesis in The Temple Bible (London, 1901); The Religions
of Ancient Egypt and Babylonia (Gifford lectures; Edin-
burgh, 1902); Tobit and the Babylonian Apocryphal Writings
in The Temple Bible. (London, 1903); Monuments, Facts,
and Higher Critical Fancies (1904); and Archojology of the
Cuneiform Inscriptions (1907).
SC ADDING, CHARLES: Protestant Episcopal
bishop of Oregon; b. at Toronto, Canada, Nov. 25,
1861. He was graduated from Trinity College,
Toronto (1885), and was ordered deacon in 1885
and priested in the following year. He was curate
at St. George's, New York City (1886-90); rector
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
K28S
r topic Ial90f
of Christ Church. Middle town, N. T. (100-91);
Trinity, Toledo, O. (1891-66); and Emmanuel, La
Grange, III. (IW6-1906). He was Deputation leo-
turer on " the Church in the United Stales " for the
London Society for the Propagation of the Gospel,
and dm lectured extensively in the United States on
la 1909 t» was consecrated third
iliorf-w of Oregon. He has written
i to Platn Question* for American
* (New York, 1901).
SCALIGER, scal'i-ger (DE LA SCALA), JOSEPH
JUSTUS: Founder of scientific chronology and
liliilcihiKisi ; b.at Agen (73 m. i.e. of Bordeaux) Aug.
4, 1540; d. at Ley den Jan. 21, 1609. Son of the
famous French scholar. Julius Ciesar Scaliger, be
devoted himself to the study of classical and orien-
tal languages at Paris, after 1558. He entered the
Reformed church, 1562, and became one of its
leading representatives; traveled in Italy, Eng-
land, and Scotland, 1565-66; studied at Valence,
1570; fled from hia native land after the massacre
of St. Bartholomew; was professor at Geneva, 1572-
1574; spent his time in traveling throughout France
or residing at the castle of his friend, a French
nobleman, Louis Chastaigner de la Rocheposay,
1574-93; and was professor and head of the Uni-
versity of Lcyden from 1593. Scaliger is the lead-
ing philologist uf France, and secured the scientific
investigation of the classics and the adoption of the
principles for the correction of aneient texts by hia
acute critical method. In the field of historical
chronology, his .1/. Manila A&tronomuxm libri
quinqui: ( 1570) may be considered an introduction
to his famous work Opus novum de emendation*
tcniporttm (Paris, I5.S3; best, enlarged ed , Cologne,
1629). In thia he takes the Julian period as the
larger basis, upon which he calculates the time
periods of the history of the peoples. This em-
braces the periods of 7.980 Julian years, and is
therefore a union of the aun, moon, and indict ion
cycles. Here is to be mentioned also Hippolyti
canon pascha\in (Lcyden, 1595). He wrote hia
E!fiirhii:t tTthi'-rr.-u X i-\il<t> SiTiiri: i Francker, 1605),
against the attempted refutation by the Jesuitsof
hia denial of monasticism during the Apostolic
period ; and in this he set forth on scientific grounds,
for the first time, that the representation of tho
" contemplative life " by Eusebius {Hist. eaX., ii.
17) was untenable. Tho capstone of hia work waa
the edition and restitution of the synchronistic
Eusebian chronicon, Thuaiirw lemporum Eusebii
(Leyden. 1600), which by it* Inestimable sources of
pre-claasic history, seemed to him beat adapted as
a foundation upon which to wet the treasure-house
of the times. The principal results of his investiga-
tion appeared under the subtitle Si/nagoge historian,
better known under the separate title Olympiadon
anagraph/- (Berlin, 1852), partly in the words of the
original authors, partly in a free rendering. To this
he appended hagogici chronologia canonet (" Main
Pointe to the Introduction of Chronology ") as his
own. His Epiitola appeared Lcyden, 16'27, while
Epistree franaaitt* to him was issued Harderwyck.
1624, and Lettru fratteaitt intditex, Paris, 1879.
(G. LaubmannI.)
BiiuooBipar: Sources are; D. Baudius. Oratio fantbrii
honori . . . J. J. Scalietri. Leydeo, 1609; D. Heinaius.
In obUton . . . J. Scalioeri . . - oralionet dun. Leyden,
1809; D, Gcnlea, in MiKtllanca Duiibaramtia. vol. iv„
6 vols., Amsterdam, 1732-15. Consult furthers C. Niairri.
It Triamvirat tiltfrairr an IB. aflafr. pp. 149-308. Paris,
1802: J. Bemays. J. J. Scaliaer. Berlin. ISoS; E. sod
E. Haas, La France prolataiUr, vii. 1-20, Paris. 1857;
C. Seita. Aftnurirt tur J. J. Sealioer ct Oenivt. Geneva,
SCAKHELL, THOMAS BARTHOLOMEW: Eng-
lish Roman Catholic; b. at London July 8, 1854.
After completing his education at St. Edmund's
College, Ware, and the Kngli.-h College, Home, he
was ordained to the priesthood in 1878, and from
that year until 1885 was professor of philosophy in
St. Edmund's College. Ho mi for several years nn
administrator of the Southwark Fund for Infirm
Priests, and has served as missioner in Brighton,
Norwood, Sheerness, Folkstone, and Wey bridge.
In 1896 he was appointed as one of the papal
commissioners on the question of the validity of
Anglican orders, and since 1908 has been one of the
canons of Southwark Cathedral. In collaboration
with J. Wilh'lm he prepared :l Mnnual of CnthM'f
Theology, baaed on Srkrekcx't " D'«i»iutik," vol. i.
(London, 1890), and besides editing the fourth
and fallowing editions of the Ca(/iofic Dictionary of
W. E. Addis and T. Arnold (London, 1893 sqq.),
has written Tlie Priest's Studies (London, 1908).
SCAPEGOAT. See Atonement, Day or; Aiazel.
SCAPULAR: A small badge or token consisting
of two little pieces of cloth joined by cords, and
worn Over the shoulders, whence the name. Con-
fraternities connected with various religious orders
received the privilege- of wearing this small repre-
sentative of the habit, in token of participation in
prayer, good works, and spiritual privileges with
the order. These confraternities are now very wide-
spread, and the wearing of the scapular is an ap-
proved act of devotion in the Roman Catholic
Church. The most famous of the different scapu-
lars is the brown or Carmelite scapular, the history
of which goes back to a vision supposed to have
been vouchsafed by the Virgin M.irv to St. Simon
Stock (1164-1212) of the Carmelite order, in which
she promised blessings to those who should de-
voutly wear this scapular. Others are the black
Bcapular of the Servite order and the red of the
Passionists.
SCARBOROUGH, scnrTirr-o, JOHH: Protes-
tant F.piscopal bishop of New Jersey; b. at Castle-
wellon (25 in. s. of Belfast), County' Down, Ireland,
Apr. 25, 1831. He was educated at Trinity College
Hartford (A.B., 1854), and at the General Theo-
logical Seminary, from which he was graduated in
1857. He was ordered deacon in the same year and
was advanced to the priesthood in 1858. After
being curate of St. Paul's, Trov, N. Y., from 1857
to 1860, he was rector of the Church of the Holy
Comforter. Poughkeepsie. N. Y. (1860-67), and of
Trinity, Pittsburg, Pa. (1867-75). In 1875 he was
consecrated bishop of New Jersey.
THE NEW SGHAFF-HERZOG
W. B. Pony, The Episcopate in America,
p. lm.i. An I'ork, 18B5.
SCHAEDER, sbe'dcr, ERICH: German Protes-
tant; b. at Claustbal (25 ra. n.e. of CtOttingen),
Hanover, Dec. 22, 1861. He studied at the uni-
venftta el Berlin and Greifswald from 1881 to 1880
<tic. theol., Greifswald, 1891); was inspector of the
Tholuck Seminary at Halle (1S87-89); private
docent for New -Test anient exegesis .it i iroif.-w;.l.l
(1891); associate professor of the same subject at
J.\onigstierg (1894-95) and at Gottingen (1895-99).
Since 1899 he has been professor of systematic
theology at Kiel. In theology he is conservative,
end has written Die. Bcdctdung des lebendigen
Chrislus fur die Rcchtfertigung naeh Paulus (Guters-
loh, 1893) ; Ueber das Wesen des Christenlums und
ennentnodernenDarsteUungen (1904) \ Die Christolo-
gie. der Bekcnntnisse und die modern* Theotogie
<1S05); Chrislenstand und kirehliche Lehre (Berlin.
1906); Die Offenbarung Gotten in der Geschiehte dtr
christlichen Kirche (Gross- Lichterfelde, 1907); Der
moderne Mensch und die- Kirche (GQtersloh, 1908);
Schriftglaube und Heilsgeurissheil (1908); and
ThaoimtritdU Theologie, Eine Unlersuehung tur
dogmatUchen Prinzipienlehre, vol. i. (Lcipsic, 1909).
SCHAEFER, she'fer, PHILIPP ALOYS: German
Roman Catholic bishop of Saxony; b. at DingclMiok
<10 m. n.n.w. of Muhlhausen), Saxony, May 2,
1853. He waseducated at the universities of Prague
(1873-71) and Wurzburg (1874-78; D.D., 1878);
-was curate at Plauen and at the Hofkirche in Dres-
den (1879-81); professor of Biblical science at the
Lyceum of Dillingen (1881-85); of New -Testament
exegesis at the universities of Munster (1885-95),
Breslau (1895-1903), and Strasburg (1903-06),
licing also dean of Munster in 1S87-8S and 1892-93,
of Breslau in 1895-96 and 1901-02, and of Stras-
burg in 1903-05, and rector of Munster in 1890-91.
In 1906 he was consecrated bishop of Saxony, anil
is also vicar apostolic in the kingdom of Saxony,
apostolic prefect of Meis-rn-l-ausitz, and dean of
the cathedral of Bautzen. He has written Bib-
Usclii- VltroiHihxjU Vfim Auszugc nu.i Aegyiiten bis turn
Hcyinn <!■ ' btib-jloiiim-lirti Exit* mil !>> < ,,i. iri:lii)it!>i}
der Resvlttile dcr Aeyyplnlogie und Asaijriologie
(MQnster. 1879); Die Gottesmutter in d,r fa-itiyni
Schrift (1S87); Dos Neue Testament erkl&rt (4 vols.,
comprising Thessalomans. G;tlati;uis. Corinthians,
Romans, and Hebrews; 1890-93); Einleitung in dan
Neue Testament (Poderborn, 1898); Die Aufgoben
tier Krtiir.ie inu-lt ihrrr iii-achif-lilliditit l-'.ntira Iduini
(Munsicr, 1900); Die Kaisererlasse vom 4. Feb.,
isdo, und die akade.mixcli gebildeten Klassen (1901);
and Klerus und socials Frage (1902).
SCHAEFER, PHILIPP HEIKRICH WU.HELM
THEODOR: German Lutheran; b. at Friedberg (15
m. n. of Frankfort), Hesse, Feb. 17, 1846. He was
educated at the universities of Giessen, Erlangen,
and Lcipsic, and at the seminary for preachers at
Friedberg, He was pastor of the German Lutheran
church in Paris in 1869-70 and inspector of the See-
gelmann-iche Anstalt at Alsterdorf, near Hamburg,
in 1871-72. Since 1872 he has been pastor and direc-
tor of the institute for deaconesses at Altona. In
tlu''"li-)gy he is an orthodox member of Li- d'Huini na-
tion, and, in addition to editing KorrespondensblaU
der Diokonissen-Anstolt in Altona (Altona, 1873
sqq.}; Monatsschrift far innert Mission (Giltersloh,
1877 sqq.); Die innere Mission in Deutaeldand
(1878 sqq.); Jahrbueh der Kruppelfursorge (Ham-
burg, 1899 aqq.); EvauydiM-hc* Yolkthxikon (Biele-
feld, 1900), and Reden und Prediglen vom Gebiet der
Diakonie und inneren Mission (5 vols., Leipsic,
1890), has written Die Diakonissensaclie und die
Diakonissenanstalt zu Altona (Bredstedt, 1875);
Die weibliche Diakonie in iArem gansen Umfang
dargcsteUt (3 vols., Hamburg, 1879-83); Leidfaden
der inneren Mission (1888); Praktisches Christen'
turn (4 vols., Giltersloh. 1888-1901); Diakonisscn-
Kntrchhmua (1895); Die innere Mission in der
.Schide (1S*1,>); Aijnide fur die Feste und Feiern der
inneren Mission (3 parts, Berlin, 1896); Pariser
Erinnerungen eines deutschen Pastors (Giit.-rsloh,
1897); KaUnder der inneren Mission (1897); Die
innere Mission auf dcr Kansel (Munich, 1897);
Unsere Scfacexter, cin Wort uber und fur die Diakonis-
sensactte (Potsdam, 1903); and Johann Heinrieh
Wichern (Giltersloh, 1908).
SCHAEFFER, CHARLES FREDERICK: Lutheran
(General Council): b. at Gcrmantoivn, Pa., Sept, 3,
1807; d. at Philadelphia Nov. 23, 1879. He was
educated at the University of Pennsylvania and
studied theology under private duvet ion; was or-
dained in 1829; pastor at Carlisle, Pa., 1829-34;
at Hagcrstown, Md., 1834-39; professor of theology
(H Capital University, Columbus, O., 1840-43; paB-
tor at, I-ancoster, 0„ 1843-15; at Red Hook, N. Y.,
1845-51; at Eoston, Pa., 1851-55; professor of the
German language at Pennsylvania College, Gettys-
burg, Pa., 1855-64; and professor of systematic
theology and president at the new QwOfaglca]
seminary at Mt. Airy, Philadelphia, 1864-79. He
was a representative of the strictly conservative
and confessional party in the Lutheran Church,
taking a leading part in the organization of the
General Council in 1867. Among his works are
English translation!', of G. V. Lechler's commen-
tary on Acts (1S69) in J. P. Lange's Commentary
on the Holy Scriptures (New York, 1865-80); of
Johann Arndt's Wahrc Cliristenthum with title
True Christianity I Philadelphia, 1869); and of J. H.
Kurtz's Church History (1868).
Bibuourapht: Ttao Lift by B. M. Schmuclter and W. J.
Mann. PliihiJMphb. l**l>: an-t 11. V.. Jjmhj, in American
Church Bittrnt Srria, pnisim. Ntw York, 1903.
SCHAEFFER, CHARLES WILLIAM: Lutheran
(General Council); b. at Hagcrstown, Md., Ma v 5,
1813; d. at Philadelphia Mar. 15, 1896. He gradu-
ated at the University of Pennsylvania, 1832, and at
the Getty-burg Theological Seminary, 1835; was
pastor in Montgomery County, Pa., 1835-11; at
Harri.shurg. Pa., 1S4H9; German town, Pa..
1849-75; professor of inlcsiastkal history in the
theological seminary at Mt. Airy, Philit.li:lphi:i.
1804-00! and a member of the board of trustees
of the University of Pennsylvania from 1857. He
was one of the leaders of the conservative con-
fessional party in the Lutheran Church, in whose
councils he stood high. He was an authority on
the history of the ilcvclopmait of tin- Lutheran
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
gjgjgfUr
Church in America, and published Early History of
the Lutheran Church in America (Philadelphia,
1857); C. H. Bogatzky'i Golden Treasury, trans-
lated from the German (1858); Family Prayer, a
Book of Devotions (1859); HalU Reports, trans-
lated from the German, with extensive historical,
critical, and literary annotations (vol. i., 1880);
Wackernagel's Life of Lullier, translated (1B83):
and Hans Sachs' Wittenberg Nightingale, translated
(1883).
Btbuoobipbh II. E. Jacobs, in American Church History
SCHAFF, achat, DAVID SCHLEY: Presbyterian;
b. at Mercorsburg, Pa., Oct. 17. 1852. He was
graduated from Yale (A.B., 1873), and Union
TboologiaeJ Seminary (1876). He was pastor of
tin- Presbyterian church at Hastings, Neb. (1877-
1881); associate editor of the Srhiii-IIi r;m; Enci-
dopadia (1881-83); pastor of the First Presby-
terian Church, Kansas City, Mo. (18S3-89); and
professor of church history in Lane Theological Sem-
inary, Cincinnati, O. (1897-1903). Since 1003 he
has held a similar professors! up in Western Theolog-
ical Seminary, Pittsburg, Pa. He contributed to
the liililc Dictionary of his father, Philip Sclmlf
(Philadelphia, innu); has revised and abridged J.
S. Howaoa and H. D. M. Spencc's commentary on
Acts for the International Rerision Comiufnlun/
(New York, 1892); has written The Life of Philip
5^0/(1897); and has continued the History of the.
ClirinUmi Church bv his father (vol. v. parts I and
2, 1907-10).
SCHAFF, PHILIP.
I. Preparatory Period, IS19-*3.
II. M,-reon.hurn Period. 1843-63.
Election; Liters ty Activity <( I).
Relation to Use of German (( 2).
III. New York Period, 1803-B3.
Literary Work (1 'D-
Philip Schaff, Biblical scholar and church histo-
rian, organizer and editor of the first edition of this
Enat'-'l"i><din, was born at Chur, Switzerland, Jan.
1, 1819; d. in New York City Oct. 20, 1893.
There are three well-defined periods in his life:
I. Preparatory Period, 1819-43: From the schools
at Chur and IOirnlhid (\Vurtteml>erg) he passed to
the gymnasium in Stuttgart, and the universities
of Tubingen, Halle, and Berlin (1837-40). At
Tubingen he heard Ferdinand Christian Baur
(i-|.v.) but came especially under the inllnenee of
(lie biblical theologian, Christian Fricdrich Sehinid
(q.v.). At Halle he was on very intimate terms with
Julius Muller and Tholuek (qq.V.) living a part of
the time under the letter's roof. There he made bis
first American acquaintance, George Lewis Prentiss
(•|-V), afterward his lifelong friend and for many
years his colleague in Union Theological Seminary.
At Berlin he was especially attracted by Neander,
whose amanuensis ho was for a time. He then
traveled through Italy and Sicily as tutor to Baron
Krocher. In 1842 he received the venia legendi
at Berlin and began bis career as privat-docent at
that university. It was at this period that he came
to know Godet and Theodore Monod (qq.vj and
wrote his treatises, Die SUndc wider den heiligen
Geist und die daraus getogenen dogmalischen und
ct.'.ixcluii Folgerungen. Eine eregttisch-aogmatische
.■V.fliinirflitng, nebst ciner historischen Anhange titer
das Lebensende des Francesco Spiera (Halle, 1841),
and On Yerhdltniss des Jakobua, Druders des Herrn,
!U Jakobus Alpluii, aufs Scat. is.tyi-tUrh und Itinturixcli
•unlersuiht (Berlin, 1842), the former being his
licentiate of theology and the latter his hnbilitation
theme.
II. Mercersburg Period, 1843-63: He emigrated
to the United States in 1843 at the invitation of the
German Reformed Church to occupy a chair in its
tlicoli'iiiciil seminary in Mi-reer.-burg, Pa., and
showed himself eminently '.jiialiiicd fur the position,
adding to scholarly attainments and religious fervor
wise theological judgment, a faculty of adapting
himself to new conditions, and of enter-
1. Election; ing heartily into the republican forms
Literary of the West. On his way to America
Activity, he spent two months in England,
studying the language and coining into
contact with some of the leaders of the Oxford
movement. Arriving in Mercersburg he found John
WflfiaffiMO Nevin (q.v.) in charge of the seminary,
and as colleagues they brought out the so-called
"Mercersburg Theology" (q.v.), known through-
out the English -speaking world and also in Germany,
and charged vv i (. ] 1 a liume-ivurd tendency, tun which
really signified, bo fur as there was anything pecu-
har in it, merely an application of the historical
spirit to all problems of theology and a ehurehly
regard for the ancient liturgical forms of the Church.
Suspicion soon fell upon Dr. Schaff as an alleged
advocate of a de-Protestantizing tendency, and his
inaugural address on Das Prinri/idc* Pratt .■•■ttnitUiiiu-i
(Chambi.Tsbure, 1S4.J, Eng. transl. with Introduc-
tion by Dr. Nevin, The Principle of Protestantism,
as related to the Present State of the Church) called
forth the charge of heresy, which was argued before
the synod at York in 1845, but ho was acquitted by
a practically unanimous vote. This address elabor-
ated the two principles of Protestantism and the
two dangers to which Protestantism is exposed,
sectarianism and rationalism. Dr. SchatT in sub-
sequent years mid that he never dreamt of advoca-
ting anything heretical when he prepared and
delivered his inaugural. His kindly references 10
tin- Middle Aces and to the < Ixford movement prob-
ably suc.cested the charge. The great interest
which this address aroused was the beginning of
a new movement in the German Reformed Church.
In the seminary Dr. Schaff at one time or another
I a ncbl all the depart meiits. bavin ii only a single col-
league. He became identified with all the move-
ments in the denomination, especially with the
liturgical movement, serving as chairman of the
commit tee to prepare a liturgy (1857). He brought
out aGesaii'jbiifh (\sr,<i) which introduced a new em
in congregational song- among the Gen nan-speaking
churches of the United Stales by substituting a
book of merit for books in which rationalistic hymns
were freely used; and for the three-hundredth an-
niversary of the Heidelberg I 'atechism an elaborate
edition of that catechism (1803). He had already
written a simple catechism for children in German
fohaff
oohwnT
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOQ
224
and English (1861); while his preference for church
history was shown by his history of the Apostolic
Church, which appeared first in German at Mercers-
burg (1851, 2d ed., Leipsic, 1854; English transl.
by E. D. Yeomans, New York, 1853; Dutch, Tiel,
1857). The work was favorably received on all
sides, both in Germany and the United States.
The important problem was presented during this
period to the Reformed Church and other churches
of continental origin as to how far they should
yield in the matter of language and other customs
to the usages of the United States. The feeling
was very strong among the emigrants
x. Relation of the first generation against any
to Use change as treason to their traditions.
of German. Dr. Schaff had been called to train
ministers through the medium of the
German tongue, and this he conscientiously at-
tempted to do in the class-room until he was com-
pelled by the demand of the majority of the students
to resort to English. He became aware that it was
unwise to attempt forcibly to perpetuate the use
of German in this land. In his address, Der Anglo-
germanismus (English transl., Anglo-Germanism,
or the Significance of the German Nationality in the
United States, Chambersburg, 1846) he recognised
the sure tendency of the second and third genera-
tions to abandon those churches of German origin
which persisted in maintaining the German language
and other customs unmodified. His views met with
a storm of opposition and German papers denounced
him as a traitor to his German training. He took
the same attitude with reference to German the-
ology and German books, and held that it was un-
wise, as it was impracticable, to introduce them
unmodified into the United States, and that they
should be reproduced "and adapted to the prac-
tical wants of the free church in a free state." But
these views did not interfere with the warmest love
for his native Switzerland or the continuance of the
warmest friendships in Germany and his unabated
esteem for the diligence, simplicity, and independ-
ence of German professorial life. In 1854 he went
to Europe for a year to recuperate after his stren-
uous labors. He delivered lectures on America and
its institutions (German original, Berlin, 1854; 3d
ed., 1865; English transl. by E. D. Yeomans, New
York, 1855; Dutch transl. by De Schryver, Rot-
terdam, 1855) in different cities. One outcome of
the year was his Germany, its Universities, Theology
and Religion (Philadelphia, 1857, the first book he
issued in English Limself)> in which he gave infor-
mation concerning German universities, their pro-
fessors, and other leading German divines, from
personal acquaintance, which was very welcome to
the growing number of American and British students
interested in German theology.
HI. New York Period, 1863-93: In consequence
of the ravages of the civil war the theological sem-
inary at Mercersburg was closed for a while and so in
1863 Dr. Schaff became secretary of the Sabbath
Committee in New York City, and held the position
till 1870. He advocated the American view of Sun-
day observance as opposed to the continental, and
gave himself up with characteristic energy and
practical foresight to the work of arousing public
opinion, enlisting the cooperation of the German-
speaking clergy for the American Sunday and secur-
ing the enforcement of Sunday laws.
z. Varied In this interest he traveled east and
Activities, west, issued tracts, made addresses,
called mass meetings, and in other way?
advanced the cause. Also in Germany he advocated
a better observance of the day before meetings of
Christian clergymen and laymen in different cities
held during visits in 1865 and 1869. On these
visits, as on others, he also advocated the idea of the
American Sunday-school and organized the first
of such schools in Stuttgart (1865). In 1870 he was
made professor in Union Theological Seminary,
New York City, holding first the chair of theological
encyclopedia and Christian symbolism till 1873, of
Hebrew and the cognate languages till 1874, of
sacred literature till 1887, and finally of church
history, till his death.
But his labors in the class-room represented only
a part of his public services. Movements in which
he became prominently identified were the Evan-
gelical Alliance, the revision of the English Bible,
and the Alliance of the Reformed Churches. In
all of these he showed himself one of the most
devoted as he certainly was one of the most dis-
tinguished advocates. As secretary of the Amer-
ican branch of the Evangelical Alliance he threw
himself into the preparations for the great con-
ference which met in New York in 1873, and by
three visits to Europe succeeded in enlisting the co-
operation of many prominent clergymen and
scholars who probably but for him would not have
come, and whose presence made the New York
meeting so unique. He himself presented papers
at all of the general conferences of the Evangelical
Alliance down to 1891, although not able to attend
the last, and in the same direction of unity strove
for the closer union of the bodies representing the
Reformed type of the Reformation, joining in the
formation of the Alliance of the Reformed Churches
in London in 1875 and delivering the opening ad-
dress at the first council held in Edinburgh in 1877.
Dr. SchafTs connection with the revision of the
English Bible began in 1870. By invitation of the
British committee he selected a representative
committee of American scholars. He
2, Literary was indefatigable in procuring a hearty
Work. and sympathetic cooperation between
the British and American committees.
He saw the completion of the Revised New Testa-
ment in 1881 and of the Old Testament in 1885, and
to the end of his life predicted that though the Re-
vised Version was by no means perfect it would be
ultimately accepted by the churches as an improve-
ment upon the Authorized Version.
A work in which he was preeminent was as
mediator between German theology and church
life and the English-speaking public. He repre-
sented the Evangelical type of German theology,
and his thorough acquaintance with all types of
German thought and his personal intimacy with
many of the leading German scholars enabled him
to interpret German theology with authority. His
mastery of both German and English and his clear
style furthered his influence. By his visits and ad-
985
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Schaff
Schans
dresses in Germany and through publications he was
also the chief interpreter of American thought to
the German religious public. This intermediary
relationship was recognized on both sides of the
sea, and in the address presented to him by the the-
ological faculty of Berlin in 1892, on the fiftieth
anniversary of his activity as a teacher, he was com-
pared to Martin Butzer, who had carried the learn-
ing of the continent to England in the time of the
Reformation, and also to Jerome, who translated
the Greek Scriptures into Latin, because of his
services in the cause of Biblical scholarship. As a
theological writer he was prolific. He wrote and
edited numerous works in the departments of exe-
gesis, the chief of which was the American edition
of Lange's Bibelwerk (25 vols., New York); pro-
pedeutic; hymnology (Christ in Song, 1868; en-
larged by his son, 2 vols., 1897); symbolics (The
Creeds of Christendom, 3 vols., 1877) ; also Through
Bible Lands (1878); A Companion to the Greek
Testament and the English Version (1883); The
Teaching of the Twelve Apostles (1885). Church
history was his most fruitful study, and he followed
his Apostolic Church with a history of the Church
down to 1073, and passing over the intervening
period brought out two rich volumes on the German
and Swiss Reformation respectively. He originated
the American Society of Church History (1888), and
arranged for the authorship and publication by it
of the American Church History Series (13 vols.,
1893 sqq.). He edited the series of Nicene and
PostrNicene Fathers (28 vols). He edited the first
edition of this Encyclopedia (3 vols., 1884) and its
companion, afterward combined with it, The Ency-
clopedia of Living Divines (1886).
His last public appearance was in Chicago at the
Parliament of Religions, Sept. 22, 1893. He sat
upon the platform while his paper on Christian
Union was being read. The inscription on his tomb-
stone presents the salient features of his career: "A
teacher of theology for fifty years. Historian of
the Church. President of the American Committee
of Bible Revision. He advocated the reunion of
Christendom.* * His great learning was held in the
service of piety. He regarded love as the central
principle of theology; and with a tolerant mind,
which sacrificed none of the fundamental tenets of
his own Reformed faith, he lalx>red for fellowship
and cooperation among all classes of Christian be-
lievers, among the Greek and Roman Catholics as
well as among the numerous communions of Prot-
estants. His motto was Christianus sum. Chris-
tiani nihil a me alienum puto; and his last confes-
sion, "I am a sinner, and place my trust in my
Savior who died for me.' ' David S. Schafp.
Bibliography: D. R. Schaff, The Life of Philip Schaff, New
York, 1897.
SCHAITBERGER, shoifbarH-er, JOSEPH: Lead-
er of the Protestants driven from the valleys
about Salzburg in the persecution instituted in 1083
by Archbishop Maximilian Gandolf (see Salzburg,
Evangelicals of); b. at DUrnberg, near Hallein
(9 m. s.s.e. of Salzburg), Mar. 19, 1658; d. at Nurem-
berg Oct. 2, 1733. Though a simple miner, he
studied deeply Luther's and Canisius's catechisms
X.— 15
and attained a rich spiritual life. It was he who
drew up on the archbishop's requirement the con-
fession of faith for his Protestant friends and
neighbors because of which they were driven from
their homes in the winter of 1685. With his wife
Schaitberger found refuge in Nuremberg and sup-
ported himself there as wood-worker and wire-
drawer. During his last years he was a pensioner
of the Carthusian monastery. He made many
journeys through the valleys about Salzburg at no
small personal risk, exhorting and encouraging the
Protestants who had remained behind, and he wrote
for them a number of missives treating questions
of Christian faith and life which (twenty-four in
number) were ultimately collected and printed as
Evangelischer Sendbrief (Nuremberg, 1702). The
book soon became known throughout all Germany
and is still read. A poem of his, written in his
native dialect on occasion of his exile and begin-
ning "A poor exile am I," expresses the longing
for home with true pathos, yet breathes a joyous
trust in God. It has found place in many hymn-
books. (Hermann Beck.)
Bibliography: J. O. Schellhorn, De religionis evangelic* in
provincia Salzburgenai ortu et foctin, Lcipsic, 1732; J.
Moscr, Salzburger Emiffrationsakten, Frankfort, 1732; C.
F. Arnold, Die Vertreibung der Salzburger Proteetanten,
Leipsic, 1900; idem, Die AusroUung dee ProUstantismu*
in Salzburg, Halle, 1900-01; C. Grosse, Die alien Truster,
Hermannaburg, 1900.
SCHALL, shol, JOHANN ADAM : German
astronomer and Jesuit; b. at Cologne 1591; d. in
China Aug. 15, 1666. He was educated in the Col-
legium Germanicum in Rome; entered the order of
the Jesuits, and was in 1628 sent as a missionary to
China, where he remained to his death. He re-
formed the Chinese calendar, acquired the con-
fidence of the Chinese government, and translated
into Chinese many mathematical treatises, inter-
larded with religious and Christian discussions.
He also wrote Historica missionis sodetatis Jesu
apud Chinenses (Vienna, 1665).
G. H. KiJPPELt.
Bibliography: A. and A. de Backer, BibliotMque de la
compagnie de Jlsus, ed. C. Sommervogel, vii. 705 sqq.,
Paris, 1896; A. Kircher, China monumentie . . . illue-
trata, pp. 104 sqq., Amsterdam, 1667; KL, x. 1754-56.
SCHA5Z, shflnts, PAUL VON: German Roman
Catholic; b. at Herb (20 m. s.w of Tubingen),
Wurtteniberg, Mar. 4, 1841; d. at Tubingen June
1, 1905. He was educated at the universities of
Berlin and Tubingen (Ph.D., 1866) and at the theo-
logical scminarv of Rottenburg (1865-66); was
lecturer at the Wilhelmstift, Tubingen (1867-70);
acting professor of mathematics and science at the
gymnasium of Rottwcil (1870-72); and full pro-
fessor of the same subjects in that institution until
1876. After 1876 he was connected with the Uni-
versity of Tubingen, first as professor of New-Testa-
ment exegesis (1876-83) and later as professor of
dogmatics and apologetics (since 1883). In addi-
tion to being joint editor of the TheologiscJu; QuartaU
schrift and editing M. von Aberle's Einleitung in
das Neue Testament (Freiburg, 1877) and the fifth
edition of J. A. M6hler's Neue Untersuchungen der
Lehrgegens&tze zwischen den Katholiken und Prote-
Sohappeler
Schauffler
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
226
stanten (Regensburg, 1900), he wrote a commentary
on the Gospels (4 vols., Freiburg, 1879-85) ; Nicolaue
von Cuea ale Malhemaiiker (Rottweil, 1872); Die
aetronomischen Anschauungen dee Nicolaue von
Cuea und seiner Zeil (1873); Galileo Galilei und
$ein Prozeee (Wurzburg, 1878); Apologie dee
Chrietentume (3 parts, Freiburg, 1887-88); Die
Lehre von den heiligen Sacramenten der katholischen
Kirche (1893); Moderne Apologetik (Frankfort,
1903).
SCHAPPELER, sha'pel-er, CHRISTOPH: Re-
former in South Germany; b. at St. Gall (19 m. s.e.
of Constance), Switzerland, in 1472; d. there Aug.
25, 1 551 . Nothing is known of his education, except
that it followed the scholastic vogue. He was en-
gaged at the Latin school at St. Gall, 1493-1513;
became preacher at the chief church at Memmingen,
Upper Swabia, 1513, where with rare eloquence
and upright life he fearlessly set himself against the
priesthood of the older faith, as well as against
private and public evils. At the approach of the
Reformation, he deliberately made his choice, and
cast his lot with Zwingli and his colleagues, intro-
ducing the movement in his city. Laying stress
upon the Bible as the source of faith and ordinances,
he attacked the mass, the claims of the pope, and
the orders of the Roman Catholic Church. The
writings of the Reformers were spread abroad,
along with copies of the Scriptures, especially the
New Testament; but the council could not be pre-
vailed upon to interfere, since the movement had
caught hold of the imagination of the people. On
Feb. 27, 1524, the bishop of Augsburg excommu-
nicated Schappeler, with the result of the greatest
public excitement at Memmingen. On Dec. 7, 1524,
he administered holy communion in both species
and celebrated baptism in the German language.
Finally a public disputation was held, Jan. 2-7,
1525, in which Schappeler presented his profession
in seven articles: he renounced (1) the oral confes-
sional; (2) supplication to Mary and the saints;
(3) the practise of tithes; (4) the sacrifice of the
mass, which he regarded as a memorial; (5) pur-
gatory; (6) he demanded the Eucharist in both
kinds; (7) he proclaimed the universal priesthood
of believers. He overwhelmed his adversaries with
Scripture. Practical results followed. The council,
after taking advice from other scholars in neighbor-
ing towns, approved the marriage of the clergy,
permitted monks and nuns to abandon the cloisters,
subjected the priests to taxation and civil jurisdic-
tion, forbade the tithe of the laity, and abolished
the mass. Schappeler attracted not only an en-
thusiastic following in the town but also among the
peasants of the surrounding country, who were op-
pressed with economic and legal grievances. As
the author of the famous twelve articles, he had a
prominent part in the impending Peasants' War
(q.v.).
His Swiss nature had asserted itself in his attitude
on social and political affairs. From the beginning
he spoKe on behalf of the lower classes, and was wont
to appeal over the heads of the council to the whole
community of citizens. The council's admonition
only made him more discreet. From the year 1523
he vigorously opposed the right of demanding
tithes, but he warned the peasants repeatedly
against resort to violence. He took no part, per-
sonally, in the peasant parliament of the delegates
of the three groups of Alg&u, Lake Constance, and
Baltringen in 1525 at Memmingen, but from Schap-
peler proceeded undoubtedly the demand that in the
new order of things, both ecclesiastical and civil,
a basis must be sought in divine law. He thoroughly
approved of peasant organization in order to carry
out this theoretical demand. The proposal for a
Christian union of peasants that his friend and
follower, Sebastian Lotxer, unsuccessfully tried to
carry out, thwarted by the Swabian League, may
be regarded as a scheme of Schappeler's. The
authorship of the twelve articles has been variously
attributed, partly because Schappeler subsequently
did not acknowledge them and partly because of the
failure to notice the inner resemblance to the ten
articles submitted by the Memmingen peasants to
the council, Feb. 23-Mar. 3, 1525, of which the
former seem an enlarged and more refined version.
Nevertheless, the ten articles must be taken as a
sublimation of the long-continued public instruction
of Schappeler. When the parliament met, Mar.
6-30, the ten articles were taken as the basis for the
Christian union, and they had to be revised and
strengthened by the support of Scripture. Whether
Schappeler performed this of his own accord or was
prompted by Lotser or other leaders remains un-
certain. At any rate they appeared in print. Two
elements were embodied; ecclesiastical freedom,
and release from intolerable feudalistic burdens.
Moreover, the Swabian League, under the implaca-
ble Leonhard von Ech, refused all discussion, and in
the confusion it took advantage of a long-cher-
ished desire for an armed invasion of the imperial
city, under pretense that Memmingen was the breed-
ing-place of disturbance and Schappeler the chief
agitator, to be visited with a bloody penalty. The
latter left the city secretly and took refuge at St.
Gall. In 1532 the congregation sought his recall by
the council in vain. After two years the council
consented to the surrender of his library and to an
indemnity of one hundred florins (about $45) . Later
he was preacher at Luisibuhl and at St. Mang in
St. Gall. (W. Vogt.)
Bibliography: F. Dobel, Memmingen in ReformationsaUer,
5 parts, Augsburg, 1877-78 (part 1 deals with Schappeler);
C. A. Cornelius, Studien tur Geschichte des Bauernkrieges,
Munich, 1861; E. Rohling, Die Reichstadt Memmingen in
der Zeii der evangeiischen Volksbewegung, ib., 1864; A.
Stern. Ueber die It Artikel der Bauern, Leipsic, 1868; F. L.
Baumann, Die oberschwabischen Bauern . . . und die It
Artikel, Kempten. 1871; W. Vogt. Die bayrische Politik
im Bauemkrieg, Nordlingen, 1883; Cambridge Modern His-
tory, ii. 160, 177, 170; and the literature under Peasants'
War.
SCHARLING, shOr'ling, CARL HENRIK: Danish
theologian; b. in Copenhagen May 3, 1836. He
studied at the University of Copenhagen (candidate
in theology, 1859) ; spent the years 1860-63 in ex-
tensive travel, a result of which was the publication
of Breve fra Holland (1864) ; Grcekenland (1866) ;
and En Pilgrimsfawd i del hellige Land (1876) ; was
editor of Ugeblad for den danske Folkekirke (186&-
1868), and of Dansk Tulsskrifl for Kirke- og Folkeliv,
887
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Soh&ppeler
Schanmer
LUeratur og Kunst (1869-70); became docent in
ethics in the university 1867, and professor 1870.
In 1872-74 he published his most important work,
Menneskehed og Kristendom, in two volumes, a
philosophy of history. Other theological publica-
tions are Jacob Bdhmes Theosophie (1879); Den
lutherske Dogmatik overfor Nutidens kirkdige og
videnskabelige Krav (1883), the address at the uni-
versity celebration of the fourth centenary of Lu-
ther's birth; Chris telig ScBdelcare efter evangelish-
luthersk Opfattelse (2 vols., 1884-86), a systematic
treatment of ethics; Religionens Stilling i det men-
neskelige Aands- og Sjcdeliv (1897) ; and Det svundne
og det Vundne, Tanker og Overvejelser ved Aarhund-
redskiftet (1903). In theology Scharling is a con-
fessional Lutheran, opposed to the Grundtvig school
of theology, somewhat inclined to polemics, in the
interest of which he has written several works, and
is fearless in controversy. He has not confined his
literary activities to theology. Thus he is the author
(under the pseudonym of Nicolai) of Ved Nytaarstid
i Ndddebo Prcestegaard (1862; many Danish editions
and translations into German, French, and English,
Ndddebo Parsonage, 2 vols., London, 1867), charac-
teristic of Danish thought and personality; he
wrote also the novel Uffe Hjelm og Palle Loves
Bedrifter (1866); the biography of Christian IX.
and Queen Louise (1895-98). His The Rivals, or,
Love and War (London, 1869), and Nicolai' s Mar-
riage (2 vols, London, 1876) are other works which
have appeared in English. John O. Evjen.
SCHARTAU, shOr'tau, HENRIK: Swedish
preacher; b. at Malmd (16 m. e.s.s. of Copenhagen)
Sept. 27, 1757; d. at Lund (24 m. e. of Copenhagen)
Feb. 2, 1825. He was of German descent; studied
theology at Lund, 1771-78; was ordained in 1780;
was domestic preacher, and later assistant to a
rural pastor; but, 1786, became diakonus at the ca-
thedral at Lund; archdeacon in 1793, and, besides,
district provost, 1800. In 1810 he was a repre-
sentative of the clericals in the diet which chose
the king. He steered clear of the rationalistic moral-
ism on the one hand and the pietism of the Unity of
the Brethren on the other, between representatives
of which the pulpit was divided at that time; and
while the former preached the abstract formulas of
God the Father, and the latter indulged in the mys-
tical contemplation of the Savior's blood and
wounds, he chose and preached with earnestness and
power the third article, of the work of sanctification,
that is, the justification of the sinner before God.
At the same time he no less earnestly carried on his
catechetical work. (A. MichelsenI".)
Bibliography: Biographies are by A. Lindeblad, Lund,
1837. Germ, tran&l., Leipeic, 1842; and H. M. Melin,
Stockholm, 1838.
SCHAUFFLBR, shsfler, ADOLF FREDERICK:
Presbyterian; b. at Constantinople, Turkey, Mar.
7, 1845. He was educated at Williams College
(A.B., 1867), Union Theological Seminary (1868-
1860), and Andover Theological Seminary (1869-
1871), and from 1872 to 1887 was pastor of Olivet
Presbyterian Church, New York City. Since 1887
he has been superintendent, and since 1902 presi-
dent, of the New York City Mission and Tract So-
ciety, and has also been chairman of the New York
State Sunday-school Association since 1899 and
secretary of the International Sunday-school Lesson
Commission since 1902. In theology he is a con-
servative. He has written Ways of Working (Bos-
ton, 1891); The Teacher, the Child, and the Book
(1900); The Pastor as Leader of Sunday-school
Forces (Nashville, 1903) ; Sparks from a Superin-
tendenfs Anvil; practical Helper for every Sunday-
school Worker (1909); and Knowing and Teaching
the Scholar (1910).
SCHAUFFLER, ALBERT HENRY: Missionary,
"Apostle to the Slavs of the United States,"
brother of the preceding, and son of William Gott-
lieb Schauffler; b. at Constantinople, Turkey, Sept.
4, 1837; d. at Cleveland, Ohio, Feb. 15, 1905. He
came to America, Apr., 1855, to enter Williams
College, and graduated therefrom in 1859. After
completing a course in Andover Seminary (1861)
he studied a year (1862) at Harvard Law School
in preparation for teaching at Robert College, Con-
stantinople. On his return to Turkey, he became
professor of law for two years in that institution;
but a preference for missionary work led to his
ordination, on June 3, 1865, at Pera, Constanti-
nople, and his employment by the American Board
in that city until 1870. While he was in America
on furlough (1872), the American Board induced
him to open the Austrian mission field. He located
at Prague for two years (1872-74) and then at
Brunn, Moravia, for seven years (1874-81). He
was influential in obtaining from the Emperor
Francis Joseph a decree which gave to Protestant
churches and to the Young Men's Christian As-
sociation a fair amount of religious freedom in the
Austrian Empire.
Obliged by affliction to return to America (1881)
he was persuaded to undertake mission work among
Bohemians settled in Cleveland, Ohio. He began
work in Olivet Chapel in 1882, and in 1883 was ap-
pointed superintendent of Slavic missions in the
United States under the Congregational Home
Missionary Society. He organised Bethlehem
(Bohemian) Congregational Church, Cleveland,
Ohio (1888); opened Bohemian missions at St.
Louis, Mo., Iowa City, la., Crete, Neb., Milwaukee,
Wis., and Silver Lake, Minn.; Slovak missions in
Pittsburg and its suburbs; Polish missions at Cleve-
land, O., Detroit, Mich., and Bay City, Mich., be-
sides furnishing inspiration, counsel, and workers
to other denominations which desired to enter
where Congregationalists could not undertake such
work. To carry forward this Slavic work he
founded two new institutions for the training of
Slavic workers, the Slavic department of Oberlin
College for the training of ministers, and the Bethle-
hem Bible and Missionary Training School for
women, as Bible readers.
He consecrated to missionary service a rare abil-
ity. His vigorous constitution withstood peril,
persecution, and incessant toil. His disciplined
mind tolerated only methodic, exact work, which
he performed with unusual despatch. He was re-
sourceful and cautious, and where diplomacy of
a high order was required, his honest, fearless, and
Schauffler
Soheffler
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
338
broad grasp of the situation secured for him suc-
cess and the lasting respect of his opponents. He
served the interest of foreign and home missionary
work, especially as a linguist. His mastery of
languages enabled him to begin work at once in the
Austrian field and later to meet the incoming for-
eigner to America with a greeting in his mother
tongue. Ho had a warm, sympathetic, and generous
heart, and a moral earnestness which befitted his
stability of character and conscientiousness.
Francis Metherall Whitlock.
SCHAUFFLER, shauf'ler, WILLIAM GOTTLIEB:
Missionary, father of the preceding; b. at Stuttgart,
WQrttemberg, Aug. 22, 1798; d. at New York Jan.
26, 1883. In 1804 his father removed to Odessa,
South Russia. In 1820 he resolved to devote him-
self to missionary work and in 1826 emigrated to
America and studied at Andover, 1826-31. Under
the care of the American Board, he went to Con-
stantinople, where he resided and labored, 1831-74.
He was particularly interested in the conversion of
the Jews, and for their benefit revised and superin-
tended the publication of the Old Testament in
Hebrew-Spanish (at Vienna, 1839-42). But his
great work was the translation of the whole Bible
into Osmanli-Turkish, the language of the educated
Turks. This occupied him eighteen years. For his
services to the German colony at Constantinople he
was decorated by King William of Prussia. After
1877 he lived in New York. He was a remarkable
linguist, being familiar with nineteen languages and
able to preach extemporaneously in German, Italian,
French, English, Spanish, and Turkish. He pub-
lished Meditations on the Last Days of Christ (Boston,
1837).
Bibliography: His Autobiography was edited by his sons,
with introduction by E. A. Park, New York, 1888.
SCHAUMBURG-LIPPE, shaum'burg-lip'pc : A
German principality bounded by the Prussian
provinces of Hanover and Westphalia; capital
Buckeburg; area 131 square miles; population
(1905) 45,000, most of whom are Lutherans. In
its present extent the principality dates from 1640.
Like Lippe (q.v.) the country was Christianized in
the time of Charlemagne, and was under the in-
fluence of Rome during the Middle Ages. Owing
to the fact that nearly all the counts of the house of
Schaumburg held high positions in the Roman
Church, the Reformation made its way into the
country at a comparatively late date. However,
in the decade following 1560 the country became
Evangelical, and the Mecklenburg Church Order
of 1552 was adopted. In 1614 Prince Ernest pro-
mulgated a new church order which was only mildly
Lutheran. From 1636 the reigning family at
Buckeburg has adhered to the Reformed faith,
though the population as a whole has remained
Lutheran. The Lutherans have eighteen parishes,
under a superintendent and two district superin-
tendents, and recently their consistorial constitu-
tion has been supplemented after the modern syno-
dal plan. The Reformed Church, on the other
hand, with a parish at Buckeburg and another at
Stadthagen, has belonged to the federation of Re-
formed churches in Lower Saxon v for two hun-
dred years. The Roman Catholics likewise have two
parishes with full parochial rights.
(F. H. Brandes.)
SCHECHTER, shelter, SOLOMON: Anglo-
American Hebrew scholar; b. at Fokshanl (100 m.
n.e. of Bucharest), Rumania, Dec. 7, 1847. He
was educated in the Talmudical school of Vienna
and at the universities of the same city and Berlin.
In 1882 he went to England as tutor in rabbinics to
Claude G. Montefiore and eight years later was ap-
pointed lecturer on the Talmud at the University
of Cambridge, where he became reader in rab-
binics in the following year. In 1893 he visited
Italy and five years later went to Egypt and Pales-
tine, discovering in Cairo the valuable Genizah
collection of Hebrew manuscripts, including the
Hebrew original of parts of Ecclesiasticus. In 1898
he was appointed external examiner in Victoria
University, Manchester, and in 1899 became profes-
sor of Hebrew at University College, London.
Since 1902 he has been president of the Jewish
Theological Seminary of America, New York City.
He has edited Abot de Rabbi Nolan (Vienna, 1887);
The Wisdom of Ben Sira: Portions of the Book of
Ecclesiasticus from Hebrew Manuscripts in the Cairo
Genizah Collection (in collaboration with C. Taylor
(Cambridge, 1899) ; Midrash hag-Gadol (1902) ; and
Documents of Jewish Sectaries (2 vols., Cambridge,
1910). He has written Studies in Judaism (two
series, 1896-1908); and Some Aspects of Rabbinic
Theology (1909). For a time he was Talmudical
editor of The Jewish Encyclopedia.
SCHEEL, shel, JUERGEN OTTO BIHAR IM-
MANUEL: German Protestant; b. at Tondern
(25 m. n.w. of Flensburg), Sleswick-Holstein, Mar.
7, 1876. He was educated at the universities of
Halle (1895-97) and Kiel (1897-99; lie. theol.,
1900), and was privat-docent for systematic the-
ology at the latter institution from 1900 to 1905,
when he was made titular professor. Since 1906 he
has been associate professor of church history at the
University of Tubingen. In theology he belongs
to the modern historical and critical school, and has
written: Die Anschauung Augiistins von Christi
Person und Werte (Tubingen, 1901); Luthers
SteHung zur heUigen Schrift (1902); Wie erhalten
wir das Erbe der Reformation in den geistigen Ramp-
fen der Gegenwartf (Leipsic, 1904); Die dogma-
tische Behandlung der Tauflehre in der modemen
posiliven Theologie (Tubingen, 1906); Individual-
ismus und Gemeinschaftslebeji in der Auseinander-
setzung Luthers mit Karlstadt, 1524-25 (1907) ; and
Die moderne Religionspsychologie (1908); besides
editing the Enchiridion of St. Augustine (Tubingen,
1903), and the first two supplementary volumes to
the Berlin edition of the works of Luther (Berlin,
1905).
SCHEELE, shcl'e, SHUT HENNING GEZELIUS
VON: Swedish Lutheran; b. at Stockholm, Sweden,
May 31, 1838; graduated at Upsala; became
privat-docent, 1865; provost, 1877; ordinary
member of consistory, 1878; professor, 1879; in-
spector of the teachers' seminary, 1880; censor of
the demission examinations in the Swedish upper
999
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Schaumer
Sohemer
schools, 1884; and in 1885 was appointed bishop
of Wisby. He was member of the house of nobility
in the Swedish parliament, 1865-66; and in 1901
represented his university and country at the Yale
bicentennial. He is the author in Swedish of "The
Ontological Evidence of the Existence of God"
(Upsala, 1863); "The Preparations of the Theo-
logical Rationalism" (1868); "Church Catechising"
(1869); "Theological Symbolics" (1877-79); "From
the Court into the Sanctuary" (Stockholm, 1879),
and "The Fight for the Peace" (1881).
SCHEFFER, shef'fer, JACOB GYSBERT DE
HOOP: Dutch ecclesiastical historian and leader
of the Mennonites in Holland; b. at The Hague
Sept. 28, 1819; d. at Amsterdam Dec. 31, 1893. He
studied theology at Amsterdam and Utrecht, in-
tending to become a Mennonite preacher, but took
a lively interest in literary questions, and was one
of the founders in 1844 of the Vereeniging voor oude
Nederlandsche letterkunde. His interest in art and
letters was evident throughout his life, as when he
edited Navorscher (the Dutch " Notes and Queries").
From 1848 to 1859 he was a Mennonite preacher at
Hoorn, Groningen, and Amsterdam. Then he be-
came professor in the seminary of the Algemeene
Doopsgezinde Societeit. With the elevation in
1877 of the Amsterdam Athenaeum to the rank of a
university, he was appointed to the chair of Old-
Testament exegesis and early Christian literature,
while he continued to lecture on the history of the
sect and practical theology in the Mennonite semi-
nary. His most important work was done in the field
of church history, in the interest of which he edited
(1870-80) with Willem Moll the periodical Studiin
en Bijdragen. In this first appeared his principal
production, the Geschiedenis der Kerkhervorming in
Nederland van hoar ontstaan tot 1531 (2 vols., Am-
sterdam, 1873), a definitive treatment of the begin-
nings of Dutch Protestantism. A number of
studies in the history of the Mennonites, many of
them appearing in the Doopsgezinde Bijdragen,
which he edited from 1870 to 1893, showed re-
markable industry and acuteness. A third depart-
ment of his studies dealt with the Brownists, or
English Independents settled in Holland, from
whom came the " Pilgrim Fathers " (see Congrega-
tion a usts), and Schcffer made important contribu-
tions to the history of these people (in the Fer-
slagen der Koninklijke Akademie) . Scheffer was next
led to take up the history of baptism by immersion,
which he treated in the Verslagen of 1882. His
researches led to the abandonment of the old
Baptist theory of an uninterrupted succession of the
doctrine of immersion from the apostles, and their
importance has l>een recognized by the best modern
Baptist authors, such as Newman and Lehman.
No one among the Mennonites was better known
abroad than Scheffer, whose work brought him into
correspondence with many foreign scholars. At
home he occupied for thirty years a position of great
influence among the members of his communion,
whose activity he promoted in manifold ways.
Throughout his life he was an adherent of the liberal
theology of what was formerly known as the " Gro-
ningen School." Though devoted to his own re-
ligious body, he never assumed that this alone pos-
sessed the truth or forgot proper consideration and
charity toward other churches. He was an admi-
rable type of the liberal, highly educated, thought-
ful Dutch Mennonite. S. Cramer.
Bibliography: Sketches of his life are by Rogge, in the
" Yearbook " of the Dutch Royal Academy of Sciences
for 1894; and by A. Winkler Prins, Ley den, 1894; cf.
Doopagezinde Bijdragen, 1895, pp. 1 sqq.
SCHEFFLER, shef'ler, JOHANN (ANGELUS
SILESIUS): German mystic and poet; b. at Bres-
lau 1624; d. there July 9, 1677. He studied medi-
cine at Strasburg (1643-44), in Holland (1644-47),
and Padua (1647-48). In Holland he became ac-
quainted with Jacob Bochme's theosophical and
mystical writings, brought from Silesia by Abraham
von Franckenberg. On his return (1649) he became
physician to the zealous Lutheran count, Sylvius
Nimrod von Wurttemberg-Oels, at Oels in Silesia.
He was intimate with Franckenberg, which prob-
ably led to his dismissal. Upon the death of Franck-
enberg (1652), he wrote an elegy, EhrengedOchtnis,
which contained, in the style of Boehme, the main
ideas of all his later writings. In 1652 he went to
Breslau, and became a member of the Roman
Catholic Church, at the same time assuming the
name Angelus, from a Spanish mystic of the six-
teenth century. He gave the reasons for his con-
version in his Grundliche Ursachen (Olmutz, 1653).
In his desire for mystical union with God he was re-
pelled by the Lutheran religion as represented in the
court preacher at Oels, through its objection to the
contemplative life and asceticism; and he thought
to obtain freedom in the Roman Catholic Church,
which stood for the communion of the saints and
seemed to be the embodiment of the Holy Spirit.
In Mar., 1654, he became court physician to Em-
peror Ferdinand III., an honorary office without
duties or emoluments, but exempting him from
difficulties in consequence of his change of con-
fession. He lived quietly at Breslau, engaged in a
comparative study of doctrines and the preparation
of his literary publications. The only incident re-
ported of this period was that he led a pilgrimage
(1656) to the convent of Trebnitz, three miles
distant.
In 1661 the brooding mystic suddenly issued
forth as a fanatical controversialist against Protes-
tantism. He entered the order of the Minorites and
received ordination as a priest. He received strong
support from Sebastian von Rostock, the vicar-
general of the archdukes of Austria, who were
successively bishops of Breslau. At the vicar's
instigation, an imperial edict was issued for the
restoration of the Corpus Christi procession, at the
first occurrence of which Scheffler carried the mon-
strance. The impending peril from the Turks
brought forth a tract, Von den Ursachen der turkir
schen Ueberziehung und Zertretung des Volkes Goties
(Xeisse, 1664), in which he ascribed the danger to
the divine judgment upon the apostasy of the Prot-
estants. After the conclusion of peace he wrote
ChrUUchrift von den herrlichen Kennzeichen dee
Volkes Gottes, in which he claimed the defeat of the
Turks as proof that only a Roman theocracy could
help Christendom. Counterblasts came from Chris-
Soheffler
Sohellinff
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
230
tian Chemnitz (q.v.) and Adam Scherzer, and a long
and bitter polemical feud ensued. Scheffler was
appointed court-marshal and councilor to Sebas-
tian von Rostock, now bishop-prince and imperial
supreme commander in Silesia. The consequence
was that Scheffler's polemics of impassioned enmity
acquired peculiar significance and were read all
over Germany. Of these he issued fifty-five in
twelve years; thirty-nine were selected by him-
self and published posthumously under the title
Ecclesiologia (Neisse, 1677).
Scheffler attained more permanent fame as a poet.
One of his two principal works was Johannis Angeli
Silesii Geistreiche Sinn- und Schlussreime (Vienna,
1657). It contained in five books 1,410 epigrams
with superscriptions, consisting of two, four, and
rarely more Alexandrine verses. An appendix con-
tained ten sonnets. These, with two poems of
considerable length, five epigrams in quatrain, and
246 in couplets, form the sixth book of the second
edition known as Cherubinische Wander smann
(Glatz, 1674). In this work Scheffler's theosophical
and mystical wisdom of life is expressed in brief,
terse sentences. Man's goal should be unity with
God obtained by absorption in him; and God is love.
Man experiences God not by thought but by be-
coming what God is, by renunciation, patience,
humility, and love. The work is more metaphysical
in character than ethical or dogmatic. Though it is
obscure and not without self-contradiction in form,
exposing the author to the charge of pantheism,
yet much is contained that is truly profound.
For many thoughts he makes acknowledgment to
predecessors; namely, Augustine Bonaventura, Jan
van Ruysbroeck (qq.v.), Heinrich Harpius, and
especially Johann Tauler (q.v.), but he leaves out
Valentine Weigel and Jakob Boehme, evidently
because the book was issued under Roman Catholic
censorship. His book of spiritual hymns is still
more famous, Heilige Seelenlust oder geistliche
Hirtenlieder der in ihrem Jesum verliebten Psyche
gesungen van Johann Angelo Silesia und von Herrn
Georgio Josepho mil ausbundig schdnen Melodien
geziert (Breslau, no date). It consisted of three
books containing 143 hymns, each with a melody.
It appeared in 1657, and the same year a fourth
book with thirty-two hymns and melodies was
added. A second edition (Breslau, 1668) appeared
with 205 hymns. The subject matter of these
hymns consists of love and yearning of the soul for
Jesus and the worshipful wonder at his glory; and
they are of the pietistic, personal kind, characteris-
tic of the subjective dotage of the mystics. The
various hymnals of the later seventeenth and early
eighteenth centuries, especially that of the Unity of
the Brethren, contained many selections, which dis-
appeared during the period of rationalism. In
the recent Evangelical hymn-book the best ones
reappear; such as "Ich will dich lieben meine
Starcke" (1657), " IAebe die du mich turn Bilde"
(1657), "Mir nach spricht Christus unser Held'1
(1668), "Ach sagt mir nicht von Gold und Sch&tzen"
(1657), and "Jesus ist der schbnsU Nam" (1657).
Another book of poems is the Sinnliche Beschreib-
ung der vier letzten Dinge (Schweidnitz, 1675). His
poetical works were collected in two vols, by D. A.
Rosenthal (Regensburg, 1862); and Selections
from his Rhymes was published in English by P.
Cams (Chicago, 1909).
From his hymns and poems many translations
into English have been made, though rarely do these
embrace more than parts of the originals. Noted
among these are " Earth has nothing sweet or fair,"
by Miss Cox; "Make my heart a garden fair";
"Jesus is the highest name," by A. T. Russell;
"Morning Star in darksome night/' by Miss Wink-
worth; and "Where wilt thou go? since night
draws near," by A. Crull. (Carl Bebtheau.)
Bibliography: A. Kahlert, Angelus Silesius, sine litterar-
historische Untersuchung, Breslau. 1853 (best); J. J. Ram-
bach, Anthologie chrisUieher Qesange, iii. 90 sqq., Altona,
1819; W. Schreder, Angelus Silesius und seine Mystik,
Hall©, 1853; Q. Schuster, in ZHT, 1857, pp. 427 sqq.,
F. Kern, /. Scheffler* Churubinischer Wander smarm* Leip-
sic, 1866; E. E. Koch, Geschichte dee Kirchenliedes, iv. 3
sqq., Stuttgart, 1868; W. Lindemann, Angelus Silesius,
Bild einee Konvertiten, Bidden und Streittheologen, Frei-
burg, 1876; A. Seltmann, Angdus SUesius und seine
Mystik, Breslau, 1896; R. von Kralik von Meyerswalden,
Angdus SUesius und die christliche Mystik, Frankfort,
1902; W. Nell©, Qeschichie des deutschen evangeiisehen
Kirchenliedes, pp. 141 sqq., Hamburg, 1904; idem, Jo-
hann Scheffler, ib. 1904; ADB, i. 453-456; Julian, Hym-
nology, pp. 1004-07; KL, z. 1765-67.
SCHEEBEL, shoi'bel, JOHANlf GOTTFRIED: Ger-
man Lutheran; b. at Breslau Sept. 16, 1783; d. at
Nuremberg Mar. 21, 1843. He was educated at
the University of Halle (1801-04); became min-
ister at Breslau 1804-18; and theological professor
in the University of Breslau after 1818. Scheibel's
open profession of the plenary inspiration of the
Scriptures and of the doctrines of the Lutheran
Church on justification, original sin, and the real
presence of Christ in the Lord's Supper was quite
unusual and occasioned no little antagonism; but
though his mode of expression was involved and
not popular, he gradually gathered a following of
believing, positive Christians from all classes about
himself. Religion seemed to him something ready-
made, and not only what was revealed, but what
was evident to him, seemed to him important and
necessary. His faith was the certainty that the
matter in question was contained in Scripture.
His first publication, Einige Worte fiber die Wahrheit
der chrisUichen Religion (1815), was an attack upon
the rationalistic criticisms of the Bible and of the
doctrines of creation and atonement. In his Unter-
suchungen uber Bibel und Kirchengeschichte (1816)
he pleaded especially for the authenticity of the Old-
Testament books. He became a sturdy opponent,
after 1814, of the movement for the union of the
Lutheran and Reformed Churches in Prussia, mainly
in his anxiety for the Lutheran view of the Eucha-
rist. When the synod at Breslau began the consid-
eration of a new church order, he felt constrained
to make a closer study, the result of which was
AUgemeine Untersuchung der chrisUichen Verfass-
ungs- und Dogmengeschichte (Breslau, 1819). The
pastoral epistles of Paul, he claimed, revealed a
government of elders from the instructing and lay
classes, which also, he thought, Luther contem-
plated. His severe strictures on the agenda of union
of King Frederick Wilhelm III. led to his suspension
in 1830. Forbidden to take any official position as
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
well as to engage in any literary activity for the
Lutheran Church, he removed to Dresden, 1832,
from where, as headquarters, he continued the fight
by means of numerous polemical tracts. In conse-
quence of a polemical sermon, the same year, be
ordered to leave Dresden, and went to Hermsc
near by. Compelled to leave this place in 1836, he
found asylum at Clauchau where he engaged again
in public preaching. Driven thence he spent the rest
of his life at Nuremberg in literary work. Just as
the efforts for restoration to his professorship and
pulpit at Breslau were being successfully completed,
after the death of King Friedrich Wilhelm, he
passed away. (0. Fbobosb.)
Bibuoobapht: M. Vorbrucs. RmU an Orabt SchtibiU.
Nuremberg. 1843; Lrbmtlauf Sdicibcti torn obtrkirchm-
kolltgium vcrbfftntlichl, Breslau, 1843; H. Steftens. Wat
ith «W(6lt, vol. ix., Brealau, 1844; T. Wnn^eauuiii, Sis-
ben Buc/irr preuituchtr KinAtngttMtMi, Berlin, I860:
J. No*el. Die Kantp/t der mnfttitcK-lutlnriiclnn Kirchi
in Preuuen. Oilterslob, 1800; R. Rocboli, DU O-chidd,
der AwmgalHcA«n Kirch* in Dtvttchtand. Leipeie. 1897;
E. Ziemer, Dig Mimmt&atiaktit far evaneiliKh-lutAfi-
•chin Kirclu in Prtuutn, Elbeifeld. 1904; Q. Frobon,
Kvm AbiciAr, ib. 1005; ADB, xxx. 093-099.
SCHELHORH, shel'hom, JOHAHH GEORG:
Name of two Lutheran theologians.
1. Johann Georg the Eider: was bom at Mem-
rningen Dec. 8, 1694, and died there Mar. 31,
1773. He studied philosophy and philology at the
University of Jens. 1712-14 and after 1717; was
librarian in his native town and co-rector at the
school, 1725-32; pastor at Buxach and Hardt,
near Memmingen, 1732—34, and in Memmingen
after 1734; and also superintendent after 1753.
His importance is that of a collector of valuable
material and correspondence, first in Anuenitate*
liieraria (14 vols., Leipeie, 1721-31). For the
celebration of the Augsburg Confession in 1730 he
wrote Kurtgefasste Reformationtgetehiehte der Sladt
Memmingen, and the fate of the Salsburg Protes-
tants occasioned the De religionis evangeliax in
provineia Salitburgenei ortu (Leipsic, 1732). A
new collection appeared, Amamitate* historic* ec-
tUnasticce et literaria (2 vols., 1737-40), after he
came into possession of the literary remains and
correspondence of his deceased friend, Zacharias
Konrad of Uffenbach. Among his valuable works
were, De vita, fati* ac maiti* Philippi Camerarii
(Nuremberg, 1740); Commercii epielolari* Uffen-
baehii (Memmingen, 1753-58) ; and ErgaUlich-
keiien aut der fCirchenhittorie und lAleratur (3 vols.,
Leipsic, 1761-64).
3. The Younger, son of the above; b. at Mem-
mingen Dec. 4, 1733; d. there Nov. 22, 1802. He
studied philology, history, and theology at Getting-
en and Tubingen after 1750; was pastor at Buxach
and Hardt after 1756; and became associate of
his father in the pastorate at Memmingen, 1762,
also city librarian there; and in 1793, superintendent
of Memmingen. Among his works were. Beitrage
zur ErUSuterung der Getehichte, bemndert der SchwOb-
itchen Kirehen- und Gelehrten-Geechiehte (Mem-
mingen, 1772-75) ; and Kieinere hislorische Schriften
(2 vols., 1789-90). (T. Kolde.)
BiBLionHAPHi: F. llrmnn, J. O. SduDwm. in Brilr&Bi w
baymaeftnt KirehengacXic/Ua, vol. iv.. Erianssn- 1890
(nipenedei all earlier diiciuuoai); ADB. xu. 790-709.
SCHELL, HERMAN: German Roman Catholic;
b. at Freiburg Feb. 28, 1850; d. at Wursburg May
31, 1906. He was educated at the universities
of Freiburg (1868-70) and Wursburg (1870-73),
and at the College of the Anima, Rome (1879-81);
and after 1885 was professor of apologetics, com-
parative religion, and the history of Christian art
in the University of Wursburg, of which he was
rector in 1896-97. He wrote Die Einheii dee
Seelenleben* ant den PHncipien der aristotelitehen
Philosophie entvrickeU (Freiburg, 1873); Dim
Wirken dee dreieinigen Gottet (2 vols., Mains,
1885); KatholUche DogmaHk (4 vols., Paderborn,
1889-93); Gott und Geitt (2 vols., 1895-96);
Katholvtitmu* alt Priniip dee Forttehrittet (Wurs-
burg, 1897); DatProblem de* Geistes (1897); Neue
ZeU und alter Glaube (1898); Apologie de* Christen-
turn* (2 vols., Paderborn, 1901-05; 3d ed., 1907);
Chrittu*: da* Evangelium und seine weltgesckicht-
liehe Bedeutung (Mains, 1903); Gotteaglaube und no,-
tunnistentchafUiehe Weiterkenntnit (Bamberg, 1904);
and Kieinere Schriften (Paderborn, 1908).
SCHELLIHG, shelling, FRIEDRICH WTLHELM
JOSEPH VOH: German philosopher; b. at Leon-
berg (8 m. w.u.w. of Stuttgart) Jan. 27, 1775; d.
at RogaU (30 m. s.e. of St. Gall), Switzerland,
Aug. 20, 1854. He studied theology and philosophy
at Tubingen from 1790, and science and mathe-
matics at Leipsic, 1796-97. With the assistance of
Fichte and Goethe, he became professor at Jena,
1798-1803, where a brilliant literary and academic
career opened for him. Impelled by an ardent
philosophic interest, during a creative period, he
made it his work to incorporate with his own the
elemental principles of others as be met them suc-
cessively in his career, and the result wss more a
stimulating influence of bis vast prospective views
than the establishment of enduring ^"^"i^nta^H
Starting out originally with the absolute idealism
of Fichte, his reading of Spinosa led him to supple-
ment this by the philosophy of nature. This was
also an unfolding, as unconscious intelligence, from
the absolute. Ho conceived this to proceed by a
synthetic process from the lower inorganic to the
higher organic forms, issuing into conscious in-
telligence in man, and he based it on the assump-
tion of a soul of the world as the organising principle.
Works of this period were, Ideen zur Phiiotophie der
Natur (Leipsic, 1797); Von <fer Weltseele (Hamburg,
1798); and Ertter Erttumr/ einet Syttem* der PkHo-
tophie (Jena, 1799). The contradiction between in-
tellectual and natural philosophy is resolved by the
System dee transxendenialer. Idealiemus (Tubingen,
1800), in dependence upon the esthetic philosophy
of Kant and in connection with the romanticism of
Schiller and the two Schlegels, which aimed to
reconcile philosophy and poesy. As unconscious
intelligence has been shown to give rise in nature U
the inorganic and to a series of organisms, at the
apex of which is man, the organism of conscious
intelligence, so transcendental idealism reverse*
the point of view and submits the objective as ideal
representation, or conscious production. Its highest
form is art, in which the harmony of subject and
object is realised. The study of Spinoia and Gior-
Sohellinff
Schenkel
THE NEW SCHAFF-IIERZOG
232
dano Bruno (qq.v.) prepared him to work this out
into the philosophy of identity, which first emerged
in Zeitschrift fur speculative Physik in 1801 (a journal
which he issued jointly with Hegel), but appears
fused with Platonic idealism in Bruno, oder Uber das
yottliche und naturliche Princip der Dinge (Berlin,
1802), and expanded in popular form in Vorlesungen
aber die Methode des akademischen Studiums (Tu-
bingen, 1803), which has been pronounced a model
of literary form. The absolute is defined as absolute
reason or the total indifference of subject and ob-
ject. The highest law of its existence is absolute
identity, or undifferentiated unity. Everything
that exists is this absolute itself. It is the uni-
verse itself, not the cause of it. It is present in
everything as both subject and object, ideal and real,
with a preponderance of either one over the other.
Theology, as the science of the absolute and divine
essence, is the highest synthesis of philosophical and
historical knowledge. The antithesis of the real
and ideal occurs in the contrast of Hellenism and
Christianity. The former illustrates the unconscious
identity of nature; the ideal lay concealed in visible
gods and polytheism. This was followed by separa-
tion or fate at the close of the ancient world.
Christianity, as the inception of the period of provi-
dence, follows with the reconciled unity, and with
God revealed. The incarnation of God is from
eternity. The ideas of Christianity symbolized in
its dogmas have a speculative significance. The
fundamental dogma of the Trinity means that the
eternal Son of God, born of the essence of the Father
of all things, is the finite itself as it exists in the
eternal intuition of God, who at the culmination of
his phenomenal manifestation in Christ as suffering
God terminates the world of finiteness and opens
that of the supremacy of the Spirit. The consum-
mation of the process is the regeneration of esoteric
Christianity and the proclamation of the absolute
gospel, or the self-consciousness of the absolute in
which subject and object disappear, or the becoming
of God.
In consequence of his polemics Schelling left
Jena, and was professor at Wiirzburg, 1803-16.
Under leave of absence he lectured at Stuttgart in
1810. In the mean time he was given more and more
to syncretism and mysticism. In his Philosophic und
Religion (Tubingen, 1804), he betrays a neoplatonic
influence in affirming that finiteness and corporeality
are the products of a falling away from the absolute
as the means of the perfect revelation of God. The-
osophical are the views in Untersuchungen uber das
Wesen der menschlichen Freiheit (Landshut, 1809),
under the influence of Jakob Boehme (q. v.) . He dis-
tinguishes in God, according to the mystics, three
degrees: indifference, the primordial basis or
"abyss" of divine nature; differentiation of this
into ground and existence; and the identity or
reconciliation of the two. By this he explains the
origin of evil. The first, which is only the beginning
of the divine nature, without form or personality,
is a dark, negative ground, the basis of reality; it
is that which is in God, yet not God himself. This,
which is described as a certain yearning for self-
assertion, is the basis of the bare existence of all
things. Man, who is immanent in God, is capable
of freedom; i. e., of enlightenment. By virtue of
the dark ground, he has a particular will; as gifted
by understanding he is the organ of the universal
will. The separation of the two is the occasion of
evil or imperfection.
The feud with F. H. Jacobi (q.v.), president of the
academy, who severely assailed these views, led to
Schelling's departure from Munich in 1820. He
lectured several semesters at Erlangen, and was
ordinary professor of the new university at Munich,
1827-40. During this period, restive criticisms of
the system of Hegel, who, though his senior yet his
follower, had resolved his principle of absolute iden-
tity into a system of synthetic logic, began to ap-
pear. Lecturing at Berlin, 1840-46, he further
develops the departure made in his treatise on free-
dom. God, he now acclaims, may indeed be con-
ceived as the culmination of a process in thought,
but not of an objective process. Therefore, he
partly reverses his position and declares the philoso-
phy of Hegel as well as his own pantheistic system
to be merely negative, which he supplements with
a positive philosophy. Falling back on Kant's
criticism of the ontological argument, he finds God
not immanent in thought, but transcendent; not
at the end of the process, but absolute first. God
creates by a free act of will; and in positive philoso-
phy, the real universe thus created, as well as the
real God viewed as an objective principle, are not
subjects of the speculative reason, but of experience,
guided by the documents of revelation. The prod-
ucts of the theoretical are merely preparatory,
affording ideals as means to the positive. Schelling
distinguishes in absolute Spirit possibility of being,
pure being, and absolute free being, which in crea-
tion reveal themselves as the three potencies —
unconscious will, or causa mateHalis; conscious
will, or causa efficient; and their union, causa finalis.
They furnish the basis of the Trinity. In nature
potencies, at the end of revelation, or creation, they
are three perfect personalities in one God. The
potencies which exist in man as God's image suf-
fered separation by the fall. In consequence, the
second was deprived of its divine reality and was de-
graded to a potency operating only in purely natural
ways. It regains its total freedom in the conscious-
ness of man, through the theogonic process; first in
mythology and then in revelation. This was the
subject of his philosophy of mythology and revela-
tion, respectively, in his " Philosophy of Religion "
(in Sdmtlichen Werhe, 14 vols., Stuttgart, 1856-61).
Following the suggestion of Fichte, Schelling divides
the Christian era into Petrine Christianity, or
Catholicism; Pau'ine, or Protestantism; and the
Johannean with its idea of the Logos, the Church of
the Future. See Idealism, II., §§ 6, 8; Pantheism,
§7-
Bibliography. Besides the works on the history of philoso-
phy (e.g., by J. E. Erdmonn, 3 vols., London, 1892-98;
W. Windelband. New York, 1893; F. Ueberweg, ed.
Heinae, 9th ed., Berlin, 1901-05) consult. F. Kdppen,
Schelling' 8 Lehre, oder das Game der Phitosophie des abso-
luien Nichts, Hamburg, 1803; F. Berg, Sextus, oder Uber
die absolute Erkenntniss von Schelling WQrxburg, 1804;
J. C. G6tz, Anti-Sextus, oder uber dxe absolute Erkenntniss
von Schelling, Heidelberg, 1807, S. T. Coleridge. Bio-
graphia literaria, London, 1817; J. Fries, Rexnhold, Fichte
und Schelling, in Potemische Schriften, vol. i.. Halle. 1824;
233
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Schellinfr
SohenkeT
J. T. Schwarz, ScheUing' e olte und neue Philosophic, Ber-
lin, 1844; A. J. Matter, Schilling, ou la philosophic de la
nature, Paris, 1845; A. Engels, Schilling und die Offen-
barung, Leipsic, 1842; C. Kapp, F. W. J. ScheUing: ein
Beitrag tur Geechichte dee Togee, Leipeic, 1843; P. Mar-
hcineke, Zur Kritik der acheUingachen Offenbarungaphi-
loaophie, Berlin, 1843; C. L. Micbelet, Entvcickelungage-
schichle der neueeten deutachen Philosophie, Berlin, 1843;
C. Rosenkranz, ScheUing, Danzig, 1843; C. A. Brandis,
Gediichlniesrede auf F. W. J. von ScheUing, Berlin, 1856;
Fichte'a und Schelling'a philoaophiacher Briefwechsel, Stutt-
gart, 1856; J. E. Erdmann, Ueber ScheUing, namenUich
aeine negative Philosophie, Halle, 1857; R. Haym, Hegel
und aeine Zeit, Berlin, 1857; A. Planck, ScheUing' a noch-
gelaaaene Werke und ihre Bedeutung far Philosophie und
Theologie, Erlangen, 1858; H. Beckers, Schelling'a Geiatea-
entwickclung in ihrem inneren Zuaammenhang, Munich,
1875; T. Hoppe, Die Philoaophie Schellinga und ihr Ver~
h&Uniee turn ChristentJium, Rostock, 1875; O. Pfleiderer,
F. W. J. ScheUing: Ged&chtniaarcde, Stuttgart, 1875;
C. Frantz, ScheUing'a positive Philosophie, 3 parts, Cdthen,
1879-80; J. Watson, ScheUing'a Transcendental Idealism,
Chicago, 1882; R. Gebel, ScheUing'* Theorie vom Jch dee
AU-Einen und deren Widerlegung, Berlin, 1885; K. Groos,
Die reine Vernunftwissenschaft, Heidelberg, 1889; E. O.
Burman, Die Transcendental philosophie Fichtee und
ScheUinge, Upsala, 1891; F. Schaper. ScheUing' s Philoao-
phie der Mythologie, Nauen, 1893; .idem, ScheUing'a Phi-
loaophie der Offenbarung, Nauen, 1894; E. von Hart-
mann, ScheUing'a phUoaophiechee System, Leipsic, 1897;
L. Roth, ScheUing und Spencer, Bern, 1901; K. Fischer,
Geachichte der neueren Philoaophie, vol. vi.t Heidelberg,
1S94; idem, ScheUinga Leben, Werke und Lehre, 3d ed.,
ib. 1902; M. Adam, Schellinga Kunatphiloaophie, Leipsic
1907; G. Niehlis, Schelling'e GeachicfUephiloaophie in . . .
1799-1804, Heidelberg, 1907.
SCHELWIG, shel'vig, SAMUEL: Lutheran theo-
logian and opponent of the Pietists; b. at Lissa
(54 m. n.n.w. of Breslau) Mar. 8, 1643; d. at Danzig
Jan. 18, 1715. He was the son of a Silesian preacher,
and studied at Breslau and at Wittenberg, where he
became an adjunct in the philosophical faculty in
1667; he went to Thorn as associate rector of the
gymnasium in 1668; to Danzig in 1673, where he was
subsequently appointed pastor of Dreifaltigkeits-
kirche, and rector of the academical gymnasium
in 1685. Rigorously orthodox, ambitious, and
quarrelsome, he soon became involved in a variety
of conflicts. In Danzig he fell into strife with one of
his colleagues, Constantine Schutzc, the contest
taking literary form in tracts and being continued
until the city magistracy stopped the dispute (1693).
The conflict between Schelwig and Spener then
began. What particularly increased and embittered
the strife was a journey undertaken by Schelwig
through Northern Germany, the purpose of which
his opponents asserted to be the forming of a con-
federation against Pietism. His most comprehen-
sive anti-Pietistic work bears the title Die sektierer-
ische Pietisterei (Danzig, 1696-97), which called
forth a number of replies. In Schelwig's Synopsis
controver8ariarum siib pietatis pratextu motarvm
(1701, 1703, 1720) he sought to demonstrate 264
Pietist ic errors, which evoked replies from J. W.
Zierold, pastor at Stargard, and J. Lange. Among
the many orthodox opposers of Pietism, Schelwig
was one of the readiest in equipment, but his
methods were bitter and unclerical. C. Mirbt.
Bibliography J. O. Walch, Religionsstrcitiakeiten der
evangelisch-lutheriechen Kirche, i. 602-603, 739-746, v.
749-750. 849 ct passim, Jena, 1733; E. Schnaase, Ge-
achichte der exanoelischm Kirche Danziga, pp. 332-353.
Daniig, 1863; S. Schmid. Die Geachichte dee Pietiemus,
pp. 228-236, Xdrdlingcn, 1863; E. Sachsae, Uraprung
und Weaen dee Pietxemue, pp. 321-332 Wiesbaden, 1884;
A. Ritechl, Geachichte dee Pietxemue, vol. li. Bonn, 1884;
P. Griinberg, Philipp Jakob Spener, i. 297-302, Gotting-
en, 1893; ADB, xxxi. 30-36.
SCHENCK, FERDINAND SCHUREMAN: Re-
formed (Dutch); b. in Ulster County, N. Y.,
Aug. 6, 1845. He was graduated from Princeton
University (B.A., 1865; M.A., 1868), Albany Law
School (LL.B., 1867), and New Brunswick Theo-
logical Seminary (1872); engaged in the practise
of law, 1867-69; was licensed by the classis of
Ulster, 1872; served as pastor at Clarkstown, N. Y.,
1872-77, at Montgomery, 1877-90, at Hudson,
1890-97, and at University Heights, New York
City, 1897-99; became professor of practical theo-
logy in the New Brunswick Theological Seminary,
1899, where he has since remained, serving also as
acting professor of philosophy in Rutgers College,
1904-05, and acting professor of ethics and evidences
of Christianity there, 1906-07, also as acting pro-
fessor of homiletics in Princeton Theological Semi-
nary since 1909. He is the author of The Ten Com-
mandments in the Nineteenth Century (New York,
1889); Bible Reader's Guide (1896); The Ten Com-
mandments and the Lord's Prayer (1902); Modern
Practical Theology (1903); Sociology of the Bible
(1909); and Christian Evidences and Ethics (1910).
SCHENK, JAKOB. See Antinomiantsm and
Antinomian Controversies.
SCHENKEL, shenk'el, DANIEL? Evangelical
theologian; b. at Dagerlen, near Winterthur (12 m.
n.e. of Zurich), Dec. 21, 1813; d. at Heidelberg May
18, 1885. He bore arms for three years in the
Basel war of 1831. In the study of theology he was
greatly influenced by W. M. L. de Wette (q.v.), by
whom he was convinced of the necessity of critical
investigation. After a period of study of primitive
Christianity and church history at Gdttingen, he
returned to Basel, where, in 1838, he habilitated
with the thesis, Dissertatio critica et historica de
ecdesia Corinthia primceva factionibus turbata (Basel,
1838). In the mean time he edited the Baseler Zexir
ung which opposed the ecclesiastical and political
radicalism of the time. In 1841 he was called as
head preacher to Schaffhausen. He made important
changes in the church organization, and his ser-
mons attracted wide attention, even in the univer-
sity circle. Schenkel first obtained scientific recog-
nition by the publication of his Wesen des Protestan-
tismus aus den QueUen des Re/ormalionezeitalters
dargestellt (3 vols., Schaffhausen, 1846-51), which was
supplemented with Das Prinzip des ProtestanHsmus
(1852). In 1850, he returned to Basel as professor,
his inaugural address being on Die Idee der Per-
sdnlichkeit (1850). The following year he was called
to Heidelberg where he remained until his death.
As university preacher and head of the theological
seminary, Schenkel had noteworthy success. A series
of events — open opposition to the Jesuit mission
at Heidelberg, 1851, protest against the new liturgy
of the former Durlach Conference adopted by the
synod in 1855, the strife over the agenda in 1858, the
transactions concerning the Concordat, 1859,
which threatened a combination of the ministry of
Stengel and the church regime of Baden— these
Schenkel
Soberer
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
384
resulted in open conflict, the consequence of which
was the end of the old church regime, the failure of
the Concordat, the fall of the Stengel ministry, and
the construction and approval by the general
synod, 1861, of a new church constitution. In
the mean time Schenkel, who was a rapid and
voluminous writer, published Gesetzeskirche und
Glaubenskirche (Heidelberg, 1852) ; SchuUpflicht des
Stoats gegen die Evangelische Kirche (1852); and
Evangelische Zeugnisse von Chris to (1853-59). In
these writings Schenkel's ecclesiastical liberalism
and Protestant tendency come to the front. Specu-
lative acuteness he did not brook; and his con-
troversy with Kuno Fischer ended in the latter's
dismissal. The theological antagonism was becom-
ing more pronounced and -Schenkel felt constrained
to oppose the orthodox reaction. His Fur Bunsen,
wider Stahl, die neue&ten Bewegungen und Streitig-
keiten auf dem kirchlichen Gebiet (Darmstadt, 1856)
has been said to mark the turning point in his
theological development. His next work and the
second in importance, Die christliche Dogmatik vom
Standpunkte dee Gewissens (2 vols., Wiesbaden,
1858-59) is more in accord with his earlier position.
It challenged attention by its vindication of the
conscience as arbiter in intellectual religious ques-
tions. There followed, Die Reformatoren und die
Reformation (1856); Uniant Konfession, und
evangelisches Chris tenihum (Darmstadt, 1859); and
Erneuerung der deutechen evangeliechen Kirche
(Heidelberg, 1861).
The publication of the much-discussed Charac-
terbild Jesu (Wiesbaden, 1864; 4th. ed. 1873;
Eng. transl., The Character of Jesus Portrayed,
Boston, 1866) alienated many who had remained
loyal to Schenkel and subjected him to open attack.
The basis adopted is the Gospel of Mark as fur-
nishing the safest historical confines. The final con-
clusions of the book are by no means radical, but
a storm of protest was aroused by certain passages,
especially by the assumption that there was a change
during Jesus' public career in his self-determination
and self-consciousness. A demand was made by
a part of the clergy of Baden for the author's dis-
missal, but schism was averted by the conciliatory
tact of the superior church council. He became
head of the Protestant Union organized in 1863.
Two more important works were Die Grundlehren
des Christentums aus dem Bewusstsein des Glaubens
dargestellt (Leipsic, 1877), and Dae Christusbild der
Apostel und der nachapostolischen Zeit (1879). In
the former of these the privilege and service of
critical scientific rationalism is conceded, but it is
also pointed out that as a self-originated philos-
ophy, it has not produced a dogmatic on the basis
of revelation in history. Christianity he represents
as the absolute religion, both because it presupposes
the unity of God and man intrinsic in personal life,
and because it regards as its religious ethical ob-
ject the actualization of this unity in humanity
through the absolutely divine imbued man Jesus
Christ. He edited and published Allgemeine kvrch-
liche Zeitschrift (1860-72); and BibeUexicon, Re-
alworterbuch zum Handgebrauch fur Geistliche und
Gemeindeglieder (5 vols., Leipsic, 1869-75).
(W. GASsf.)
SCHENZ, shents, WILHELM: German Roman
Catholic; b. at Niederrieden (a village near Mem-
mingen, 43 m. s.w. of Augsburg), Bavaria, Mar. 7,
1845. He was educated at the University of Munich
(D.D., 1869), and, after being incumbent of a bene-
fice in the same city (1869-72), was called to his pres-
ent position of professor of Old-Testament exegesis
in the Lyceum of Regensburg, of which since 1895 he
has also been rector. During his administration he
has reorganized the lyceum and erected a new ob-
servatory for it. Besides translating Anselm's
Cur Deus Homo (Regensburg, 1880), he has written
HUtorisch-kritische AbhandLung Hher das erste aUge-
meine Condi in Jerusalem (1869) ; Das Laien- und das
himmlische Priestertum nach dem ersten Briefs des
Apostds Petrus (Freiburg, 1873); EinleUung in die
kanonischen BUcher des Allen Testaments (Regens-
burg, 1887) ; Priesterliche Tatigkeit des Messias nach
Isaias (1892); Lebende BUder zum Bischofsjubildum
Leos XIII. (1893) ; Leo XIIL als Bischofvon Perugia
und von Rom (1893); St. Wolfgang in der Poesie
(1894); and ErkUbrung der AUarbilder inderAVber-
tuskapeUe zu Regensburg (1900).
SCHBRER, she"-rar', EDMOND HENRI
ADOLPHE: French Protestant critic and theolo-
gian; b. at Paris Apr. 8, 1815; d. at Versailles Mar.
16, 1889. Scherer's paternal ancestors were Swiss
from the canton of St. Gall, who emigrated to Paris
in the first part of the eighteenth century; his
mother was an Englishwoman. After a preliminary
education at the Lycee Louis le Grand, he was sent
to England, where he came under the influence of
Thomas Loader, a clergyman in Monmouth. Up
to that time he had shown no religious tendencies;
he dated the epoch of his conversion from Christmas,
1832, during a revival movement characterized by
a personal religion of pietistic emulation and de-
votion to prayer, combined with strict orthodoxy,
and belief in literal inspiration, original sin, and the
" foolishness" of Christianity in contrast with the
rationalism of such as Victor Cousin, with little con-
cern for the state church and liturgy and theological
science. Returning to France, he studied law
(1833-35) without, however, giving up his interest in
theological and philosophical questions; and pro-
ceeding to StrasDurg, he studied theology (1836-
1839); and was ordained, 1840. His ordination
sermon betrays a depreciation of human speculation,
science, and wisdom, in contrast with the authority
of the Bible and the efficacy of prayer. For five
years he refused to accept any official position,
living at Strasburg and Truttenhausen and devoting
himself to literary and theological studies. He
published two long essays, De Vital actuel de
Veglise reformee en France (Paris, 1844), and
Esquisse d'une theorie de Viglise chritienne (1845),
written in a Calvinistic spirit, in which he outlined
a Church independent of the State with a Presby-
terian constitution. Led by a strictly Scriptural
and practical theology resting upon earnest inves-
tigation, the Church would soon be freed from in-
difference, unbelief, and schism. In consequence,
Scherer was in 1846 called to the chair of church
history in the free theological school founded at
Geneva by Merle d'Aubign6, and a year later ex-
935
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Sohenkel
Soherar
changed this for the professorship of Biblical exege-
sis. Then as now, this institution received older
students from the practical vocations who had not
.matured at the university, and counted among its
students many coming evangelists in Europe and
Canada. Soon after occupying this position,
Scherer seemed to become aware of a conflict be-
tween the emotional needs of the religious conscious-
ness and the theoretical convictions of the reason,
but he still believed in the possibility of a union
between sound theology and sound piety. The
natural man, he thought, can not conceive religious
things; only the experience of the Christian, by
faith in Christ and love to him, unlocks the mystery.
Accounts of " visitations of Christ," arranged some-
what in the form of a diary, from the year 1848,
show Scherer in the heights of religious moments
and from the personal mystical side. His transition
from history to exegesis became fatal to his belief;
he had always fully accepted the theory of verbal
inspiration, and had subscribed without reserve
the Consensus Helveticus of 1655 on vowel points
and punctuation, but with the insight that this
position was untenable his faith and theology also
were shaken. In June, 1849, Scherer's friends be-
came acquainted with his dissatisfaction with his
position, and before the end of the year he had
resigned and taken farewell of his students. But
he continued with a series of free lectures on matters
of faith which were a great attraction, June, 1849,
to Feb., 1850, and were summed up in a pamphlet,
La Critique et la foi (1850). The repetitions, con-
tradictions, inaccuracies, and the temporal con-
tingency of Biblical writers were pointed out and
the fact that they did not claim to be inspired.
The personal authority of Christ and his Spirit in
the disciples, the facts in the religious consciousness
of sin and redemption remained for him the pillars of
revelation and faith. At this time Scherer regarded
himself as still a believing Christian, logically carry-
ing on the thought of the Reformation, but did not
linger long in this position. His Melanges de critique
religieuse (1860) show a progress in negation. He
examined the problem of sin and freedom which
led him on the causal side to the question of miracles.
A proposition is not true because it comes from
Christ; but because its truth is affirmed in ethical
consciousness, it comes from Christ. So far he
could justify himself by reference to Alexandre
Vinet (q.v.), but his interest in seeking individual
freedom according to his subjective perception of
truth led him farther. Original sin is a limitation
of freedom; not that God was the author of sin,
but rather Scherer came to deny original sin and
to declare the freedom of man to achieve victory by
struggle over a sinful world. Evil was a lesser good,
the shadow needful for the completion of the opti-
mistic world harmony. In order to conserve the
humility under the sense of sin and the consequent
desire of salvation, the necessity of sin to human
development was to be held theoretically from
the view-point of the theodicy; but practically sin
was to be regarded as something that should not be.
A dualism resulted from this position of heart and
head. From the maze of the problem of freedom
he could not extricate himself. From the relativity
of freedom he proceeded to the invariability of law
in nature until even the supernatural could no
longer be maintained. Finally, Scherer attached
himself to the Hegelian philosophy with enthusiasm.
With the last step, that there is no final truth but
that there are only truths which prepare them-
selves by self-destruction, he had to break with
even the prominent and advanced theologians.
Scherer confined himself to mere textual explanation
in his lectures on the Epistles, 1856-60, and moved
to Versailles in 1860. A call to the newly established
chair of religious science at the £cole des Hautes
Etudes he declined; the columns of the Revue
des deux Monies were open to him, and his course
was marked out. The fruit of his literary labors,
remarkable for originality, psychological acuteness,
and ethical earnestness, was collected in fitudes
critiques sur la litterature contemporaine (10 vols.,
Paris, 1863-95; Eng. transl. of one volume, Essays
on English Literature, and History of German Liter-
ature, 5 vols., London, 1891). He was also coeditor
of the Temps since it was founded in 1860. He per-
formed eminent political service as mediator be-
tween the provisional governments of the German
occupation and the population and was made sena-
tor for life in 1872. Scherer was never a polemical
opponent of Christianity. Faith he likened to
poesy, striking root everywhere, rising ever anew
from the dust, to survive as long as humanity shall
draw breath. The crisis of his faith brought him
great suffering which left him a sad heart. The
flood of theological and ecclesiastical malediction
and ridicule he met either with total silence or
answered with calm composure and noble patience,
knowing that his course was the only one left
to an upright man. (E. Platzhoff-Lejeune.)
Bibliography: O. Gerard, E. Scherer, 2d ed., Paris, 1801;
J. F. Astie, E. Scherer, see dieciplee el see advereairee,
Israsanne, 1854; idem, Lee Deux Theologies nauveUee, ib.
1862; idem, B. Scherer et la thtologie incUpendante, ib.
1802; G. Frommel, Eequtseee contemporaine*. pp. 100-
286, ib. 1801; E. Logoi, E—ai *ur E. Scherer theologies
ib. 1801; B. Dowden, New Studies- in Literature, Boston,
1805; Mary Fisher, in McClurg'a Magazine, 1807.
SCHERER, shf'rer, JAMES AUGUSTIH BROWlf :
Lutheran; b. at Salisbury, N. C, May 22, 1870.
He was educated at Roanoke College, Va. (A.B.,
1890), and Pennsylvania College (Ph.D., 1897).
After being pastor of the Evangelical Lutheran
church at Pulaski, Va., in 1890-91, he founded a
mission of his denomination at Saga, Japan, where
he remained until 1897, being also a teacher in a
Japanese government school in 1892-96. He
returned to the United States in 1897 for reasons
of health, and held pastorates at Cameron, S. C,
in 1897-98, and at Charlestown, S. C, in 1898-1904,
being at the same time a professor in the Lutheran
theological seminary in that city. Since 1904 he
has been president of Newberry College, New-
berry, S. C. In theology he holds that the Book
of Concord is the " true and logical development of
Christian faith in Reformation times" and that
"the principle of historic continuity should de-
termine any subsequent statement." He has writ-
ten Four Princes: or, The Growth of a Kingdom:
The Story of the Christian Church centred around
four Types (Philadelphia, 1903); Japan To-day
Sohareacl
■chlnnei
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOQ
(1904); Young Japan: Story of the Japanese People,
. . . especially . . . Iheir Educational Development
(1905); The Holy Grail: Six Kindred Addresses and
Essays (1906); and What is Japanese Morality t
<1900).
SCHERESCHEWSKY, she"nMthev'ski, SAMUEL
ISAAC JOSEPH: Protestant Episcopal missionary
liinhop <it Shanghai, China; h., of Jewish parentage,
at Tanroggen, Russian Lithuania, May 6, 1831 ;
d. at Tokyo, Japan, Sept. 15, 1906. He was edu-
cated :il t In- Talmud Torah of Zhitomir, Russia, and
the University of Breslau. where he spent two years.
In 1S54 he went to the United States, where he ac-
cepted Christianity. He studied theology at the
Western Theological Seminary (Presbyterian) , Alle-
ghany, Pa., in 1855-58, but in 1858 entered the
Protestant Episcopal Church and studied for an-
other year at the General Theological Seminary.
He was ordered deacon in 1859 and priested in
I860. He then went to China as a missionary, and
Wasstationedsiieeessivrlval S!miigli;ii i 1SI'JI-IV!j ;iiid
Piking (lsii.'i-7:»). Prom 1ST5 to 1877 he was in
the United States, and in 1877 was consecrated
bishop of Shanghai. In 1883 he retired
. of paralysis, with which he had been
1881. He continued his work, neverthe-
narvellous perseverance despite his in-
From 1886 to 1895 he resided in the
United States, preparing a revision of the Man-
darin Bible which he had translated unaided many
years before. He then went again to Shaneluii,
where for two years he devoted himself to transfer-
ring the Romanized text of this version into Chinese
rharaeters. From 1897 until his death he resided
in Japan, preparing a reference Mandarin Bible and
a translation of the Apocrypha the latter left un-
SUickrri
Jiiinii .■--.
I- Percy. Epimopair ir\
1.251,
SCHERMANB, sher'man, THEODOR FRAflZ
JOSEF: Herman Roman Catholic; b. at Ellwangen
(45 m. e.n.e. of Stuttgart), Wurttemberg, Jan.
19, 1>(7S. He was educated at the University of
Munich (D.D., 1901), and, after being catechist and
curate at Munich in 100 1-02, studied in Paris and
Italy for two years (1902-04). Since 1904 he has
been privaWocent for church history, patriMies,
noil ( hristion archeology at the University of
Munich. He has written f>i* Gntthrit des heitigen
GeUtes nach den griechiscnen Vatern dee merten
Jahrhundcrts (Freiburg. 1901); Die yruThurlie n
Qm Ui u ih:: In itii/iii A mlirtixiio; in stint >i rfn.i Biii-lurn
vom h^Uigen Geiste (Munich, I'JO'J); Einr EI0.it->--
blmoral odcr die X-Rezension der beiden Wege
(1903); Gcscltichle der dogmatischen FloriUgien vom
v.-viii. Jalirhitndert (Leipsic, 1904); and has edited
I'rtijihthn- w\d Apostellegiiiden ntbul Jiingerkalalogen
dm Dorothea* vnd Verwandter Texte. (in TU, 1907);
Prnpkelarum vita fahulosa indices apostolomm dii-
cipulorumqitc (Leipsic, 1907); and QpjmMMAs
Xriiilnvjuipi/ri Uif! till.- (iftlti indi- uurl Do.l\kt)ibit Hit
I Klemensbriefe, in TV, xxxiv. 2b (1909).
SCHEURL, shoirl, CHRISTOPH GOTTLIEB
ADOLF, FREIHERB VON: German Lutheran,
authority on canon law; b. at Nuremberg Jan. 7,
1811; d. there Jan. 23, 1893. He came of an ancient
family which had immigrated from Breslau in the
fifteenth century; studied at Nuremberg, comple-
ting the local gymnasium course in 1827, at Erlangen
1827-28, and at Munich, where his object was
jurisprudence, 1828-31; he qualified as lecturer at
the University of Erlangen in 1836; became ex-
traordinary professor in 1840; and, in 1845, pro-
fessor of Roman and canon law, and retired to his
ancestral home in 1881.
Scheurl's importance inheres both in his produc-
tive authorship and in his official service in behalf
of the Church, alike in the legislative chamber and
in the general synod. His studies began with the
Roman law, themes from which were treated in his
dissertation ilKi.'i, his academic induction thesis
(1836), his essay on Nexum (1839); his Disseriatio
de usus et /nidus discrimine (1846), in a guide to
the study of the Roman jurisprudence (1855), and
i-sjM'cially in his text-book of the Institutiones,
which appeared in eight editions. The course of his
own development, however, drew him more and
more into the sphere of canon law; and to this he
subsequently devoted his main powers, though he
won distinction in both civil and canon law.
During the years 1S45-49 he was a member of the
chamber of delegates, where he found rich oppor-
tunity of turning to account his comprehensive li.ro
and his judicial opinions. In the national diet of
1849 he was active in the direction which was to
determine the proper focus of his later life in ques-
tions affecting the constitution of the Evangelical
state church. Possibly in those years Scheurl
discerned his peculiar vocation, and thenceforward
his professional activity applied itself predomi-
nantly to canon law. It was but a step in this direc-
tion that in 1805 he was elected to the general
synod, to which he belonged untd 1884.
His official acth it v was closely conjoined with pro-
ductive authorship. Herein he gave predominant
attention to questions of church constitution. So
early as l&'/i and lv~> 1 lie published two treatises on
the constitutional relation of the Lutheran Church
in Bavaria. In an independent investigation, 1872,
he enlarged upon the status of the Church to the
civil power in Bavaria. The decree of the general
synod of 1873 evoked a further publication. The
Bavarian situation naturally prompted investiga-
tion of a general and fundamental cast. Hence he
treated (1802) the doctrine of church government,
the problem of freedom of conscience, concepts of
confessional church and state church (18(i7, 1X081,
and the tasks of the Christian State (1885). In the
year 1857 he answered o number of general questions
in pamphlets which he styled Fliegende Blatter fur
die kirchliehen Fragen der Gegmwart. Numerous
art icles in ZI'K, whose associate editor he was from
1858, and in ZKR, dealt with questions of the Evan-
gelical constitution, while on all sides he bo advo-
cated the rights of the Evangelical church that one
may ju.-tlv accord him the honorable title of "syndic
of the Lutheran Church." He also specialized in
the modem development of the marriage law, and
this led to his Entwickelung des kirchlichen Ehe-
srhliessungsrecht (Erlangen, 1877), interesting be-
cause it is Scheurl's one considerable effort in the
237
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Sohereschewaky
Sohlnner
domain of canon law at large. Even prior to that
publication he had given his attention to Luther's
marriage law, and he incorporated his Luthers
Eherechtsweisheit, which first appeared in ZPK,
in his Sammlung kirchenrechtlicher AbharuUungen
(1873). An exhaustive summary is contributed by
his very excellent Das gemeine deutsche Eherecht
und seine Umbildung durch das R.-G. vom 6. Februar,
1875 (1882). With Roman Catholic canon law he
occupied himself but little, publishing in 1847 a
survey of the Concordat and constitutional oath,
and later a number of briefer studies in periodicals.
His last work in canon law, Staatsgesetzgebung und
religiose Kinder erziehung, was published in Deutsche
ZeUschriftfur Kirchenrecht (1891). E. Sehling.
Bibliography: A. von St&hlin, Zur Erinnerung an Chris-
toph Gottlieb Adolf Freiherr von Scheurt, Leipeic, 1893;
Dos GlauberubekenntnU eine» Rechtlehrers au» unterer Zeit,
Carlsruhe, 1899.
SCHIAN, shi'On, MARTIN: German Lutheran;
b. at Liegnitz (40 m. w.n.w. of Breslau), Silesia,
Aug. 10, 1869. He was educated at the universities
of Greifswald, Breslau (lie. theol., 1896), Halle,
and Leipsic (Ph.D., 1895), and at the preachers'
seminary at Wittenberg. After being curate (1895-
1896) and pastor (1896-1901) at Dalkau, Silesia, he
was pastor in Gttrlitz until 1906; privat-docent for
practical theology at the University of Breslau and
pastor of the Bernhardingemeinde in the same city
1906-08; and since 1908 professor of the same sub-
ject at Giessen. In theology he adheres to the older
Ritschlian school. Besides work as editor on the
Preussische Kirchenzeitung since 1905 and on Studien
zur praktischen Theologie since 1907, he has written
Die Scholastik im Zeitalter der AufklQrung (Breslau,
1900) ; Unser Christenglaube (Freiburg, 1902, 2d ed.,
1910) ; Das kirchliche Leben der evangelischen Kirche
der Provinz Schlesien (Tubingen, 1903); Der
deutsche Roman seit Goethe (Gdrlitz, 1904); Die
Predigt (Gottingen, 1906) ; Die evangelische Kirchen-
gemeinde (Giessen, 1907); Zur Beurteilung der
modernen positiven Theologie (1907); and Die
moderne GemeinschafUbewegung (Stuttgart, 1909).
SCHICKLER, FBRHAND DE, BARON: French
Protestant layman; b. at Paris Aug. 24, 1835; d.
there Oct. 18, 1909. He early distinguished him-
self by his devotion to the cause of Protestantism
in France, which his wealth enabled him materially
to aid. He became president of the Soctete* de l'his-
toire du protestantisme francais, 1865; president of
the Soci^te" biblique protestante de Paris, 1878;
member of the Central Council of the Reformed
Churches, 1879; and was president of the liberal
delegation of the reformed churches of France, 1877.
He contributed to the history of the Bible Society
of Paris, Notices biographiques (1868); to the His-
toire de France dans les archives privees de la Grande
Bretagne (1879); and published En Orient (Paris,
1862); Notice sur la SocUU de Vhistoire du Protes-
tantisme francais 1852-72 (1874); and the very
elaborate Les Uglises franchises du refuge en Angle-
terre (3 vols., 1892).
SCHIELE, shi'le, FRIEDRICH MICHAEL: Lu-
theran; b. at Zeitz (23 m. s.w. of Leipsic) Nov. 11,
1867. He received his education at the gymnasium
at Naumburg and at the universities of Tubingen
and Halle; taught in the gymnasium of Schluchtern
and Ottweiler, 1894-1900; on account of ill-health
he then laid aside professional employment to devote
himself to literary work in the departments of the-
ology, philosophy, and pedagogics; in 1907 he again
took up teaching, becoming privat-docent for church
history in the University of Tubingen. He has had
editorial relations with the Philosophische Bibliothek,
Die christliche Welt, Chronik der christlichen Welt,
Religionsgeschichtliches Volksblatt, and Die Religion
in Geschichte und Gegenwart; and has issued Kants
Beweisgrund zu einer Demonstration des Dasein
Gottes (Leipsic, 1902) ; an edition of Schleiermacher's
Monologen (1902) ; Minnesang und Volkslied (1904) ;
Sang und Spruch der Deutschen im 19. Jahrhundert
(1904); Deutscher Glaube (1904); Religion und
Schule (1906); and Reformation des Klosters
SchlUchtem (1907).
SCHIJN, shoin, HERM ANNUS: Dutch Men-
nonite; b. at Amsterdam in 1622; d. there 1727.
He studied medicine at Leyden and Utrecht, prac-
tised his profession at Rotterdam and then at
Amsterdam, serving at the same time as minister of
the conservative Mennonite church, upholding its
faith both in his sermons and in his writings, and
issuing a catechism, Kort Ondenvijs des christelijken
Geloofs (1697, and often). In opposition to the
"Lamistic" (i.e., subjective-pietistic Socinian)
party of his church, he maintained the traditional
Biblical orthodox theology, rejecting with all Men-
nonites predestination and satisfaction for sin by
Christ, and opposed union with the Socinian Collegi-
ants, though in his Plenior deductio (see below)
he spoke with respect of the leaders of the opposite
party. He united with all schools of his church in
the charities instituted for the oppressed Mennonites
in other countries. But his significance lies in his at-
tempt to win respect for the Dutch Mennonites
through his writings, showing that only in the mat-
ters of baptism, non-resistance, and the refusal of
oaths did they differ from other Protestant bodies,
that they had no connection or affiliation of feeling
with such Anabaptists as John of Leyden (see
Muenzer, Anabaptists of), but were descended
from the Waldenses and thence from the apostolic
church itself. His first apologetic work was
Korte Historie der protestante Christenen die men
Mennoniten of Doopsgezinden noemt (Amsterdam,
1711), which elicited from the Acta eruditorum
(v., supplement pp. 85 sqq., Leipsic, 1713) praise of
a high degree. It was extended in Historia Chris-
tianorum qui . . . Mennonita appellantur (1723);
Dutch transl., 1723, 1727). His Historia Mennoni-
torum plenior deductio (1729) discusses the Men-
nonite background, confessions, and notable repre-
sentatives; there is a revised edition of this and his
Uitvoeriger Verhandeling (2 vols., 1744), completed
by Gerardus Maatschoen of Amsterdam, together
with a third volume extending the biographies.
S. Cramer.
SCHIHNER, shin'ner, MATTHIAS: Cardinal;
b. at Muhlebach in upper Valais, Switzerland, in
1456; d. at Rome Sept. 30, 1522. He was educated
at Zurich and Como, and became bishop of Sitten
Bohlnner
Sohlatter
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
288
in 1500. Appointed by Pope Julius II., in 1509,
as legate in Switzerland, he was successful in bring-
ing about an alliance between the pope and the
Union against France; but losing the favor of the
Swiss and not being allowed to return to his bishop-
ric, he was compelled to resort to Rome, and was
made a cardinal in 1511. In 1514 he went as a
legate to England to enlist Henry VIII. to join in
the league against Francis I. At the battle of
Marignano (1515), in which the French disastrously
defeated the allies, Schinner led the Swiss in person.
Francis I. recognized in him one of his strongest
enemies in diplomacy and battle. Again, driven out
upon attempting to return to his country and
bishopric in 1518, he led a force of allies against
the French in 1521, and drove them out of Milan.
Zwingli in his account of the campaign of 1512
makes mention of the great impression the cardinal
made on the soldiers (Werke, ed. Egli and Fins-
ler i. 23-37). When the Reformation broke out
in Switzerland, he seemed to be in perfect har-
mony with the movement. He offered Luther a
place of refuge and support in 1519, and continued
for a long time to befriend Zwingli; but later he
turned against the Reformation. When Johannes
Faber (q.v.) met him in Rome in 1521, he agreed
with him that the Reformation should be sup-
pressed by force.
Bibliography-: P. 8. Furrer, Geschichte dea WaUia ///., pp.
242 sqq., Sitten, 1850; W. Giai. Der Antheil der Eidge-
noaeen an der europ6iachen Politik . . . 1619-1616, Sch&ff-
hauaen, 1866; Pastor, Popes, vols, vi.-vii.; KL, x.t 1790-
1792.
SCHISM: A term generally applied to the divi-
sion that, either wholly or partly, suspends the out-
ward unity of the Church; also, in Roman Catholic
canon law, the offense of producing or attempting
to produce such a division, and further, the deliber-
ate withdrawal from the bond of the Church by a
refusal of obedience to its authorities
Nature on the ground that their powers are
and not legitimate. But mere insubordina-
Classifica- tion to particular rulings or commands
tion. of the authorities and simple resistance
do not constitute schism. Where
secession ensues from denying individual confes-
sional doctrines of the Church, that is, where the
offense of schism is concurrent with heresy, it is
termed "heretical schism." On the other hand, in
the case of separation, when, for instance, the
papacy is acknowledged per se but the actual pope
is declared not legally elected, the schism is named
"pure schism." A further distinction is drawn be-
tween "particular" and "universal" schism, ac-
cording as unity with the whole Church is ruptured
directly, as by secession from the pope; or only
indirectly, by separation from another ecclesiastical
superior, particularly from the bishop. According
to Roman Catholic canon law, schism constitutes an
ecclesiastical offense chargeable before the spiritual
tribunal, and is threatened with summary excom-
munication, forfeiture of office, suspension from
holy orders, disqualification for church positions,
infamy, and confiscation of property.
The most serious divisions in the Christian, as
later in the Roman Church, were caused by differ-
ences in the apprehension of Christian doctrine. To
this category belong those divisions which arose in
the fourth century and after, coincidently with the
closer definition and elaboration of Christian dogmas ;
further and preeminently, the final
Earlier separation between the Western and
Examples. Eastern Churches in 1054; the rup-
ture of the Protestants with the Roman
Church in the sixteenth century; and the with-
drawal of the so-called Old Catholics from the Church
of Rome, in consequence of the Vatican Council.
Another class of church divisions was provoked
through a double occupancy of the Roman episco-
pal see. During the period of the Roman Empire,
when the emperors possessed the right of confirma-
tion at the elections of the pope, a discordant elec-
tion had no decisive influence over the Church at
large, and was without essential significance to its
unity. Likewise in the tenth century, and in the first
half of the eleventh, such was the determining in-
fluence that the German emperors exercised on the
papal election, and such the position which they
generally occupied toward the Church, that par-
ticular attempts of the Roman factions to elevate
their creatures as popes, or to maintain them in the
papacy, were ineffectual, and could lead to no note-
worthy divisions. But a change set in from the
middle of the eleventh century, when the reform
party which began to rule the policy of the Curia
sought to wrest this influence from the imperial
power and to subject that power to the sovereign
dispensation of the papacy. The central status in
the Church which the papacy had acquired through
the patronage of the emperors moved the latter,
in order to possess the advantage of papal prestige
in the battle now in progress, repeatedly to set up
anti-popes. Thus in opposition to Alexander II.,
in 1061, Henry IV. put forward Cadalus (Honorius
II.); in 1080, Wibert (Clement III.), against Greg-
ory VII.; and Henry V. opposed Gelasius II., in
1118, with Mauritius Burdinus (Gregory VIII.).
The division of the Church necessarily consequent
upon the strife between the two supreme heads of
Western Christendom became embodied in the high-
est instance of the ecclesiastical organism. Again,
the discordant elections in 1130 (Innocent II. and
Anacletus II.), and in 1159 (Alexander III. and
Victor IV.), were occasioned, notwithstanding the
Concordat of Worms (1122), by the persistent
breach between the papacy and the empire, with
its concomitant division of the cardinals and the
Curia into an imperial and a papal faction, and
disrupted the unity of the Western Church for a
considerable time; especially the latter election,
forasmuch as the partisans of Frederick I., after
the death of Victor IV., opposed Alexander III.,
with Paschal III., 1164, and Calixtus III., 1168-78.
From the time of the papacy's positive victory over
the empire such divisions no longer occurred; for
the attempt of Louis the Bavarian to offset John
XXII. with an anti-pope in the person of the
Minorite Pietro Rainulducci, as Nicholas V., 1328-
1330, miscarried.
Only once after this period did a papal schism
occur in the Roman Church, and it agitated and
shattered the Church as no other. Because of its
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
ton*, li'inuion (1378-1429), it was styled the "great
papal schism." After the death of Gregory XI.,
1378, who had restored the papa!
The Great residence to Rome, the sixteen car-
Schism, dioals then present in Rome elected,
Apr. 8, Archbishop Bartholomew of
Ban as Pope Urban VI. However, be had embit-
tered some of the cardinals through gross harshness
and indiscriminate censure of prevalent abuses in
the college of cardinals and in the Curia. Therefore
a quota of cardinals, thirteen in number, who had
betaken th cm-selves to Avignon, elected, Sept. 20,
Cardinal Robert of Geneva as Pope Clement VII.,
affirming that the election of Urban VI. was in-
valid on account of the coercion brought to bear
against them by the population of Rome. In Italy,
nevertheless, puiilic sentiment continued over-
whelmingly in favor of Urban VI., while Germany,
England, Denmark, und Sweden also sided with
him. Od the other hand, Clement VII. soon
became acknowledged by France; and after he hud
transferred his residence to Avignon, I 'rem 1 1 in-
ll'i'iHi ;il?o contrived to draw Scotland, Savoy, and
later, Castile, Aragon, and Navarre to his cause.
Thus two popes were arrayed one against the other.
Each had bis own college of cardinals, thus affording
a protraction of the schism by means of new papal
elections. Urban VI. was followed by Boniface IX.
(I38M404); Innocent VIII. (1404-06): and
Gregory XII. (1406-15). After Clement VII., in
1.194, came Benedict XIII. The papacy having
shown itself incapable of abating the schism, the
only expedient was tin; convening of A general coun-
cil. This assembled at Pisa, in 1408, And the dele-
gates sat from the start in common accord. Though
tin- council deposed both Gregory XII. and Benedict
XIII., and elected In their place Alexander V.,
who was succeeded in 1410 by John XXIII.,
this procedure failed to stop the schism. The two
former popes averted themselves so that the Church
now hail three popes. The futility of the Council of
Pisa led to the convocation of the Council of Con-
stance (1414-18). In 1415 this declared that, as
representative organ of the ecumenical Church.it
possessed the supreme ecclesiastical authority, and
every one, even the pope, must yield obedience.
In the same year, accordingly, it deposed John
XXIII., and again declared Benedict XIII. as a
schismatic tii luivo forfeited his right to (he papal
see. With the election of Martin V., which took
place Nov. 11, 1417, by action of the duly appointed
conciliar deputation, the schism was practically
terminated, though not absolutely ended until
1429; for Benedict XIII., though almost wholly for-
saken, defied the sentence of deposition as long as
he lived (d. 1424); and Canon jEgidius Munos of
Barcelona, whom the few cardinals that lingered
with Benedict elected as Clement VIII., did not
relinquish his dignity until five years after.
The last schism in the Roman Church was pro-
voked by the conflict of the Council of Basel with
Pope Eugenius IV. ; whom the council, after his de-
position, opposed with an anti-pope in the person
of Duke Amadeus of Savoy, Felix V. (1489-1444).
This schism, however, was insignificant, because
Felix V. was unable to win any appreciable follow-
ing outside the council. The Vatican Council de-
clared the pope to be absolute monarch in the
Church, and the episcopate now con-
Last stitutes only his advisory adjunct at
Schism, the general council. But if such is the
case, then the episcopate is no longer
competent, apart from the pope, where his right
is in question, to exercise its i-arlier judicial prerog-
atives; and he alone, as the supreme organ, is
miUuirizi'd to decide on the matter of bis legiti-
macy. Hence the means appointed by the Council of
Constance for abolishing a papal schism can be no
longer applied in the present status of the papacy.
E. Sehunq.
Biauoqaii-ai: T. Le Mesurier. The Nature and Guilt of
Schitm . . . wM particular Reference to U\e Principle of
t Reformation, Loodon, 1:
Dili
i IS. I
I 19. i
hunderten, U. 3S3 »qq„ Constance. 1840; T. Lind
nchirlilt dm dtnUcnm Rtichi . . . unttr Ki.nia iVeniel,
4 vofc... Brunswick. 1875-8(1; L. Gayi-t, Le Grand Schiimt
•Toctidrrtf, Florence, 1889: F. J. .ScheulTyai. Britrage iu
der Otxhiehle det arotten Schitmu, Fraiburj. 1880: Q. B.
Howard. Thi Sehum 6«ic«n the Oriental and WtiUrn
Chureha. New York. 1802; N. Valois, La France el le
•Mum* ^accident, 2 vols.. Paris, 1808: 0, Locke, Aot. at
the Greol Water* Schitm. Now York. 1807: If, tonkas.
Die Pavitu-ohlrn in ,ier Zrit dm arotten Schiimot, IS78-
H17, Brunswick. 1808: L. Salombior. Le Grand Sehient
.Tottident I378-U17, Piris, 1002; F. P. Blicuu uri. ,1, r.
Dot Ceneralkonxil im arotten ahendlAnditrhen Schisma,
Pnderbora. 1004: Pastor, Popem, vol. i.; KL. t. 1702-
1806.
SCHLATTER, shla'ter, ADOLF: German Prot-
estant; b. at St. Gall (19 m. s.e. of Constance),
Switzerland, Aug. 16, 1852. He was educated
at the universities of Basel and Tubingen
[1873-76), and in 1888 became privat-iiocent
at Bern, where he was appointed associate pro-
fessor in the same year. Within a few months
he was called to Grcifawald as full professor
of New-Testament exegesis, where he remained
until 1 803. when he went to Berlin as professor
of systematic theology. Since 1898 he has
been professor of New-Testament exegesis in the
University of Tilbingen. He has been associate
editor since 1897 of the Beilr&ge tur FSrderung tier
christlichcn Thralogie, and has written: Der Glaube
im Neuen Testament (Leyden, 1885); EinleUung in
die Bibel {Calw, 1889); " ErUtuterurigen rum Neuen
Testament (11 vols., I80O-1910); Jason von Gyrene
(Munich, 1891); Zvr Topographs und Genchtehte
Patdttinae (Calw, 1893); Der Chronograph aus
dem tchnten Jahre Antonius (Leipsic, 1894); Gt-
sehithtt Israels von Aleiander den Groxsen bis Had-
rian (Calw, 1901); Predigten in der Sti/tskirrhe iu
Tubingen gehalten (8 vols., Tubingen, 1902-10);
Die Theotogie des Netten Testament* (parts i.-ii.,
Calw and Stuttgart, 1909) ; Die Theotogie dee Neuen
Testaments und die Dogmatik (Gutersloh, 1909);
and Die phUosophisehe Arbeit seit Cartesius naeh
ihrem elhischen und religiSsen Ertrag (1910).
SCHLATTER, MICHAEL: Reformed (German)
Church in the United States; b. at St. Gall (19 m,
s.e. of Constance), Switzerland, July 14, 1716; d.
at Chestnut Hill, near Philadelphia, Oct. 31, 1790.
He studied in the gymnasium of his native town,
and probahly also at Helmstidt; was for some time
a teacher in Holland, where he was ordained to the
Schlatter
Sohleiermaoher
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
MO
ministry; and in 1745 was vicar at Wigoldingen,
Switzerland. In 1746 he was commissioned by the
synods of Holland a missionary to the destitute Ger-
man churches of Pennsylvania, with special direc-
tions to visit the scattered settlements, to organize
pastoral charges, and, if possible, to form a coetus,
or synod. Schlatter arrived in Philadelphia Sept.
6, 1746, and was installed pastor of the united Re-
formed churches at Philadelphia and Germantown,
Jan. 1, 1747, and proceeded to prosecute his special
mission with great vigor. He traveled (1747-51)
a distance of not less than 8,000 miles, throughout
parts of Pennsylvania, Maryland, New Jersey, and
New York, and preached 635 times. He estimated
that there were at this time 30,000 German Re-
formed people in Pennsylvania, with fifty-three
small churches, and four settled pastors. Schlatter
formed the congregations into pastoral charges;
and Sept. 29, 1747, the pastors and delegated elders
met, at his instance, at Philadelphia, and organized
the German Reformed coetus, or synod (see Re-
formed [German] Church). In the mean time
trouble arose in the church at Philadelphia; a fac-
tion opposed the discipline and close alliance with
Holland and chose as pastor, in Schlatter's place,
J. C. Steiner, a recent arrival from Switzerland. In
1751 Schlatter went to Europe at the instance of
the synod, where he succeeded in reassuring the
synods of Holland discouraged by reports of the
strife, and in raising a fund of £12,000 for the des-
titute churches in America on the condition, how-
ever, that the coetus in America must be entirely
subject to the Church in Holland. In 1752 he re-
turned to America, accompanied by six young min-
isters, and bringing 700 large Bibles for distribution
to churches and families. While in Europe, he pub-
lished, in Dutch, a " Journal " (Amsterdam, 1751 ;
Germ, transl., Frankfort, 1752) of his missionary
labors, containing an earnest appeal in behalf of
the Germans in America. A large sum of money,
said to have been £20,000, was collected and placed
in the hands of a Society for the Promotion of the
Knowledge of God among the Germans. In 1755
Schlatter was induced to resign his church in Phila-
delphia, and to become superintendent of the pro-
posed charity schools. The establishment of these
English schools aroused strong opposition among
the Germans, and his position became unpopular.
Accordingly he resigned in 1757 and accepted a
chaplaincy in the Royal American regiment. He
accompanied the expedition to Louisburg and re-
mained with the army till 1759. He subsequently
lived in retirement at Chestnut Hill, near Philadel-
phia. During the American Revolution he was an
earnest patriot, and was for some time imprisoned
for refusing to continue his position as chaplain in
the British army.
Bibliography: H. Harbaugh, The Life of Rev. Michael
Schlatter, Philadelphia, 1857; H. W. Smith, Life and Cor-
respondence of Rev. William Smith, D.D., vol. i., ib. 1879;
J. H. Dubbs, Founding of the German Churches of Penn-
sylvania, ib. 1893; idem, in American Church History
Series, viii. 278-289, New York, 1895; H. E. Jacobs, in
the same, iv. 288-289, ib. 1893.
SCHLECHT, shltat, JOSEF: German Roman
Catholic; b. at Wending (37 m. n. of Augsburg),
Bavaria, Jan. 20, 1857. He was educated at the
gymnasium of Eichstatt and the University of
Munich; was curate at Eichstatt (1885-89); a
member of the clerical staff of the Campo Santo,
Rome, and director of the historical institute of the
Gorresgesellschaft in the same city (1890-91); in-
structor in the Lyceum of Eichstatt (1892-93);
associate professor at the Lyceum of Dillingen
(1893-97) ; and since 1897 has been connected with
the Lyceum of Freising, where he has been succes-
sively associate professor (1897-1902) and full pro-
fessor (since 1902). Besides being associate editor
of the second volume of Die kalholische Kirche
unserer Zeit und ihre Diener in Wort und Bild
(Munich, 1900); Eichstdtts Kunst (1901); Kirch-
Itches Handlexikon (1904 sqq.); and Kalender bay-
rischer und schwdbischer Kunst (Munich, 1906);
he has written Poesie des Sozialismus (Wurzburg,
1883) ; Zur Kunstgeschichte der Stadt Eichstdtt (Eich-
statt, 1888); Eichstatt im Schwedenkriege (1889);
Die PfaUgrafen Philipp und Heinrich als Bischdfe
von Freising (Freising, 1898); Doctrina duodecim
Apostolorum (Freiburg, 1900); Die Apostellehre in
der Liturgie der kalholischen Kirche (1901); Bay-
ems Kirchenprovimen (Munich, 1902); Das Leben
Jesu (in collaboration with P. Schumacher; 1902);
Andrea Zarnometti, i (Paderborn, 1903); and edited
Kilian Leib's BHefwechsel und Diarien (Munster,
1909).
SCHLEIERMACHER, shlai'er-maH"er, FRIED-
RICH DANIEL ERIIST.
Life to 1796 ({ 1).
First Berlin Period (§ 2).
The Reden ({ 3).
The " Monologues "; Stolpe Period (5 4).
At Halle; Call to Berlin (§ 5).
Incidental Activities. 1811-32 ({ 6).
Introduction to the Olaubenslehre (J 7).
Doctrine of God, the World, Sin, and Grace (J 8).
Christology ({ 9).
Election, Pneumatology, Inspiration (J 10).
Schleiermacher's Philosophy and Psychology (fi 11).
His Science of Ethics ({ 12).
Criticism of the Ethics (J 13).
Schleiermacher's Last Years (J 14).
Character and Influence ($ 15).
Friedrich Daniel Ernst Schleiermacher, whose
name marks an epoch not only in Protestant theol-
ogy, but also in the sciences of religion and ethics,
was born at Breslau Nov. 21, 1768, and died at
Berlin Feb. 12, 1834. His father was
i. Life to a Reformed army chaplain who had
1796. settled in Breslau, where his son was
educated until he was ten years old.
A fresh outbreak of hostilities then recalled his
father to the field, and the boy and his family re-
moved to Pless, where he studied, partly in school
and partly under his parents' direction; when his
father and mother came under strong Moravian in-
fluence, young Friedrich was placed in a school at
Niesky. Here he found congeniality of piety, cul-
ture, and friendship, and in his enthusiasm entered
the Moravian seminary at Barby in 1785 to prepare
for the ministry. But his rising spirit of criti-
cism and independence received scant satisfaction,
and by Jan., 1787, he found himself unable to re-
main longer in Barby. He accordingly withdrew
241
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Schlatter
Schleiermaoher
from the Moravians, and entered the University of
Halle, where he plunged into Kantian and Greek
philosophy, though even at this time his lack of
agreement with Kant's system was clear. In 1789
he was compelled, by lack of funds, to withdraw
from Halle, and after a year of private study at
Drossen, near Frankfort-on-the-Oder, he passed his
first theological examination. He became a private
tutor in the family of Count Dohna at Schlobitten
in West Prussia, where he learned the ways of po-
lite society. Here, too, in his fragment on the free-
dom of the will he argued skilfully on the deter-
ministic side, while the sermons of this period stress
Christianity as the source of lofty ethical life. After
two and a half years, however, a dispute connected
with his tutorial duties led to a friendly severance
of his relations with Dohna. After another sojourn
at Drossen, Schleiermacher, in the autumn of 1793,
became a member of the Gedike seminary at Berlin,
and also taught at the Kornmesser orphan asylum;
but in the following year he accepted the post of
assistant pastor at Landsberg-on-the-Warthe, where
he was ordained. Here, while diligently discharg-
ing his pastoral duties, he translated the sermons of
Hugh Blair of Edinburgh and of the English preach-
er John Fawcett (qq.v.). In June, 1795, the senior
pastor died, and Schleiermacher was appointed Re-
formed preacher at the Charity in Berlin.
Schleiermacher's six years (1796-1802) as preach-
er at the Charity were rich alike in inspiration and
in struggle. Here in Berlin the Enlightenment
(q.v.) was still in full tide, but with its increasing
shallowness enthusiasm for Romanti-
2. First cism (q.v.) steadily gained. When, in
Berlin 1797, Friedrich Schlegel visited Berlin,
Period. Schleiermacher made his acquaintance,
and under his inspiration wrote his
Reden tiber die Religion (anonymous, Berlin, 1799)
and Monologen (1800). In Feb., 1799, his literary
relations were interrupted by his sojourn at Pots-
dam as court chaplain, but on his return to Berlin
in May he resumed his pen. The work which fol-
lowed the Monologen — the Vertraute Brie/e tiber
Schlegel* Lucinde (also anonymous; Lubeck, 1800)
— was less happy than his former work, and even this
plea in behalf of the much-blamed romanticist could
not prevent the breach that was already threaten-
ing his friendship with Schlegel. At this juncture
Schleiermacher's old patron, the court preacher
Friedrich Samuel Gottfried Sack (q.v.), who had
long been sorely troubled by the young preacher's
eloquent defense of Spinozism, offered him a new
position, and in 1802 he went into his " exile " as
court preacher at Stolpe.
In estimating the literary results of Schleier-
macher's first years in Berlin, it is to be noted pri-
marily that his Reden tiber die Religion shows the
close relation of its author to the ro-
3. The mantic movement. In opposition to
Reden. the pedantic Enlightenment he pleaded
for a freer and more comprehensive
culture based on fantasy and feeling, although his
philosophical studies are still in control. In the
background stands Kant's definition of the scien-
tific theory of the universe as the impulse to seek
elsewhere the unity of the world and the harmony
X.—16
of man's spiritual life; and to this is added Spinoza's
tenet that the finite is comprised in and sustained
by the infinite. The influence of Leibnitz is visible
in the declaration that the life of the universe is
mirrored in each individual, and there is recognized
Schelling's poetic and philosophic interpretation of
nature. The first discourse treats of the necessity
of a defense of religion and of the reasons why re-
ligion is despised, and the second develops the basal
definitions of the essence of religion. This is neither
metaphysical interpretation of the world, nor mor-
alistic legislation, nor a union of the two, but " taste
and feeling for the infinite," based on apperception
and feeling. Apperception presents the universe as
a sum of free objects, unfettered by any system,
among which each religious person may choose what
is best adapted to him; and feeling is religion as
the consciousness of the inward change of the in-
dividual through such apperception. Only in relig-
ion are apperception and feeling united, and their
separation shows that the climax of religious
experience, the union of the soul with the uni-
verse, has been missed, although action does not
immediately proceed from them, even while they
serve as the permanent basal determination of all
action. In the third discourse the author proph-
esies the speedy passing of the supremacy of the
arid rationalism which impeded the development
of religious feeling. In the fourth he set forth his
theories of the Church. True religious fellowship
knew no distinction between clergy and laity; and
religion as a whole was realized only in all religions
together. The great churches, with their rigid or-
ganization and their connection with the State, had
fallen far short of this ideal, and were rather train-
ing-schools for those who truly sought religion than
real associations of pious souls; and the invisible
communions severed from the great Church stood
nearest to the realization of the ideal. The fifth dis-
course considered the theory of religion in general.
The multiplicity of religions is due to the infinite
essence of religion and the finite nature of man, and
true religion exists only in the form of a specific
type of belief in which the religious life is individual-
ized. So-called natural religion is a mere abstrao- **"
tion, and the differences between positive religions
is qualitative, not based on the different quantities ~
of their underlying conceptions. In each of these
religions there is a definite theory of the universe
which in each case alters the complexion of the
whole. In Christianity the cardinal ideas are the"'
corruption and the redemption of man, with his- ^
tory as the stage of action. At the same time,
Christianity does not claim to be the final form of
all religion, and could a better be found, Christianity »
would not oppose it.
The Reden exercised an influence more lasting
than immediate, but ultimately modified nineteenth-
century theology more profoundly than any other
book. It sharply stressed the concept of autonomy
in religion, and thus gave a certain steadiness of
development amid the swiftly changing and mutu-
ally destructive tendencies of theology; but, on the
other hand, the author failed entirely to vindicate '
the practical character of Christianity, and sadly
underestimated its historic aspects.
Sob leiermachor
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
242
The Monologen reveal the development of Schlei-
•rmacher's distinctive ethical theories. Kantian
influence is much diminished here,
4« The and the " Monologues " form a hymn
"Mono- to higher humanity, whose elements
logues " ; are set forth as purity of will, superi-
Stolpe ority over fate, individual training,
Period, and devotion to mankind. During his
two years' residence in Stolpe Schleier-
macher had ample opportunity to practise the su-
periority over fate which he preached, and this
period of relative isolation and deprivation of books
was not lost in his development, especially as it
was favorable to the translation of Plato which
he had begun in Berlin; the first volume ap-
peared in 1804, a year later than his Grund-
linien einer Kritik der bisherigen Sittenlehre. This
latter work supplements the ethical theory of the
" Monologues " by establishing for the first time
the triple division of ethics into the theories of
duty, virtue, and good by the coordination of
these classes, thus affording a glimpse of the dis-
tinctive foundation of Schleiermacher's ethics. At
this period in his Zwei unvorgreiflichen GiUackten in
Sachen des protestaniischen Kirchenwesens zundchst
in Beziehung auf den preussischen Stoat, he advo-
cated a closer union between Lutherans and Re-
formed, a freer form of worship, and an educational
and social improvement of the clergy.
In 1804 the government refused to sanction his call
to the projected Protestant theological faculty of
Wurzburg, and appointed him instead to Halle as
extraordinary professor, where he lec-
5. At Halle ; tured on New-Testament exegesis,
Call to philosophical and theological ethics,
Berlin, introduction to theology, introduction
to church history, and dogmatics. In
1806 he became full professor and university preach-
er. During this Halle period Schleiermacher pub-
lished, besides two more volumes of his translation
of Plato, his Weihnacht8feier (1805) and his treatise
on I Tim. in the form of a letter to Joachim Chris-
tian Gass (q.v.). The former treatise is a dialogue
on the signification of Christ and his work of re-
demption. In the treatise on I Tim. Schleiermacher
seeks to prove that the epistle is a compilation from
the other two pastoral epistles, and the discussion
opened the way to a strict study of the pastoral
epistles. Meanwhile the fall of Jena and Napoleon's
hatred of the German spirit of Halle had caused the
suspension of lectures there. Schleiermacher seized
the opportunity by his sermons to link the spirit of
patriotism and the life of the Church. In the win-
ter of 1807, however, he went to Berlin, where he
had already lectured on Greek philosophy. Here,
at the newly founded university, Schleiermacher
lectured after Jan., 1808, on ethics and theological
encyclopedia, and in the winter of 1808-09 on dog-
matics and politics. His Gelegentliche Gedanken
Hber UniversiUUen im deutschen Sinn (1808) gives
his views on the functions of the university. In the
spring of 1809 he became preacher at the Dreifal-
tigkeitskirche in Berlin, and in 1809-10 also lec-
tured on Christian ethics and hermeneutics. When,
in the autumn of 1810, the University of Berlin was
formally opened, Schleiermacher became the first
dean of the theological faculty. From 1810 to 1814
he was also a member of the department of public
instruction in the ministry of the interior.
To the period here under consideration belongs
what may be termed Schleiermacher's theological
program — the Kurze DarsteUung des theologi&chen
Studiums (1811). According to this
6. Inci- theology is a positive science, being
dental directed to the solution of a practical
Activities, problem. The real soul of theology is
1811-32. its interest in Christianity as it lives
in the Church, and the theologian's
ideal is the union of this living interest with the
widest scientific spirit. Schleiermacher divides the
domain of theological knowledge into philosophical,
historical, and practical. The first, as apologetics,
gives the basis of piety and Christianity, and the
special characteristics of Protestantism; while as
polemics it is directed against such internal evils as
indifferentism and separatism. Historical theology
he divides into exegesis, church history, dogmatics,
and statistics. The new element in this system is
the incorporation of dogmatics and ethics in the
historical department, a result of Schleiermacher's
view that dogma in itself is not knowledge. His
new science of statistics seems only now to be re-
ceiving the attention which it deserves. This
troubled period was a time of stress for Schleier-
macher. In the matter of union of the Lutheran
and Reformed churches he, not without good rea-
son, mistrusted the practicability of the govern-
ment's scheme of organisation. Although the union
of 1817 was forced on the churches instead of being
an expression of their spontaneous religious con-
victions, he supported such union, and maintained
this position through the period of controversy that
ensued. One of these disputes evoked his Ueber den
eigent&mlichen Wert und das bindende Au/sehen
symboliseher BUcher, in which he limited the author-
ity of the creeds to those expressions of the Protes-
tant spirit which set forth the religious experience
of the period of the Reformation and separated
Protestantism from other systems of belief. The
controversies of these years, combined with his
teaching, left him scant leisure for writing. Never-
theless, he published a third volume of sermons in
1814, and in 1817 his Kritischer Versuch uber die
Schriften des Lukas, in which he traced the tradi-
tion of the Gospels to the primitive Christian com-
munity and maintained that it developed through
oral transmission and fragmentary notes to the form
of definite compilation. In 1832 he returned to the
problem, and in his Ueber die Zeugnisse des Papias
von unsern beiden ersten Evangelien was the first to
suggest that the Gospel of Matthew is a collection
of apothegms.
Since 1819 Schleiermacher's energy had been
devoted to the preparation of his Ckristlicher Glaube
nach den Grundsdtzen der evangdischen Kirche im
Zusammenhang dargestellt ( 1 82 1-22) . The introduc-
tion to this work seeks to determine the place oc-
cupied by Christian piety in the spiritual life of
society and to fix the scientific formulation appro-
priate to its articles of belief. Ethics must de-
termine the concept of the Church, the philosophy
of religion the grades and varieties of religion, and
243
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Schleiermacher
apologetics the essence of Christianity, while the
Church is defined as a community with respect to
piety. Interpretation of the Christian
7. Intro- faith is, therefore, dependent on the def-
duction inition of piety, which is the feeling of
to the general dependence, since man becomes
Glaubens- aware that the whole world and his
lehre. own freedom depend on God. Having
this definition of the Church, Schleier-
macher proceeds to determine what is peculiar to
the Christian Church. In the lower grades of re-
ligion, such as Fetishism and Polytheism (qq.v.),
there is but an approximation to the feeling of de-
pendence, this being realized only at the mono-
theistic stage. Even here there are two tendencies:
the esthetic, in which piety is predominantly emo-
tional; and the teleological, in which it is primarily
active. The purest realization of teleological mono-
theism is Christianity, which is the highest religion,
though not the only true one. Revelation can not
be claimed exclusively for Christianity, for revela-
tion is only the sum total of the individual concept
of God. Essential to the essence of Christianity is
the fact that redemption has the central place, and
that its realization is dependent on Jesus, who was
specifically different from his followers in that he
needed no redemption. The coming of the Redeemer
is the eternal ret of firv*i and his actual appearance
was neither a new revelation nor the development
of a factor originally given; the supernatural and
the natural interpretations are two equally justi-
fied and equally necessary sides of the same fact.
Union with Christ is possible only through religious
faith, in other words, by trusting him with the sat-
isfying of the need of redemption; and proofs based
on miracles, prophecy, and inspired writings are un-
necessary and devoid of cogency. The articles of
Christian belief serve not as proofs, but as expres-
sions furthering piety; they describe the functions
of personal faith, not the objects of belief. The dif-
ference between Roman Catholicism and Protestant-
ism is that the former makes the relation of the in-
dividual to Christ depend on his relation to the
Church, while the latter makes the individual's re-
lation to the Church depend on his relation to Christ.
The differences between Lutheran and Reformed
Protestantism are merely technical. In his division
of dogmatic Schleiermacher discusses first^eligious
consciousness without regard to sin and redemption,
and then this consciousness as modified by these
two factors. He distinguished three types of dog-
matic affirmations: descriptions of human condi-
tions of life, concepts of divine qualities, and state-
ments regarding the world. Each of these expresses
the whole content of Christian consciousness, but
the first is basal, since it represents most immedi-
ately the life of the religious man, and by it must be
measured whatever is purely religious in the other
two types.
In the Glaubenslehre itself, it is maintained that
there is no need of a formal proof of the existence
of the deity; and since the universal consciousness
of God is connected with a perception of the general
coherence of nature, the concepts of the divine crea-
tion and preservation of the world are gained. Of
these the latter is by far the most important, since
it alone corresponds to experience; but preservation
must be so construed as to cover both dependence
on God and the coherence of nature.
8. Doctrine Since the latter must not be excluded
of God, the in favor of the former, the idea of mir-
World, Sin, acles is ignored. The doctrine of
and Grace, angels and the devil forms an appendix
to the theory of creation, and they
are abandoned to poetic and liturgical language.
By reference of the absolute feeling of dependence
to God are derived the divine attributes of omnipo-
tence, eternity, omnipresence, and omniscience, the
fundamental attribute being that first named.
Schleiermacher taughtlhat hnt.h t.h» wnrM nnH m*n
were originally perfect; the„orgftT»gft+.inn n£-th«
world~1S~ao!apte(l to awaken and sustain piety, while
human nattue penally "M constant development of -
this feeling, especially by evolution of conscious-
' neas of ^seh* into consciousness of race. The second
part of the GlaubendehreTk devoted to the relations
between the antitheses of sin and grace. Sin is set '
forth as the struggle of the flesh against the spirit,
and as a defect of human nature incapable of good
except through redemption, and all evil is the pun-
ishment of sin; nevertheless Schleiermacher re-
garded sin as ah unavoidable inequality of develop-
ment and transformed it, as presupposing the need
of redemption, into a stage of evolution toward good-
ness. Yet Schleiermacher gave the doctrine of orig-
inal sin a better Biblical basis, and postulated the
common deeds and guilt of the whole human race.
The divine qualities which bear relation to human
sin are holiness, which causes conscience to arise in
man, and justice, which causes him to recognize the
counterpart of his own imperfection in the world as
evil.
The central position in the Glauben&lehre is formed
by the development of the consciousness of grace.
To Schleiermacher redemption was the transit, from
restricted to _ unrestricted conscious-
9. Christol- ness of God," this being reanzecTina
ogy. new social life considered by the com-
munity to be divinely founded and
based on the deeds of Christ. Lfiut. imview.jaf lha_.
eternity of God, this redemption is the realization
5f the creatlon,~and thc_R^eemer_i87 therefore, the
primal pattern of man. as revealed in history. Ill-
Christ mankind became religiously perfect, and as
the"patte'rh he was perfect historically, though sub-
ject to the influences of time and nationality. Only
in his inmost nature was he free from Uinitatio.ns.of "
time, and- for this reason Christ is the organ for the
indwelling of God in all humanity, since he pos-
sesses the power of reproducing, In those like to
himself, his own life filled with God in the same way
as man influences man. The sole factor in the re-
demptive work of Christ, in the opinion of Sehloio*
macher, was his person; ! his supernatural *birthr
resurrection, ascension, and second advent were re-
garded as of little moment."' The office of Christ
was, accordingly, the extension of the being of God
in him to its being in all mankind, so that his pas-
sion and death serve but to keep his mind and spirit
in remembrance. There can be no idea of the effect
of Christ on God, but in the working of Christ on
man there are two sides: redemption, or the com-
Sohleiermacher
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
244
munication of the power of his consciousness of
God; and atonement, or the communication of the
blessedness of such consciousness. The result of
the work of Christ in the faithful is regeneration.
The new life becomes permanent and indestructible
through sanc'tification, and when regeneration is
declared by Schleiermacher to be indelible, he is
influenced in his view by psychological and meta-
physical presuppositions.
In the forefront of Schjeiermacher's theory stands
his interpretation of election, the object of which is
the new creature as a whole, its end
10. Election, salvation exclusively, while in choice
Pneumatol- or rejection of individuals and peoples
ogy, In- by the divine governance of the world
spiration. he sees no, final judgment. The doc-
trine of the*communication of the spirit
is also closely connected with the theory of the
Church, since Schleievnacher regard the Holy
Spirit as the spirit pervading the whole community
founded by Christ. In the Church he distinguished
between essential and immutable elements arising
from its relation to Christ and the Holy Spirit, and
transitory components based on its contact Vith the,
world. The former included, besides preaching and
the sacraments, the power of the keys (i.e., of legis*.
lation and discipline) and grayer in the name of
Jesus. His concept %f preaching was modified by
his rejection of the Old Testament and his tenet of
the inspiration of persons rather than of writings..
Schleiermacjier denies that infant baptism' has any
certain connection with regeneration, and rejects
both the sacramentarian and the rationalistic in-
terpretations of the Lord's Supper. The union of
the Church with the world gives rise to the distinc-
tion between the visible 'and invisible Church-, the
former being in error and division through the in*
fluence of the world, while the latter is one and in-
fallible. Eschatology is discufsed from tHe* point
of view of the perfection of the Church. The^wofk
of redemption reveals two other qualities of God :
love, the principle of God's cpmmuni cation of him-
self; and wisdom, which regulates its activity..
The work concludes with an attempt to define the
Trinity, and lands the author, in something closely
akin to Sabellianism.
It is generally thought that Schleiermacher's the- .
ological attitude must be interpreted with the help
of his philosophical' views, but his own statements
show that while he felt that his philoso-
ii. Schlei- phy and his theology to some degree in-
ermacher's fluenced and even approximated each
Philosophy other, he fy?ld that rfeither was depend-
and ent on the other, and he expressly de-
Psychology, nied that both could be reduced to the
same formula, while with equal ex-
plicitness he disavowed the intention of creating a
philosophical dogmatics. In harmony with this
the Glaubenslehre shows only the formal influence
of philosophy. The philosophical writings of Schlei-
ermacher are all fragmentary sketches of drafts
of lectures," and they show that their author's
dogmatic system was already essentially formed
when he sought to formulate his philosophy. To
Schleiermacher philosophy was not a closed science,
but a never-ending problem, so that one can not
speak of philosophical results, but only of philo-
sophical presuppositions and the determination of
rules for dialectics, or the art of thought. The ob-
ject of thought is knowledge, but this implies cor-
respondence not only of thought with being but
also equal conformity to law in the case of the con-
necMon of ideas. The harmony of all human thought
with being implies a higher presupposition, for if
thought is to become conviction, there must be a su-
preme unity which subsumes the antithetical terms
of ideal and real. But since this unity can not itself
be known, its recognition is simply faith, a basal
conviction incapable of further demonstration; and
the .connotation of this supreme unity is the cor-
related ideas of God and the world. After 1818
Schleiermacher supplemented this train of thought
by another, which paved the way for the Glaubens-
lehre. Unity of will is as necessary as unity of
knowledge; knowledge is thought preceded by
being, will is thought followed by being. Unless
will is to be resultless, there must be a conviction
that being is accessible, and since all can not specu-
late, this second way of gaining conviction concern-
ing pod is the more usual. Since, however, the* con-
cept of God is demaxsled both by knowledge and
will, the home of this idea must be w that element
of Mtunan consciousness which underlies both knowl-
edge and will, or, in other words, in the feelings,
wfeieh constitute the transition from thought to will
and form the common basis of both. Accordingly,
the consciousness of God is originally given in the
feelings. God and the world are indissolubly con-
nected. To imagine* the world without God is to
miss the £>ond of union; tj imagine God without the
world is to form ^n empty concept. Yet God and
I the world are not identical, for the world is the su-
preme unity inclusive of aU antitheses, while God
. is the supreme, unity exclusive of all antitheses.
Both ideas, therefore, sustain a distinct relation to /
. knowledge, God bei§g the terminus a quo and the *
world the terminus-ad quern. In his lectures on
psychology Schleiermacher declined to-proceed from
'such metaphysical concepts as spirit an<f matter,
or soul and body, 'affirming that only the ego, as the
nexus of body and soul, was immediately given. In ^
psychical life there^re* therefore, only relative an-
titheses, which imply the original unity add exclude
all dualistfb theories. But* these* functions appear
onry in vdHouj degrees of interaction, and the rela-
tive antitheseWtll into the three categories of affect-
ive and*effe^ive activities, objective and subjective
consciousness, and consciousness of the ego and of
others. The three categories proceed from each
other in the order named, aild the supreme unity of
all is reached in religious feeling, in which even the
antithesis of nature and the ego disappears.
Side by side with his works on dogmatics and the
psychology of religion, independent value attaches
to Schleiermacher'-s system of ethics. He had early
beconfe dissatisfied with the theories
12. His of Ka§t, and in his Monclogen had
Science of sought to set forth positive ethical
Ethics, ideals. At Stolpe he abandoned
Schlegel's idea of an ethical revolution
in favor of a critical reform of ethical theories, and
he pursued this purpose in his lectures on ethics at
245
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Schleiermacher
Halle as well in as a series of monographs presented
before the Prussian Academy of Sciences. He col-
lected sufficient material for his philosophical ethics
to be edited by A. Schweizer (Entwurf eines Sys-
tems der Sittenlehre, Berlin, 1835) and in briefer and
more scientific form by A. Twesten (Grundriss der
philo8ophischen Ethik, 1841). Schleiermacher re-
garded ethics as the speculative science of reason,
and as including the conceptual presentation of all
influence of reason on nature so far as it falls within
the sphere of human experience. In the widest
sense it is the philosophy of history or of civiliza-
tion, and is not imperative but descriptive. It is
not limited to the practical, but finds activity of
reason also in the acquisition of knowledge and the
enrichment of the inner life. Ethics must, accord-
ingly, describe the union of reason and nature
through the agency of the former, its end being the
realization of the union of reason and nature. The
power through which reason works in nature is
ethically termed virtue, and the mode in which vir-
tue tends to produce ethical good is termed duty.
Ethics can be adequately presented only by the
combination of these three elements, but the most
important is the doctrine of the good, which is
summed up by the concept of the supreme good that
includes all the products of the rational activity of
man. The subject of the ethical process is man as a
species; although a distinction may be drawn be-
tween individual and class morality, this difference
is relative, since each person is at once both an in-
dividual and a member of the race. Again, the
influence of reason on nature may be twofold: or-
ganizing, as making nature the tool, or symbolizing,
as reproducing nature. The combination of the in-
dividual and class activity of reason with the organ-
izing and symbolizing tendencies results in a four-
fold form of moral activity, which is represented
respectively by nation and State, family and society,
school and Church. The theory of virtue and duty
is discussed but briefly by Schleiermacher. While
virtue, as the individualized power of reason, is a
unity, it may be divided into four categories: wis-
dom, or inclination to knowledge; love, or inclina-
tion to manifestation; discretion, or readiness in
knowledge; and steadfastness, or readiness in mani-
festation. The theory of duty is summarized by
Schleiermacher as constant conduct so that all vir-
tues act with reference to all good, though in con-
crete cases the claims of the various spheres must be
duly weighed. Here the relative antitheses of appro-
priation and association on the one hand and of the
universal and individual type on the other give rise
to a fourfold classification: the duty of right, cor-
responding to the universal association; the duty of
vocation, corresponding to the universal appropri-
ation; the duty of love, corresponding to the in-
dividual association; and the duty of conscience,
corresponding to the individual appropriation.
Both its terminology and its omission of the en-
tire concept of obligation deprived this ethical the-
ory of the power which otherwise it might have pos-
sessed. In avoiding the errors of Kant and Fichte,
Schleiermacher went to the opposite extreme of
regarding morality as originally present and as the
inevitably developing content of life. In this way he
created something midway between ethics and the
philosophy of history, but without the loftiness and
strength required by ethics, and with-
13. Criti- out the observation of actual factors
cism of the demanded by the philosophy of history.
Ethics. The only new element is that the Chris-
tian, in virtue of the special definite-
ness of his consciousness of self, does in a special
way the same thing that general reason constrains
others to do. While the theory that Christianity is
a new development and a higher point of view is
merely touched on, in reality the Christian deter-
mination of ethical conduct prevails and conditions
both the direction of interest and the choice of ma-
terial. The two forms of Christian activity are puri-
fication and extension. Purificatory activity is
manifested in the Church either as the influence of
the community on individual members (church dis-
cipline) or as the influence of individuals on the
community (church reform), and from the Church
this purificatory influence extends to the home, the
State, and international relations. Extensive ac-
tivity, proceeding from the union of the divine
spirit with the nature of man, is manifested either
as a state of mind or as talent, the former being
characteristic of the Church and the latter of the
State, while the Christian spirit works even beyond
the bounds of the Church in education and missions.
Manifestative activity is developed in the service of
God. In the narrower sense of the term this service
is public worship, and in its wider sense the free
expression of Christian morality; and at the same
time this manifestative activity contains an element
of public morality and of social and intellectual life,
to all of which it gives the stamp of purity, freedom,
and perfect humanity.
The last fifteen years of Schleiermacher's life show
him at the height of his activity. He exercised a
profound influence both through his sermons and
through his lectures, which covered the greater part
of philosophy and the most of theology
14. Schlei- excepting the Old Testament. He be-
ermacher's gan to be considered the head of a dis-
Last tinct school, but, on the other hand, he
Yean. was involved in many of the controver-
sies of the period and was the object of
constant suspicion. In Jan., 1823, a formal charge
was actually brought against him on the basis of
certain expressions used by him in private corre-
spondence, and he lived in continual uncertainty
whether he would be permitted longer to reside in
Prussia. To all this was added his participation in
the agenda controversy; and it was only after the
modified royal agenda had been adopted (see
Agenda, § 5) that Schleiermacher again enjoyed the
favor of the king. In the third decade of the cen-
tury Schleiermacher was busy editing the Berlin
hymnal and opposing the proposed creed for the
united Lutherans and Reformed. He contributed
a number of articles to the newly founded Theologi-
sche Studien und Kritiken, in one of which he vigor-
ously opposed rationalistic depreciation of the
creeds, at the same time advocating all the princi-
ples of theological progress. He visited England in
1828 and Sweden in 1833, but his health was fail-
ing, and in Feb., 1834, he died.
Schleiermaoher
Sohmalkald
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
246
What is especially striking in Schleiermacher is
his versatility. He was a preacher of rare effect-
iveness; he lectured well on a large number of phil-
osophical subjects; and by his trans-
it Charac- lation of Plato and such treatises as
ter and that on the art of translation he con-
Influence, tributed not a little to classical learn-
ing. In addition to all this he was a
sturdy patriot and preeminently a social being. His
versatility is mirrored in his theological writings,
in which he sought to prepare a way in which Chris-
tianity and the highest culture might walk together
in harmony. In this he did not desire forcibly to
unite elements essentially heterogeneous, but he
was himself both Christian and humanist. His
" Discourses " affirm that religion is the central
point of spiritual life, and the fundamental basis of
his GlaubensUkre is that the human is perfected in
the Christian. Whatever may be lacking from his
theology, it is at least self-evident that this theology
was Schleiermacher's own life; and his piety was
pure, honorable, and earnest. With breadth of view
Schleiermacher combined an unusual degree of reso-
lution. The deficiencies of his ethical theories find
their explanation in his personal conditions. Yet
his energy overcame these hindrances, among which
ill-health was not the least, and for years, besides
his preaching and his writing, he lectured three
hours daily. He demanded of no one what he him-
self would not do, and he invariably remained true
to himself. Nothing could induce him to surrender
a conviction which he had once formed, and he clung
to his position even against the well-meant plans of
his king for the reform of his church simply because
he firmly believed that these proposed changes were
perilous. The influence of Schleiermacher still per-
sists, though by no means restricted to the school
of mediating theologians commonly traced back to
him. The modern historical school, rejecting Kant
and Bitschl, turns more and more to Schleiermacher,
drawn especially by his philosophical theories, his
stress on the individualistic character of the positive
religions, and his assumption of the principle of the
development of religion. The agencies of this influ-
ence have been primarily the Reden, the Kurze
Dar&tettung dee theologischen Stadiums, the Glaubens-
lehre, and the Ethik. Of his posthumously pub-
lished lectures only the Erziehungslehre (Berlin,
1849) and the Praktische Theologie attracted wide
attention; the Leben Jesu (1864) was a failure.
Among his posthumous sermons his homilies on the
Gospel of John are of value for a knowledge of
Schleiermacher's school, which so pronouncedly
follows the Johannine type of thought; and a valu-
able supplement to the whole problem is promised
by C. Clemen's proposed edition of Schleiermacher's
lecture on theological encyclopedia.
(O. Kern.)
Bibliography: The one practically complete collection of
the Werke is in three division* — theology, sermons, and
philosophy, by various editors, 32 vols., Berlin, 1835-62,
many individual volumes of which passed through many
editions. The jubilee edition of the Reden, 1890, and a
critical edition of the Monologen, 1002, are noteworthy;
also: Philoeophiache Sittenlehre, ed. J. H. von Kirchmann,
Berlin, 1870. In addition are to be noted Schleiermacher*
Briefwecheel mit J. C. Gate, ed. W. Oass, Berlin, 1852; his
Briefe an die Orafen mu Dohna, ed. J. Jacobi, Halle, 1887;
his correspondence with Twesten in Heinrici, A. Tweeten,
Berlin, 1880; SchUiermachere Sendechreiben fiber eeine
OlaubeneUhre, ed. H. Mulert, Giessen, 1008; and J. Baur,
Ungedruckte Predigten SchUiermachere aue den Jahren IStO-
1828, Leipsic, 1000. In English there have appeared: Criti-
cal Eeeay on the Qoepel of St. Luke, London, 1825; Schleier-
macher'e Introduction* to the Dialogue* of Plato, transl. by
W. Dobson, Cambridge, 1836; Selected Sermon* of Schleier-
macher, transl. by Mary F. Wilson, London, 1800; Chriet-
maeEve; a Dialogue on the Celebration of CAristmae, transl.
by W. Hastie, Edinburgh, 1800; Relioion: Speeches to ite
cultured Deepieere, (transl. of the Reden), London, 1803.
A very full list of works is given in Baldwin, Diction-
ary, iii. 1, pp. 450-462. As sources for a life, there are
the correspondence (Briefwecheel) as noted above, and
Aue SchUiermachere Leben. In Brie fen, ed. L. Jonas and
W. Dilthey, 4 vols., Berlin, 1858-63, Eng. transl. by F.
Rowan, 2 vols., London, 1860. Consult further: L. F. O.
Baumgarten-Crusiua, Ueber Dr. F. SchUiermacher, tine
Denkart und eein Verdienet, Jena, 1834; C. A. Auberlen,
SchUiermacher: ein Charakterbild, Basel, 1850; R. Bax-
mann, SchUiermacher: eein Leben und eein Wirken, El-
berfeld, 1863; M. Baumgarten, Schleiermacher, Berlin,
1868; D. Schenkel, Frdr. SchUiermacher: ein Leben*- und
Charakterbild, Elberfeld, 1868; T. Hossbach, SchUiermacher:
eein Leben und Wirken, Berlin, 1860; F. Zachler, Fr. Schleier-
macher: kurter Abriee *eine* Leben* und Wirken*, Bres-
lau, 1860; W. Dilthey, Leben SchUiermachere, Berlin,
1870; E. Maier, Friedrich SchUiermacher. LichUtrahlen
aue aeinen Briefen und eammtlichen Werken, Leipsic, 1875;
S. Brunner, Die vier Groeemeieter der Aufklarunge Theologie
(Herder, Paul us, Schleiermacher, Strauss), Paderbom,
1888; C. P. Fischer, SchUiermacher, Berlin, 1890; R.
Munro, SchUiermacher, London, 1003; O. Gramsow,
SchUiermacher, Charlottenburg, 1004.
On his theology consult: F. W. Gess, Ueber ticht Uber
doe theologieche System SchUiermachere, Reutlingen, 1837;
G. Weissenbom, Vorleeungen Uber Schleiermacher* * Dio-
lektik und Dogmatik, Leipsic, 1847; C. Schwars, SchUier-
macher: eeine Perebnlichkeit und eeine Theologie, Gotha,
1861; S. Lommatssch, SchUiermachere Lehre vom Wunder
und vom UebernatHrlichen, Berlin, 1872; A. Ritachl,
SchUiermachere Reden Uber die Religion und ihre Nach-
wirkungen auf die evangelieche Kirche Deutechlande, Bonn,
1874; O. Ritachl, SchUiermachere Stellung turn Chrieten-
thum in *einen Reden Uber die Relioion, Gotha, 1888; E.
Schreoker, Der Religionabegriff bei SchUiermacher und
eeinen namhafteaten Nochfolgern, Jena, 1800; O. Pfleiderer,
Die proteetantieche Theologie eeit Kant, Berlin, 1801 ; idem,
Geechichte der ReligionephUoeophU . . . bie auf die
Gegenwart, ib. 1803; H. Bleek, Die Grundlagen der Chrie-
tologie Schleiermacher*, Freiburg, 1808; E. Fuchs, SchUier-
machere Religionabegriff, Giessen, 1000; K. Thiele, SchUier-
machere Theologie und ihre Bedeutung fur die Gegenwart,
Tubingen. 1003; L. Gobel, Herder und SchUiermachere
Reden uber die Religion, Gotha, 1004; C. Clemen, SchUier-
machere Olaubenelehre in ihrer Bedeutung fur Vergangenheit
und Zukunft, Giessen, 1005; W. J. Aalders, SchUier-
machere Reden Uber die Religion aU Proeve van Apoiogie,
Leyden, 1010.
On his philosophy and ethics consult: J. Gottschick,
Ueber SchUiermachere VerhaUni* mu Kant, Tubingen, 1875;
K. Beth, Die Orundanechauungen SchUiermachere in
eeinem eraten Entwurf der philoeophiechen Sittenlehre, Ber-
lin, 1898; G. Thimme, Die rdigionaphiloeophiachen Pra-
mieeen der SchUiermacher' achen Olaubenslehre, Hanover,
1901; T. Camerer, Spinoza und Schleiermacher, Stutt-
gart, 1903; H. Mulert, SchUiermachere geechichtephiloeo-
phieche Aneichten in ihrer Bedeutung for eeine Theologie,
Giessen, 1907; G. Wehrung, Der geacnichtephUoeophiache
Standpunkt Schleiermacher* tur ZeU eeiner Freundechaft
mit den Romantikern, Stuttgart, 1907; E. Cram&nssel,
La Philoeophie religieuee de F. SchUiermacher, Geneva,
1909; H. Schols, Chrietentum und Wiaeenachaft in SchUier-
macher* OlaubeneUhre, Berlin, 1909; H. S (Island, Der Bin-
flu* ScheUinga auf die Entwicklung von SchUiermachere
Syetem, Tubingen, 1909; Entwurf einee System* der Sit-
tenlehre, ed. A. Schweiser, Gotha, 1835; Qrundriee der
phUoeophiachen Ethik mit einUitender Vorrede, ed. D. A.
Twesten, Berlin, 1841; F. Vorlftnder, SchUiermacher*
Sittenlehre, Marburg, 1851; L. Jonas, ChrieUiche Sitten-
lehre au* Nachechriften, Gotha, 1891; F. K^tiwiawn, Die
Entwicklung der Ethik SchUiermachere nach dm Onend
linien, Leipsic, 1892,
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
For his relation to education and the pulpit consult:
A- Petersen, SchUwrmoeJier tits Rtformtrtor der devltchen
BUdtine. Goths. 1S69; P. Diebow, Die P.lilaeow* Schtcirr-
toochen. Halle. ISM; O. Kim, Schleiermochtr und die
Romontii, Basel. 18B5; H. Kcterstcin, SMriermochrr oil
PUacoo', Jena. 1899; R. Wickert, Die Wdmrmnt Sott <'-r-
machtra in ihrem VcrhSUnit iu .finer . . . Ethik, Leipsic,
1807; A. Scbwciier, Schlrientmeheri Wirkiamkeitnli Predi-
eer daroati&U, Halle. 1S34; J. Bauer, Schleicrmaeher alt
Prcdiecr, Gieasea, 1908.
SCHLEUSHER, shleis'ner, JOHArffl FRIED-
RICH: Lutheran theologian; b. at Leipsic Jan. 16,
1759; d.at Wittenberg, Feb. 21, 1831. He received
hi- education in liis nutive city, at the St. Thomas
school, and at the university, 1775-80, where he de-
voted himself to Biblical philology. He became
preaeher at the University Church, 1780; instruc-
tor, 1781; associate professor of theology at Giit-
tinRen, 1784-90; and full professor, 1790-95; profes-
sor at the University and provost at the central
church at Wittenberg from 1795; and with the abo-
lition of the university, first director of the Homi-
lettc Institute and second director of the Seminary
at Wittenberg. His lectures were mainly in New-
TcMjimrnt exegesis, but treated also somewhat of
Old-Testament exegesis, dogmatics, and homiletics.
His two main works were, Lexicon grmeo-latinum in
Novum Tatamentum (Leipsic, 1792; 4th ed., 1819);
and Tliesaurus sea lexicon in LXX (1820-21). The
latter contains all the vocabulary of the Greek Old
Testament with the Hebrew equivalents.
(E. REOsst.)
SCHLICHTDIG, JONAS. See Socintjb, Faubtus,
SoCINIANS, I., [ 2.
SCHLOEGL, shln'gl, HIVARD JOHAHfl BAP-
TIST: Austrian Cistercian; b. at Gaaden (a village
near Mailing, 8 m. s.s.w. of Vienna), June 4, 1864.
He was educated at the Cistercian abbey at Hei-
ligenkreuz, near Vienna (1876-80), the Obergym-
nasium at Wiener Neustadt (1880-84), and again
at the abbey and the University of Vienna (1885-
1889; D.D., 1894). He was consecrated to the
priesthood in 1889, when he became connected with
the abbey of Ileiligenkreuz, where he was professor
of Greek in 1889-91. 1892-93, 1894. and 1902-03,
and professor of Old-Testament and Semitics, 1896-
1908; and since 1908 professor of oriental languages
and Old-Testament exegesis at Vienna. He waa
master of the novices at Heiligenkreiu, 1890-1908,
rind festival-preacher in the abbey-church in 1893-
1894, and 1895-96. In 1906 he succeeded B. Sehafer
as editor of the Leo-Gesellschaft's Kursgefa&ster
leilteniehafllkher Commentar zu den heiligen Schrif-
ten, to which he has contributed Samuel, Kings,
and Chronicles (Vienna, 1904. 1907). He has also
edited the Hebrew text of Ecclesiasticus xxxix.
12-xlix. 16 (Vienna, 1901), of Canticles (1902),
and Samuel (1005), and Kings and Chronicles
(1909), and lias written Geist des heiligen Bernhard
(4 vols., Paderborn, 1898-99), and De re metriea
veterum Hebraorum (Vienna, 1899).
SCHLOTTMAKH, shlot'mfln, COHSTAHTIH :
German theologian; b. at Minden (60 m. e.n.e. of
Monster) Mar. 7, 1819; d. at Halle Nov. 8. 1887.
He studied at the University of Berlin, devoting
liimself especially to philology and philosophy, and
then turned to theology, where he came under the
luting influence of A. Neander. He then studied
the practical side of the work of the ministry at the
Wittenberg Seminary, but returning to Berlin, 1842,
was induced to enter the academic career. Sup-
porting himself a while by private leaching he ha-
bilitated in the Old Testament in 1847. His com-
mentary on the Book of Job (Berlin, 1851) was his
first important work. For a time he served in Con-
Hlantmople as chaplain of the embassy; there ho
became acquainted with modem Greek and Turk-
ish, and traveled in the East adding to the range
of his oriental scholarship. In 1855, he ins called
to Zurich, where he lectured not only on the Old
but also on the New Testament, and on flTTfrffiltil
theology. He was ordinary professor at Bonn,
1859-06, and at Halle, 1866-87. He was able to
point out at all points the relations of Hebrew and
IulIo-< iirmaruc culture as well as the connections:
of Hebrew writings and the monuments of classic
antiquity, and brought to good service his first-
hand knowledge of oriental life. For criticism he
was disinclined, especially the newer criticism of
the Old Testament, as he showed in bis Kompen-
dixtnx der BiMischt-n Theologie. des alien und Neuen,
Testaments (Leipaic, 1889-95). Besides numerous
contributions on various Old-Testament antiquities,
he published, Die Inschri/t Eechmunazars, KOnig
der Sidonier (Halle, 1808), and Die gtegajtnWd
Meat's, K&nig der Moabiter (1870). He lectured
also on apologetics, from which grew his writings
David Strauxs Oil Rnmantiker des Hrideiithums
(1878), and Die OsterboUchaft und Visionshypotfiess
(1886). He was a member and president of the
commission for the revision of Luther's translation
of the Bible after 1871, and appeared as an anxious
antagonist of the rising ultramontanism, which gave
rise to bis Erasmus redim'vus (1889).
(Ebnst KOhn.)
Bibuookaj-bt: ADB. mi. Ml «qq,; Brandt, in D«utacA-
traitvditchtt Blatt. 1883. pp. 1S7 »qq.
SCHMALKALD, shmal'kal.l, ARTICLES: A
written instrument of Luther received into the sym-
bolic books of the Lutheran Church and so named
after 1553. After the insistent demands of the
German estates during several decades and the na-
Dewed urging iif tin'- i-m]>tTor, Paul III.
Origin, issued a call for a council to meet at
Mantua May 8, 1537. The question
arose as to the attitude of the Evangelicals. Elec-
tor Johann Friedrieh of Saxony, who took the moat
active interest, appeared at Wittenberg June 24,
1536. und through his chancellor submitted four
articles for an opinion from the theologians and
jurists, in order to forearm himself and confederates
for the coming council. Two days later the elector
submitted that the council be wholly declined inas-
much as a reception of the summons would imply
the recognition of the pope as the head of the
Church. After a session that closed Aug. 6, the
opinion prepared by Mclanchthon was returned that
if the pope would summon the Protestant estates
like the rest, he did not yet regard their princes as
heretics, and that by giving audience to the papal
nuncio no acknowledgment of papal power was im-
plied, and so far the invitation was not to be de-
Schmalkald
Schxnid
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
248
clined. The elector, taking it that the theologians
had been prevailed upon by the jurists, had Me-
lanchthon translate a protest into Latin to the
effect that in case of taking the invitation under
advice, the council should be understood to be free
and open and not bound by papal prejudices; and
he again called for a meeting of the scholars for the
submission of certain questions. At the same time
Luther received a specially assigned task, and it
seems that he was already employed upon articles
of belief. The absence of Melanchthon retarded the
reply of the scholars; and Dec. 1, the elector took
occasion to renew his appeal, to emphasize the ne-
cessity of declining a papal council, to sound the
sense at Wittenberg on the question of holding an
opposing Evangelical council; and he reverted to
the task requested of Luther, deeming it necessary
that the latter should, at least by Jan. 25, 1537,
prepare a document, the summary of all that he
had taught, preached, and written, as a final testa-
ment. Luther was to indicate also on what articles,
not essential, any compromise could be made; and
the Wittenberg theologians were called upon to
make sure in advance of their agreement or dis-
agreement with the proposed articles, independent
of Luther's authority, so that there might be no
subsequent dissent. On Dec. 11, the Wittenberg
scholars tendered their second and satisfactory
opinion; but as Luther's articles had not yet ap-
peared, the elector reminded him by writing and
named particularly Nikolaus von Amsdorf and Jo-
hann Agricola (qq.v.) among those theologians who
were to be brought secretly to Wittenberg from the
territories of the elector and his brother, Johann
Ernst, at the elector's expense, to give their ap-
proval to the articles or to hand in their objections
in writing. Luther set to work to prepare his arti-
cles, which were submitted to his colleagues and
adopted before the end of the year, Melanchthon
attaching with his signature the statement that the
papal supremacy be acknowledged for the freedom
of the Gospel. The official copy was forwarded to
the elector Jan. 3, 1537, who expressed great satis-
faction at the agreement of the articles with the
Augsburg Confession (q.v.) and the unanimity of
his theologians; and he set his chancellor to secure
the signatures of the leading pastors so that in the
case of Luther's sudden death his views should
stand without admixtures from them.
The articles were arranged in three divisions.
The first discusses briefly the undisputed majesty
of God. In the second, on the office and work of
Christ, or human redemption, the first
Content and principal article represents that
man, without any merit of his own,
but by the redemptive work of Jesus Christ, is jus-
tified by faith alone. In the second article, the mass
is condemned as contrary to Scripture, and, like its
alleged progeny, or as varieties of idolatry, purga-
tory, offices of saints, pilgrimages, monastic brother-
hoods, relics, and indulgences are denounced. The
third article demands the devotion of monastic
properties to the education of youth and the use of
the churches, and the fourth attacks the pope as
Antichrist. The best government for the Church
is for all to live under one head, Christ; and for the
bishops to cooperate earnestly in a common doc-
trine, faith, prayer, sacrament, and work of love.
In the third division are included articles on which
Luther may have hoped for some degree of concilia-
tion at least on the part of the more enlightened
Roman Catholics; such as doctrines of redemption,
sin, law, and repentance, in strong contrast with the
penance of the papal Church. In contrast with the
law and its significance for the way of salvation,
there rises in due prominence the counsel and help
of God offered against sin in the Gospel in various
ways: of oral preaching, principally; of baptism,
the sacrament, power of the keys, and confession;
to which are correlated the articles on the ban, con-
secration and vocation, on the Church, and on how
to become just before God, as well as on monastic
vows and human ordinances.
The elector's intention was to lay the articles of
Luther before a convention " for unanimous agree-
ment," to be held at Schmalkald on Candlemas,
Feb. 2, 1537; and all the Evangelical
History, estates were summoned to send one or
two theologians. In the first session,
the Chancellor Bruck proposed the discussion of the
articles in preparation of the approaching council.
But Melanchthon, who had not been in entire agree-
ment with Luther's articles on the attack on the
papacy, now obstructed this by informing Philip of
Hesse on the same day that Luther had altered,
under the influence of J. P. Bugenhagen (q.v.), the
original cast of the article on the Lord's Supper,
so that it was now in conflict with the Concord of
Wittenberg (q.v.). In consequence and in order to
avert a division, it was decided by the cities (Feb.
11) to decline the Saxon proposition and abide by
the confessions now in the hands of the emperor
upon which unanimity had been reached. To this
the princes agreed in general, with the provision
that the scholars review again the Augsburg Con-
fession and Apology and fortify them with new ar-
guments from the Scriptures and the Fathers, but
make no internal changes in them or the Concord
except to denounce more positively the papacy.
While, for want of books, approval was suspended
for further proof, Melanchthon, during the severe
illness of Luther, wrote his Tractates de potestate el
primatu papa, which was finished Feb. 17, in which,
under the influence of the ever-increasing anti-papal
feeling, he wrote in more drastic terms than was
his custom. He antagonized emphatically the as-
sumption of divine right by the pope, who, as the
protector of false doctrines and godless worship, was
much rather to be resisted as Antichrist. In the
second part he set forth the true view of the epis-
copacy and of Evangelical ordination; and the ob-
ligation of allegiance to the bishops subject to the
pope, who enforce godless doctrine and false wor-
ship, was repudiated. This tract, after being con-
sidered and approved by the estates, was sub-
scribed, in common with the Augsburg Confession
and the Apology, by the attendant theologians.
Luther's articles were to be read before the con-
vention Feb. 18; but, owing to his illness, this did
not take place. Finally, when all the business had
been transacted, Bugenhagen issued the invitation
to sign Luther's articles; but as Martin Butzer (q.v.)
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
declined, not because he found anything objection-
able but on the ground that be was not authorized,
and others followed his example, the
In the matter was dropped in the interest of
Book of peace. The theologians in attendance
Concord, and later others affixed their signa-
tures simply to give in writing their
expression of individual concord, without thought,
as the council was declined, of issuing a confes-
sional document of the Schmalkaldic league. A
year later Luther issued his document with longer
preface and various amplifications of the articles
and more acute deductions. Apparently not well-
informed of what transpired at Schmalkald during
his sickness, Luther regarded his articles as an
official instrument. In the preface he represented
them as adopted, known, and resolved by his party
for a basis of defense in the council. This notice
may have contributed to the result that, while Me-
lanchthon's tract retreated more and more into the
background, Luther's articles gained in estimation.
First, they were placed on the same plane with the
Augsburg Confession by the Hessian theologians,
1544. When the elector returned from captivity
he remarked that all the dogmatic confusion could
have been averted, if the agreement proposed at
Schmalkald in 1537 had been adhered to. In the
controversies of the fifth decade, it became more
and more expedient to class them with the formal
confessions, whereby, as the expression of the most
genuine Lutheranism, to combat the real or supposed
Fhilippist opinions (see Philippibts). Adopted in
nearly all " bodies of doctrine" begining with Bruns-
wick, 1563, it was understood that they received
acknowledgment by the authors of the Formula of
Concord (q.v.), while Melanchthon's tract, whose
authorship seems to have been forgotten, was
placed in the appendix of the Schmalkald articles
in the Book of Concord. Luther's articles written
in German were translated by the Danish Petrus
Generanus into Latin, Articvli a Reverendo D. Doc-
tore Martina Luthero seripto, Anno 1538 (Wittenberg,
1541; improveded., 1542). For Schmalkald League
see Philip of Hesse. (T. Kolde.)
Bibuoohapht: G. L. Plltt, De avehrritatm articulorum
SmaUaldiconm tumbolica. Erlangen, 186.2; F. Sander,
Oetchicht'.iche Einleitune iu dm ichmaliaiditehen A rtikdn,
iuJahrbOclur fardadtcht Thtoiogit. uc <1876), 475 equ..;
H. Birck. Zu dtn Itcrotunocn dtr Pntatanttn Bbtr die
Koruiltbulle torn 4, Juni 1338. in ZKO. liii (1892>, 487
jkit-. H. E.Jacoba. Book of Concord, passim. 2 vols., Phila-
delphia, 1803: J. F. Hunt, Hill, of Ou ChritHan Church,
ii. 500 and passim. New York, 1000; K. Thieme. Lvthtrt
Tttamtnl irider Horn, Leipsie. 1000; W. Rosenberg, Dtr
Kaiirr und dit PrulrManien in dtn Jahren 1SST-S8, Halle,
1903: Cambridge Modern Hillary, ii. 26, 215 «qq.. 232-
243,252-258. New York, 1904; Mueller. Christian Church.
iii. 132; Schaff, Cretdt, iii. 253-257; idem, Chrittian
Church, vL 70S. Commit also the btofraphiw of Luther.
SCHMALKALD LEAGUE. See Philip op Hesse.
I 4.
SCHMAL2, VALEMTIN. See SociMia, Fadstus,
SOCINIANS, I., [ 2.
SCHMID, shmtt, ALOYS VON: German Roman
Catholic, b. at Zaumberg (a village near Immen-
stadt, 13 m. s.w. of Kemptcn), Bavaria, Dec. 22,
1825; d. at Munich May 16, 1910. He was educated
at the University of Munich (1844-50); was pro-
fessor in the gymnasium of ZweibrUcken (1850-52) ;
professor of philosophy in the Lyceum of Dillingen
(1852-66); and after 18G6 was professor of apolo-
getics and dogmatics in the University of Munich.
He wrote Die Bistumsmjnode (2 vols., Regensburg,
1850-51); Entuncklungsgeschichte der Hegd'schen
Logik (IH.tS); Thomistische und scotistische Gewies-
heitslehre (Dillingen, 1859); Wiesenschaftliche Rich-
tungen auf dem Getnet des KathoHziamut (Munich,
1862); IFisBenscaa/r und Autoritat (1868); Unier-
suehungen tiber den lelzten Grand dee Offenbarungs-
glauben* (1879); Erkenntnidehre (2 vols., Freiburg,
1890); and Apologetik alt ipekulalive GruntUage der
Theologie (1900).
SCHMID, AJIDREAS: German Roman Catholic;
b. at Zaumberg (a village near Immenstadt, 13 m.
s.w. of Kemptcn), Bavaria, Jan. 9, 1840. He was
educated at the University of Munich (D.D., 1866),
became subdirector and director of the Georgian um,
a seminary for priests at Munich (1865), professor
of pastoral theology, homiletics, liturgies, and cate-
chetics in the University of Munich since 1877,
though he no longer lectures. He has written Der
christlicte AUar und tein Sehmuck (Regensburg,
1871); Dr. Valentin Thalhofer, Domprobst in Eich-
ttOU, eine Ubenskizze (Kempten, 1892); Getchichte
des Georgianums (Regensburg, 1894); Catrimoniale
fur Priester, Levilen und Minittrantsn nt den gewShn~
lichen liturgisehen Diensten (Kempten, 1895; 3d ed.,
1905); Religiose SinnsprHche zu Inschriften auf
Kirchengebaude und kirchliche GegenstSnde in latein-
ischer und deutscher Sprache (1899); Der Kirchen-
gesang nach den Liturgikern det Mittelaltert (1900) ;
and ChrUUiehe Symbole aits alter und neuer Zeit
(Freiburg, 1909).
SCHMID, CHRISTIAN FRJEDR1CH: German
Lutheran; b. at Bickelsberg, in Wurttemberg, in
1794; d. at Tubingen Mar. 28, 1852. Educated at
Maulbronn and Tubingen, he became lecturer in
practical theology at the latter university in 1819,
associate professor in 1821, and full professor in
1826, holding this position until bis death. Though
a member of the committee for the Wurttemberg
liturgy of 1840 and of the council for church organ-
isation in 1848, he took little part in administra-
tive affairs, nor was he conspicuous as an author,
his importance being due rather to his influence as
a teacher and a man. Proceeding from the Tubin-
gen supranaturalism of his time, he later labored
successfully for the positive foundations of Luther-
anism, maintaining the tendency which had been
traditional since the time of Bengel. He lectured
on practical, moral, and exegetical theology. He
was the author of the posthumous Vorletungen Hbcr
bibliscke Theologie des Neuen Testaments (Gotha,
1853, new ed., 1888; Eng. trans)., Biblical Theol-
ogy of the New Testament, Edinburgh, 1871), and
Vorletungen Ober ehrittliche Sittenlehre (1861).
(C. WEIZSACXEKt-)
Biblioqeaphi. C. Wauaacker. in SchaObitchat Mtrkvr,
June S, 1862; Blatter dtr frinneruna an C. F. Schmid,
Tubingen, 18G2.
SCHMID, HEIHRICH FRDJDRICH FKKDIHAHD:
German Lutheran; b. at Harburg (30 m. n.n.w. of
Sohxnld
Schmidt
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
260
Augsburg) July 31, 1811; d. at Erlangen Nov. 17,
1885. He was educated at the universities of Tu-
bingen, Halle, Berlin, and Erlangen, and in 1833
was called to the newly founded seminary for preach-
ers at Munich. Four years later he became a lec-
turer in the theological faculty at Erlangen, and
during this period published his Dogmatik der evan-
gdisch4utherischen Kirche (Erlangen, 1843; Eng.
transl., Doctrinal Theology of the Lutheran Churcfi,
Philadelphia, 1876). In 1846, when he became
privat-docent at Erlangen, Schmid published his
Geschichte der synkretistischen Streitigkeiten in der
Zeit dee Georg Calixt (1846). Two years later he
was appointed associate professor, and in 1852 full
professor, first of church history and systematic
theology, and later of historical theology. For his
lectures on church history he wrote his Lehrbuch
der Kirchengeschichte (Nordlingen, 1851), later ex-
panded into the Handbuch der Kirchengeschichte (2
vols., Erlangen, 1880-81). A similar purpose was
served by his Lehrbuch der Dogmengeschichte (Nord-
lingen, 1860), after he had already published his
Theologie Senders (1858). From 1855 to 1876
Schmid was editor of the Zeitschri/t fur Protestantism
mus und Kirche, to which he contributed much. His
attitude toward Lutheranism was shown by his
Kamp/der lutherischen Kirche um Luther s Lehre vom
Abendmahl in Re/ormationszeitaUer (Leipsic, 1868),
and Geschichte der katholischen Kirche Deutschlands
von Mitte des achtzehnten Jahrhunderts bis in die
Gegenwart (Munich, 1874). In 1881 he retired from
active life. (F. FBANKf.)
SCHMID, KONRAD: 1. Leader of the Flagel-
lants of the fourteenth century. See Flagella-
tion, Flagellants, II., § 4.
2. Swiss Reformer; b. at Kussnacht (15 m. n.e.
of Lucerne) 1476 or early in 1477; d. in the battle
of Kappel Oct. 11, 1531. He was educated at Tu-
bingen, and entered the Johannite monastery of
his native town. In 1515-16 he resumed his theo-
logical studies at Basel, and was inducted to the
parish of Seengen in Aargau on Apr. 21, 1517. On
Mar. 10, 1519, he was chosen commander, and in this
capacity exercised much influence on the develop-
ment of the Reformation in Zurich. He soon came
under the influence of Zwingli and devoted him-
self to the Bible, patristics, and Greek. Schmid was
regarded as a learned man, and a powerful preacher.
As early as the spring of 1522 he delivered a ser-
mon at Lucerne in which he assailed Roman Catho-
lic doctrines. In the first Kappel war he served as
chaplain. Schmid was less inclined to violent ac-
tion than was Zwingli, with whom he toured the
country in harmony as official itinerant preacher to
strengthen the cause of the Reformation. More im-
portant was Schmid 's influence as the supporter
of the authorities in momentous disputations. He
took part in the disputation with the monks of the
city in the summer of 1522, in the conferences con-
cerning images and the mass in the spring of 1524,
and in a number of controversies with Anabaptists,
including Hubmaier himself. These Anabaptist
controversies gave rise to Schmid 's two pamphlets
Ein christliche Ermanung zur waren Hoffnung in
Gott und Wamung (1527) and Verwerffen der Ar-
tickeln und Stucken. Though not always unop-
posed, Schmid admirably administered the par-
ishes, charitable institutions, and other institutions
under his control. In 1525 he married. His entire
harmony with Zwingli in his latter years was shown
by his taking the place of his greater colleague while
Zwingli was on his way to Marburg, and also by the
tenor of his last pamphlet, Ein christlicher Benefit
des Herren Nachtmahls, with its Zwinglian views of
the Lord's Supper. Besides the three pamphlets
already mentioned Schmid published his Lucerne
sermon in 1522. (Emil EoLif-)
Bibliography: Sources are the " Works " and " Letters "
of Zwingli; the early lives of that Reformer; and the
" History of the Reformation " by H. Bullinger, ed. J. J.
Hottinger and H. H. Vogeli, 6 vols., Frauenfeld, 1838-40.
Consult further: H. Hess, in Z archer Chor herren for New
Year, 1825; S. Vdgelin, Sr.( inZQrcher Tatchenbuch, 1862;
C. Dandliker, in the same, 1897; and the literature under
Reformation which deals with Switseriand.
SCHMIDT, shmit, CARL: German Protestant;
b. at Hagenow (17 m. s.w. of Schwerin), Mecklen-
burg-Schwerin, Aug. 26, 1868. He was educated
at the universities of Leipsic and Berlin (1887-94;
Ph.D., 1892) ; in 1899 he became privat-docent for
church history and titular professor at Berlin, and
in 1910 assistant professor in church history. He
is also an attache* of the Royal Prussian Academy
of Sciences, engaged in the investigation of early
Christian literature, particularly Coptic. He has
been associate editor of Texte und Untersuchungen
with A. Harnack since 1906, and has written De
codice Bruciano seu de libris gnosticis qui in lingua
coptica extant commentatio (Leipsic, 1892); GnosH-
sche Schriften in koptischer Sprache aus dem Codex
Brucianus (1892); Plotins Stellung zum Gnostizis-
mus und kirchlichen Christentum (1901); Frag-
mente einer Schrift des Mdrtyrerbischofs Petrus von
Alexandrien (1901); Die alten Petrusakten (1903);
Acta Pauli aus der Heidelberger Papyrushandschrift
(1904); KopHschrgnosHsche Schriften (1905); Der
erste Clemensbrief in altkoptischer Vebersetzung
(1908); and Altchristliche Texte (1910; in collabo-
ration with Schubert).
SCHMIDT, CHARLES GXULLAUME ADOLPHE:
Evangelical church historian; b. at Strasburg June
20, 1812; d. there Mar. 11, 1895. Even in his ear-
lier period of instruction, which was passed in the
Protestant gymnasium of his native city, he mani-
fested an unusual interest in national and local his-
tory, and also in botany and mineralogy. In 1828
he entered the Protestant Seminary, and his tend-
ency grew into marked preference for church his-
tory. In 1833 on his travels he went to Geneva,
where the sight of the manuscripts of the time of
the Reformation, particularly of letters, directed
his special attention to that period. After further
travels in France, Switzerland, and Germany, he
returned and took his examinations, receiving his
doctorate after presenting as his thesis Essai sur les
mystiques du XIV. siecle (Strasburg, 1836), a work
which introduced him to a department which he
later enriched. Within a few months he began to
lecture in the Protestant Seminary of Strasburg; in
1839 he became professor of practical theology, al-
though this department was not one in which his
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
interest was supreme; in this capacity be served in
the university 1848-64, when he received the chair
of cburcb history which was his first choice. He had,
besides, the principal authority in the Protestant
Gymnasium, 1849-59 and 1865-69. His strength
was also drawn upon for numerous services in other
directions to the advantage of the city.
Schmidt's literary works appeared now in the
German and now in the French language. They fall
into four groups, which represent four departments
of church history. The first is that which deals with
church history at large, in which may be placed
Essai historique sur la soeiiti civile dan* U monde
remain et sur to. transformation par le chrittianisme
(Strasburg, 1853; Eng. transl., The Social Results of
Early Christianity, London, 1885), which was
crowned by the French Academy; thirty years later
he finished his literary labors with a work in this
department, his Precis de I'histoire de I'fglise d'occi-
dent pendant le moyen-age (1888). The second group
is that which has to do with the Church of the Mid-
dle Ages, and contains a series of monographs de-
voted to the various sects and to the mystics of the
period. Here belong his thesis for the doctorate
already mentioned: Meister Eckart (1839); Essai
sur J. Gerson (1839); Johannes Tavier von Strasa-
burg (Hamburg, 1841); Der Mystiker Heinriek Suso
(1843); Essai sur le mysticisms ollemand an XIV.
tilde (Strasburg, 1847); Die Oottes/reunde im U.
Jahrhundert (Jena, 1854) ; Rulman Merswin, le fon-
dateur de la tnaison de Saint-Jean de Strasbourg
(Strasburg, 1856); Nicolaus von Basel und die Gottea-
freunde (1856); Nicotaus von Basel, Lebenundaus-
gewanlte Schriften (1866); and Nicolaue von Basel,
RencM von der Rekehrung Taulers (1875) ; in these
there was steady progress and change in opinion, as
the author was not averse to learning from his con-
temporaries. His chief work in this department was
Histoire et doctrine de la aecte det Cathares ou Al-
bigeoi* (2 vols., Paris, 1849), in which he laid the
basis for future expositions. A third group is re-
lated to the Reformation in Germany and France.
Here are to be noted Gerard Routed, prtdicateur de
la reine Marguerite de Navarre (Strasburg, 1845);
La Vieetlettravauxde JeanSturm (1855); and three
volumes contributed to the series on the founders
and fathers of the Lutheran and Reformed churches
—Peter Martyr Vermigli (Elberfeld, 1858); PhUipp
Mdanehthon (1861); and Wiihelm Farel and Peter
Viret (1861). Besides these and other writings, a
noteworthy series of articles was contributed to the
Theologische Studicn und Kritiken. The fourth group
dealt with local history, to which the last twenty-
five years of his life were given. Here may be named
Histoire du chapitre de Saint-Thomas de Strasbourg
pendant le moyen-age (Strasburg, 1860); Histoire
litteraire de V Alsace a la fin du XV. et an commence-
ment du XVI. tied* (2 vols., Paris, 1879; crowned
by the French Academy); Michad Schutz genannt
Toxiiet (1888); and Lines et bibliotheques a Stras-
bourg au moyen Age (1893). Schmidt was engaged
all his life, more or less, upon the gathering of other
materials which he playfully designated as " hours
with the muse," and these in the course of time grew
into greater or lesser wholes. Such were his Strats-
burger Gotten- und Hduter-Namen im Mitteialter
(2d ed., 1888); Worterbuch der Strattburger Mund-
art (1896); and Les Seigneurs, les pageant et la
proprieti rurale en Alsace au moyen Age (1897),
the last two posthumous.
The foregoing by no means exhausts Schmidt's
literary productivity, not to mention his numerous
reviews and other more or less ephemeral writings.
Enough has been said to exhibit his exceedingly
great diligence. Commensurate with this was his
fulness of knowledge, the thoroughness which he
displayed in research, and the reliability which was
the result. There was also a strong personal reserve
or modesty, and a dislike for the rhetorical. He
also exhibited pronounced personal piety, a mild
and tolerant personality, and a manly earnestness.
His later years found him growing, as he more and
more appreciated Lutheranism, in opposition to
Rome and in antipathy to Zwinglian spiritism. He
outgrew also his early partiality for Romanticism.
With him departed the last representative of the
early generation of Strasburg theologians who, be-
fore the Franco-Prussian War, acted as mediators
between German and French theology, whose influ-
ence extended beyond the scene of their labors.
(P. Lob stein.)
BiDnuqiAfar: A *katch of Schmidt's life wat furaiibed by
B. Reuaa to tho Journal $ A Itact. Max., 1895. and reprinted
separately. SStnwburg. the name year. The eajne writer
provided ■ preface drawn from Schmidt'* remain! to the
WbrttrburJi. ut iup., and further material waa provided
by Pfister prefatoriajly in La Seigneurs, pp. v—mev.
SCHMIDT, FREDERICK AOGUSTTTS: Lu-
theran; b. at Leutenberg (68 m. s.w. of Leipsic),
Germany, Jan. 3, 1837. He was brought as a child
to the United States, and received his education at
Concordia College, St. Louis (B.A., 1857); entered
the Lutheran ministry as pastor of the German
Congregation, Eden, N. Y., where he served, 1857-
1859; was pastor of St. Peter's Lutheran Church,
Baltimore, 1859-61 ; professor in the Luther Col-
lege, Decornn, la., 1861-72; professor of theology
at Concordia Seminary, St. Louis, 1872-76; at
Madison, Wis., 1876-86, at Northfleld, Minn., 1886-
1890, and since 1890 at the Seminary of the United
Norwegian Lutheran Church, Minneapolis; be also
edited The Lutheran Watchman, 1865-66, Aties und
Neues, 1880-85, and Lutherske Vidnesbyrd, 1882-88.
SCHMIDT, HERMAHH CHRISTOPH: German
Lutheran; b. at Frickenhofen (a village near Gail-
dorf, 31 m. n.e. of Stuttgart) Feb. 23, 1832; d. at
Breslau Nov. 19, 1893. He was educated at Tu-
bingen (1850-54), where, after having been vicar
at Korb and private tutor at Berlin and Daiiiig,
he was lecturer in 1858-61. He was then city
vicar of Stuttgart until 1863, acting as general sup-
ply to the clergy, and in the latter year was called
in a aimilar capacity to Calw, where he remained
until 1869, sturdily opposing the local Pietism with
the supranaturalism which characterized his theo-
logical position throughout his life, but unable to
influence the people generally. From 1889 to 1881
he was attached to the Leonhardskircbe at Breslau.
Here he also took an active part in practical relig-
ious life, especially in the Innere Mission (q. v.), being
president of the South German conference after
1869 and publiahing at Hamburg in 1879 his In-
Suhmnc
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
Here Mission in WurUemberg. In 1881 Schmidt was
called to Breslau as professor of systematic and
practical theology and New-Testament exegesis, a
position which he held until his death. After 18S6
he was also a member of the Poseu examining com-
mittee, and until his death he served us university
preacher. His program was outlined in his Die
Kirriii. iliTi liibliiiflie. Idee und die Formen ihrer ge-
echiclitlichen Erscheiraing in ihrem Unterschiede vom
tickte und HSresie (Leipsic, 1884), in which he held
that the Church is a constant magnitude, while
heresy destroys the fundamental distinction be-
tween the kingdom of God (or the Church) and the
world, a gap which is bridged by sectarianism. All
heresy is prelinured in i.inosudsm, and all sectarian'
ism in Ebiom'siu and Montanism, while the phe-
nomena of modem theology are closely akin to this
prototype of heresy, which, like modern rationalism,
has always rejected the concept of supran.aturalistic
revelation, lie became, therefore, more and more
on opponent of Ritschl and his school, but he was
unable to carry out his intention of presenting his
own doctrinal system in detail, although his con-
tributions to theological periodicals and to the ear-
lier editions of the original of this work make his
position plain.
In addition to the works already noted, Schmidt
Was the author of a Haiidbuch der Si/mtwlik (Berlin,
IS'lil! :ind of a series of essays collected under the
title Zut ClirUtologie (1892). In 1891, after having
repeatedly been the delegate of the faculty to the
provincial synod of Posen, he whs elected to the
general synod. Constantly defending the independ-
ence nf his communion, even to the last year of his
life, he was rector of the university in 1891-92, but
his struggle with the school-laws and the opposition
of the majority of the faculty to his altitude im-
paired his health, which had already suffered from
the death of his eldest son. (E. Schmidt.)
BiEUoaaiPHT: G. Weitbrecht, in NKZ, 1S94, pp. B1Q-S34.
SCHMIDT, NATHANIEL: Ethical culturist; b.
at Hudiksvull (17(1 m. n.n.c. of Stockholm), Sweden,
Mav -1, ISii'J, lie was educated at the gynmasium
of his native town. Colgate University (A.B., 1882;
A.M., 1887}, and the universities of Stockholm
(1882-84) and Berlin (1890). From 1888 to 1896
he was connected with Colgate University, where
he was successively associate professor of Semitic
languages and Hellenistic Greek (1888-90) and pro-
fessor of Semitic languages and literatures (1890—
1896). and since IBM has. been professor of Semitic
languages and literatures in Cornell University. He
was director of the American School for Oriental
Study and Research in Palestine (1904-05) and of
the expedition for the exploration of the Dead Sea
and Arabia 1'etra in 15KJ5. In theology he belongs
to the radical school, and has written The
Prophet of Nazareth (New York, 1905) ; and The
Mesrngr of the Poets; the Book of Job and Canticles,
and some minor Poems in the Old Testament (1911);
besides editing Eeelesiasticiis for The Temple Bible
(London, 1903).
SCHMIDT, PAUL WTLHELM: Swiss Protestant;
b. at Berlin Dec. 25, 1845. He was educated at the
university of his native city, where be was privat-
docent (1869-76); editor of the Protestantische
Kirchemeitung (1870-76); and general secretary
of the Deutscher Protestantenverein (1874-76).
Since 1870 he has been professor of New-Testament
exegesis and dogmatics in the University of Basel.
In addition to his activity as one of the collabo-
rators od the New-Testament section of the Pro-
testanten-Bibel (Leipsic, 1873; Eng. trans!, by F. H,
Jones, A Short Protestant Commentary on the
Books of the New Testament, 3 vols., London,
1882-84), he has written Spinoza und SchUier-
macher (Berlin, 1868); Neutestamendiche Hyper'
kritik, an dan j-ungtten Angnff gegen die Aeehtheit
des Philipperbriefes auf Hire Methods hin uniersucht,
nebst einer Erklarung des Briefes (1880); Der erste
Thessatonicherbrief neti erkldrt, nebst einem Excurs
ilber den zweiten gleichnamigen Brief (1885); Chri&-
tentum und Weltverneinung (Basel, 1888); Anmerk-
vngen titer die Komposition der Offenbarung Jo-
hannes (Freiburg, 1891); and Gesehichte Jesu (vol.
i., Tubingen, 1900; 4th ed., 1904; vol. ii., 1904;
popular ed., 1 vol., 1906).
SCHMIDT, WILHELM: German Protestant;
b. at Erfurt June 6, 1839. He was educated at the
universities of Marburg and Halle (Ph.D., Jena,
1863); was pastor at Schonstadt(1866),Hen3chleben
(1866-74), and Curtow (1874-94); being also chap-
lain in the army and in the hospital at Crcuznacti
in 1870-71. Since 1894 he has been professor of
systematic theology in the University of Breslau.
His works include Zur Inspirationsfrage (Gotha,
1869); Die gottiiche Vorsehung und das Se&sUeben
der Welt (Berlin, 1887); Das Gemssen (Leipsic,
1889); Der atte Glaube und die Wahrheit des Chris-
tentums (Berlin, 1891); Christliche Dogmatik (2
parts, Bonn, 1896-98); Die Lehre des Apostela
Paidu* (Giltersloh, 1898); Der Kampf der Weltan-
schauungen (Berlin, 1904); Der Kampf urn die sitt-
liche Welt (Giltersloh, 1906); Die. Fordentng einer
modenien positiven Theologie in kritischer BeUucht-
ung (1906); Modeme Theologie des alien Glaubent
in kritischer Beleuchlvng (1906); Der Kampf tint
den Sinn des Lebens Ton Dante bis Ibsen (2 parts,
Berlin, 1907); Die rerschiedenen Typen der re-
ligidsen Brfalirung und der Psychologic (1908); and
Der Kampf um die Seek (1909).
SCHMIDT, WOLDEMAR GOTTLOB: German
Protestant theologian; b. at St. Afra in Meissen
(14 m. n.w. of Dresden) June 2, 1836; d. at Leip-
sic Jan. 31, 1888. He studied at Leipsic and Gdt-
tingen, 1854-57; taught at the Gymnasia of Plauen,
Zwickau, and St. Afra, 1S.58-6G, when he became
extraordinary professor in the University of Leip-
sic, full professor in 1876. His subjects covered
mainly the New Testament, but he lectured also
on theological encyclopedia and catechetics, also
directing two catechetical societies. Owing to hi3
multiplied academic activity. Schmidt found but
little time for authorship. His most extensive
work in this field is his Lehrgchalt des Jacobus-
Briefes (Leipsic, 1809); he also edited Eplie-uirn
in the 5th edition of Meyer's Commentary. Hia
lesser publications include a printed address on the
dogma of the Incarnation (1865), and a Reforma-
tion anniversary program of 1882, on the narrative
258
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Schmidt
Schinuoker
concerning Stephen in the Book of Acts. In these
writings he evinced the thorough, incisive, and yet
contained style of treatment that he showed in the
professor's chair. C. T. Fickbb.
SCHMIEDEL, shrni'del, PAUL WILHELM: Ger-
man Protestant; b. at Zaukeroda (40} m. s.w. of
Dresden), Germany, Dec. 22, 1851. He was edu-
cated at the universities of Leipsic (1871-74) and
Jena (1874-75; lie. theol., 1878), and in 1878 became
privat-docent for theology at Jena, where he was
appointed associate professor in 1890. Since 1893
he has been professor of New-Testament exegesis at
the University of Zurich. In theology he is a mod-
erate liberal, and has written Qua interceded ratio
inter doctrinam epistolcs ad Hebrews missce et Pauli
apostoli doctrinam (Jena, 1878); Briefe an die
Thessalonier und Corinther (Freiburg, 1891); Jo-
hannesschriften des Neuen Testaments (2 parts,
Halle, 1906; Eng. transl., The Johannine Writings,
London, 1908) ; and Die Person Jesu im Streite der
Meinungen der Gegenwart (Berlin, 1906; Eng. transl.,
Jesus in Modern Criticism, London, 1907); has
edited R. Seydel's Religionsphilosophie (1893); and
has prepared a new edition of G. B. Winer's Oram-
matik des neutestamenUichen Sprachidioms (2 parts,
Gottingen, 1894-98).
SCHMOLCK, shmolk (SCHMOLKE), BEN-
JAMIN: German hymnist; b. at Brauchitschdorf,
Liegnitz (38 m. w. of Breslau), Dec. 21, 1672; d. at
Schweidnitz (32 m. s.w. of Breslau) Feb. 12, 1737.
He studied at Leipsic, 1693-97; and, after acting
as his father's assistant till 1702, spent the rest of
his life in ministerial work at Schweibnitz, though
suffering from paralysis after 1735. As a hymn-
writer he was influenced by the Silesian school of
poetry. He was fond of plays on words, and treated
the Old Testament from the point of view of al-
legory. In meter and in rime he showed freedom
and a light hand, but deep poetical feeling and
thought were often lacking, and subjectivity char-
acterizes his work. His literary production was
large, his hymns alone number nearly 900. His
compositions show the character of occasional
versification, but some of the best of his hymns are
still in use. Several of his hymns have been ren-
dered into English; so his " Mein Jesu, wie du
willst," Eng. transl. by Miss Borthwick, " My
Jesus, as thou wilt "; " Was Gott thut das ist
wohlgethan," Eng. transl. by J. Kelly, " Whatever
God doth is well done."
(Hermann Beck.)
Bibliography: A 2d ed. of his Lieder und Oebete, ed. L.
Grote, with a valuable biography, appeared Leipsic, 1860.
Consult further: E. E. Koch, Oeschichte des Kirchenlieds,
v. 463 sqq., 3d ed., 6 vols., Stuttgart, 1866-80; S. W.
Duffield, English Hymns, pp. 371-372 et passim. New
York, 1886; H. Beck, Die religidse VoUcsliUeratur der
evangelischen Kirch* Deutschlands, Gotha, 1891; C. Gross©,
Die alien Truster, Hermannsburg, 1900; W. Nelle, Oe-
schichie des deutschen Kirchenliedes, pp. 533 sqq., Ham-
burg, 1904; Julian, Hymnology, pp. 1011-1014.
SCHMUCKER, shmuk'er, BEAL MELAHCH-
THON : Lutheran, son of Samuel Simon Schmucker
(q.v.); b. at Gettysburg, Pa., Aug. 26, 1827; d.
in Pottstown, Pa., Oct. 18, 1888. He was graduated
from Pennsylvania College (1844), and the Theo-
logical Seminary of his native town (1847); and
served the Lutheran congregations at Martinsburg
and Shepherdstown, Va. (1848-51), Allentown, Pa.,
(1852-62), Easton (1862-67), Reading (1867-81),
and Pottstown, Pa. (1881-88). It was particularly
through his intimate friendship with Charles Por-
terfield Krauth (q.v.) that his theological convic-
tions developed into the very opposite of those of
his father. He became a strong defender of historic
Lutheranism and was one of the pillars of the Gen-
eral Council. His attitude in the doctrinal contro-
versies of the American Lutheran Church of his time
is clearly set forth in the charge which he delivered
to the professors at the installation of the first fac-
ulty of the Theological Seminary in Philadelphia
Oct. 4, 1864: " The Confessions of the Evangelical
Lutheran Church stand out prominently in the in-
ner history of the Christian Church as the most full,
clear, precisely defined, and harmoniously developed
system of doctrine which, by the help of the Holy
Ghost, men have yet builded upon the only founda-
tion of the Apostles and Prophets, Jesus Christ him-
self being the Chief Cornerstone." His strength lay
in the carefulness and thoroughness with which he
labored in the various important interests com-
mitted to him, and the fine tact and parliamentary
adroitness with which he represented them in eccle-
siastical conventions. To the end of his life he
served as secretary of the board of directors of the
theological seminary, and as secretary of the board
of foreign missions of the General Council. But he
was most prominent in the field of liturgies. His
knowledge of details in matters pertaining to the
order of service, especially of the Lutheran Church
of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, was
unusually extensive and accurate, and the excellent
Church Book of the General Council (1868) is greatly
indebted to him. As secretary of the Church Book
Committee he gradually collected for their work a
liturgical library of inestimable value, which is
now preserved in the Krauth Memorial Library
of the Lutheran Seminary at Philadelphia. To
him, more than to any other man, is due the
success which has crowned the efforts to secure
the common service for English Lutherans in
America. He proposed the adoption of the prin-
ciple that all important questions were to be
decided according to the consensus of the Lutheran
liturgies of the sixteenth century. Schmucker
was also an indefatigable, painstaking, and
thorough investigator in the field of local history of
Lutheran Churches in America. For years he gath-
ered much and valuable material in this line, and
became assistant editor in the new edition of the
Halle' sche Nachrichten by W. J. Mann and W.
German. He made contributions to the theological
magazines which are of permanent value to the his-
torian and appeared also as separate pamphlets.
The following deserve to be noted particularly:
The First Penny slvania Liturgy, Adopted in 1748
(1882); The Early History of the Tulpehocken
Churches (1882); The Lutheran Church in Potts-
town (1882); The Lutheran Church in Frederick,
Maryland (in Quarterly Review, 1883) ; The Lutheran
Church in the City of New York during the First
Century of its History (in Church Review, 1884-86);
gahmubkvr
7Vw Lui/iwan Culecfciwn. lie Translation into Eng-
lish il.--.Sti); Enalwh Translation* of the Augsburg
Confession (1887); The Organization of the Lutheran
Congregation in the Early Lutheran Churchin Amer-
ica (1887); The Lutheran Church in York, Pa.
(1888). Adolph Spaeth.
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOQ
A memorial by A. Spaeth appealed in the
rch Review tot 18S0. CtwMlt further: H. E
neon Church Hilton/ Scnet, vol. iv. puBim
Sew York.
893: A. Spaeth, Charla Porirrfitid KrauOi
vol. L, ib. 1898.
SCHMDCKER, SAMUEL SIMON: Lutheran
theologian; b. at Hogerstown, Md., Feb. 28, 1799;
(!. at Gettysburg, Pa., July 20, 1873. Ho studied
at the academy at York, Pa., the University of
Pennsylvania (B.A., 1817), and Princeton Thco-
logieju Seminary. He was ordained by the synod
of Maryland and Virginia in 1821, and served a
parish in New Market. Vu., and vicinity, up to the
year 1820. When the General Synod, founded in
1821, established its thculogiea! seminary at Gettys-
burg, Pa., in 1825, he was called to the head of the
institution and for four years was the only theo-
logical instructor. Subsequently Charles Philip
Krauth and Charles Frederick Schaeffer (qq.v.)
were associated with him. After nearly forty years
of service he resigned in 1864. About 400 students
received their training chiefly under his influence.
He was one of the most prolific writers of the
American Lutheran Church, setting forth the stand-
point in liirli In1 represented as a teacher in the semi-
nary, and endeavoring to disseminate its principles
by a series of more or less popular writings, such
AS his Elements of Popular Theology (Andover, 1834,
9th ed., Philadelphia, 1800); Psychology, or Ele-
ments of a New System of Mental Philosophy (New
York, 1842); The Lutheran Manual on Scriptural
Principles (Philadelphia, 1855); The Lutheran
Symbols, or Vindication of American Lutheran ism
(Baltimore, 1850), and dissertations, sermons, and
articles in The Lutheran Observer and The Evan-
grliail Hevieu>. He was particularly interested in
the problem of a union of all Protestant denomina-
tions. As early as 1838 he issued an appeal to the
American churches, with a plan for a general union.
Later he took a prominent part in the organisation
of the Evangelical Alliance and was present at the
first meeting in London, 1846. Hi* last production.
The Unity of Christ's Church (New York, 1870) was
devoted to its interests, written in view of its ap-
proaching convention in New York, 1873.
Dr. Schmueker, on the one aide, exerted a de-
cided and positive influence toward holding to-
gether and organizing the Lutheran Church in this
country. At the same time, he occupied a position
foreign to and act ually dcstruel ive of tlie true spirit.
of Lutheran ism. if the fundamental question of the
confession and its historical continuity be consid-
ered. At the time when he began his active labors
the Lutheran Church in this country was threatened
with disintegration. German rationalism and Eng-
lish deism had affected the Lutherans, though not
to the same extent as other Protestant denomina-
tions. In New York the Lutherans fraternized with
Episcopalians, in Pennsylvania with the Reformed.
The critics! period of transition info the English
language had arrived. But there was no English
Lutheran literature, and no seminary where pastors
could be educated to preach the Lutheran faith in
the English tongue. At this point young Schmuck-
er, with his unquestionable talent for organization
and administration, put forth his most energetic
efforts to secure for the Lutheran Church in America
a continued existence and a respected place among
the Protestant denominations of the country. The
preservation of the General Synod, the founding of
its educational institutions, the Theological Semi-
nary and Pennsylvania College at Gettysburg, are
owing chiefly to his self-sacrificing labors. And
these institutions were meant to be of a conserva-
tive character, to construct and preserve Lutheran-
ism "in America. But, on the other band, his influ-
ence as professor of theology tended to ttfWrtUe UW
invalidate the historic confessional basis of the Lu-
theran Church. According to his conviction it was
the vocation of the American Lutheran Church to
free herself from all respect " for the authority of
the fathers, whether they be Nicene or Ante-Xiceiie.
Roman or Protestant." He strove to eliminate
everything distinctively Lutheran and to substitute
the basis of the Evangelical Alliance for the Augs-
burg Confession and Luther's Catechism. These
tendencies culminated in the Definite Platform which
he pabltabed anonymously in 1855. It claimed to
be an " American Recension of the Augsburg Con-
fession," representing the standpoint of the General
Synod. In this document twelve of the original
twenty-one doctrinal articles of the Augsburg Con-
fession were changed, mutilated, or entirely omitted.
The seven articles on abuses (XXII. to XXVIII.)
were all omitted. Dr. Schmucker's theological
standpoint may be characterized as a peculiar
mixture of Puritanism, Pietism, and shallow ration-
alism. His Definite Platform was never formally
adopted by the General Synod, though many prom-
inent men in it sympathized with its spirit. It
rather paved the way to a reaction in favor of the
Lutheran Confession. Adolph Spaeth.
BiBUOodAFHTt Ptnnwlnania Cattrgt Book. ed. E. S. Brai-
rtopbsch. Phil ml el ph in, 1H82; H. E, Jacob*. Amerteon
Church Hitlory Srri™. vol. iv. pawiim. New York, 1893;
A. Spaeth, Charlet PorttrAeld Kraulh, vol. i„ ib. 1898.
SCHHECKEHBURGER, shnek'en-burg"er, MAT-
THIAS: German Swiss Protestant; b. at Thal-
heim, near Tuttlingen (55 m. s.s.w. of Stutt-
gart), Jan. 17, 1804; d. at Bern June 13, 1848. He
was educated at the universities of Tubingen and
Berlin, returning to the former university as theo-
logical lecturer in 1827. He became assistant pas-
tor at Hcrrenberg, 1821, and professor of theology
at the newly founded university of Bern in 1834,
lecturing primarily on church history and systematic
theology, and also on New -Testament exegesis. He
also shared the chair in dogmatics with (lelpke mid
Lutz, his province being ecclesiastical dogniatic.H.
Here he, essentially a Lutheran, had the delicate
task of arranging his courses to meet the needs of
Reformed students. He accordingly took as the
basis of his lectures on dogmatics the second Hel-
vetic Confession, comparing it with Lutheran the-
ology and with modem dogmatic systems. At the
same time, the Reformed atmosphere of Bern exer>
265
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Schmuoker
Sohnepff
cised a constantly increasing effect on Schnecken-
burger himself, especially as neither the political
conditions nor the religious thought of the period
at Bern were conducive to the one-sided intellectual-
ism of German universities. Broadening the scope
of his lectures, Schneckenburger dealt with apol-
ogetics, the philosophy of religion, the influence of
philosophy on theology since the time of Descartes,
and the conflict of modern thought with Christian-
ity. In the latter subject Schneckenburger assumed
a strongly thcistic position and opposed Hegelian-
ism. He likewise investigated with ever-increasing
interest the divergencies between Lutheran and
Reformed doctrine, as set forth in his lectures on
symbolics. For the six last years of his life, inspired
both by the rise of the Old Lutheran movement and
by his position as a Lutheran teaching Reformed
dogmatics, he devoted himself especially to a study
of early Reformed theology and its various schools,
developing his views in courses of lectures on com-
parative dogmatics. With all this activity Schneck-
enburger never lost interest in the practical work
of the Church, and was for many years a director of
the missionary society founded under his inspira-
tion. Among his writings were: Ueber Glauben,
Tradition und Kirche (Stuttgart, 1827); Ueber das
Alter der jUdischen Proselytentau/e und deren Zusam-
menhang mit dem johanneischen und christlichen
Ritus (Berlin, 1828); Beitrdge zur EinleUung ins
Neue Testament (1832); Ueber das Evangelium der
Aegypter (Bern, 1834) ; Ueber den Zweck der Apos-
telgeschichte (1841); and Die orthodoxe Lehre vom
doppelten Stands Christi nach lutherischer und re-
formierter Fassung (Pforzheim, 1848).
(C. B. HuNDESHAGENf)
Bibliography: E. F. Gelpke, OedOehinieerede auf . . .
Matth. Schneckenburger, gehdUen . . . 18. Juni, 1848,
Neb si der Orabrede von E. Wys*. Bern, 1848.
SCHNEDERHANlf , shne'der-mOn" GEORG HER-
MANN: German Lutheran; b. at Chemnitz (43
m. s.e. of Leipsic), Saxony, July 3, 1862. He
was educated at the universities of Leipsic and Er-
langen (1872-75; Ph.D., Leipsic, 1878), and after
being a private tutor (1875-77), was attached to
the theological seminary at Leipsic until 1879. In
1880 he became privat-docent for New-Testament
exegesis at the University of Leipsic, and three
years later (1883) went to Basel under the auspices
of the Verein fur christliche Wissenschaft as in-
structor in systematic theology. Returning to
Leipsic in 1889 as instructor in New-Testament
exegesis and systematic theology, he was appointed,
in the following year, to his present position of as-
sociate professor of dogmatics and catechetics, be-
ing also director of the catechetical seminary and
second university preacher. Besides editing F.
Weber's System der altsynagogalen paldsHnischen
Thealogie (in collaboration with F. Delitzsch; Leip-
sic, 1880); and Beitrdge zur Vertiefung der hirch-
lichen Unterweisung (in collaboration with M. Pache;
1903), he has written Die Controverse des Ludovicus
CapeUus mit den Buxtorfen uber das Alter der he-
br&ischen Punctation (1879); De fidei notions ethica
Paulina (1880); Das Judentum und die christliche
VerkHndigung in den Evangelien (1884); Die Brief e
Pavli an die Thessalonicher, Galater, Korinther,
Rdmer (in O. Zockler and H. Strack's Kurzgefasster
Kommeniar; Ndrdlingen, 1887); Die Gefangen-
schaftsbrie/e des Apostels Paulus (in the same series,
1888) ; Von dem Bestande unserer Oemeinschaft mit
Gott durch Jesum Christum (1888) ; Ringet darnaeh,
doss ihr sHUe seid (3 sermons; 1889); Das moderns
Christentum, sein Recht und sein Unrecht (Leipsic,
1889); Der judische Hintergrund im Neuen Testa-
ment (1890); Frank und Ritschl (1891); VorsteUung
vom Reiche Gottes (2 parts, 1893) ; Von reenter Ver-
deutschung der Evangelien (1896); Umul&nglich-
keii der gegenwdrtigen kirchlichen Unterweisung
(1897); Der christliche Glaube im Sinne der gegen-
wdrtigen evangelischen lutherischen Kirche (1902);
Das Wort vom Kreuze, religionsgeschichtlich und dog-
matisch beleuchtet (Gutersloh, 1906); Ohne des Ge-
setzes Werk. Eine Anleitung zu selbststdndigen ge-
schichtlichem Verstdndniss des Neuen Testaments
(1907); and Die heilige Schrtft im Religionsunter-
richt (1909).
SCHNEPFF, shnepf, ERHARD: German Re-
former; b. at Heilbronn (26 m. n. of Stuttgart) Nov.
1, 1495; d. in Jena Nov. 1, 1558. He studied at
Erfurt and Heidelberg; taught in the latter city
and possibly heard Luther's disputation there Apr.
26, 1518. When (Ecolampadius resigned as preacher
at Weinsberg in 1520, Schnepff accepted the post,
but was expelled by the Austrian government be-
cause of his Evangelical preaching in 1522; under
the protection of Dieterich von Gemmingen he
preached at Guttenberg and Neckarmuhlbach, and
in 1523 in the little imperial town of Wimpfen. He
avoided a call to act as field preacher for the peas-
ants in 1525 by his hasty marriage with Margaretha
Wurzelmann, daughter of the mayor of Wimpfen;
the same year he signed the Syngramma Suevicum
(of Brenz) directed against the (Ecolampadian doc-
trine of the sacrament, and before the year ended
he was summoned by Count Philip of Nassau to
introduce the Reformation in Weilburg. In 1527
Landgrave Philip of Hesse called him to Marburg
University, of which he was rector in 1532 and
1534, and took him to the diet at Speyer in 1529,
and in 1530 to Augsburg, where he preached fre-
quently till forbidden by the emperor, also taking
part in the discussions. His course here was praised
for its consistency by Baumgartner, ambassador of
Nuremberg, also for its courage. After Duke Ulrica
of Wurttemberg won back his country in 1534, he
called Schnepff together with Ambrosius Blaurer
(q.v.) to lead the Reformation. Schnepff was ap-
pointed to the Hospital Church in Stuttgart, and
successfully accomplished his work in the northern
half of the country. While Schnepff and Blaurer
agreed regarding the sacrament on the basis of the
formula of Mar., 1529, there was no lack of friction
and misunderstanding, which brought admonitions
to be peaceful from the landgrave, Strasburg, and
Melanchthon. On the Urach " idol day," Sept. 16,
1537, with Brenz Schnepff argued against Blaurer
for the retention of such church pictures as gave no
offense. He accompanied the duke to Vienna, where
the latter took the oath to King Ferdinand, and on
his return was charged with preparation of forms for
church government, revised by Brenz and printed
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
in 1530. In Sept., 1536, he was in Tubingen with
Melanchtlion, and in Schmalkalden in Feb., 1537,
where he signed Luther's articles. In July, 1540,
he was sent to a discussion at Hagenau, whence he
went to Strasburg and on July 18 preached there
an the cathedral. Later he visited Worms, and, in
1541, Regonsburg. He joined several of the Wllrt-
teniberg theologians in pronouncing against the
landgrave's bigamous marriage; meanwhile bis posi-
tion at court and with the government became in-
secure, so that in 1539 he was already thinking of
going to Saxony. In 1544 he went to Tubingen
and was honored with the doctorate, and in Feb-
ruary began to act as superintendent of the theo-
logical seminary, where he lectured on the Old Tes-
tament and on Melanchthon's Loci, also preaching
■with acceptability. In 1546 ho carried on a. dis-
cussion with the Augustinian Johann Hofmeister at
Uegeaslnirg. On the approach of the Spaniards in
the Schmalkald War, Schnepff fled on Jan. 7, 1547,
to Blaurcr at Constance, but was soon able to re-
turn. He did not accept the Interim (q.v.), and
eaid farewell to his flock in a sermon on Nov. II,
1548, lamented by his people, who formed a pro-
cession on his departure, while the duke sent a
present. Melanchthon invited him to Wittenberg,
but a professorship was offered in the University of
Jena, just then being founded, where he soon had a
class of sixty students. He undertook the office of
superintendent, and became one of the most influ-
ential theologians and ehun-hmen in ducal Saxony.
Under j'.'litienl pn — aire be joined in opposition to
Melanchthon and broke with his former friends in
Wurttcmberg; in the colloquy at Worms the Ernes-
tine theologians delighted the Roman Cat holies liy
their enmity to Brenz and Melanchthon, which
ca'i. -eil I In' breaking oflof the colloquy. He avoided
intercourse with Brenz, who was his son Dietrich's
father-in-law, and with Jakob Andrea, who was
formerly hi3 favorite scholar; against Brenz he be-
came violent. Although he took part with St ritr>d
and Huge! (reluctantly) in the Konfutationsbueh,
he endeavored to make peace between Strigel and
Flacius.
A sermon on the wedding feast of the king was
printed [Tubingen. 1578); also his Gutachten /fir den
arfiniiilhi!<li.ichen. Komv.nl (1541.1): Konfr/tsion ellirher
Arlikrl dm GUiubcns (1545); and Rc/ulotio Mtijo-
wismi (Jena, 1555). G. Bossert.
Bim.iooR.irHi: j. R(««. Onitin de viln E. .^rhnepfii, Lsipsio.
1582; U, Adam, t'i/<r Grrmanoruin Ihrolagiirum, pp. S20,
67S. H^i.leincn;, 1820; L. M. FiscMin, .Vn«™ Iheu-
tooorum \\ irtmbcrBrnriuni. i. 9. fiupplciniMit 8, t'lui. 17l)'>-
1710: N.G. KietluilT, fjt, Ktvkru-tlrlorm.-niim in Nauau-
Wtilburg, Weilhure. 18T2: T I'rcwel, Ambrosiut Blaurrn
tabm. atuttgnrt, 1SB1: 1. Hartmann, firfard Schntpf.
der Rt/ormaliir, TillihiKfSi, IN70; J. Fickcr, Thnaunu
Baumianut, StrnsbuT*. 1005; Hritfwrchtit dtr Breda- . . .
I. T. SchifB*. 2 vol*., Freiburg. 1908-
1910; ADB, i
i. 1SE
SCHMTZER, shnit'zcr, JOSEF: German Roman
Catholic; b. at Lauingen (24 m. n.e. of Ulro),
Bavaria, June 15, 1859. He studied at the univer-
sities of Munich nnd Vienna (1889-91); was asso-
ciate professor of church history and canon tow at
the Lyceum of Dillingcn (1S93-1902); accepted, in
1902, the position of professor of the history of
dopztia, symbolic, iud ptJagGgicu at the Univer-
sity of Munich. In 1908, in consequence of his
Modernism, he was suspended from exercising nil
ecclesiastical functions and was given leave of ab-
sence as professor. The intention was to transfer
him to the philosophical faculty, but this has not
yet been done. In addition to preparing the
second edition of 1. Silbemagl'e Ver/assung und
gegenwdrtiger Bcstand sSmtlicher Kirchen de» Orients
(Regensburg, 1904), he has written Berengar von
Tours, sein Leben und trine Lehre. (Munich, 1890);
Die Gesta Romana Eeclesiai des Kardinals Bcno und
andere Streitschriften der schismatischen Kardindle
under Grtgor VII. (Bamberg, 1892); Katholisehet
Eherecht (Freiburg, 1898); Quellen und Forschungen
eur GcschichU SnvO'iarotas (3 parts, Munich, 1902-
1904); and Hat Jesus das Papstthum gestiflet?
(1910).
SCHNUETCEN, shnut'gcn, ALEX: German Ro-
man Catholic; b. at Steele (3 m. e. of Essen) Feb.
22, 1843. He studied at Minister, Tubingen, Lou-
vain, and Main* (1800-66), and since 1866 has been
a member of the clergy staff of Cologne Cathedral.
where he has been successively vicar (1866-87) and
a member of the chapter (since 1887). He has like-
wise been honorary professor of Christian archeol-
ogy at the University of Bonn. Besides editing tin;
Zeitsehrift /Sr christiiche Kvnst since 18S8, he has
collaborated in preparing Kntalog seiner Siiinnilit'-g
von Gewtben und Sticker- ten den M iluiolters und der
Renaissance (Cologne, 1876), and in editing the Ada
manuscript of Treves (Leipsic, 1889).
SCHODDE, shod'de, GEORGHEHHY: Lutheran;
b. at Alleghany City, Pa., Apr. 15, 1854. He was
graduated from Capital University, Columbus, O.
(A.B., 1872). the theological seminary of the same
institution (1874), and studied at the universities
of Tubingen (1874-75) and Leipsic (Ph.D., 1876).
After holding a pastorate in his denomination ;>t
Wheeling, W. Va. (1877-82), ho was appointed to
his present position of professor of Greek at Capital
University, and has also In 'en profe— or of New-Tes-
tament exegesis in the theological seminary at-
tached to the same university since 1894. In the-
ology he is a positive conservative Lutheran, and
has written The Protestant Church in German;/
( Philadelphia, 1903). He is editor of the Theo-
logical Magazine (Columbus. O.) and has translated
from the Fthiopic the Book of Enoch (Andover,
18S2) and the Book of Jubilee's (Oherlin, 18S8),
and from the German Franz Delitzsch's Day in
Capernaum (New York, 1887) and B. Weiss's Re-
li'lioii of 1 1,'- X'tr Tt:itn?'ii-Ti! [1Wl",i and Commentary
on the New Testament (2 vols., 1906).
SCHOEBERLEIH, nhu"ber-lain, lODWIG
FRIEDRICH: German Lutheran; b. at Kolm-
berg (28 m. w.s.w. of Nuremberg) Sept. 6, 1813;
d. at Gottingen July 8, 1881. After studying at
Munich and Erlangen, he was a private tutor at
Bonn and city vicar at Munich. In 18-11 he became
theological lecturer and privat-doeent at iCrliingen,
and in 1850 went to Heidelberg as associate pro-
fessor of theology. From 1855 until his death he
was full professor of the same subject at Gottingen,
being also consintoriul councilor after 1862 and ab-
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
bet of Bursfcldc after 1878. He also served as cura-
tor of the Gottingen orphan asylum and member of
a liturgical committee and of a hymnal committee
for Hanover. His chief writings, which mostly re-
late to liturgies, were aa follows: Die GruwUrh™-n
des Heih, entwickclt an* dem Primip der Liebe
(Stntt part. 1848); Der evangelische Gotltu'licasl
(Hci.lrll.org, 1854); Der evangditche Hanptgottcx-
dienst in Formularen fur dot ganie Kirclit:iij--ihr
(1855); Crlier den tituryitchen Ausbau del Gemein-
th'jit'.li mtii iixtrst in der dcutaclien evangelischen Kirche
(l.S.Wi; Srhtit: des liturgiwlicii Char- und Gemein-
degaange nebit den Allaneeisen in der deutschen
fiitiijrlixchen Kirche (3 vols., Gottingen, lSl>3-72>;
CcheimnUsc des Glaubens (Heidelberg, 1872); and
Primip und System der Dogmatik (1881). In 1876
he founded, together with M. Herald ami E. Kriiger.
the periodical Siit'ia for the advancement of liturgies,
and church music (J. A. WAOENMAPwtO
Bi bijou kaput: AllQtmeine evongdiich-lvtheriiche Kirehm-
irilutiu. 1881, no. 20, pp. 088 sqq.; Siana, 1881. no. 8, pp.
101 km-
SCHOEIX, shOl, CARL WILHELM: Lutheran;
b. at Guglingcn (23 m. n.n.w. of Stuttgart), Wurt-
temberg, Aug. 4, 1820; d. in London, May 13,
1899. He was educated at Tubingen; became, in
1846, assistant minister, and in 1359 pastor of the
Gcmum Lutheran Church in the Savoy, now Cleve-
land Street, London. He was examiner in the Ger-
man language and literature to the Military Educa-
tion Hi vision, War Office, London, from 1858; to the
Civil Service Commission. London, from 1864; and
in the University of London, 1872-75, and 1882-87.
Ho was the author of De eedeeiaiticer Britonum
Scotorumque historic fnntibus (Berlin, 1851).
SCHOENFELDER, shon'fel-der, JOSEF MARIA:
Gorman Roman Catholic; b. at Forehheim (9 m.
n. of Erlangcn), Bavaria, June 8, 1838. He was ed-
ucated at Bamberg, Erlangen, and Munich, and
after being eaceUanws at Bamberg (1801-65) and
professor of theology at Hildesheim (1866-67), was
vicar of St. Cajeian's. Munich (1807-71) and court-
preacher at St. Michael's in the same city (1871-
1874). Since 1869 he has also been connected with
the University of Munich, where he has been
successively privat-docent (1869-73), associate
professor of theology (1873-74), and professor of
Biblical oriental languages, Old-Testament intro-
duction, and exegesis (since 187!; emeritus since
1903). He has likewise been canon of St. Cajetan's
since 1886. He has written Die Kirclunigi^chichh-
dee Johannes van Ephetu* (Munich, 1862); Sato-
moni* Epiaeopi Baasorentis Liber A pi* (Bamberg,
1866) ; Oniric* und Peechitto (Munich, 1860) ; and
Die Klagelieder dee Jeremia* nock rabbinieeher
Auelegung (1887).
SCHOENHERR, sc.hon'her.'JOHArffl HEIHRICH :
Theosophist; b. at Memel (74 m. n.e. of K.inigs-
bcrg) Nov. 30, 1770; d. at Kbnigsberg Oct. 15,
1826. After preliminary training at the city school
of Angerburg, whither his parents had removed,
he was sent to Konigsberg for commercial training;
but he was averse to this pursuit, and studied in
the gymnasium of Kbnigsberg and then entered the
university, where he nominally studied law, though
X.— 17
his strong liking was for philosophy with a theo-
sophical trend. With but. little money, in 1792 he
traveled in Germany, visiting Rintoln and Leipsie
to study philosophy. On his return he had leached
such a degree of self-sufficiency that he felt able,
without further study at the university, to expound
his views in private. His extreme earnestness gained
him friends and the means to propagate his system,
and he became marked as ■ man apart from his con-
temporaries even in his appearance, fur lie allowed
his beard and hair to grow in literal agreement with
Lev. xxx. 27. Kiimgsberg was at that time in the
throes of a decided rationalism, although nominally
devoted to orthodox Lutheran doctrine, and the
student body especially was devoted to rationalistic
views. So the young theosophist, with a supreme
cuhli.leiLCC in liis mi.— ion, expounded what he be-
lieved would inaugurate a new era in human
knowledge. He conceived himself to be an in-
spired prophet, and his fundamental principles a
new revelation; only the application of these prin-
ciples to nature, history, "d human life would he
admit as subjects of discussion, together with the
proof of them from the Bible. He gathered about
him a. circle of scholars, who were to be the seed
from which should grow a society renewing human-
ity. Meetings were held twice :i week, on Wednes-
day and Sunday evenings, for discussion and in-
struction, to which women were admitted, und a
simple meal usually closed the session. In all this
there was no thought of personal domination by
Schoiilicrr; !us only object was the diffusion of his
system of knowledge. Nor was there intention to
form a sect, and he was himself a regular attendant
upon divine service. Once he was threatened with
prosecution, but influential interests prevented
persecution.
Besides this circle gathered about Bchdnhar-
there was a second which had as its center a gifted
disciple name.] Johann Wilhelm Ebel (q.v.), who
had adopted without reserve the teachings of his
master. Ebel had become through this system a
(Hisitivc Biblical theologian, and after 1810 preached
in K' .nig -berg earnestly on tile subjects of sin. grace,
and redemption. Possessing a line presence, great
pulpit ability, and an unassuming address, he be-
came the leader in the pulpit of the city. His fol-
lowing was from various circles, but principal]]
from the higher ami iilTieial classes — a contrast with
the immediate following of S.iniidierr which in-
eluded students and the humbler classes. The
latter was in this environment also the supreme
spiritual authority. The separation of the two
circles came through the teacher's introduction of
t'.ic principle of flagellation, based on Gal. v. 24;
Pa. Uxxiv. 2; I Cor. xiii. 3; and Heb. xii. 4, which
was the " pleasing sacrifice " of Rom. xii. 1. Were
not this self-sacrifice offered, a martyr death or
bloody sufferings would be required, libel opposed
this extreme, and the personal friendship of the
two came to an end, though Ebel still held to the
teaching of his master. After a journey to St. Pe-
tersburg in 1823-24, SchGnherr grew feeble; this
feebleness was increased through self-inflicted ca»-
tigations and his death soon followed.
Ilia system united profound ruhgioua sensibility
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
to philosophic earnestness; yet in itself it was but
a confused dualistic philosophy of nature which
would have no enduring interest but for the judicial
processes carried through 1835-41 (see Ebel. Jo-
hann Welhelm) at Kdnigsberg. interest in which
is by no means dead, especially in view of the secrecy
which still covers the actual proceedings. Schon-
herr's thinking began with sheer dualism, as he
posited two primitive potencies, one active and
male, the other passive and female, both personal
and possessing intellect, will, form, and color; these
were named fire and water, or light and darkness.
From the union of these originated the universe,
including God — for the system U not merely a cos-
mogony, it U also a theogony. By an adaptive exe-
gesis of the doctrine of the Trinity and of the Bib-
lical account of creation he sought to justify his
system as being in accord with revelation. The ac-
count of creation was followed by a most interesting
chapter on the fall. Evil arose through the fall of
Lucifer (Satan; v a being of light created by God,
who through envy led the first pair to disobey God;
through eating of the fruit of the tree of knowledge
there was introduced into the hitherto sinless nature
of man the power of darkness: death and misery
became man's* lot. ami as original sin was trans-
mitted to his descendants. Sin made redemption
necessary* ^nd through this the harmony of the
primitive potencies and of their methods of working
is restored. This process was introduced by Jesus
Christ, in whom the law of righteousness is em-
bodied and the inuorking of Lucifer is abolished,
and so the world is released from evil. For the law
of righteousness grounded in Christ proceeds from
him and passes over into the '* primal natures "
(Hauptnaturen), who are made complete through
the Holy Spirit, in whom also Christ is present; by
their mediation this law pasf*» over into the " sec-
ondary natures "; in the former light is dominant,
in the latter, darknesH, and this darkness must be
striven against by mf*an_s of fighting, fasting, watch-
ing, prayer, and wrestling, and in this way room is
made for light. By this course of reasoning Schon-
herr fell upon a new righteousness of the law. Just
as he partly included and partly ignored the simple
facts of the life of Christ, .so to the teaching of Paul
concerning the righteousness which springs from
faith he gave no place, reproducing redemption by
way of knowledge in the fashion of the early Gnos-
tics (see Gnosticism).
r^schatology ha/1 an important place in the sys-
tem. The second coming of Christ was regarded as
imminent, since the present is the seventh (and
last) period of the development of the kingdom of
God. To this thcosophist the dreadful events fol-
lowing the outbreak of the French Revolution por-
tended the end; Napoleon was Antichrist, the mil-
lennial kingdom was near, and Konigsberg with its
seven hills was the city of Rev. xvii. 9. With the
parousia would come the fulfilling of the kingdom.
In the case of Ebel, in the pulpit the fundamen-
tals of Evangelical Christianity were proclaimed;
but in the narrower circle of his immediate disciples
the cure of souls was based upon the anthropology
of Schonherr. While this circle was small, it was
influential. The doctrine of primal and secondary
natures was especially uIiiumI, together with as*
phasis upon knowledge. The secondary natara
were to be led to setf-cosociouflneaB; this was to be
accomplished by the open fTTurpBHion of their mot
secret thoughts, especially of their sins, and this a
turn enabled the foreordained ministers of souls to
give the advice by which the process of redemption
was to be furthered. Thus Ebel gained an unwonted
power over souls. But this caused repulsion among
certain of those who had at first listened, among
whom was Hermann CHshausen (q.v.), opposition
sprang up. and the judicial decision soon followed
which is summed up in the article on Ebel (q.v.).
(Paul Tschackebt.)
Bibuogbjuvt: The writn«i of flchflnherr are the foDmr-
i ins Der Simj der gMHehen Ofenbarmmg,
ertten Mai* Ktoicibefc 1903; Vom Si
Ofenbamng. Der EnU Simj (1804); cf.
Erkemntnin der Wahrheit am* Hennric
gtiatwenen pkUomtpkitektm Blattem aul
gen aus Sekriften Anderer. Leipeic, 1852. On the life sad
tywtem consult: J. I. Humbert. Faith Victorious. Being
am Account of tke Life and Timm cf the VemembU Dr. Je-
haun EbaU pp. 358 eqq.. New York, 1882 (e
full sad useful bibUocmpby of the subject);
Lekre und Leben de* KOnianSerger Tkaamopkem Jt
Heinriek Schonherr. Kteissberc. 1834 (advene): Vob
Wecnera. in ZHT. viii (1838). 100-233; E. too Hannen-
feld. Die reliai<-*e Bemgung m Kdnigebtio. Brmunsberz,
185$; Ernst Graf von KaniU. AufkUtrmmg maeh Akten-
queilen ubrr den 183S-4* m KOnigaberg . . . gefukritn
Beiigionepr *ea*. Basel. 1802; F. Zimmer. in ZWT. xfir
(1901). 253-312; ADB. v. 519 sqq.
SCHOETTGEH, shot 'gen, J0HAHH CHRISTIAN:
German New-Testament scholar and philologist; b.
at Wunen (lom.e.of Leipeic) Mar. 14, 1687; d. at
Dresden Dec. 15. 1751. He studied at the Saxon
state school at Pforta and at the University of Leip-
sic, where he also lectured. In 1716 he assumed the
rectorship of the Latin school at Frankfortr-on-the-
Oder; in 1719 went to Stargard in Pomerania as
rector professor of humane letters at the Gronin-
gisches Kollegium and also as rector of another
school there; and in 172S to Dresden, as rector of
the Kreuzschule. He was an exceedingly fruitful
author, especially in New-Testament exegesis, in
which he sought to utilize his rabbinic knowledge,
He was a well-grounded philologist, and an authority
on the local history of Upper Saxony. His chief
work, displaying his abilities as an exegete and his
profound rabbinic information, is Horct Hebraic*
et talmudica in universum N. T.t quibus fierce I.
Lighlfooti in libris historicis suppUntur. epistol* et
apocalypsis eodem modo illustrantur (Dresden, 1733).
In 1742 there appeared: Horct hebraicct et foi»
mudicct in theologiam Judaorum dogmaticam an*>
tiquam et orthodoxam de Mc&sia impensce. Of less im-
portance was his Xovum lexicon Grceco-Lcrfinum in
N. T. (Leipsic, 1746; new ed. by J. F. Krebs, 1765;
another by G. L. Spohr, 1790). His edition of the
Greek New Testament (1744) is a recasting of the
text of Gleditsch (1735) with peculiar text divisions
and tabulated contents. The Opuscula issued by
Grundig (1766) contain his outlines for local, school,
and Reformation history. Schoettgen was a typical
exponent of an age which has been designated as the
cradle of the entire body of Old-Testament science
along modern lines. Georg Mueller.
Bibuoorapht. K. Gautxsch, in Archiv fur •Acheimche Qm*
*chichU, new series, iv. 338-351; ADB, xrrii. 412-417.
259
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Sohoenherr
Sehol&oticism
I. Introduction.
II. Preparation.
Orthodoxy and Philosophy
(JD.
Anselm and Abelard (| 2).
Influence of Anselm and Abelard
(J 3;.
Awakening of the Twelfth Century
(J 4).
Revival of Aristotle (§ 5).
III. The Scholastic Period of the Thir-
teenth Century.
1. The Franciscan Advance.
Alexander of Hales (J 1).
The Oxford School (ft 2).
SCHOLASTICISM.
2. The Dominican Advance.
Albert the Great; Thomas Aquinas
(I 1).
Reaction against Thomas
(12).
3. Various Trends.
Bona ventura (| 1).
Henry of Ghent (| 2).
Biblical Conservatism; Roger
Bacon (| 3).
4. Duns Scotus.
Critical Work (| 1).
Theological Views; Regressive Re-
sults (| 2).
IV. Decline of Scholasticism
1. Divergent Schools of the Four*
teenth Century.
Crass Nominalism (| 1).
The Averrhoistic (| 2).
The iEgidian (| 3).
2. Culmination.
Disintegration and the Reforma-
tion (ft 1).
Restoration; Finality of Thomas
(5 2).
V. Characterisation in Summary.
Method (§ 1).
Problem (ft 2).
Three Types (| 3).
Surviving Influences (| 4).
L Introduction: The term scholasticism is com-
monly used to designate the scientific theology of
the Middle Ages, from the eleventh to the sixteenth
century. As an index of the scope of this theology
may be mentioned the notice by Johannes Pitseus
in De illustribus Anglice scriptoribus (Paris, 1619),
who counts 160 English commentators upon the
" Sentences " of Peter Lombard (q.v.) ; 152 commen-
taries were produced by the Dominicans, almost as
many by the Minorites, not to speak of other works.
Distinguished from exegetical, homiletical, and
practical works, and heretical literature, the term
scholasticism applies to what is now known as sys-
tematic theology, or dogmatics; and all the school-
men of the varying tendencies represented orthodox
church doctrine. By the reform theologians at the
conclusion of the Middle Ages, the Humanists, and
the Reformers, the prevalent dogmatics and its
method was stigmatized as " school theology," and
characterized as empty formalism, and untheolog-
ical speculation, subtle and pedantic, in contrast
with vital considerations held to be practical and
religious, or a theology based on the Bible. From
this point of view resulted its unjustified deprecia-
tion as well as the incorrect adverse parallelism of
scholastic and mystical theology. Scholasticism
and mysticism, however, represent a relation simi-
lar to that of dogmatics and religious contempla-
tion. The latter also gives rise to theoretical ex-
planations, as a rule referred to as " mystical ";
yet, in the nature of the case, they qualify
themselves as the descriptions of soul states, the
antecedents of Christian ethics. Although they are
in contrast with scholastic methods, they are not
incompatible with them and their object was, with
the aid of speculative inquiry, the analysis of church
doctrine. The adverse judgment is also incompe-
tent, because, instead of applying pure historical
standards, it is pronounced from the point of view
of present-day philosophy and the religious anti-
thesis of the time of the Reformation. A correct
judgment can arise only from a due historical
appreciation of the religious, ecclesiastical, and
scientific conditions from which scholasticism pro-
ceeded. Such a review will lead to the verdict
that scholasticism fixed its vision firmly upon the
loftiest goals of human knowledge, and that it
strove for their attainment with a marvelous and
untiring acumen, faithfully availing itself of all
means at its command. That the religious and
secular knowledge of the times imposed limitations
is self-evident. And that in this work, many of
its virtues cast their shadows, and that the spon-
taneous activity of its spirit gradually crystal-
lized in forms and stagnated into fruitless exer-
cises of a purely formal mental acuteness is not
characteristic of scholasticism alone. Nay, rather
at the climax of its movement was there such an
abundance of strenuous earnest thinking and a
measure of enthusiastic devotion as has not else-
where appeared in all the ages of the history of the-
ology, and its original thinkers in number and emi-
nence have in all probability not since then been
surpassed.
n. Preparation: The history antecedent to
scholasticism is the whole theology of the earlier
Middle Ages. This period took over Christianity in
the shape of fixed formulated doctrines,
z. Ortho- and the representatives of these doc-
doxy and trines were at the same time the ex-
Philosophy, ponents of education and higher cul-
ture. The Church clothed its doctrines
with divine authority. In accordance therewith the
great theological teachers of the early Middle Ages
would submit in their manuals only summaries of
patristic theology and citations from the Fathers.
Augustine and Gregory the Great (qq.v.) were the
masters whose thoughts or even words were adopted
bodily. Controversies were waged over the under-
standing of the authorities, not over the matter in
question. Theology in the early Middle Ages may
be described on the whole as traditionalism. But
the vital development of church life demanded of
theology new practical and ceremonial forms, and
the interest to understand the traditional stuff made
itself felt from an inner necessity. If the delivered
doctrines were sacred and inviolable, only one form
of their appropriation was possible; namely, the
proof of their rationality and the recognition of their
unity. Orthodox positiveness assumed a rationalis-
tic character; the more so inasmuch as ancient
philosophy and the doctrines of the Church had been
handed down most closely combined. The proof
of the rationality or tenability of church doctrine
consistent with a systematic philosophy — this
formed the program of an enormous intellectual
task; it was the labor of scholasticism. Confined
to a fixed group of " given " subjects, hemmed in
by sacred tradition, and not without stumbling,
with ever so many modifications, fresh departures,
Soholastioism
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
260
and concessions to the old, slowly and surely reason
gained its position alongside of authority. Then, of
a sudden, the silent development was precipitated
by the wide-spread sensation caused by Berengar
of Tours' (q.v.) impassioned criticism of the doc-
trine of the Eucharist, in which reason and dialectic
alone were to be the arbiters of truth. The defense
of authority itself employed such dialectic subtle-
ties as the distinction between the permanent acci-
dents of the bread and its temporary substance.
The more and more flourishing school system of
cathedral and cloister, the itinerant restlessness of
scholars, the attraction of brilliant teachers — all
combined speedily to disseminate scientific theology.
At this point two mighty spirits entered the cur-
rent, creating two methods that governed scientific
work for a long time to come. These
2. Anselm were Anselm of Canterbury and Abe-
and lard (qq.v.). Anselm's method is
Abelard. marked by the following points: (1) he
was a realist, i.e., the champion of the
reality of the universal; of species and genus, of
concept and idea. These universals are objective
realities, not merely & flatus wets, " blast of sound,"
or pure subjective images. Upon this hinged the
battle throughout the Middle Ages. Upon its vin-
dication depended the right and merit of specula-
tion in theology; to inquire into the realities at the
basis of church doctrine, and to create if necessary
new formulas. Anselm's problems (2) arose from
the consideration of the thing itself. They are of a
practical, religious importance, and their solution
aims at clear expression and forms intelligible to
the times. Witness in Cur deus homo? the practical
idea of God as the sovereign Lord and the work of
Christ in forms derived from the sacrament of pen-
ance. The pious daring and religious tendency of
Anselm's intellectual work betray the spirit of
Augustine. From him also (3) descended Anselm's
voluntarism. God's sovereign will rules the world
and the nature of will is freedom. Anselm, with his
maxim Credo ut intelligam, also (4) starts out from
belief in the traditional doctrines. But this is only
in order to gain experientia of the matter described
by the formulas. The existence of God, the Trinity,
and the incarnation can be proved by " reason
alone." Anselm means that the positive faith of
the Church is for him who obtains inner experience
of its content the rational truth. The significance
of Anselm is that he regenerated the formulas of
Augustine in the spirit and mode of thought of the
latter. In sharp contrast is the thought of Abelard.
Starting with the contradictions in tradition, he
held (1) that the task of science is to reconcile them
by dialectic (in his work, Sic et non). He does not
contemplate experience by himself of the truths of
religion, but a rational formulation of the articles
of belief. Thereby (2) he by no means aimed to
shake the faith as handed down in the Athanasian
formulas. He would only set limits to the belief
in authority. That which was believed must be
inwardly understood, and the truths of religion
must be made probable and clear to reason. (3)
The writings of the Fathers were to be read not
" with the necessity of believing," but with " the
liberty of judgment," or reason. (4) The canonical
authority of the Old and New Testament Scriptures
consists in their inherent superiority. Abelard, be-
lieving that the substance of church doctrine was in
harmony with the Bible, did not mean to attack it.
(5) On the question of the reality of the universal,
he combated the realism of his teacher William of
Champeaux (q.v.), yet seemed to have represented
a moderate realistic position himself. His interest
was preoccupied by the dialectical treatment of
theology, and therefore abstracted from an inti-
mate interest in realism. Pure nominalism, on the
other hand, would have reduced his dialectic to a
mere word-battle, and, being already disreputable,
it was little adapted to his mediating tendency,
which sought the harmony of " authority and rea-
son." (6) Abelard proved his constructive talent
by reforming the Augustinian division of theology
from faith, love, and hope, to faith, sacrament, and
love, in correspondence with the historical situation
in the Church of his time.
The method of Anselm was the more tedious;
no one without speculative endowments could em-
ploy it. Abelard' s method seemed made to order
for scholastic practise. It afforded the
3. Influence use of the reason when the time was
of Anselm eager and ripe. It drove through the
and Abelard land like a storm-burst. It introduced
to the scholars a mass of information
and a formal discipline of thought, but in the final
result it was fruitless. In the preparation of his
Sentences (c. 1 150), Peter Lombard (q.v.), prudent
in judgment, moderate in the application of reason,
fortunate in the classification of his materials, at
once orthodox and scientific, followed the method
of Abelard. The foundation for dogmatics which
he laid and Abelard's method became through this
text-book the standard for all the Middle Ages, just
as his commentary on the Pauline Epistles made its
way as a standard " glossary." Strict traditional-
ism still prevailed and impassioned attacks were
made on the new theology by Bernard of Clairvaux,
William of St. Thierry, John of Salisbury, Walter
of St. Victor, and the brothers Gerhoh and Arno of
Reichersberg (qq.v.); yet men like Gerhoh, from
a genuine religious interest, began to deal with the
substance of doctrine itself. The spiritual inde-
pendence at the root of the dialectic of Abelard
stirred also in the older orthodoxy. Rupert of
Deutz (q.v.) worked out his themes in dependence
upon Scripture. Honorius of Autun (q.v.) followed
the footsteps of Anselm, his master in thought and
method, in Odo qucesHones and in Elucidarium, in
which he treated Christian theology entire. More
important are the two works of Hugo of St. Victor
(q.v.), De sacramentis and Summa sententiarum, in
which he partly depended on Anselm, and made
the sacraments his main topic. Although dis-
avowing " reason " and " experience," yet profess-
ing to depend on Scripture, he betrays evidence of
some thinking for himself. On the whole and indi-
vidually, although strict orthodox development
continued, the leaven of Anselm's spirit and Abe-
lard's method worked into the orthodox continu-
ity; thought was promulgated; and the Fathers,
particularly Augustine, were read in a new light.
The spiritual upheaval of which the liberation
261
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Soholaatioiam
of theology from the close of the eleventh century
was the forerunner arrived with the middle of the
twelfth. Intellectual activity, hitherto only eccle-
siastical, now turns also to the nat-
4. Awaken- ural life and benefits. Laymen enter
ing of the upon literature. The world picture
Twelfth becomes richer and broader, and in-
Century, sight into human life deeper. History
supplants chronicle. Understanding
makes place for the unity of development and for
human individuality. Poets present real human
characters; interest in nature awakens. The thirst
for reality craves first-hand inquiry and knowledge.
Free spirits with a daring criticism and independent
judgment, even toward ecclesiastical offices and
institutions, are to be found now in the Church. In
the wider movement the question of the time was
whether the former unity of the ecclesiastical and
the secular philosophy could be longer maintained.
To do this theology laid an extensive lien upon
philosophy (Aristotle) in order to satisfy the new
interests and perchance to win them to the confines
of the ecclesiastical point of view. As of old, so
now, with the rise of the universities, theology was
to be the queen of the sciences. Monasticism under-
took preaching and the advancement of science.
A wealth of new material and a power of method
were afforded by the study of Aristotle and his Ara-
bian commentators. Then there was Augustine,
rich in metaphysics and psychology, and versatile
in his fine observations of life. His smoothly chiseled
and opulent formulas, the spiritual vigor of which
now first attained to appreciation, lured to imita-
tion. A host of well-disciplined churchmen, of in-
defatigable industry and brilliant endowment,
sprang up to make the Church supreme in every de-
partment as in no other era.
At first only Aristotle's writings used from an-
tiquity were in evidence, as that on the categories
and De inierpretatione (diabetica vetus).
5. Revival Then, in the twelfth century the whole
of Aristotle, organon (diabetica nova) came into
use, introduced by the translation of
Bofithius (q.v.) and later by John of Venice (c. 1128).
But it was through the Arabian philosophers that
the rest became known, from the beginning of the
thirteenth century. The Arabian commentaries and
amplifications brought with them a plethora of prob-
lems, but many also in the pantheistic form of the
Neoplatonists (see Neoplatonism) of the unity of
the active intellect in humanity, the eternity of mat-
ter, and the denial of individual immortality, ren-
dering the reconcilement of positive religion with
secular philosophy ever more difficult and ultimate-
ly impossible. Although Avicenna and Averrhoes
(qq.v.) had asserted that science did not abolish
but rather sustained practical views of religion, yet
orthodox theology had condemned it. In this occa-
sion the tide of Eastern philosophy again set in, in
the West. This had to coordinate itself on Western
ground with church dogma and the Augustinian
spirit, finding in these, on the one hand, more flesh
of its own flesh than in the doctrines of the Koran;
and, on the other, the narrower limitations of ex-
actly formulated dogma. Besides, the new influ-
ences were afforded many starting-points in the
dialectic spirit for the particular and the newly
awakened interest in elementary problems, in the
construction of cosmic views, and in the knowledge
of nature. The consequence as a whole was the
eager resort to the dialectic art of Aristotle, and
gradually his methodical physics, psychology,
metaphysics, and theory of knowledge adapted
themselves. Of importance to this influx of Greek
philosophy was the De divisione philosophies (c.
1150) of Dominicus Gundissalinus, including all
those Aristotelian branches in the circle of nec-
essary school studies. Wide theological circles,
however, held themselves aloof from many articles
of the new system. This is not surprising in view
of the recurrence of the entire movement hostile to
Abelard. A provincial synod at Paris (1210) con-
demned the writings of Amalric of Bena (q.v.), con-
signed those of David of Dinant (q.v.) to the flames,
and prohibited the private or public reading of
Aristotle's natural philosophy and the comments
of Averrhoes thereon under threat of excommuni-
cation. The legate Robert forbade the reading of
the metaphysics and natural philosophy and the
comments on the same at the University of Paris
in 1215; but as early as 1231, Pope Gregory IX.
recommended expurgated copies, and twenty-four
years later they were adopted by resolution of the
faculty of arts, so rapidly did Aristotelian study
make headway in science and purely formal inter-
ests. Theology, also, gradually followed. Indeed,
the great theologians before Alexander and Albert
regarded the intellectualism and the logical analysis
of the concepts of Aristotle as profane. They held
to the older theology of a realistic world of divine
ideas, according to the Augustinian formulas, which
would become manifest to spirit living in fellowship
with God, which were illumined from above. The
spirit of Anselm and Hugo rather than the method
of Abelard guided theology till the middle of the
thirteenth century. But its scientific character was
to be maintained. The entering wedge was the ad-
mission of the method of Abelard, and led to farther
advance in the direction of the particular. A nega-
tive result was frequently the wrangling over words
and the art of confusing the subject by hair-split-
ting distinctions. Yet it served as a tutelage for
method of thought and the minor work for the ap-
proach of the most complex problems with Aris-
totelianism and its new questions and tools. The
signal of wavering is already apparent in the wri-
tings of the stanch orthodox William of Auvergne
(bishop of Paris, after 1228) ; but pronounced is the
dialectic practise and interest to solve everything
in the Summa aurea of William of Auxerre (d. 1231
or 1237).
m. The Scholastic Period of the Thirteenth
Century: 1. The Franclsoan Advanoe: The
originator of scholastic theology in the narrower
sense of the term was the Franciscan, Alexander of
Hales (q.v.), author of the Summa universes theologies.
This is neither a commentary nor a citation of Lom-
bard, but a broadly outlined systematic work. A
mass of material is collected which is arranged, criti-
cized, and logically elaborated with untiring in-
dustry. The questions and problems raised by him
and also many of his solutions became the proto-
Scholasticism
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
968
types for the dogmatics of the Middle Ages. Such
are the fustitia originalia and donum superodditum
(original righteousness and superadded
d **# grace); sinderesis (rudiment of con-
aHales? science) ; the sharp distinction of gratia
gratis data (preparatory grace freely
given in particular effects) and gratia gratum fa-
ciens (grace as an abiding principle of character);
of meritum de congruo (merit from the proper use of
nature), and meritum de condigno (merit on the
basis of supernatural grace); of carentia justitics
originalis as culpa (guilt) and amcupiscenJtia as
pcma (punishment), in the doctrine of original sin.
Also, the distinction of attritio and cantritio; as re-
pentance from servile fear and moral penitence.
Alexander knew how to seize upon the inmost
springs of the religious life of his day, to set them
forth in clear apt statement, and with a sure skill
to make the new philosophical knowledge and dia-
lectic method subservient to dogma. Although
much indebted to Aristotle and citing him continu-
ously, he did not belong to the Aristotelians, but
remained an Augustinian Platonist. He held fast
to the realism of ideas and for him knowing main-
tained the religious character of illumination by
means of " eternal ideas." Combination with the
forms of Aristotelian metaphysics and psychology
did not always redound to clearness and consistency.
The work received highest recognition when Pope
Alexander IV., in 1256, ordered it to be completed
(the conclusion consisting of the last three sacra-
ments and eschatology, and, in the third part, the
doctrine on ethics were wanting). According to
Roger Bacon (q.v.), as a result of Alexander's in-
fluence, academic study was reversed in placing
the sentences first and Biblical interpretation sec-
ond. Alexander gave the Church a thorough or-
thodox system with which to meet the intellectual
movement of the time; in it Christianity was di-
gested in thought and presented by means of all
the newly acquired philosophical materials and
motives.
In the Oxford school of theology, Robert Grosse-
teste (q.v.) gave impulses to theology decisive for
_ the English Franciscans. He was a
Oxford thoroughgoing realist; but, as in the
School. v*ew °f Anselm, the knowledge of the
universal realities must be appropri-
ated in experience, which accounts also for his stress
otherwise on scientific empiricism. Knowledge of
nature he promoted together with mathematics,
grammar, and practical philology. At one with
this may have been his emphasis on the authority
of the Bible for theology. Faith is essentially the
" faith of those things which are believed by the
authority of sacred Scripture." Faith in the truths
of the Bible is redemptive. God is the will that
works salvation, but good is realized only as it is
done by human free will. The historical signifi-
cance of this remarkable personage is in the
noteworthy combination of empiricism with specu-
lation— of interest in connection with the tradi-
tional authoritative conception and the religious
consciousness. The influence of this combination
which he inspired was the main reason for the
tenacity with which the Franciscans held to the
thought and method of the old Augustinian An-
selmic theology.
2. The Dominican Advance* The theological
movement of the thirteenth century, however, was
brought to its eminence by a deeper conception
and a stronger infusion of the system of Aristotle
into theological discussion. This took place, in the
first instance, through the Dominicans, Albert the
Great (see Albertus Magnus) and Thomas Aquinas
(q-v.), his foremost pupil. Albert, in-
th Or8*!' V**** ^t*1 a consummate passion for
Thomas ' ^wtXedge, collected all that was pos-
Aquinas. s^le *° numan understanding, but did
not advance beyond reproduction.
Aristotle formed his framework, and the packing
in of much Augustinian-Platonistic material natu-
rally resulted in serious contradictions. To his
world-philosophy were added the church dogmas
which remained essentially unchanged, no matter
how much Aristotelian material was introduced.
Thomas, on the contrary, penetrating and clear
in conception, equipped with a fresh insight into
fundamentals, a great systematic talent, and a
remarkable gift of presentation, was uniquely qual-
ified to take in the Aristotelian philosophy as a
whole, and, with a sure and skilful art, of in-
corporating all except the absolutely contradic-
tory. Without relinquishing dogma at any point,
he reestablished the same on the new philosophy
like superstructure on foundation. The entire
Greek position with regard to the soul is accepted.
The supreme object of man is to know. Theology
is a speculative science that leads to human blessed-
ness, which is the perfect knowledge of God. Ac-
cordingly, the nature of man does not center in will
but in cognition. The intellect impresses upon
volition its spiritual character. In reason as the
spiritual power of choice is the seat of " free will."
Here the Augustinian point of view gives way to the
Greek. Human reason, or philosophy, may of itself
conceive only a few religious truths and these only
imperfectly and slowly; revealed knowledge must
amplify, confirm, and complete. Revelation is at
hand in the inspired Scriptures. By them man
becomes absolutely certain of the truth because
God is their author. Therefore, the Bible is the
only certain and absolutely binding authority. But
revelation is doctrine, preeminently the doctrine of
the " first truth," God. Doctrine is summed up in
the Apostle's Creed, and guarded against heretical
misinterpretation by the Nicene Creed, the con-
ciliar decisions, and the Fathers. A nova editio
symboli is in the power of the pope, who calls the
council and confirms its sentence. Faith takes hold
of the revealed truth. As the " reward of life eter-
nal " is promised to faith, the will finds that which
is believed agreeable. The effect of faith upon in-
tellect for the acceptance of what is presented for
belief can take place only by the infusion of a " di-
vinely inspired disposition," inasmuch as the truths
involved are supernatural. Through this " divinely
inspired disposition " the intellect is adapted to
believe; " an act of faith consists principally in
cognition and therein is its perfection." The fides
informis becomes fides formata by the addition of
love. This is self-evident; faith in itself remains
968
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Scholasticism
what it is but the will invests it with a personal and
meritorious character. What man first would and
could not, he now can and will. The knowledge by
faith is supernatural and can not be demonstrated
by " human reason "; yet theology is to refute the
opponents of faith and elucidate and make prob-
able the articles of belief by the aid of philosophical
thought. This affords " reasons/' which are not
really "demonstrable/' but "certain arguments,
showing that what is set forth in faith is not im-
possible." On the question of universals, Thomas
represents generally the moderate realistic point
of view prevailing also elsewhere in the thirteenth
century. The universal, in the first place, appears
as an image of the human mind, which conceives
and abstracts the common elements within chang-
ing phenomena. Things exist only as particulars;
the conception of universality exists only in the in-
tellect. But nominalist he is not; the universal,
manifest in particulars, may be taken as the form
of the particulars. These forms exist as realities in
God, in whom they may be said, with Plato, to be
preexistent ideas or universals. Their existence is
not therefore merely subjective (post rem), but ob-
jective (ante rem or in re). Thomas became the
philosophical and theological authority, henceforth,
of the Dominican order.
However, a vague restlessness as the sense of an
innovation that was to be resisted made itself widely
felt. The ideas of Averrhoes presuming to be Aris-
o -o 4.4 totelian were awakening suspicion.
j£SSstnThat Thomas sharply rebuked the
Thomas, doctrines of Averrhoes, particularly
that of the unity of the inteUectus agens
in all men, availed nothing. The Minorite John
Peckham (q.v.), archbishop of Canterbury, opposed
the advancement of the Thomistic doctrines over
the order, taking exception specially to the view
that the intellective soul was the only human form.
A pro-Augustinian reaction set in. The Franciscan
William of Mara published his Summa contra
Thomam (1284), assisted probably by his friend
Roger Bacon. As the consistency with dogma was
irreproachable, objection was raised against the
overreaching of the purely philosophical judgments
in theology and the destruction of the older meta-
physics with its purely religious knowledge.
3. Various Trends: The breach was not radical;
the new philosophy and Aristotle were universally
recognized; the representatives of the
older schools studied Aristotle; and a
1. Bona-
ventura.
mystic like Bonaventura (q.v.) cites
him continually as authority. Plato, however, is
not to be abandoned, for he accords with Augustine.
But the authority of Scripture as the authority of
the Holy Spirit exceeds that of Augustine. Theol-
ogy is the " knowledge of things eternal," or " a
wisdom and knowledge of God according to piety."
" Theology is an affective science and its knowl-
edge is the grace of speculation, but principally that
men may become good thereby." The natural
" speculative intellect " is complemented by a habi-
tus (" disposition ") which is the " grace of con-
templation." Granted that Aristotle is right with
respect to natural cognition; theology, however,
pertains to the knowledge of practical experience.
Here Augustine is authoritative; and in God is con-
ceived all knowledge of eternal ideas. In connec-
tion, the aim is the volitional activity of love, which
is the supreme act of the soul; and by it blessedness
is attained. This voluntarism is also from Augus-
tine. In detail Bonaventura keeps close to Alexan-
der; hence, his teaching is frequently more liberal
or approximates Pelagianism more than that of
Thomas, as is manifest in his meritum de congruo,
attritioy and " to do that which is in himself." To
Augustine is to be referred his symbolic explana-
tion of the sacraments. The combination of uni-
versals, contemplation, and voluntarism is peculiar
in itself; and Bona Ventura's significance is Jihat by
him, in adherence to Augustine, the greatest au-
thority of the West, is expressed the instinctive
effort of the peculiar character of Christianity to
maintain itself against the Hellenism of the Aris-
totelians.
The same contrast may be recalled also in the
Sentence commentary and Quodlibita of Richard of
Middleton (at Paris, 122S). This sober and clear
mind affords an excellent glimpse into the Fran-
ciscan theology of the period, although not repre-
fi _ senting the Franciscan realism. The
of GhenT £ea^ous antagonist of the mendicants,
Henry of Ghent (q.v.), opposed the
older theology and applied the dialectic of Aristotle.
On the question of universals, the essences of things
are the " eternal ideas " in the divine intellect,
which by a creative act of God are transposed into
actual existence, and this is then conceived by the
understanding as particular and universal. The
things in a person's environment first produce
imaginationes or phasmata, from which the inteU
lectus agens, which is the " created light," abstracts
the universal, or the concept, which is again reflex-
ively referred to the cause which produced the
" images." In this process Henry has in mind
in addition to inteUectus agens, a certain illumina-
tion by the uncreated light, which, given by the
grace of God to whom he will, makes immediately
evident from above the reality of things to the
spirit. In dependence on Augustine and Anselm,
he teaches the primacy of the will, lays stress on
complete freedom, and disavows all dependence of
will upon thought. In spite of this voluntarism he
qualified theology as a speculative science. Like
him, the theologians before Duns Scotus repre-
sented Augustine in general, laying main stress on
the mystical speculation and relegating the volun-
tarism to second or third rank of importance. Bible
and Church are to him the authorities of faith,
which is the acceptance as true of the articles of be-
lief. These can not possibly be proved; hence faith
must be the gift of grace. Sin has weakened the
energy of will and darkened the intellect. Grace as
gratia gratia data, that is, vocatio, by the Word
without or within enables man to meritum cangrui
and this leads to sacramental gratia gratum faciens;
man is now " justified " and can deserve meritum
de candigno. This in dogmatics is following the
footsteps of Alexander and Bonaventura in outline,
though deviating in some details.
These two tendencies, the old Augustinian the-
ology and the modern Aristotelianizing, had in com-
Scholasticism
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
264
mon the basic authority of Scripture and the dogma
arising therefrom, which were to be expounded by
means of the philosophy of Aristotle. The swing of
the pendulum in the direction of philosophy bore
results. Here and there dogmatic speculation
rooted itself in strange soil; dialectic arts were
called in to reconcile contradictory
Conserou P1^080?1"0 Yic^'a- The Biblical studies
tism- Boeer0* tne P^ centuries retreat to the
Bacon background; the interest in patris-
tic literature is waning. Sentences
in process of collection from the time of Abelard
are deemed sufficient. Nowhere was the older the-
ology so powerfully and peculiarly represented as
at Oxford, in the tradition of Grosseteste (q.v.) and
Adam Marsh. Roger Bacon's supreme valuation of
empiricism and experimental science led him to de-
mand a limitation and division of the sciences.
Theology was to cease to amalgamate itself with
philosophy; because, dominated thereby, it en-
gages itself with a number of purely cosmologies!
problems which do not concern it; purely theolog-
ical questions resort to philosophical methods; and
real Biblical study is relinquished amid foreign in-
terests, such as " analysis employed by logicians,
forced agreements such as the legalists use and the
rhythmical harmonies of the rhetoricians." So it
has become customary from the time of Albertus
Magnus and Alexander of Hales (qq.v.), and
even at Oxford from 1250, to read the Sentences
solemniter. And all this notwithstanding the
fact that all these men understood almost nothing
of real philosophy, according to Roger Bacon, since
they did not grasp Aristotle, and could not on ac-
count of the wretched translations. The peculiar
task of theology should be " about the sacred text."
Better than the collections would be to read the
Historica scholastica (Peter Comester, q.v.), as was
done before Alexander. Biblical interpretations
interspersed with dogmatic expositions is the ideal
before Bacon. Protests now arise from the spiritual-
minded against the " curious and sterile science " or
" questions " which have banished Biblical study.
Perhaps the revival of Biblical study from the
closing decades of the thirteenth century may be
attributed to this attitude of the older theology.
The order, which is to prevail for the fourteenth
and fifteenth centuries, has now formed itself ac-
cording to which theological study falls into three
stages: cursory reading of the Scriptures, the ex-
planation of the Sentences, and the lectio ordinaria,
or master's minute Scripture interpretation. The
first two are conducted by two baccalaurei; the third
by the magister regens. Though always marking
the high point in theology, yet Biblical study could
be pursued only according to the dogmatic schema-
tism, the Bible being used as a source-fund of specu-
lative doctrines.
4. Duns Sootus (q.v.) : An Oxford Franciscan,
this greatest of the scholastics, enters the movement
at the turning of the thirteenth to the fourteenth
« -, .J._1 century. Versed in mathematics and
,j7orv physics, he also possessed a fine per-
ception for the observation of the ac-
tual in psychology and religious life. He stood with
his Franciscan colleagues for the older theology on
realism and voluntarism, sin and redemption, and
on the symbolic explanation of the sacraments; but
differed by abandoning the faltering attitude toward
Aristotle. A close student and commentator of
Aristotle, unequaled in his mastery of the dia-
lectic method, with consummate energy he criti-
cized the doctrines of the Platonic Augustinian sys-
tem and their proofs, and created new formulas
and new proofs. He exerted himself to give state-
ment to the fact of the matter and not merely to
well-modulated formulas. As a mere summary in
passing he (1) sought to reestablish and advance
the old realism with the new scientific means.
(2) He carried through logically the primacy of the
will with reference to God as well as to creature.
(3) He grounded anew, and for the future, the par-
ticular doctrines of the Franciscans, overthrowing
critically those to the contrary. After this follows
(4) his ecclesiastical positivism. Theology is a posi-
tive science. The free will of God has revealed itself
in free contingent acts and orders. This revelation
is at hand in Scripture. Religious knowledge is not
universal philosophical knowledge, but a practical
understanding; it has to do with the " final end
revealed by God and the attitude of human will
which it conditions.'1 In consequence the positive
doctrines and ordinances of the Church are a priori
the absolutely necessary means for the attainment
of the ultimate end. Thereby, it is presupposed
that church doctrine is Scripture doctrine; but the
prescriptive authority is that of the Church. But
this formula placed the dogma in the same relation
as the positive statutes warranted by the right of
the State. Both may be systematized, interpreted,
and criticized, without being abolished in either
case. An immediate consequence is (5) the disin-
tegration of the unified world-philosophy of Thomas.
On the one hand is the view of the natural in con-
formity with laws; on the other is the contingent
activity of God presenting itself casually in acts,
doctrines, orders, and institutions. The methods
of knowledge are different in kind: there, are neces-
sary truths of reason; here, contingent truths of
history.
Duns is significant not only in criticism or the
judgment of the particular; he represents (6) also
a general religious theory that adheres
loaivf " to Augustine ^d conforms with the
Beffressive Das*c tendencies of medieval piety.
Basalts. ^od is Will; man is will: the former
" dominant," the latter " subject."
The absolute free-will of God appoints, works, and
organizes the whole; and all things are means for
the attainment of the final end, the blessedness of
the predestinated. From this point of view are to
be understood the predestination of Christ to become
man, the nature of man and sin, the validity of the
work of Christ, the persuasive power of the Word
which this conditions, the renewing divine efficacy
in the sacraments, as well as merit and blessedness.
On the other hand, man is represented to be abso-
lutely free. Here are rooted all the Pelagianizing
elements in the thought world of Duns. But the
freedom of the creature obtains only for the imme-
diate connection, of which man is in the act of be*
coming conscious; absolutely, man is wholly sub-
265
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
BohoUatloiain
ject to the unity of the great objective plan. Though
criticizing particular formulas and proofs, in sub-
stance and tendency Duns is at one with the old
theology of the thirteenth century. His significance
is therefore that alongside of the intellectualism of
Thomas, the Augustinian voluntarism remained;
that dialectic did not sweep out of existence the old
problems of religious metaphysics; and that the-
ology employed itself with realities and not merely
formulas. Pelagian and disorganizing elements are
not wanting, and continued powerfully in develop-
ment. Although he strove for real things in the-
ology, yet no one was as much responsible for the
gradual deterioration of scholasticism into dialectic
virtuosity, subtleties, and logomachy on the one
hand, and a rigid positivism on the other. More
remarkable is it that the last great protagonist of
realism was the teacher of the man who disseminated
nominalism in wide circles, William of Occam (q.v.).
The increasing secularizing of the Church, the medi-
eval traditionalism that became entangled in the
chains of proof and forgot the substance, the rivalry
of schools and orders anxious to uphold complete
the doctrines of their masters, the critical tendency
of Duns, using positivism as counterbalance and
seal of certainty — all these contributed to reduce
spirit to dulness and more and more to substitute
the pursuit of formulas for that of knowledge.
IV. Decline of Scholasticism. 1. Divergent
Schools of the Fourteenth Century t Two systems
now prevailed in the pursuit of theology; the
Thomistic and the Scotist. The scientific develop-
ment proceeded along two lines: First, the Scotist
emphasis upon the active principle in knowing as
well as the direction of the knowing faculty upon
the particular, together with the in-
creasing complication of the realities
immanent in the thing to be realized,
led to a break with realism and the
revival of nominalism through Occam. The inor-
dinate criticism of dogma secured the widest op-
portunity in the pctentia absolute of God, but was
made harmless by positivism. In particular church
doctrines the criticism and formulas of Duns were
followed. Nothing hastened the downfall of scho-
lasticism more rapidly than the trifling with pos-
sibilities, to set oneself at rest finally with the
authoritative. Among nominalists were Adam God-
dam, Robert Holcot, Jean Buridan (q.v.), Marsilius
of Inghen, and later Pierre d'Ailly (q.v.), as also the
last representative, Gabriel Biel (q.v.). Also the
Dominican Durand of St. Pourcain (q.v.) departed
from the doctrine of his order. Theological knowl-
edge, according to him, is concerned only with su-
pernatural redemptive truths of revelation as they
occur in the Bible. Knowledge is possible only on
the basis of empirical realization, and speculation
and illumination of reason are to be rejected. As
frequently among the nominalists, the authority of
Aristotle is declined where he differs from the
" truth of things." In like manner the authority
of all human teachers including those of the order
is not binding.
The second line of development was that repre-
sented by the two schools, in contrast with the ra-
tionalism and positivism of the nominalists, which
1. Crass
Nominal-
ism.
in their way sought to connect with the mystical
and Augustinian tendencies of the older theology.
2 The A -'^ne ^r8^ °* ^iese' n^s* represented by
"rjloistJ^r"Petrus Aureolus (d. about 1345), John
of Baconthorp (d. 1346), and Joannes
de Jauduno (master at Paris after 1316), repudiated
the Thomistic understanding of Aristotle and ad-
hered to Averrhoe8. Just as the things in the world
known in themselves become fully realized by the
light of the inteUectus agens, so the objects of faith
presented in the Bible may be conceived by means
of a " disposition " of faith whose character con-
sists in taking the Scripture as divine truth. This
is the light of faith that operates to make thought
cleave to the objects of faith so firmly as to possess
a real knowledge of them (Baconthorp). Joannes
de Jauduno declared all the Averrhoistic doctrines,
such as the eternity of the world and the unity of
the intellect, as rationally necessary, and preserved
the idea of revelation as a means to salvation just
as his master had in a practical religious interest
with the Koran. In like manner the Paduan school
of the fifteenth century assigned to the Averrhoistic
ideas a similar position to that which they occupied
in the peripatetic philosophy from the thirteenth.
More important was the Schola Aegydiana or the-
ology of the Augustinian hermits. JEgidius de
Columna (q.v.) wrote a commentary to the first
a _,. three books of the Sentences. Jacob
JBffidian. Capocci (d. 1308) followed him, then
Augustinus Triumphus (q.v.), Gerhard
of Siena, Prosper of Reggio, Simon Baringundus,
and the German Heinrich von Freimar and Thomas
of Strasburg (d. 1357) . iEgidius considered in theol-
ogy an affective " disposition " of knowledge which
is akin to the speculative. God is not conceived
" according to the mode of reason," but " accord-
ing to the form of revelation." All sciences shall
be subservient to theology, which, however, is not
under the necessity of explaining its principles.
Salvation is to be realized in life by " act of the
will." The universal is in ipsa re as the natura rex,
which is something different from the particular
thing of sense; and as ante rem it subsists in God
as eternal idea. Stress is laid upon the fact that
God moves all creatures " to their activities " and .
that they are his " instruments and less than instru-
ments." This natural operation of God is prelim-
inary to the operation of grace. Preparation for
the gratia gratum faciens is possible only as a di-
vine calling and an inspiration of good reflections
precedes. The sacraments, according to Thomas
of Strasburg, are only means for the grace imme- {
diately wrought of God in the soul. Scotist and
Thomistic elements mingle; on the whole the basis
of the older theology is conserved without a thor-
oughgoing advance. An interesting and important ,
advance was made by Gregory of Rimini (d. 1358),
who regarded theology as an essentially practical
science so far as it guides to eternal life, but con-
taining also speculative principles, which it proves
from Scripture. The principal authority for Greg-
ory was Augustine; but it is remarkable that he
professed nominalism and attempted to derive it
from Augustine. Not " the lack of original right-
eousness " constitutes the nature of original sin, but
/
i. 0
1 < C.\ i %°-^ '
SoholasticUm
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
966
" concupiscence itself is original sin." " Act of
lust " is not here thought of, but the " carnality "
arising from the generative desire of parents, which
is a " real quality " in the human soul. " The works
of unbelievers which seem virtuous and commend-
able are truly sinful and punishable, vicious, and
morally evil." Children dying unbaptized shall
be subject not only to the " punishment of the
damned " [i.e., judgment of original sin], but also
" to the punishment of pain." Turning sharply
against the idea of a " general influence of God "
by which sinners de congruo are capable of earning
" first grace," he held that to be capable of good
requires a " special aid of God "; of himself man
may earn neither the gratia gratum faciens nor the
dispersive gratia gratis data. The good in man is a
direct act of God. The only cause of salvation is
the divine predestination embracing in itself, as in
Augustine, " calling " and " justification " and not
being dependent on foreknowledge. Gregory was
a genuine scholastic with a lively interest in phil-
osophical problems and a delight in proofs, and
also a man of not inconsiderable independence,
shown by his going over to nominalism and by the
energy with which he was able to think himself to
an independent position amid the views of Au-
gustine. Pelagianism is again reduced to a funda- '
mental heresy, and contemporaneously Brad-
wardine (q.v.) completed his great anti-Pelagian
work.
2. Culmination: The scientific activity of the
thirteenth century had therefore been directed to
satisfy the intellectual necessities raised by the
twelfth, by means of unified philosoph-
ical theory in which was merged the
dogma of the Church with the philoso-
phy of Aristotle. The boldest and
clearest attempt of Thomas Aquinas
obtained only qualified approval.
Duns Scotus split apart the two elements; with
William of Occam (see Occam, William of), the
unity became illusory. Nothing illustrates the situa-
tion better than the recall in the fourteenth century
of the sentence of Averrhoes: a principle may be
correct in philosophy but false in theology. Where
there was a readiness to follow Thomas, it stopped
short with the practical deductions; faith and in-
centive to his daring idealism failed. The increasing
intellectual self-dependence afforded theology an un-
capricious character, and criticism did not univer-
sally blunt itself as the nominalistic positivism.
Again theologians arose, like Anselm of old, who
approached theological problems with a striving for
the truth of experience, and these cared more for
the faith and a reformation of life than for
" system." Such movements were not interrupted
in the Franciscan order, and that Duns and Occam
were members was not accidental. Characteristic
of the time is it that, impelled by inmost experi-
ence, Thomas Bradwardine (q.v.) of Oxford ral-
lied his age from Pelagianism to the Augustinian
determinism of grace, and a man like Gregory of
Rimini so earnestly reverted to Augustine. Then
came Wyclif (q.v.), anti-scholastic schoolman and
realistic critic, without, however, the critical pre-
cautions of the nominalistic positivists or the
4. Disin-
tegration
and the
Beforma-
tion.
.naive credulity of Anselm. He was induced by
practical motives and theology was the means to
his ideas of reform. As realist he saw in it no
mere contrivance of words but realities, which led
to real consequences. His thought was controlled
by two main principles: the Augustinian predesti-
nation and the Biblical discipleship of Jesus.
But to the cry for reform in the fifteenth century
was opposed, as usual, the counter-effort at resto-
ration. In such cases, restoration allies itself with
.^^ retrenchment, insisting only upon the
ti* • mam thing8- Yet such reduction is
:pinaUt' in danger of stagnation, unless new
of Thomas, spiritual tendencies from fresh points
of view set in. Thus the battle be-
tween the " old " and the " modern/1 realism and
nominalism, continued, but the charge against and
ridicule of scholastic practise in theology emanated
not only from Humanists but from theologians as
well. Slowly scholasticism turned into new chan-
nels. For example, the nominalist Pierre d'Ailly
(see Ailly, Pierre d') limited his Sentence com-
mentary to what appeared to him practical,
seemingly important problems. Likewise for
Thomas Netter (q.v.) in his Doctrinale antiquitatem
against Wyclif; the problem pertains to Church
and institutions; the Bible and earlier Fathers
furnish the proofs. Above all new problems are
disavowed, and the older ones are to be reduced
to main points and simplified, but the native
power of the authors is dead. The recourse is to
seek a via media among the opinions of the past,
or at most adherence to a great master. By
clearness, simplicity, thoughtfulness, and the elim-
ination of paradoxes and extremes, no system of
the past was so well adapted to this process as that
of Thomas Aquinas. Besides, the practical theo-
logians, the German mystics, followed him as their
teacher and pure nominalism with its criticism and
fruitless dialectic was more and more doubted, while
realism rose again to power through Platonism in
Niholas of Cusa (q.v.) and Averrhoism (the Paduan
School). Johannes Capreolus (q.v.), the chief of
Thomists, in his four books, Defensiones theologies
divi doctoris Thoma (5 vols., Turin, 1901-04) criti-
cizes the other scholastic theories and recom-
mends in all points a return to Thomas, thus in-
troducing the Thomist reaction of the fifteenth
century. Gradually, here and there, the theological
Summa of Thomas became the basis of lectures
instead of the Sentences of Lombard. Dionysius
Rickel (see Dionysius the Carthusian) presented
the scholastic theories clearly in his Sentence com-
mentary, generally in adherence ^to Thomas. A
comprehensive presentation by Gabriel Biel fol-
lowed in most questions the views of Scotus and
Occam. Soon after, Francis Lycketus prepared his
commentary on the Opus Oxoniense of Duns, and
Thomas del Vio wrote his commentary on the
Summa theologica, and Franciscus de Silvestris Fer-
rariensis, on Summa contra gentiles, both by Thomas.
More and more distinct became the return to the
thirteenth century and the recognition of Thomas
as the surviving fruit of scholasticism. He formed
also the basis for the great restoration of scholasti-
cism which, starting at Salamanca, took place in
267
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
fitoholasttoiam
/
Spain in the sixteenth century. Thomists were also
the intellectual antagonists of Luther. Recently
Pope Leo XIII. pronounced this the normal theology.
V. Characterization in Summary: As a rule the
schoolmen present their teaching in the form of com-
mentaries on the Sentences of Peter Lombard.
The problems raised by him are resolved into an
increasing multiplicity of questions, often so re-
mote from the text that this is soon forgotten
by the reader. The series of distinc-
z. Method, tions by Lombard remain as an out-
line for the accumulating material. To
extract the basic ideas of the theologians is one of
the gravest impediments to the modern understand-
ing of the peculiarity of the scholastic systems. An-
other is the repeated differentiation of the material
into new questions the basis for the opposite views
of which are thoroughly established and thoroughly
refuted. For instance, a distinction of Lombard is
resolved into a number of qucestiones and each of
these into a number of articles. Other subdivisions
may follow: such as, membra, principcdia, partes,
tractatus, dubia, adfinitum. In detail each article is
so treated as to raise a question; then citations for
and against are quoted from the Church Fathers
down to the scholastic masters. After the quod non
or quod sic is concluded, follows the responsio of the
author or the corpus of the article. Then follows
the discussion in much detail of the views produced
first for, then against, the question, not infrequently
including the characteristic opinions of the author.
Into this endlessly irksome mold, the explanation
of every problem is dragged. But its great service
was its vitalization of dialectic art and of logical
categories for scholars and for the development of
education to the present day. Easier and simpler
was the presentation of Thomas, who parted from
the scheme of Lombard and built his own system
on the grand and simple outlines of (1) of God,
(2) to God, (3) through Christ. He also possessed
the art of setting forth perspicuously the essential
and of expressing it in a form easily understood.
Yet even here the endless analysis and monotonous
dialectic are wearisome.
From the time of the famous introduction of V.
Cousin to the works of Abelard (1839) it has be-
come customary to trace the history of scholasti-
cism by the thread of the conflict of rationalism and
nominalism. But this division will not
2. Problem, classify in theology and must be com-
plemented by the further view-points
of Augustinianism and Aristotelianism, voluntar-
ism and intellectualism, positivism and rationalism,
practical and theoretical knowledge, as has been
done in the preceding sketch. The traditional and
inviolable Biblical material authorized by the
Church is to be interpreted and systematized. In
addition it must be brought into harmonious rela-
tion with secular knowledge. In the example of
Thomas, the philosophy of Aristotle takes its place
beside church doctrine. Reason is not only the
logical faculty, but also the organ of philosophic
intuition. Hand in hand with revelation, it erects a
grand system of religious philosophy. Revealed
thoughts are not to be rationalized or proved in the
strict sense but merely shown as probable and con-
formable to reason. As a result orthodoxy and ra-
tionalism are commuted, giving rise to a speculative
theoretical knowledge as subject of theology. Ex-
actly this entrance of the rational element called
forth the protest of the older theology and the move-
ment introduced by Duns Scotus. The older the-
ology, though acceding to the entrance of the sci-
ence of Aristotle, and adopting the dialectic, desired
to see the religious character of theology preserved,
partly by adherence to the religious speculation of
Augustine and his doctrine of will, and partly by
the retention of realism. This latter seems con-
trary to the purpose; yet realism derived its ideas
as inherent in things from heaven; it touched the
divine in everything that transpired; everything
earthly was a medium revealing the heavenly, and
knowledge assumed an immediate mystical charac-
ter. To Duns philosophy and theology were dis-
tinct in object and kind. The latter was concerned
with a purely practical knowledge. The will of God
revealed itself to human will as its end and pro-
vided the means and ways for attainment. The
Church with its dogmas and institutions is that
way. Though dealing with subjects common to
both, metaphysics deals with the truths necessary
to the thought of being; theology with positive
revelation. Theology and philosophy must part.
This practical knowledge of theology, however, be-
comes scientific by the dialectical proof of the inner
unity of revelation and its ecclesiastical institution.
But instead of doing this Duns simply makes reve-
lation equivalent to church doctrine and order,
and instead of producing a new conception of faith
correlative to a practical revelation he rests corre-
spondingly with the intellectual assent of tradition.
And instead of wholly severing the bond to Aris-
totle he weaves him entirely into theology from
new points of view. The result is shown in the end-
less unrest suspended over his system of thought.
With a sure eye for system he takes in hand the
exposition of the particular doctrines; with a keen
criticism of tradition he has paved the way, but he
is impeded from attaining his aim of practical
knowledge by the ready-made church doctrines,
and, in part, by the Aristotelian dogma. Hence,
the brilliant criticism of Duns proves to be in vain,
and his characteristic tendency is ever deterred by
the ecclesiastical positivism. So much more di-
vergent is the inconsistency between aim and result
as Duns, unlike Thomas, who follows a certain tend-
ency of rationalizing faith, would conceive it only
in its practical nature. But the undertaking of
Thomas was also untenable because of the disparity
of the religious faith and philosophic knowledge
which he vainly aimed to unify. Faith as theoret-
ical assent is the rock on which Duns splits and the
fortress of Thomas; the relation of philosophy and
theology is the stronghold of Duns, the weakness of
Thomas. The latter founders on a false deduction;
the former on the incapability of prosecuting a true
one. The one was impeded by philosophy; the
other by church doctrine.
Hereby are distinguished the two methods of
scholasticism. The one is the union of dogmatics
with Aristotelian philosophy, as the ultimate con-
clusion of natural metaphysics; the other repre-
Scholasticism
Scholia
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
zee
sents separation and theology as the purely practical
religious knowledge of the way to God. Having the
inviolable formulas of the Church and
3. Three the Aristotelian logic in common, the
Types. two methods frequently coincide, in
part or whole, in presenting the same
doctrine. Doctrinal reconstruction is precluded
for both by their presuppositions. Thus adher-
ence to the foundations and problems of Lom-
bard for centuries is self-evident. Original obser-
vations and judgments occur but do not dare to
brave the ban of church doctrine and practise.
More radical in antagonism to the system of Thomas
was the work of Occam. The aim of this was to ex-
pose the irrationality of dogma and with an un-
sparing criticism to show on every hand the an-
titheses to the church tenets as thinkable. It was
customary to make excursions in the light of the
potentia absolute, how things might have been in
the absence of reality; but in the sterile atmosphere
of the day those possibilities soon dispersed and
the church positivism remained. But historically
considered this aspect of the matter was of the ut-
most significance. When confidence in single church
doctrines was once attacked, the criticism of single
dogma and doctrines became customary, and
finally theology led quite barrenly to the consid-
eration of the ecclesiastical doctrines and ordinances
as mere empirical realities. Not without enhan-
cing the natural element in church ordinances, this
theology undertook the support of Pelagianism and
the externalizing of grace in the institution of pen-
ance from an inner relationship of choice. The
r negative criticism of the materials of tradition and
( a rationalizing and naturalizing positivism within
the limits of its power — these are the principles of
' nominalism. They are the distinguishing marks of
J €he third type of scholastic theology. Following
j mainly the outline of Duns Scotus, it is distinguished
1
from his system by the qualities characteristic of
the mode of thought of the nominalistic theologians,
namely, crassness of criticism, inner contempt of
dogma, and the lack of a unified Christian philos-
ophy.
The supreme tendency of the theology of the
thirteenth century — to provide the new world in the
act of self-realization with a self-consistent philoso-
phy, which should render the kingdoms of the world
subject to the pope and all secular
4. Surviving knowledge a pillar to the arch of church
Influences, doctrine — was reversed by nominal-
ism. The older theology of the twelfth
and thirteenth centuries which was instinctively
disinclined to Aristotle prevailed. This right was
justified by Duns and Occam, though otherwise than
as those old theologians had anticipated. The prac-
tical situation which had occasioned the enormous
labor of the thirteenth century continued. It is
self-evident, then, that in the fourteenth century
Thomism on the one hand and Augustinianism on
the other took their places beside nominalism. The
Thomists desired to enforce the primacy of the
Church in learning and life, and became the bitter-
est foes of the Reformation; the Augustinians, not
without being affected by nominalistic criticism,
endeavored to rescue the primacy of religion in
life, and became the forerunners of the Reforma-
tion. A historical magnitude like scholasticism,
lasting four centuries, was not without its perma-
nent influence in philosophy and theology. Not
only is this found in Roman Catholicism as already
pointed out, but also in the influence of Duns upon
Luther in favor of a practical religious doctrinal
system setting forth the way of redemption as mani-
fest in revelation. So also the influence of Thomas
upon Melanchthon, who allowed philosophy as an-
cilia theologice to contribute the materials of natural
knowledge to dogmatics. In principle, the older
Protestant theology adhered to the rejection of scho-
lasticism by the Reformation, and the Enlighten-
ment (q.v.) was incapable of receiving a profound
historical appreciation of scholasticism. This change
did not occur until the revival of the historical
sense by Romanticism (q.v.). From the time of
F. C. Baur's great work on the Trinity, Protestant
history of dogma has given more unbiased attention
to scholasticism, especially after interest was stimu-
lated by Albrecht Ritschl's inquiry into the persist-
ence of scholastic thought within Protestantism.
Yet no field presents so many unclaimed problems
as the history of scholasticism. (R. Seeberg.)
Bibliography: W. L. Q. von Eberstein, Dm nattiriiche \
Theologic der Scholastiker, nebst Zusatzen uber die Freiheits-
lehre und den Begriff der Wahrheit bei dcnseJben, Leipsic,
1803; R. D. Hampden, The Scholastic Philosophy Con-
sidered in Us Relation to Christian Theology, 2d ed., Lon-
don, 1837; G. O. Marbach, Lehrbueh der Geschichte der
Philosophic, part 2, Leipsic, 1838-41; X. Rousselot,
jttudes sur la philosophic dans le moyen Age, Paris, 1840—
1842; R. Hasse, Anselm von Canterbury, 2 parts, Leipsic,
1843, Eng. transl., London, 1850; A. Jourdain, Recherches
critiques sur Vdge et V origins des traductions latines
oVAristote, 2d ed., Paris, 1843; B. Haureau. De la philo-
sophic scolastique, 2 vols., ib. 1850; idem, Histoire de la
philosophic scolastique, ib. 1872-80; idem, Gregoire IX.
et la philosophic oVAristote, ib. 1872; F. Morin, Diction-
noire de philosophic et de theologic scolastiques, 2 vols.,
ib. 1856; E. Plassmann, DieSchule desheiligen Thomas
von Aquino, 5 vols., M (taster, 1857-62; H. D. Kdhler,
Realismus und Nominalismus in ihrcm Einfiusse auf
die dogmatischen Systeme des MiitelaUers, Gotha, 1858;
W. Kaulich, Geschichte der scholastischen Philosophic,
part 1, Von J oh. Scotus Erigena bis Abalard, Prague, 1863;
A. Stoeokl, Geschichte der Philosophic des MiUelalters,
3 vols., Mains, 1864-66; idem, Doctrine philosophiauc
de S. Thomas d*Aquin, Paris, 1893; C. S. Barach, Zur
Geschichte des Nominalismus vor Roscellin, Vienna, 1866;
L. Figuier, Vies des savants illustres du moyen age, avec
V appreciation sommaire de leurs travaux, Paris, 1867; F.
D. Maurice, Mediaeval Philosophy of the First Six Cen-
turies, new ed., London, 1870; M. Schneid, Die scholasti-
sche Lehre von Materie und Form, Eichstatt, 1873; J.
Schwertschlager, Die erste Entstehung der Organismcn nach
der Philosophic des AUerthums und des MiUelalters, ib.
1873; J. Bach, Die Dogmengeschichte des MitteJaUers vom
christologischen Standpunkte, 2 parts, Vienna, 1873-75;
A. Ebert, AUgemeine Geschichte der Literatur des MiUd-
aliers im Abendlande, 3 vols., Leipsic, 1874; M. Schneid,
Aristotdes in der Scholastik. Ein Beitrag sur Geschichte
der Philosophic im Mittclalter, Halle, 1875; J. H. Loewe,
Der Kampf zwischen dem Realismus und Nominalismus im
MUtelaUer, Prague, 187G; C. Werner, Der Enttncklungs-
gang der miUelalterlichen Psychologic von Alcuin bis Al-
bertus Magnus, Vienna, 1876; idem, Die Scholastik des
spateren MiUelalters, 4 vols., ib. 1881-87; idem. Die
nominalisirende Psychologic der Scholastik des spateren
MiUclaUcrs, ib. 1882; N. Valois, Guillaume cTAuvergne,
sa vie et ses ouvrages, Paris, 1880; F. X. Pfeifer, Harmonir-
sche Beziehungen zwischen Scholastik und modemer Natur-
tnssenschaft. Augsburg, 1881; W. J. Townsend, The Great
Schoolmen of the Middle Ages, London, 1881; J. Bering-
ton, Literary History of the Middle Ages, ed. W. Hailitt,
260
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Scholasticism
Soholia
London, 1882; J. Schwane, Dogmsngeschichts der mittleren
Zeit (787-1617), Freiburg, 1882; E. Guers, Vrais prin-
cipes de philosophic scolastique, Paris, 1883; G. Runse, Der
ontologische Gottesbeweis. Kritische DarsteUung seiner
Gesehichte seit Anselm bis auf die Gegenwart, Halle, 1883;
J. Astromhoff, Introductio ad intelligendam doctrinam
Angdici Doctoris, Home, 1884; R. L. Poole, Illustration*
of the History of Mediaval Thought, London, 1884; C. M.
Schneider, Dae Wiseen Gottea noch der Lehre T. von Aquin,
4 parts, Regensburg, 1884; F. Ehrle, Bibliotheca thco-
logia scholastic a, Paris, 1885; P. Nova, Dictionnaire de
terminologie scolastique, Avignon, 1885; K. Prantl, Ge-
sehichte der Logik im Abendlande, 4 vols., 2d. ed., Leipsic,
1885; H. T. Simar, Die Lehre vom Weeen dee Gewieeene in
der Scholaetik dee 13. Jahrhunderts, Freiburg. 1886; J. von
der Aa, Cureue compendiariue philosophia scolastica, Lou-
vain, 1887; A. Adeodatus, Die Philosophic der Neuzeit und
die Philosophic dee heUigen Thomas von Aquino, Bonn,
1887; H. von Eicken, Gesehichte und System der mittekU-
terliehen Weltanschauung, Stuttgart, 1887; P. de Mar-
tigne, La Scholastique et les traditions franciscaines, Paris,
1888; £. Blanc, TraiU de philosophic scolastique, 2 vols.,
Lyon, 1889; V. Lipperheide, Thomas von Aquino und die
platonische Ideenlchre, Munich, 1890; H. Appel, Die Lehre
der Scholastiker von der Synteresis, Rostock, 1891; C.
Baeumker, Beitrage zur Gesehichte der Philosophic des
MittelaUere, 3 vols., Munster, 1891 sqq.; J. von Falke,
Gesehichte dee Geschmacks im MUtelalter, Berlin, 1892;
J. Gardair, Corps et &me. E seats sur la philosophic de S.
Thomas, Paris, 1892; D. Nasmith, Makers of Modern
Thought, 120O-1699, 2 vols., London, 1892; J. J. Berthier,
Tabula systematica totius summa theologica, Freiburg,
1893; E. Gebhardt, V Italic mystique; histoire de la renais-
sance religieuse au moyen Age, 2d ed., Paris, 1893; A. Port-
mann, Dae System der theologischen Summe des heiligen
Thomas von Aquin, Lucerne, 1894; O. Willmann, Ge-
sehichte des Idealismus, vol. ii., 3 vols., Brunswick, 1894-
1897; A. Mignon, Les Origines de la scolastique et Hugues
de Saint Victor, 2 vols., Paris, 1895; M. C. J. Wulf, Hist,
de la philosophic scholastique dans les pays-bas, Brussels,
1895, new ed., Lou vain, 1900; idem, Introduction a la
philosophic nio-ecolastique, ib. 1904; idem, Hist, de la
philosophic mSdievale, ib. 1905, Eng. transl., Scholasticism
Old and New; an Introduction to scholastic Philosophy, me-
dieval and modern. New York, 1908; J. M. Littlejohn, Po-
litical Theory of the Schoolmen, New York, 1896; F.
Picavet, Roscdin phUosophc et thiologicn, Paris, 1896;
idem, Abilard et Alexandre de Hales creatcurs de la me-
thode scolastique, ib. 1896; idem, Esquisse dune histoire des
philosophies midUvales, ib. 1905; G. Lefevre, Les Varia-
tions de GuUlaume de Champeaux et la question des univer-
salis, Lille, 1898; T. F. Mandonnet, Siger de Brabant et
VAveroisme latin au xiii. siccle, Freiburg, 1899; C. Fras-
sen, Scotus Academicus seu universa doctoris subtilis theo-
logica dogmata, Rome, 1900; A. Gardner, Studies in John
the Scot, London, 1900; Jerome of Montefortino, Duns
Scoti Summa theologica, Rome, 1900; R. Seeberg, Die
Theologic des Duns Scotus, Leipsic, 1900; J. Draeseke,
Johannes Scotus Erigena, ib. 1902; J. Guttmann, Die
Scholastik des 13. Jahrhunderts in ihren Beziehungen sum
Judentum und tur judischen Litteratur, Breslau, 1902; C.
Alibert, La Psychologic thomiste et les theories modernes,
Paris, 1903; H. Felder, Gesehichte der tvissenschaftlichen
Studien in Fransiskanerorden bis Mittc des IS. Jahrhund-
erts, Freiburg, 1904; K. Krogh-Tonning, Der letite Scho-
lastiker, Dionysius de Leuwis de Rickel, ib. 1904; P. Minges,
Duns Scotus Indetcrministt Munster, 1905; J. Rickaby,
Scholasticism (in Philosophies, Ancient and Modern), Lon-
don, 1908; M. Grabmann, Die Gesehichte der scholasti-
•' schen Methode, vol. i. Die scholastische Methode von ihren
srsten Anfangen in der Voter literatur bis sum Beginn des
IS. Jahrhunderts, Freiburg, 1909; J. L. Perrier, The Re-
vival of Scholastic Philosophy in the Nineteenth Century,
New York, 1909; H. O. Taylor, The Medieval Mind, 2 vols.,
New York, 1911; Schaff, Christian Church, V., 1, chaps.
xiL-xiii.; the works on the history of philosophy by H.
Ritter, Hamburg, 1844-45; E. Erdmann, 3 vols., Lon-
don, 1893; W. Windelband, ib. 1893; and F. Ueberweg,
ed. M. Heinse, 8th ed., vol. ii.. Berlin, 1905; the litera-
ture under Universities; and that under individual
schoolmen treated in this work, e.g., Abelard; Albertus
Magnus; Duns Scotus; Lully, Raymond; Peter Lombard;
Thomas Aquinas; and others.
SCHOLIA.
Character of Scholia (| 1).
Biblical and Patristic Scholia (| 2).
Early Biblical Scholia (f 3).
Byiantine and Other Works (f 4).
Editions (| 5).
Editions of N. T. Scholia (f 6).
The patristic scholia on the Bible are distin-
guished from Biblical commentaries in that, instead
of following the text continuously, they explain
only such individual points as seem to require eluci-
dation. The scholion thus resembles the gloss (see
Glosses, Biblical and Ecclesias-
z. Character tic al), though in the medieval period
of Scholia. " gloss " denotes a scholion which can
not be ascribed to a definite author.
In Greek philology, on the other hand, a gloss orig-
inally meant an obscure phrase or word, later being
applied metaphorically to the interpretation of such
a phrase or word. In such glosses the obscure words
were replaced by intelligible ones, either on the
margin of the text or above the words in question.
Later still, the gloss comprised not only the inter-
pretation of obscure words and phrases, but etymol-
ogies and elucidations of subject-matter in the text
under consideration. Both the state of patristic
exegesis and linguistic usage render it impossible
to distinguish sharply between scholia and com-
mentaries, especially as the individual notes of the
commentaries possess a certain degree of independ-
ence and are thus akin to the scholion. Moreover
the scholion is defined by Suidas and the Etymo-
logicum magnum as a note placed beside the text
during school instruction. It thus bore a distinctly
informal character, was essentially characterized
by the individuality and ability of the teacher, and
was not necessarily intended for publication. The
linguistic usage of patristic exegesis furnishes many
examples of these meanings of the term scholion.
Arethas (q.v.) terms his commentary on Revelation
a " scholiastic synopsis," and the commentaries on
Matthew and Mark in Cod. Lain*. VI., 18 and Codex
Vaticanus 1,445 are likewise designated as scholia.
The author of the catena Laur. VI., 33, on the other
hand, distinguishes sharply between scholion and
commentary, and this distinction is still more
marked in the catena on Paul in Vindobonensis 166.
The catenas are the principal sources for excerpt
scholia, these being notes drawn from commentaries
or other writings and appended to the words of the
text they elucidate. Besides these sources, the in-
dependent labor of scholiasts must be considered,
in which the individuality of the author appears
more prominently than in the notes proceeding
from studies in schools. Such scholia are the notes
and comments of a reader less intent on explaining
his text than on marking and elucidating passages
which especially attract his attention. The scho-
liast's freedom is restricted in texts regarded as
sacred, of which an authoritative interpretation
had early been given. In itself it is immaterial
whether the scholiast made his annotations for
purposes of instruction, or for himself. In Biblical
scholia the latter was rarely the case.
One of the most interesting Biblical scholia is the
Codex Marchallianus on the prophets, which was re-
Scholia
Soholten
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
270
vised according to the Tetrapla of Origen. On its
margins scholia record the critical labors of Origen,
and also contain other pertinent matter
2. Biblical of various periods. Especially instruo-
and Patristic tive for scholia literature is the Athos
Scholia, manuscript Laura 184 B. 64 con-
taining Acts and the Catholic and
Pauline epistles. The scholia contain valuable criti-
cal notes, mostly with the citation of the authorities
and works from which they are drawn. The prin-
cipal sources are the Stromata and the commentaries
of Origen, though Iren&us, Clement, and Basil are
also used. The scholia are not invariably named,
however, the anonymous ones apparently belong-
ing to the original owner of the manuscript, which
has been plausibly supposed to have come from the
school of Arethas of Caeearea. The character of the
scholia of this manuscript clearly show that the
interest of the writer was concentrated on the sub-
ject-matter and its problems, thus leading to a
scientific revision of the entire manuscript. The
Biblical scholia afford no certain data concerning
the problem of their origin, since they for the most
part presuppose the exegetical tradition of the com-
mentary. The analogy of the scholia on the Church
Fathers must accordingly be employed. Here the
most important scholia are those on Clement of
Alexandria, written by Baanes and Arethas, and
the scholia on Gregory Nazianzen. The scholia of
Baanes are primarily linguistic, though they also
give notes on mythology and history. The interest
of Arethas was primarily theological, though he
cites the classics as well as the Bible or such Church
Fathers as Athanasius, Gregory of Nyssa, and
Gregory Nazianzen (qq.v.). He pays especial at-
tention to allegorical exegesis, etymologies, defini-
tions, figures, and similes, short rules of life, paro-
nomasias, antitheses, and anecdotes from history
and natural science. The objects of Elias of Crete,
one of the scholiasts on Gregory Nazianzen, were
to interpret theological, ethical, and scientific ma-
terial, as well as the mythological and linguistic
problems of his text.
It may be assumed that similar interests and in-
tentions led to the writing of scholia on the Bible;
but if this be true, these scholia can rightly be judged
only in connection with classical philology, the
methods being identical, despite the
3. Early divergence of matter and of aim. In
Biblical the Hellenistic period criticism became
Scholia, an indispensable element of education
to protect the sources of classical train-
ing and to guard their exegesis. Thus arose the
classical commentaries, collections of scholia, flori-
legia, and lexicons. Even more attention, however,
was directed to interpretation of the language and
the matter than to criticism, and allegorical exe-
gesis was carried far (see Exegesis or Hermeneu-
tics). This tendency to interpret and deepen au-
thoritative tradition led, in ancient philology, to a
special class of scholiastic literature, designed to
reconcile the discrepant statements of an author.
This latter type to harmonize difficulties forms an
important class of Christian scholia, exemplified
not only by frequent passages in the commentaries
of Origen, but also by marginal notes on manu-
scripts of the Bible, as in Laur. VI., 33 and Cod.
Coisl. 206. The earliest patristic collection of scho-
lia is doubtless the Hypotyposeis of Clement, its
sources being the original elders and Pantsenus, the
founder of the catechetical school at Alexandria,
whose object was to deepen knowledge, investiga-
tion, and interpretation of the Bible. The work, as
described by Photius (BiUiotheca, cix.), was a con-
densation and a summary, incomplete, allegorizing,
and full of repetitions. Despite the unfavorable
attitude of Photius, who was theologically opposed
to Clement, it is clear that the latter's book was
scholiastic in character. Origen is expressly said to
have written scholia, besides his homilies and com-
mentaries. Many of these scholia are preserved in
the catenas, and Jerome mentions such comments
on Leviticus, Isaiah, Psalms i.-xv., Ecclesiastes,
and John. The Athos manuscript likewise cites
Origen's scholia on Genesis, and mentions his
Stromata as a source for its own scholia. The scholia
of Origen are characterized by brevity and cogency.
They contain notes on the text, pertinent interpre-
tations, and information on the subject-matter,
with relatively little allegorizing. The catenas con-
tain numerous scholia of Theodore of Mopsuestia
and other Antiochian theologians, while Theodoret
is also occasionally mentioned as a scholiast.
The majority of the anonymous scholia are char-
acterized by Byzantine orthodoxy, as is shown by
the scholia of Hesychius on the Psalms. Whether
the scholia of Johannes Hamartolus on
4. Byzan- the same book is of a like anti-Origen-
tine and istic spirit is problematical, but at all
Other events he furnished the sole source for
Works, the catena of Nicetas. Byzantine scho-
lia are essentially of one type; dog-
matic, ascetic, and allegorical interpretations pre-
vail, rather than notes on geography, history, or
subject-matter. Numerous examples of these
scholia may be drawn from J. C. G. Ernesti's edi-
tions of the Glosses sacra of Hesychius (Leipsic,
1785) and Phavorinus (1786), as well as from C. F.
de Matthaei's Glossaria Grasca minora (2 vols., Riga,
1774-75) and J. Alberti's Glossarium Grcecum in
sacros Novi TestamenH libros (Leyden, 1735). The
oldest treatise on Biblical difficulties is Philo's
Qucestiones et solutiones qua sunt in Genesi et in
Exodo, translated from Armenian into Latin by
J. B. Aucher (Venice, 1828), and from the Latin
into English in Bonn's Theological Library, Works
o/Philo, iv. 284 sqq., London, 1855. Of the Church
Fathers Eusebius wrote on the solution of discrepan-
cies in the Gospels, those preserved (ed. A. Mai, Nova
coUectio, i. 1-60, 61-180, Rome, 1825) treating respec-
tively of the genealogy and infancy of Christ, and
of his passion. A comprehensive work of similar
character was written by Theodoret (MPG, \xxx.
77-856), discussing the Octateuch, Kings, and
Chronicles. In like manner, the " Collection of
Problems and Solutions " ascribed to the presbyter
Hesychius (MPG, xciii. 1391-1448), the 446 " Ques-
tions and Answers " of Anastasius of Sinai (MPG,
lxxxix. 311-824), and the Qucestiones ad Amphiloch-
turn of Photius (Mai, Nova coUectio, i.) contain chiefly
exegetical difficulties side by side with dogmatic
and ascetic problems. To the Western Church be-
271
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Scholia
Soholten
long the Quastiones ex Vetere et Novo Testamento,
probably composed by Hilary. The manuscripts
contain numerous collections on " difficulties/'
mostly anonymous. In Codex Vindobonensis
XXIX. are the " Answers " of Severus of Antioch
to Eupraxius, while in the Moscow manuscript of
Arethas is a related work of similar form.
Comparatively few scholia have as yet been
printed, though those of Clement, Origen, Eusebius,
Athanasiu8, Cyril, and otheus have been excerpted
from the catenas, and individual anon-
5. Editions, ymous compositions have been edited.
The tasks preliminary to a corpus of
Biblical scholia are many and difficult, involving
the determination of which scholia are excerpts,
what is their relation to their sources, the de-
viations of their transmission, the problem as to
which scholia are original and hence independent
sources, the interests and tendencies revealed in the
scholia, and the relation of the scholia to the text
as either corrupting it or preserving it. The first
attempt to make a comprehensive collection of pa-
tristic scholia was by J. Gregorius, in his posthu-
mous Scholia Gregoriana (ed. J. E. Grabe, Oxford,
1703), the chief sources being Origen, Chrysostom,
Theodore of Mopsuestia, (Ecumenius, Theophylact,
and Nicetas. A similar attempt was made by E. W.
Grinfield's Novum Testamentum Gracum (4 vols.,
London, 1843-48), the first two volumes parallel-
ing each verse with the Septuagint, and the latter
two containing parallels from Philo, Josephus, the
Apostolic Fathers, the New Testament Apocrypha,
etc. The parallels in Wetstein's edition of the New
Testament (2 vols., Amsterdam, 1752) also have
the value of a collection of scholia. The patristic
scholia, so far as they can be referred to specific
authors, are contained in the great editions of the
Church Fathers, and in the collections of Montfau-
con (CoUectio nova patrum, 2 vols., Paris, 1706), A.
Mai (Patrum nova bibliotheca, 8 vols., Rome, 1844-
1871), and J. B. Pitra (SpicUegium Solesmense, 4
vols., Paris, 1852-58, and Analecta sacra, Paris,
1876 sqq.). These are mostly fragments derived
from catenas, and the same scholia are sometimes
represented by different recensions, as the scholia
of Eusebius on Luke, of which Mai gives three texts.
The fragments of Hippolytus on the Pentateuch,
the historical books, Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes,
Isaiah, and Ezekiel are edited by H. Achelis in his
edition of Hippolytus (I., ii. 1-194, Leipsic, 1897).
The fragments of Origen on the Octateuch, Job,
Psalms, Proverbs, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and
Daniel are given by Pitra in his Analecta sacra (ii.
349-350, iii. 1-364, 523-527, 538-^551), and scholia
of Origen and Eusebius on Psalms i.-cxviii (ib.,
369-520); E. Klostermann has edited the scholia
of Origen on Jeremiah, Lamentations, and Samuel
in the third volume of his edition of Origen (Leip-
sic, 1901). Scholia of Eusebius on the Psalms are
given by Montfaucon (ut sup., i. 1-2) and Mai (ut
sup., IV., i. 65-66), scholia of Athanasius on Job
and the Psalms by Pitra (Analecta, v. 3-27), scholia
of Basil and Hilary on the Psalms by the same
scholar (op. cit., 76-104, 141-144), and anonymous
scholia on Psalms i.-xiii. by C. F. de Matthaei (Lec-
Hones Mosquenses, ii. 41-52, Leipsic, 1779. Victor
of Capua's collection of Scholia veterum patrum is
edited by Pitra (Spicilegium, i. 265-276; the same
volume [pp. 18-20] also containing anonymous
scholia on Proverbs). Mai (ut sup., vii. 2) has given
scholia from Origen, Didymus, Hippolytus, Apol-
linarius, and Polychronius on Proverbs, Isaiah, and
Ezekiel, as well as the fragments of Cyril of Alex-
andria on Proverbs, the Song of Solomon, and Dan-
iel (ii. 468-469, iii. 137-138). The scholia of Chrys-
ostom on Kings, Job, Proverbs, Jeremiah, and
Daniel are contained in MPG, lxiv. 193-194, 501-
502. A special type of scholion is presented in the
Expositio interlinearis in Job ascribed to Jerome
(MPL, xxiv. 1475-76), in the Quwstiones ffebraica
in Oenesin (ib. 983-984), and In libros Regum et
Paralipomendn (ib. 1391-92).
Among New Testament scholia mention should be
made of the fragments of Clement's Hypotyposeis
(ed. T. Zahn, Supplementum Clementinum, pp. 64-
65, Erlangen, 1884), of Origen and Apollinarius on
Luke (Mai, Auctores dassici, x. 474-
6. Editions 482, 495-499), of Hippolytus on Mat-
of N. T. thew (ib. 197-208), of Theodore of Mop-
Scholia, suestia on the Gospels and the Pauline
epistles (ed. O. F. Fritzsche, Zurich,
1847), of Chrysostom on Romans and the Catholic
epistles (MPG, lxiv. 1039-40), of the Athanasian
homilies on Matthew and Luke (Montfaucon, ut
sup., ii. 24-48; MPG, xxvii. 1391-1404), of Cyril
of Alexandria on Matthew (Mai, Nova coUectio, VII.,
ii. 142-148), Luke (Mai, Auctores dassici, x. 1-407,
501-546, 605-613), and Hebrews (Mai, Nova coL
lectio, VIII. , ii. 142-148), and of Severus on Luke
and Acts (idem, X., i. 408-457, 470-473, X., ii.
457-470). Of the anonymous scholia the Scholia
in quatuor evangdia, first edited by Mai (Auctores
dassici, vi. 379-500, ix. 431-512; reprinted in
MPG, cvi. 1077-1290), are especially important.
These seem to be in the main excerpts. Those on
Matthew and John correspond in content to Chrys-
ostom, while the scholia on Mark and Luke are
most nearly akin to the anonymous portions of
Cramer's catena. The most extensive collection
of anonymous scholia, however, is in C. F. Mat-
thsei's major edition of the New Testament (Riga,
1782-88). Matthaei likewise published anonymous
scholia on Revelation in his edition of Victor's com-
mentary on Mark (pp. 210-224, Riga, 1775). In
his edition of the catenas J. A. Cramer has made
many addenda from manuscripts containing scholia,
especially on Mark, Luke, Acts, and certain Pauline
epistles (Oxford, 1838-44) ; and fragments of chilias-
tic scholia on Matthew have been edited by G.
Mercati (Studi e testi, xi. 1-2). See Catenat and
Glosses. (G. Heinrici.)
Bibliography: H. F. von Soden, Die Schriften des N. T.»
in ihrer oUesUn erreichbortn TextoestoU, i. 293-294. Berlin,
1902; G. Karo and J. Lietsmann, in the Nachriehlen of
the Gdttingen Royal Society of Sciences, philosophical-
historical class, 1902, parts 1-3; J. £. Sandys, Hist, of
Classical Scholarship, Cambridge, 1903.
SCHOLTEN, JAN HENDRIK: Dutch Protes-
tant theologian; b. at Vleuten, near Utrecht, Aug.
17, 1811; d. at Leyden Apr. 10, 1885. He was ed-
ucated at the University of Utrecht (1828-35), in-
terrupting his studies in 1830 to serve in the cam-
Soholtan
Schortixiffhuis
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
272
paign against Belgium. He was pastor at Meerkker
for two years (1838-40), and professor at Franeker
(1840-43). A few months later Scholten became
associate professor of theology at Leyden, and full
professor in 1845, retaining the latter position until
his death, though after 1881 he was professor emeri-
tus. Lecturing at first on natural theology and in-
troduction, he began in 1845 to treat the Dutch
creeds and the principles of the Reformed Church.
Beginning with 1852 he added to his work an al-
ternating course on Christian dogmatics and New-
Testament theology, while with the change of the
system of instruction in 1877 he took charge of the
lectures on the philosophy of religion and the
history of the concept of God. The writings of
Scholten mark a steady evolution in his theological
attitude, changing from conservatism to a full ac-
ceptance of the results of the critical school. This
is exemplified by the difference between his Histo-
rischrkritische inleiding tot de schriften des Nieuwen
Testaments (Leyden, 1856) and his Het evangelie
naar Johannes (1864). His dogmatic writings were
Dogmatices Christiana initio. (1853-54), Geschie-
denis der christelijke godgeleerdheid gedwende het
tijdperk des Nieuwen Testaments (1856), and espe-
cially his De leer der Hervormde Kerk in hare grond-
beginselen (1848-50). This latter work marked an
epoch in the history of Dutch Protestantism, which
had for several years approximated the Bible rather
than Reformed standards. Scholten now became
the leader of opposition to the Groningen school,
which sought to return to the Gospel and the Ar-
Tnininn concept of the person of Christ, and in his
work on the doctrines of his church he stoutly de-
fended Calvinistic determinism. The position here
held by Scholten was further developed in his Ge-
schiedenis van godsdienst en wijsbegeerte (1853) and
was still more elaborated in his De vrije wil (1859).
The question of the day became the relation of man
to Calvinistic predestination, and the relation of
that doctrine" to Christianity; so that Scholten saw
himself compelled to become the protagonist of the
determinists, and thus to be the leader of the " mod-
ernists." Some idea of his position may be gained
from his rectoral address De godgeleerdheid aan de
Neederlandsche hoogescholen (1876) and his mono-
graph Supranaturalisme in verband met Bijbel, Chris-
tendom en Protestantisme (1867), and from other
contributions.
As a delegate of the theological faculty of Ley-
den, Scholten was repeatedly a member of the synod
and of the synodal committee of his church. In
1854 he was commissioned by the synod to prepare
the translation of the Gospel and Epistles of John
which appeared in 1868. (A. KuENENf.)
Biblioorapht: Protettantische Kirchenteitung, 1884, pp.
780-794, 1886, pp. 380-386; A. Kuenen, in Jaarboek der
kon. Acad, van Wetenachappen, 1886 (a memorial ad-
dress).
SCHOLZ, scholts, ANTON: German Roman
Catholic; b. at Schmachtenberg, Bavaria, Feb. 25,
1829; d. at Wurzburg Sept. 30, 1908. He was
educated at the Lyceum of Aschaffenburg (1849-
1850) and at the universities of Munich and
Wurzburg (1850-53; D.D., Wurzburg, 1856); was
curate of Zell (1853-55); secretary of Bishop
Anton von Stahl (1855-61); parish priest at
Eisingen, near Wurzburg (1861-72), being also
district inspector of schools from 1863 to 1872. In
1872 he was appointed professor of Old-Testament
exegesis and Biblical oriental languages in the Uni-
versity of Wurzburg, of which he was rector in
1879-80 and 1892-93. In 1903 he retired from
active life. After 1885 he defended the thesis that
certain books of the Bible, such as Esther, Jonah,
Judith, Tobit, Bel and the Dragon, and Su-
sanna, are not historical, but are midrashic apoc-
alypses. He was also a protagonist of Biblical
criticism after 1895, and after long discussion, his
views were recognized as justifiable by a papal
decision in 1905. He wrote De inhabUatione
Spiritus Saneti (Wurzburg, 1872); Der massorethi-
sche Text und die SeptuagintorUebersetzung des
Buches Jeremias (Regensburg, 1875); Kommentar
zum Buche des Propheten Jeremias (1880) ; Die alex-
andrinische Uebersetzung des Buches Jesaias (1880);
Kommentar zum Buche des Propheten Hoseas (1882) ;
Kommentar zum Buche Joel (1883); Judithf eine
Prophetic (1885); Kommentar zum Buche Judith
(1887); Kommentar zum Buche Tobias (1889);
Kommentar uber das Buck Esther mix seinen Zusdir
zen und Uber Susanna (1892) ; Zeit und Ort der Entr
stehung der Bucher des Alien Testaments (1893);
Kommentar Uber das Buck Judith und Uber Bel und
Drache (1896); Kommentar uber den Prediger
(Leipedc, 1901); and Kommentar uber das Hohdied
(1904).
SCHOOLMEN. See Scholasticism.
SCHOPENHAUER, sh6'pen-hau"er, ARTHUR:
German philosopher; b. in Danzig Feb. 22, 1788;
d. in Frankfort-on-the-Main Sept. 21, 1860. He
was son of a prosperous merchant who destined him
to follow his own calling. After his father's death,
his mother became a well-known novelist, member
of the literary group at Weimar, drawn there by the
fame of Goethe. His early life was one of vicissi-
tude; he lived successively at Danzig and Hamburg,
and in France, England, Italy. He tried his hand
at commercial life, science and philosophy, studied
at Gottingen, Berlin, and finally at Jena, where, in
1813, he received his degree with a dissertation
Ueber die vierfache Wurzel des Satzes vom zureichen-
den Grunde (Rudolfstadt, 1813, 5th ed., 1891; Eng.
transl., The Fourfold Root of the Principle of Suffi-
cient Reason, New York, 1889). This contained the
germ of his later thought. His chief works are, Die
Welt als Wille und VorsteUung (Leipsic, 1819; Eng.
transl., The World as Will and Idea, London, 1883) ;
Ueber den Willen in der Natur (Frankfort, 1836,
5th ed., Leipsic, 1891; Eng. transl., Will in Nature,
1889, and in Bonn's Philosophical Library)) Die
beiden GrundproUeme der Ethik (Frankfort, 1841)
Parerga und Paralipomena (Berlin, 1851). His
Sdmmtliche Werke were issued in 6 vols. (Leipsic,
1873-74; 3d ed., 2 vols., 1891). As a philosophical
writer Schopenhauer is unexcelled unless by Plato
in penetrating analysis, logical acumen, boldness of
conception, subtlety of reasoning, picturesqueness
of presentation, brilliancy and fascination of liter-
ary style.
According to Schopenhauer reality is character-
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
bed by a blind impulse which actualizes itself in
the infinite variety of living forms in the world.
The " will to live " describes this all-impelling
force. Hence arises the fierce instinct of self-pres-
ervation by wliich every individual is ruled, and
also the relentless warfare in which every individual
both seeks to defend himself and to devour others.
If in man the intelligence is more fully developed
and the sensibilities more refined, this only deepens
his c.iiL-rli>Li~iHvv- not alone of actual but also of
imagined and therefore of possible misery. The
more complex the life, the more aggravated the
wretchedness. Not joy, but unhappiness is life's
positive content. Even freedom from pain results
in ennui. Morality is impossible. The instinct of
self-preservation becomes self-seeking, vanity, hy-
pocrisy; and however the will may seem to be re-
fined by culture, this is only apparent; it is hope-
lessly fettered and can not be changed by training.
History but confirms the impression made by an
analysis of man's nature. A hope of redemption
appears to bo offered by science, and especially by
art, which opens the door to contemplation in which
the intense struggle for existence is momentarily
stilled. But even this promise is iilusory; for the
initiated it simply puts off the evil day, for all others
it is wholly unavailing. The only sure path to
■iMLirnipniion lies in renouncing the will to live. Ho
who beholds ull others in this vast vortex and knows
that for them as well as for himself deliverance can
come only through supreme and final renuncia-
tion of the principium indieiduationia, will dedicate
himself to asceticism, to disillusionment as to pleas-
ure, to total abstention from sexual intercourse and
ultimately from food. C. A. Beckwitb.
other
tbe tent arc: Select Ettaut, Mil waul™, 1881; RcHaion:
a Dialogue, and other Essays. London, ISSB (fmm Pormnii.
The Witdom of Lift, bring the Firtl Pari of . . . Aphorit-
mcniur Lehtntweisheil, ib. 1890; Cinwtl and Mojims:
Reiruj the second Part of . . . A phoritm-n sue Lebentu eit-
heit. ib. 1890; The Art of Controverty. New York. IWn;
Selected Ettoyt, London. 18fll (in Bobn's HKTiHiljrMrili
LiDrorv); The Art of Litem! are. I.nnl.m. lS'.ll; Studies in
Pan-nit-*, ib. 1891, 7th cd.. 1906; On Human Nature.
London and bT*w York. 1S517, 3d ed.. 1906; and The
a«'i of Morality. London. 1003.
As sources for a life use: Briefweehnl imtchcn ArtAur
Schopenhauer und Johann Aug. Becker, ed. J, K, Becker.
Leipsic, 1861; Schopcnhauer-Bricfc, ed. L. Schemann, ih.
1893; Briefs an Becker. Frauentladt. Van Doe-, Lindner
und Athcr. ed. Grisebach. Lripaic. 1865. On his life con-
sult; J. Frauenstatit and E. O. Lindner, Arthur Schopen-
hauer: K°n ihm. uber ihn. Berlin, 1863; W. Qwinner.
Sch'ipenhnuer und trine Freunde, leipsic. 1863; D. Aaher.
Arthur Schopenhauer: Neues van ihm und Qbcr ihn. Ber-
lin, 1871; H. Fromroann, Arthur Schopenhauer, Jena,
1872; W. Gwinner. Arthur Schopenhauer aus pers/,nlichem
Vmgange iararttetlt. Leipsic, 1878: K. Bahr, GssprocAs
und Brie facetted mit A. Schopenhauer. Leipsic, 1804;
ADB. xxxii. 333-348.
On hie philosophy consult: F. Dorguth. Schopenhauer
in leiner Wohrheit. Magdeburg. 1845; C. Bartholmess,
Hittoire critique det doetrinct retigieuiet dt la philosophic
modtrne. vol. It, Strasburg, 1855; A. ComiU. Arthur
Schopenhauer alt cine Ueberaange formation von einer
idealistischen in eini rtatUtieche WtltaTuxhauunti, Hei-
delberg. 185(1: C. G. Bahr, Die echopenhaurt' tcht Philoto-
phie in ihrrn Grundiiiarn. Dresden. 1857: R. Peydel.
Schopenhauer/ jMlmmilltitkmt Sytlem, Leipsic. 1857; G.
dc Sriiiici'l, l.'tl'prit de la phitosophie de Schopenhauer,
Darmstadt. 1863: R. Hnym. Arfftur Schopenhauer. Ber-
lin, 1864; C. A. Tbilo, Schoptnnauert tthitthtr AMeisinus,
X— 18
Leipsic, 1868; W. Sobeffer, Arthur Schopenhauer: die
Philotaphie van het Pessimisms, Leyden. 1870; A. von
Wunbacb. Artur Schopenhauer. Vienna. 1871; A. Tno-
bert. Dec Pessimitmut und leine Gegner, Berlin, 1873;
M.Veaetianer. Schopenhauer ale Scholattiker, ib. 1873;
; T. Trai
.n Philotaphie.
Carlsruhe. 1876; Helen Zim.nern,ArfaU.-.SVAu/;mJiauir.- *i.
Life and hit Philotaphy. London, 1S76; F. Bowea, Modern
Philotaphy. From Dacarta to Schopenhauer and Hart.
mann. New York, IB77; E. Diihring. Der Werth da Le-
bent, 2d ed.. Bmslau, 1877; idem, KritiscAs Getchichte da
Philotaphie, Berlin. 3d ed., Leipsic, 1873; E, von Hart-
mann, Neukantianismut, Schopenhaucrianismus und
Heactianitmui in ihrer SteUuny iu den philotophitchen
Aufnaben der Qeyenaarl. Berlin, 1877; E, Hemnnnn.
Woher und uvhint Schopenhauer' t Anlirort auf die tetiten
Lebentfrayen, Bona, 1877; J. Bully. Pettimitm: a Hit-
lory and a Criticism. London, 1877; L. von Oolcher, Oer
moderns Pettimitmut, Leipsic, 1878; E. Caro. Le Pet-
rinitmo au xif. steels; Leopardi, Schopenhauer, Hart-
F. Mainllndcr, Die Phitotophie der
Brian
, 1879; L, Duen
taphyrique, ou let leant formaliont de la
- chote en toi " de Kant a Schopenhauer. Pnris. 1883; R.
Koeber. Die Philosophic Arthur Schopenhauer*. riafiiiflhasg,
1888; O. Cramer. A. Schopenhauert Lehrt van das BUhM
in ethiechen Betiehunoen, ib. 1S05; W. Caldwell, S,-I:.,),tr.-
hauer't System in its Philosophical Significance, Edinburgh
and New York. 1896; 8. S, Colvin. Schopenhauer's Doc-
trine of the Thing in Itself, Strasburg, 1SB7; R, Bftttger,
Dot Orundproblem der tchopenhauerJ echen Philotaphie,
Gredfswald, 1898; O. Dnnun. Schopenhauert Ethik, Anna-
berg. 1808; M. Joseph, Die psycholooische GrundaTierhau-
HD0 Schopenhauert. ih. 1898: W. Deutaehthdmler. Veber
Schopenhauer iu Kant, Vienna, 1899; P. J. Hobius, Veber
Schopenhauer. Leipsic, 1899: S, Rappaport, Spinoza und
Schopenhauer, Berlin, 1899; E. Clemens. Schopenhauer
und Spineta, Leipsic. 1900; R. Saitachick, Cenie und
Caarotirr, Shakespeare, Leering, Schopenhauer, Berlin,
1900; J. Volkelt, ArtAur Schopenhauer. Stjjlljtnrt. lOOli;
O. Djunm, ScnopenAauer^ Rechtt- und StaatsphilflBOphie.
Halle, 1901: T. B. Saunders. Schopenhauer, Loudon and
New York. 1901; R. Scbluter, Schopenhauert Philosophic
in seiner Brieftn, Ldpsic, 1901; E. Huhhard. Schopen-
hauer, London, 1905: D. Irvine, Defence of Pessimism,
ib. 1905; A. Kowalenski. Arthur Schopenhauer und seine
IFedansronuunp, Halle. 1908; T. Whittaker, Schopen-
hauer, ib. 1909; R. Baaardjian. Schopenhauer det Philo-
•op* det Optimitmus. Leipsic. 1909; G. F. Wagner. Ency-
klopadischtt Reaittcr tu Schopenhauert Werkcn, CasbralW
1909: J. MQhlethaler, Die Myntik bei Schopenhauer. Ber-
lin. 1910; G. Weng, Schopenhauer. Darwin. Pctsimitmut
oder Optimitmus. ib. 1910: tbe works on the history of
philosophy by E. Zeller, Munich. 1873; J. E. Erdmnnn,
London, 1898; W. Windelband. New York. 1893; and
Ueberwcg-Ueiuse, Berlin. IMG.
SCHORTISGHUIS, Sbflr"tingTiw!s, WILLEH:
Dutch Reformed poet and theologian; b. at Win-
schoten (21 m. e.s.e. of Groningen) Feb. 23, 1700;
d. at Midwolda (18 m. e. of Groningen) Nov. 20,
1750. He was educated at the University of
Groningen (1719-22). and early in 1723 became
second preacher at Wecner in East Frisia, where his
antipathy to Pietism was changed to admiration by
his senior, Henrieus Klugkist, Through tbe exer-
tions of the two, the pietistic movement spread
widely in the province among Lutherans and Re-
formed alike, promoting both the inward and the
outward prosperity of the church. In 17:11 S. iior-
ttnghuis was called to tbe pastorate of Midwcildu,
where he passed the remainder of his life, success-
fully promoting the cause of true piety. Though
far from being a poet, fcVliortinnhuis '"'c:in his liter-
ary career by his Geesldikt getangen (1733), which
was Boon followed by his Bcviniidike gerjingrn,
hymns of edifying and didactic purport which long
Schubert
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
ined popular in conventicles. His Nodige
' . 't herte van een Christen (Groningen,
1738) was designed primarily for those who were
about to make profession of their faith. Hia chief
work was the Het innige Christendom , . . voorge-
stelt in t' samenspraken tuschen een geoe/ende, be-
genadigde, kleingeloovige en onbegenadigde (1740).
In this work the author became the representative
of Pietism in the Dutch Reformed Church of the
eighteenth century, and gave a description of, and
counsel for, a life of practical holiness. It caused a
lively controversy because of its mystical trend,
and it.-) author secured the requisite approbation of
the theological faculty of Groningen only with dif-
ficulty. Within the year a. second edition appeared
with the approbation of the clussis to which Scbor-
tinglmin belonged, but hia opponents secured from
tli. Synod of Groningen the prohibition of a third
edition until the doubts of the [acuity should be
satisfied. The strife was even carried outside his
own synod. Despite all this, the Hit innige Chris-
tendom exercised a wide influence.
(S. D. van- Veen.)
Bibuohbapht; H. van Borltum, Schoriinehtat en de cijf
nietai, Utrecht, 1859; J. C. Kromnigt, WilMmut Schor-
tinffhuie, Groxutigen, 1904.
SCHOTT, shot, HEINRICH AUGUST: German
Lutheran; b. at Leipsic Dec. 5, 1780; d. at Jena
Dec. 29, 1835. He was educated at the university
of his native city (Ph.D., 1790); lectured there on
theology and philology (1801-05), being morning
university preacher after 1803; was associate pro-
fessor in the philological faculty (1805-08); and in
the theological faculty (1808-09); full professor and
pri'iicher at the castle church at Wittenberg (1809-
1812); and at Jena from 1812. While at Leipsic
Schott edited the Arn rhetorica of Dionysius of Hali-
camassus (Leipsic, 1804), and the Greek text of the
JVew Testament with a Latin translation (1805),
and wrote his Entvmrf einer Thetrrie der Beredsam-
keit mil besonderer Anwenduug auf Kaiizelberedsam-
Jeei"<(1807). At Wittenberg he composed his Epitome
Vieologiw Christiana: (1810). His chief work was
Thi orii tier Bercdsamkeil, mit besonderer Anwendung
oaf die christlichc Bercdsamkeit (3 parts, Leipsic,
1815-28). Special mention should be made of his
Jsagoge historico-crilica in libros Novi Fadcris sacros
(Jena, 1830) and his Latin commentary on Thes-
salonians anil (ialatnns (Leipsic, 1S34). His apol-
ogetic contributions, such as his Briefe uber Religion
(Jena, 1820), are of minor value. A number of
briefer contributions from his pen were collected
in his Opuscula (2 vols., 1817-18). (L. PELTf.)
BrnLiooitiiFRr: J. T. L. Dane, HeinrirA Avavtt Schott,
SCHOTT, THEODOR FRTEDRICH: German
Lutheran and historian; b. at Esslingen (17 m.
e.s.e. of Stuttgart) Dec. 18, 1835; d. at Stuttgart
Mar. 18, 1899. He was educated at the seminary
■of Blaubeuren and Tubingen (185:5-57), and after
being vicar for two years at Bopfingcn and KSngetl,
was a teacher at Hofwyl near Bern from 1859 to
1861; then he studied the history of the French
and Italian Reformation at Paris for three months,
and, after a short term as vicar, he became teacher
of religion at the Stuttgart gymnasium. He was
next pastor at Berg, a suburb of Stuttgart, for six
years (1867-73), and from 1873 until his death was
librarian of the public library in Stuttgart. He was
likewise a director of the Wilrttemberg branch of
the Gustav-Adolph-Verein and helped found the
Vcrein fur Reforms Uonsgeschichte, and was also
active in philanthropic work. After 1870 he was
editor of the Allgemeines Kirchenblatt far das evan-
jli'tivrhi Dtutscidund, and. besides many briefer con-
tributions, wrote Hugenottengerchichten {.Stuttgart.
1869); Die Aufhebung des Ediktes von Nantes (Halle,
1886); and Die Kirehe der Wtiste 1757-87 (1893).
(H. Hermeu.vk.)
SCHRADER, shrfl'dcr, EBERHARD: German
Protestant Orientalist; b. at Brunswick Jan. 5,
1836; d. at Berlin July 4, 1908. He was educated
at the University of Gottingen (Ph.D., 1860), and
1889 became privat-docent at the University of
Zurich, where he was appointed full professor of
theology in 1863. In 1870 he was called to Giessen
in a similar capacity, and thence to Jena in 1873.
From 1875 until his final retirement, brought about
by impaired health in 1809, he was professor of
Semitic languages in the philosophical faculty of the
University of Berlin. He was the pioneer of Assyri-
ology in Germany. Besides editing the eighth edition
of W. M. L. de Wettc's Lehrbiteh der historiseh-
kriJixrhi a Eh:!- itumj in ilk kmwnitichcn und apokry-
phischen Bucher des Allen Trstamrnts (Berlin, 1869)
and the KcUinschriftliehe Bibliothek (6 vols., 1889-
1901), he wrote De lingua .Ethiopica aim cognati*
Unguis o'lnimriitti' indnle (Gotiingcn, ISdO); Studien
sur Krilik Ural Erklarung der biblischen Urgeichichte
(StuitL'art, 1863); Die assyrisch-babylonUchcn KcU-
insehrifttii. krilkchr Unterguchiing der Grundlagen
Hirer Entzifferung (Leipsic, 1S72); Die Keilinsehrif-
tcn und das Alte Testament (Giessen, 1872; 3rd ed.,
entirely revised, by II. Zimmcrn and H. Winckler,
Berlin* 1902; Eng. trans, of the second edition, The
Cuneiform Inscriptions and the Old Testament, by O.
C. Whi rehouse, 2 vols., London, 1885-88); Die HoV
lenfahrtder Isttir (Giessen, 1S74); Keilinschriften und
Gct-riiirht'forschiing, tin Bcitrag zur monumenlalen
Omgrapfm, Geschichte und Chronologic der Asayrer
(1S78); Zur Kritik der Inschriften Tigtath-PiUscr's
II, des Asarhaddon und des Asurbampal (Berlin,
1880) ; Zur Frage nach dem Ursprunge der altbabylon-
isehrn Culbir (1884); and Die Keili'tschriften am
Eingnnge der Quellgrotte den Sebench-Su (1885).
BiHUOfii.APHT: C. Bnoltl. Eberhard Schroder. Eine Ltbent-
ikiict, BtiMburg. 1900; 8. Meyer. UcdBcJUnurede auf
Ebtrhard Schroder, Berlin. 1909; O. C. V.Tiitohouae, in
Etpoiitan, Timet. Dec., 1910. pp. 104-108.
SCHROECKH, shrflk. JOHANN MATTHIAS:
German Lutheran; b. at Vienna July 26, 1733;
d. at Wittenberg Aug. 1, 1808. After completing bis
education at <"ioltinc.cn. he spent a year at !.ei|'sie
in further study arid assistinc his uncle. Karl An-
dreas Bell, to edit the Acta truditomm and Leipziger
Odilirtrn ZHtungen. Still continuing his editorial
labors, he lectured at the university on parts of the
New Testament, as well as on literary history and
275
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Schott
Schubert
church history, and in 1761 was made associate
professor. In 1767 he accepted a call to Wittenberg
as professor of poetry, exchanging this chair in
1775 for that of history. Besides his Lebensbeschrei-
bungen berUhmler Gelehrter (Leipsic 1764-69), All-
gemeine Biographien (Berlin, 1767-91), and Christ-
liche Kircherigeschichte (see below), SchrOckh revised
four parts (on Italy, France, Holland, and Eng-
land) of a German transl. of W. Guthrie and J.
Gray's General History of the World (1770-76) and
the fourth edition of L. Offerhaus's Compendium
histories universalis (1778), and wrote his Lehrbuch
der aUgemeinen Weltgeschichte (1774), the fourth
part (from 1750 to 1760) of the Unparteiische
Kircherigeschichte Alten und Neuen Testaments (Jena,
1766), Historia religionis et ecclesice Christianas
adumbrata in usum lectionum (Berlin, 1777), and
AUgemeine Weltgeschichte fUr Kinder (4 vols.,
Leipsic, 1779-84). By far his most important work,
however, was his great Christliche KirchengeschicJUe
(45 vols., Leipsic, 1768-1812), the first thirty-five
volumes extending to the Reformation, and the
rest (of which the two final volumes were edited by
H. G. Tzschirner after Schrdckh's death) bearing
the special title of Kirchengeschichte seit der Refor-
mation. The work is still of distinct value.
The theological position of Schrdckh was one of
modified supranaturalism, and his method, with its
excellences and its defects, was essentially that of
the period in which he lived, the period of the
" Enlightenment " (q.v.). (J. A. Wagenmann"|\)
Bibliography: An autobiographic sketch is in J. R. G.
Beier's AUgemeine Magcuin fur Prediger, v. 2, pp. 209-
222, 12 vols., Leipsic, 1789-96. Consult further: K. H.
Pdliti, Leben J. M. Schrtekhe, Wittenberg, 1808; K. L.
Nitzsch, Ueber J. M. SchHickhs Studienweise und Maxi-
men, Weimar, 1809; H. G. Tsschirner, Ueber J. M.
SchrOckh* Leben, Charakter, und Schriften, Leipsic, 1812.
SCHROERS, shrttrs, JOHANN HEINRICH: Ger-
man Roman Catholic; b. at Krefeld (20 m. s.w. of
Essen) Nov. 26, 1852. He was educated at the
universities of Bonn, Wurzburg, Innsbruck, and
Munich (Ph.D., Wurzburg, 1880); was engaged in
parochial work in Munich (1880-85) ; became privat-
docent for canon law at the University of Freiburg
(1886), whence he was called in 1886 to his present
position of professor of church history in Bonn. He
has written Der Streit Hber die Predestination im
neunten Jahrhundert (Freiburg, 1880); Hinkmar,
Erzbischof von Reims, sein Leben und seine Schriften
(1884); and Kirche und Wissenschaft (Bonn, 1907).
SCHUBERT, shu'bert, GOTTHILF HEINRICH
VON: German Lutheran and naturalist; b. at
Hohenstein (40 m. s.s.e. of Leipsic), Saxony, Apr.
26, 1780; d. at Munich June 30, 1860. Though in-
tended by his father for the ministry, the rational-
ism at Leipsic, where he began his theological
studies, was so uncongenial to him that he devoted
himself to medicine at Jena. For a time he was a
physician at Altenburg, but -feeling impelled to
deeper study of the natural sciences, he went in
1805 to Freiburg, where he wrote the first part of
his Ahnungen einer aUgemeinen Geschichte des
Lebens (Leipsic, 1806). In 1806 he removed to
Dresden, and there completed the Ahnungen (1821),
which was followed, a few years later, by the Sym-
bolik des Traumes (Bamberg, 1814), and the An-
sichten von der Nachtseite der Natur (Dresden, 1808).
In 1809 he was made rector of the newly founded
Realschule at Nuremberg. Here, too, through the
influence of a master baker named Burger, Schu-
bert again turned his thoughts to religion. For a
time he was tutor to the children of the grand duke
of Mecklenburg, Frederick Louis, and was also in-
vited to become the director of a proposed normal
school. The latter project fell through, however,
because of the avowed intention of Schubert to give
all his teaching a religious trend. He was, ac-
cordingly, glad to accept a call to Erlangen as pro-
fessor of natural history, where he lectured not only
on mineralogy, botany, and zoology, but also on
forestry and mining. In 1820 he made a tour of
Switzerland, and shortly after his return wrote the
popular Lehrbuch der Naturgeschichte fUr Schulen
(Erlangen, 1822), followed by the Physiognomik der
Natur (1826). He then visited southern France and
Italy, the results being embodied in a work of two
volumes, and on his return accepted a call to the
University of Munich. Here, despite some oppo-
sition, his lectures became immensely popular, and
here he wrote his most important book, Geschichte
der Seele (2 vols., Stuttgart, 1830). In 1836 he
made a visit to Palestine, describing his experiences
in a work of three volumes. Retiring from active
life in 1853, Schubert devoted himself entirely to
writing, the result being his Die Krankheiten der
menschlichen Seele (Stuttgart, 1845); his autobio-
graphical Der Erwerb aus einem vergangenen und die
Erwartungen von einem zukunftigen Leben (3 vols.,
Erlangen, 1854-56); his Erinnerungen aus dem
Leben . . . Herzogin von Orleans (Munich, 1860;
Eng. transl., Reminiscences of the Life of ... the
Late Duchess of Orleans, Bath, 1862); and his
Geschichte von Bayern fUr Schulen (1864). Among
his very numerous other books, mention may be
made of the Altes und Neues aus dem Gebiete der
inneren Seelenkunde (Leipsic, 1817-44); Geschichte
der Natur (Erlangen, 1830) ; Z&ge aus Oberlins Leben
(4th ed., Nuremberg, 1832); and Vermischte
Schriften (2 vols., Erlangen, 1857-60.)
(Julius Hamberger1\)
Bibliography: Consult, besides the autobiographic Der
Erwerb, ut sup. : M. Zeller, Dr. OotthUf Heinrich von Schu-
bert's Jugendgeechichte, Stuttgart, 1880; idem, OotthUf
Heinrich von Schubert' • Tagewerk und Feierabend, ib. 1882.
SCHUBERT, HANS GE0R6 WILHELM VON:
German Protestant; b. at Dresden Dec. 12, 1859.
He was educated at the universities of Leipsic,
Bonn, Strasburg, and Zurich (1878-83; Ph.D.,
Strasburg, 1884); was private tutor in Elberfeld
(1883-84) ; studied theology at Tubingen and Halle
(1884-86); was a teacher in the Rauhes Haus,
Hamburg (1887-91); associate professor of church
history at Strasburg (1891-92); professor of the
same subject at the University of Kiel (1892-1906),
and since 1906 at the University of Heidelberg,
of which he was rector in 1910. Besides revising
the second edition of the first volume of W. Mailer's
Lehrbuch der Kirchengeschichte (3 parts, Tubingen,
1897-1902), he has written Die Unterwerfung der
Alamannen unter die Franken (Strasburg, 1884);
Rome Kampf urn die WcUherrschaft (Halle, 1888);
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
Die evangetuche Training, ihre gesckichlliehe Ent-
wicklu-ng und gegenwdrtige Bedeuiung (Berlin, 1890);
Die Komposition des pseudopelrinischen Evangdien-
Fragments (1893); Das Petrusevangelium, eynop-
Hache Tabelle, nebst Uebersetzung und kritisehem
Apparat (1893; Eng. transl., "The Gospel of St.
Peter," Edinburgh, 1893); Die Entstehung der
schleswig-halstein' sehen Landeskirche (Kiel, 1895);
Siebenburgen (Tubingen, 1900); Ansgar und die An-
fdnge der schleswig-holstcin'schen Kirchengeschichte
(Kiel, 1901); Die heutige. Auffassung und Bekand-
lung der Kirchengeschichte (Tubingen, 1902); Der
sogenannte Pradestinaius (Leipsic, 1903); Grundtuge
der Kirchengeschiclde (Tubingen, 1904, 3d ed., 1906;
Eng. transl., Outlines of Church History, London,
1907); Hamburg, die Miasiotismetropolc des Nordent
im MitlelaUer (1904); Ktirte Gesckichie der christ-
lichen Liebestdtigkeit (1905) ; Kirchengeschichte
SchLeswig-Holsteins, part 1 (1907); Bundniss und
Bekenntniss 16S9-1630 (1908); Betirdge ew Ge-
schichte der evangelischen Bckenntnia- und Bundnits-
©iMuno-(1909): Calvin. flede (1909); and Btkennt-
msbildttng umi liiligion*iici!i!ik (1910).
SCHUERER, shu'rer, EMIL: German Protes-
tant; b. at Augsburg May 2, 1844; d. at Cfjttingen
Apr. 30, 1910. He studied at the universities of
Erlangen. Berlin, and Heidelberg (1862-66); Ph.D.,
Leipsic, 1868). He was privat-docent for theology
at the University of Leipsic (1869-73); and as-
Eoeiate professor of the same subject (1873-78);
accepted a call to Giessen as full professor (1878);
and at Kiel (1890); and professor of New-Tea ta-
ment exegesis at Gottingen after 1895. In the-
ology he «as an adherent of the moderate historical
and critical school. He wrote: Schleiermachers
J{fligi<iiit:lii-iiriir umi dii- t'liili-iari/iliischen Auseetzungen
desselben (Leipsic, 1868); De conlroverdis pasehali-
bus secundo post Christum natum saculo exorlis
(1869); Lehrbuch der neulestamenUichen Zeit-
geschkhle (1874), which in the later editions, en-
titled (I'cvrliirhte dex jiidixrlitn Volkes im ZeiXalter
Jesu Christi (3 vols., 1886-90; 4th ed., 1909; Eng.
transl. by J. Macpherson, S. Taylor, and P. Christie,
A History of the JnrUh Profile in the Time of Jesus
Christ, 5 vols., Edinburgh, 1890-91), has become one
of the leading authorities on its subject; Die
(t'liitinil-'irijiitniiiii/ i/. r ,/iiilni in Rom in der Knisrr-
eeit nach den Inschriften dargesteUt (Leipsic, IS79);
Die Predigt Jesu Christi in ihrem VerhOUnis turn
Alien Testament und rum Judentum (Darmstadt,
1882); Die iillrxU-n ( ' hrislFtige.inrinden im rSmisehen
Reiehe (Kiel, 1894]; and Dun merninnivche Srlbtt-
bcurusstsein Jesu (Gottingcn, 1904).
SCHOERMAHH, shur'mOn, ANHA MARIA V0B:
Patroness of Jean de Labadie (q.v.); h. at (."olnjtne
Nov. 5, 1607; d. at Wienwert (37 m. w.b.w.
of Groningen) May 4, 1678. She early showed
extraordinary mental capacity, especially for lin-
guistics, and was celebrated for skill in music, draw-
ing, painting, carving, wax-modeling, and etching.
Her brother, Jan Gottschalk, who had become
acquainted with Labadie in Geneva, and believed
he was called to reform the Church, inspired her
with the same conviction. She joined Labadie
when he visited the Netherlands and became a
member of his household in Amsterdam, a step that
cost her all her old friends. She revoked all her
former writings, wrote defenses of Labadie and
his congregation, and supported him with her
wealth. The relations between her and Labadie
were of a mystical character; no word of accusation
was ever made against her. Her Euitleria (part 1,
Altona, 1673, part 2, Amsterdam, 1685) gives an
account of her life and ideals. Her Opuscuia ap-
peared Leyden, 1648. (P. Tbchackkbt.)
Bibliography: A report which will «*rve aa a source for
the life, probably bond upoo autobiographic communi-
eations. Lb found in G. Arnold, Kirrhen- umi Krtzerhu-
lorit, vol. iv.. addition, pp. 1339-50. Frankfort. 1T2W.
Consult: P. Tachacaert, ,inno Maria von Scniirmarm,
Gotha, 1876; M. Gfibol, Gachichlt da carufiiefcn Lrbmt
in dtr rheimKh-vmtphalitcluii evanoclitchtn Kirche, iL
180-209. Coblena. 1852; and the literature under L*-
SCHULTERS, sHUl'tens, ALBERT: Celebrated
Arabist and Hebrew scholar; b. at Groningen
Aug. 22, 1686; d. at Leyden Jan. 26, 1750. In
his fourteenth year he matriculated in theology at
the Univeraity of Groningen, where he studied
Aramaic, Syriac, and finally Arabic as necessary to
an understanding of the other Semitic languages.
In 1706 came his disputation De vtilitate lingua:
Arabica in interpretanda Sacra Scriptural (printed
in his Opera minora). He then went to complete his
studies at Leyden under Hadrian Reland, taking
his doctorate in theology in 1709, continuing for two
years the study of oriental manuscripts; [in 1711
he became pastor at Wassewer;] became professor
of Hebrew at Franeker, 1713, serving also as uni-
versity preacher in 1717; he went to Leyden as
rector of the Collegium theologicum, became ordi-
nary professor of oriental languages in the university
there in 1732, and in 1740 professor of Hebrew
antiquities. His reputation is due to the fact that
he was the first to apply in comprehensive style
Arabic to the elucidation of Hebrew; that he made
nii.-(:ikes is true, but this was to be expected of a
pathfinder. His most renowned pupil was Nikolaus
Wilhelm Schroder, author of the frequently re-
printed [nstitutiones ad fundatnenta lingua: He-
braica (Groningen, 1766). The principles advocated
by Schultens have been newly applied and ad-
vanced by Justus Olshausen (q.v.) and Heinrich
Leberecht Fleischer, while the grammars of Bern-
hard Stade, Wilhelm Gesenius, Eduard Kbnig, and
Hermann Lcbrecht Strack (qq. v.) are not unin-
fluenced by the work of Schultens.
His chief work was Origines Hebrane sive Heb-
ron lingua? antiquissima natura et indoles ex
Arabia: penetralibus revocata (2 vols., Franeker,
1724-38; 2d ed., Leyden, 1761). Other worka are
ftUtJAdfanN wi /miifllWMMfll lingua Hebrtea; (Ley-
den, 1737); LuVr Jobi mm nova versione ad Heb-
riEiim fontem et commentario perpetuo (2 vols.,
1737); Proverbia Salomonti (1748); Opero minora
(1769). He also edited the Rudimenta lingua Ara-
biea of Thomas Erpenius and added to it a Clam*
(1733). (H. L. cVthack.)
BlaiKWRAFBT; W. GeKnlua, OttcMchtt der fworaucAen
Somcnr und .Si-W. pp. 126-1211. Leipsic. 1815: F, Mah-
Inu, la ZriUf/lri/l for l-ulhrritchr Thralaait und Kirch*.
1870, pp. 1-21 ; LiabtenberEsr, HSR, xi. 529-530.
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
SCHULTHESS, shul'thess, JOHANHES: Swiss
Protestant theologian; b. at Zurich Sept. 28, 1763;
d. there Nov. 10, 1836. He studied theology at the
Carolinum in Zurich. His main interest in early life
was the development of the public school system.
His Kinderbibel des Allen Testaments (Zurich,
1813) and Schwcieerischer Kinderfreund (1812-13)
were long valued text-books. In 1706 he became
professor of Greek and Latin, in 1816 of theology,
with the title and position of canon of the cathedral.
He worked with great industry at the exegesis of the
New Testament and wrote Excgetisch-theologische
Forschuvgen (3 vols., 1818-24), anda commentary on
James (IS'24). In collaboration with J. K. von Orelli
!:!■ [iiiblii-Iicii l^ifionalismus und Supranaturalismus,
Kanon, Tradition -and Skription (1822); and
Revision des kirchlichen Lehrbegriffs (1826). For a
time he edited the periodical Annakn founded by
1\ ;u'lilir. Hi- erilii'iL] historical views appear most
clearly in his last work, Vorlesungen titer das his-
torische Christentum nach der wissenschaftHchen
Ansichl da 19. Jahrhunderts (1837).
Schulthess took part in the controversy that broke
out in the second decade of the nineteenth century
concerning the Lord's Supper, and wrote Evangel-
ischs Lehre von demfreien Gnadenmahl, tin Beitrag
iut Vereinigung der evangelischen Kirchcn (1818),
and Die evangelische Lehre vom heiligen Abetidmahl
(1824). He regarded himself as the representative
of the genuine Zwinglian doctrine and as such he
opposed ultramontanism and "all mysticism and
pietism." He wrote in 1815 Das Unchristliche und
Veniwtftwidrige, geUtig und riitlich Ungesunde
mehrerer BuchUin, die aeit einiger Zeit von der
Traktatgesellschaft in Basel und ihren Freundcn
fu imlirh aumjeslreut werdtm. He was preeminently
of a polemical nature, although in private inter-
course a genial companion and tolerant of the
opinions of others. In contrast with his theological
liberalism and progreasiveness was his political con-
servatism. After the establishment of the Zurich
university in 1833, he was appointed extraordinary
professor of New-Testament exegesis and catechetics.
^\im.>riK his great services to science and the Church
was his editing and publishing, together with his
friend Schulcr, the works of Zwingli (11 parts
with supplement, Zurich, 1828-61).
(P. CmiaTt.)
I (his son), Dtnktchrifl tut
W SHI lung dn H-hullAeiKhrn
ramuunflrnds, aunen. 1H5H; A. Schwainr, Bu/graphucht
Aufieichnungen. od. P. 3chiret»r, ib. 1889.
SCHTJLTZ, shfllts, FRIEDRICH WILHELM:
Protestant theologian; b. at Friesack (33 m. n,w.
of Potsdam), Mark Brandenburg, Sept. 24, 1828;
d. at Breslau, 1888. He studied at Berlin, 1847-51;
became privaUdocent there. 1853; professor ex-
traordinary, 1856; and ordinary professor, 1864, at
Breslau. He wrote Das Deuleronomium erktArt (Ber-
lin. 1859); Die Sehopfungsgeschichte nach Natur-
wissenscha/t und flite* (Gotha, 1865); the comments
on Ezra. Nehemiah. and Esther, in J. P. Lange's
Commentary (Bielefeld, 1876); and with W. Strack
prepared the commentary on Psalms and Proverbs
(Munich, 1888) in Kurtgefasstes "
Baa
SCHTJLTZ, HEHMAHH: German Lutheran; b.
at Ltlchow (37 m. s.e. of Luneburg) Dec. 30, 1836;
d. at Gottingen May 15, 1903. He was educated
at the universities of Gottingen and Erlangen (1853-
1856), and, after being a private tutor at Hamburg
for two years, returned to Gottingen as a lecturer
in theology, becoming privat-docent in 1861. In
1864 he was called to Basel as full professor, and
in 1872 accepted a similar position at the reorganized
University of Strasburg. In 1874-76 he was pro-
fessor of theology at Heidelberg, but in the latter
year was recalled to Gottingen, where he passed the
remainder of his life. He was netted a SMMlitOria]
counselor in 1881 and abbot of Bursfelde in 1890,
and was also first university preacher and director
of the seminary for practical theology, although his
lectures were on the Did Testament and all depart-
ments of systematic theology.
In 1863 Schulta published ot Frankfort the sec-
ond edition of H. A. C. Havernick's Vorlesungen uber
die Theologie des Alien Testaments, but his most im-
portant contribution to this theme was his Allles-
tamentliche Theologie (2 vols., Frankfort, 1869;
5th ed., 1896; Eng. trans), from the 4th ed. by J. A.
Paterson, Edinburgh, 1892), in the successive edi-
tions of which he passed from the position of Ewald
to that of Graf. Problems of Biblical theology
often led him to discuss questions in systematic
theology, as is Bhown by his VorausseUungen der
christlichen Lehre von der UnsterblichkeU (Gottin-
gen, 1861). The majority of the dogmatic studies
of Schulti were connected with Christology and the
cognate theme of the theory of the atonement,
these investigations reaching their culmination in
the Lehre von der Gottheil ChrisH (Gotha, 1881), the
conclusions of which were in substantial accord with
the Communicatio idiomaium (q.v.), while the whole
work, though independent of Ritschl, was distinctly
Ritschlian in spirit. Of the other dogmatic con-
tributions of Schulti the most important was hie
Studien und Kritiken lur Lehre vom heiligen Abend-
mahl (Gotha, 1886), which was practically a defense
of the old Lutheran position. The versatility and
receptivity of his theology find an admirable ex-
emplification in his Grundrist der christlichen
Apologelik (GGttingen. 1894; Eng. trans!.. London,
1905), which followed his Grundriss der evangelischen
Dogmatik (Gottingen, 1890) and Grundriss der
erangdischen Ethik (1891). In these three works he
sought to reach others than those who attended his
lectures, and the same spirit of practical Christianity
was manifested in his Zu den kirchlichen Fragen der
Qegenwart (Frankfort. 1869), as well as in his
volumes of sermons, Prediglen, gehalUn in derUni-
verxitatskirehe. eu GdtHngen (Gotha, 1882) and Aus
dtm UniveraiiatsgoUcsdienst (2 vols., Gottingen,
1902-03). He did not, however, establish a distinct
school, although he never lacked pupils who
gratefully acknowledged the debt which they owed
him. (Ebebhard Vischeb.)
BlBUoaRAPHT. Thr Eipotitorg Tim;, July, 1903: Beans
dtt Glaubtnt, Sept.-Oct., 1904.
SCHULTZE, sholt'se, AUGUSTUS: Moravian;
b. at Nowawes (a suburb of Potsdam), Prussia,
Feb. 3, 1840. He was graduated from the Moravian
THE NEW SCHAFF-HER20G
college at N leaky (1858), and at the theological
■eminary at Gnadenfcld, Silesia (1361). He was
then a teacher in the French Academy at Lausanne,
Switzerland (1861-62), and classical instructor in
the college at Niesky (1862-70). In 1870 he left
Germany for the United States, and has since been
BOOIteeted with the Moravian College and Theo-
logical S'luinary at Bethlehem, Pa., first as pro-
fessor of exegesis and dogmatics until 1835, and
then as president. From 1881 to 1893 he was one
of the three members of the governing board of his
denomination in America. Besides editing Der
Bruder Botscheifter for several years, he has written
History of the Widows Society of Bethlehem (Beth-
lehem, Pa., 1880); Aarlig Dagbog (1888); Die Mis-
tion^ftider der emeuerten BrUderkirche (1800);
Grammar mid Vocabulary of the Eskimo Language
of Northwestern Alaska (1804); The Theology of
Peter and Paul (1896); Guide to Die Old Moravian
Cemetery at Bethlehem (1898); The Books of the
Bible Analyzed (1002); and Christian Doctrine and
Systematic Theology (1909).
SCHULTZ, MAXIMILIAN VIKTOR: German
Lutheran; b. at Furstenberg (a village near Cor-
bneh, 28 m. s.w. of Cassat), Waldeck, Dec. 13,
1851. He was educated at the universities of Basel,
Jcnn, Strasburg. and Cottingen, and, after several
years of study in Italy, became privat-docent at the
University of Leipsic in 1879. In 1884 he was
called to Greii'swald us associate professor of church
history and church archeology, where he has been
professor of the same subject since 18S8. He has
written or edited Die Keitnkombiii ion .San Gen-
naro dei Poveri in Neapel (Jena, 1877); Archdo-
taijixche. Slwlirii fiber altcliristliehe Mimiimente
(Vienna, 1880); Die Katakomben, ihrc Gesehiehte und
■ill.: Mtmitmente (Leipsic, 1882); Das eva»'i>-li.-.rl\i:
Kirehf-ii-icbrnuie, (in Rnlgeber fur Geistliche und
Freunde kirchUcher Kunst (1886); Gesehiehte rfes
Untrrrjniitis der: griechi.^Hi-ramischen Hi-ulcntums (2
vols., Jena, 1887-92); Das Kloster San Marco
in Flarenz (Leipsic, 18^S); Die altrhristtichen Bild-
werke und die wissrnsehajtliche. Forschung (1889);
Arrli.iiilii-iie ili r iiUehriMiirln n Kun.~t [Munich, 1895);
Wiililt-rki.wlir l(rfitrmiiti.m*ijrtcliirltli. (Leipsic, 1903);
Codex Wablereensis, unbekannte. Fragmente einer
grieehisch-lateinischen Bibelhandschrift (Munich,
1904); Geechichts- und Kiiit.'lrienkmtilrr der kOnig-
lichen U idvcrsiUit. Greifn.ir.nld (lQIHi); Die altehriat-
lichen Grabstdtten Skiliens (1907); Philipp Nicolai
(1908); and Waldeckische Landcskunde (1909).
SCHULZ, sliultg, ALPH0NS: German Roman
Catholic; b. at Karehau (a village near N'iniptsch,
29 tn. s.w. of Breslau) Apr. 27, 1871. He studied
at the lyceum of Braunsberg and the University of
Munster (1891-97; D.D., Munster. 1S97), and in
Jerusalem (1897-98). He was privat-docent for
Old -Testament exegesis at tile Lyceum of Brauns-
bcrg (1900-04); professor in the gymnasium of
the same city (1901-04); and since 1904 has been
associate professor of Old-Testament exegesis in the
Lyceum. He has written De Psalmis gradualibus
(Munster, 1897); Quetten «ur Geschichte da Eliat
(Braunsberg, 1906); Gmliches und Mcnschliche*
im Alten Testament (1906); and DopptibcrichU im
Pentateuch (Freiburg, 1908).
SCHULZ, DAVID: German Lutheran; b. at
PUrben, near Freystadt (75 m. n.w, of Breslau),
Nov. 29, 1779; d. at Breslau Feb. 17, 1854. He was
educated at the University of Halle (Ph.D., 1806),
where he became privatnjocent in 1806. On the
closing of the university, he took a like position at
Leipsic, but when Halle was reopened in 1808,
Schulz returned to his alma mater. In 1809 he
was appointed associate professor of theology and
philosophy, but in the same year accepted a call to
Frankfort as full professor of theology. With the
incorporation of the University of Frankfort with
that of Breslau in 1811, Schulz went to Breslau,
retaining his professorship until blindness forced
him to retire from active life. Theologically he was
a rationalist. His exegetieal and critical writings
are antiquated, though his polemic works still
possess a certain historical interest. His principal
works, which arc prolix and repetitive, are: Der
Brief an die Hebrder (Breslau, 1818); Die christ-
lu-hr Ijhrc win heiligen Abendmahl (Leipsic, 1824);
Wat heisst Glauben und jeer sind die Ufigluulii'/in'
(1830); and Die Geu~-te*yeben der ersten Christen
(Breslau, 1836). He edited the third edition of the
first volume (containing the Gospels) of J. J,
Griesbach'a Novum Tcstamentum Greece (Berlin,
1827). (J. J. HERZOGf.)
SCHTJLZE, shoTtse, LUDW1G THEODOR :
German Lutheran; b. at Berlin Feb. 27, 1833.
He was educated at the university of his native
city (lie. theol., 1856; Ph.D., 1858), where be be-
came privat-docent for New-Testament exegesis
and Biblical theology in 1859. Four years later he
was called to K i in ic-.be ri; as associate professor of
theology, and was also chaplain of the house for
deaconesses and a member of the committee on
theological examinations. From 1866 to 1874 ho
was in-nector of the Kloster unserer lipben Frauen
nt Magdeburg and head of the seminary for the
training of teacher* of religion at the gymnasium.
Since 1874 he has been professor of dogmatic
theology and ethics at Rostock; he was rector
ma.cuilieus of the University of Rostock in 1894 and
has repeatedly been dean of the theological faculty,
in theology his position is essentially conservative.
He has written De fontibus ex quibus historia Hyc,
sorum haurienda sit (Berlin, 1858); Ueber die
Wunder Jesu Christi, mil besonderem Rezug auf
Kenan (Konicsberg, 186-1); Martha und Maria, zwei
Lebensbildcr --.ach der heiligen Schrift (Gotha. [80S) .
Passions- und Osterfeier (sermons; 1866); Vom
Matschenufhn und vom Logos (1867); Frirde im
Herrn (sermons: 1871); I'hili/i/i IVurkernogel, ein
Le.bensbild{\#\ps\e, 1879); Friedrieh Adolf Philippi,
ein LebensbUd (Gutersloh, 18S3); Luther und die
crii:.'ii-ti:>.rhe. Kirche (Ro9tock, 1883); August Ne,-
ander, ein Lcbcnsbild (Leipsic, 1890); Die Theo-
logic der Offenbarung, ihr Wescn und ihre Aufgabe in
der (kgenitart (Rr,=tock, 1894); Die Irrtumslosigkeit
Jesu (Giltersloh, 1908); and Unssn Quelien fur
das Leben Jesu Christi (1909). He prepared the
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
third edition of K. F. A. Wuttke's Handbueh der
chrisilichen Sitterdekre (2 vols., Leipgic, 1874-75) and
contributed the sections on the introduction to the
New Testament, the New-Testament revelation of
salvation, the history of the New-Testament
period, and the life of Jesus and the apostolic
Church to O. Zockler's Handbueh der theologischen
Wissenschaften (3 vols., Nordlingen, 1833-84).
SCHDLZB, MARTUt: German Protestant; b.
at See, Upper Lausanne, Switzerland, Jan. 26, 1866.
He studied at the University of Halle (1889-93) and
after being director of the Tholuck hall for theo-
logical students in the same city for a few months,
became privat-docent for New-Testament exegesis
and dogmatics at Breslau within the year, and was
appointed associate professor in the same institution
(1899), but since 1904 has been professor of system-
atic theology at the University of Konigsberg. He
has written Zur Frage nach der Bedeutung der he&i-
gen Sehri/t (Halle, 1894); Die Religion. Jesu und der
Glaube an Christus (1897) ; Das Wesen da Christen-
turn* (1897); Calvins Jenseits-Chri&tentum in seinem
Vfrhdltnis zu den religiOsen Schriften des Erasmus
(Gorlits, 1902) ; Wert und Unwert der Beweitt fur
das Dasein Gotiai (1905); and Der persOnliehe
Character des prolestaniiiehen Chritlentumt (Halle,
1909).
SCHUPP, shop (SCHDPPIDS), J0HAH1I BAL-
THASAR: German preacher and satirist; b. at
Giessen Mar., 1610; d. at Hamburg Oct. 26, 1661.
He studied philosophy at Marburg, but becoming
convinced of the uselessness of the current meta-
physical subtleties, he turned to theology. After
completing his triennium he undertook a pedestrian
tour in accordance with the custom of the times, and
finally stopped at RoBtock where he took his mas-
ter's degree in 1631, and began to give lectures. In
1634 he accompanied a young nobleman, Rudolf
Rauw of Holtshausen, on a journey to Holland,
and on his return was made professor of history
and oratory at Marburg. His vivacious manner and
geniality made him extremely popular with the
students. Meanwhile he devoted a great part of his
time to the study of theology. In 1643 he was
chosen preacher at the Eliiabethkirche, a position
he filled while performing the duties of his pro-
fessorship, and in 1646 became court preacher
and counselor of the consistory for Landgrave
Johannes von Hesse- Bran bach. The prince was
so well pleased with Schupp that he sent him in
1647 as his ambassador to the peace convention at
Monster and Osnabruck. He was about this time
elected pastor of the Jacobikirche, at Hamburg,
where he was extraordinarily successful, though
his popularity aroused the jealousy of his brother
clergymen.
Before this time Schupp had written only in Latin,
excepting some small volumes of hymns. He now
began to write in German, issuing in 1656 the
famous sermon Gedenk damn, Hamburg — ths only
one of his sermons he published entire. He pub-
lished a number of pieces in 1657 under assumed
names (Antenor, Mellilambius). To one of his Latin
writings, published at Copenhagen, he appended the
so-called Psalm cli,, and the supposed letter of Paul
to the Laodioeana. At this, the wrath of his col-
leagues broke out His offense consisted in lashing
the sins of the time with wit and satire, but the
special charge against him was that he published
apocrypha] writings. He was summoned before a
commission appointed by the ministry and re-
quested not to issue theological writings under as-
sumed names, not to publish apocrypha, to sub-
mit to a censorship, and not to introduce fables,
jokes, and humorous anecdotes, alongside the say-
ings and accounts of the Bible. He is said to have
agreed to the first two conditions, and promised to
keep within bounds on the other matters. But
Salome ader Regentenspiegel and Freund in der
Noth were already in press, and their appearance
caused another commotion with an appeal to the
theological faculties of Wittenberg and Strasburg
for advice on two hypothetical questions that do-
scribed Schupp's offense. The clergy were advised
to appeal to the state authorities, and the latter
enjoined quiet upon both parties to the contro-
versy (March, 1658). Schupp was now plunged in
a complicated literary feud which continued until
his early death at the age of fifty-two.
Schupp was an honest, pious man and a faithful
Christian. His writings, especially the little Ger-
man tracts, went through many editions, had a
decided influence upon the people, and present an
interesting picture of the manners of his time.
His sermons were criticised for lack of dignity, but
they were earnest, attractive, and wholesome in
their influence. (Carl Bebtheau.)
Bibuookajpst: P. Lambecius, Prooratnna in Sdntppii
abitiBn, Hamburg, 1881; J. Mailer. Cimbria littrata. ii-
790-804, Copenhagen, 1744: C. Zicfia. Bammlvna m
Urkunden . . . no- Kumhurgitchen KinJumearhvhu. ii.
249-338, Hamburg. 1784; A. Vial, SoAonn BaUhaHxr
Schuppiut. tin Vorlsufcr Spentrt, Malm, 1857; K. E.
Bloch. in ths JahrubtritM Mbtr did koniglicht Rralte\ult
... n Berlin, Berlin. 1803; E. Ool«, Battliasar Scnuppe,
Hamburi. 1803; G. Dsur, Jonann BaUnatar Schupp alt
Preiiaer, Leipric. 1888: T. Binchoff. Johmn BatOmar
Schupp, Nuremberg, 1890: Paul StOtaner. Beilrage nr
Wurdigung von JoKann BaUhatar Schuppi Ichrreichtn
Schriflm, I-eipsic. 1801; J. Lutamnnn, Jahann BaUhatar
Schupp, Marburg, 1907: ADB, niiii. 07-77.
SCHWABACH, HhWi'bnn, ARTICLES: A Protes-
tant confession drawn up in 1528. They derive
their name from being brought into connection with
a meeting in that year in Schwabach regarding
the Brandenburg visitation. They go back to the
attempts at alliance resumed by the Evangelical
Estates immediately after the protest at the Diet
of Speyer (see Speyeb, Diet op) in the spring of
1529. The preliminary agreement on Apr. 22, 1528,
was between Saxony, Hesse, Nuremberg, Stras-
burg, and Ulm, and looked to the consideration of
the Eucharistic problem in a meeting to take place
at Rotach, in the Franconian mountains. The meet-
ing was postponed till Aug. 24 and again till Oct.
16 as a result of a conference of the elector, Mar-
grave George of Brandenburg, and Philip of Hesae
at Saalfeld. The margrave desired a uniform creed,
liturgy, and regulation of ecclesiastical affairs in the
territories of the allies, and in this Elector John was
in accord with him. Accordingly Luther, while at
Marburg (apparently on Oct. 4), received a letter
from the elector, dated Sept. 28, asking him, Me-
Sohwel
webil
THE NEW 8CHAFF-HERZOG
lanchthon, and Jonaa to confer with the elector,
but on Oct. 7 Luther was directed to prepare the
articles at once, and by Oct. 10 they were in the
elector's hands.
The Articles are seventeen in number and, while
closely following the Marburg Articles, lay special
stress on the points wherein uniformity was neces-
sary in order to secure political union. They like-
wist' lay sharp stress on Luther's distinctive Eucha-
ristit- di n't lines, and expressly assail the teai:liii:p; of
Zwingli. On Oct. 16, 1529, at the concluding of the
alliance, they were laid before the conference held
at Schwabach, and there rejected by the Upper
Germans. Besides being employed in drawing up
t!u- Augsburg Confession, the Schwabach Articles
were used by the elector in May, 1530, to prove his
orthodoxy to the emperor, a wretched Latin Iran...
lation being sent to Innsbruck. The original draft
of the articles is lost, and they first appeared in
print at Coburg about 1530 under the misleading
title of Die bekeiintnus Martini Lttthtrs auff den
jlzigen angealelten Reichstag zu Augspurle evwaUgen,
In siebentzthen Artikel verfassel. Shortly afterward
Luther himself published the Articles with a preface
of his own. (T. Kolde.)
BlBLIorcB«.PHT; II, E. Jacobs, The Book o/ Concord, i. 303-
35*. ii. 27-28, Philadelphia. 1893; J. J. tffjkf, !!Ui„ri.-
Km der evanaejitchen Slonde, Jena, 1705; T. Kolde, Der
Too van Schleit. in Beitraoe >ur Reformatioruoetchichle
J. Ktttlin oewidmet, pp. 84 aqq,, Gotha, 1890; Bchaff,
Creed: i. 228-220,
SCHWALLY, shvfll'li, FRIEDRICH: Orientalist;
b. at Butibach (11 m. s. of Giessen) Aug. 10, 1863.
He received his education at the gymnasium at
Darmstadt and at the universities of Giessen and
Btoubnig; he was called as privat-doeent to Stras-
burg to teach Semilic languages, becoming extraor-
dinary professor there in 1898, and going to Gies-
acn in the same capacity in 1001, being promoted
to ordinary professor in 1906. He has issued Das
Lih'n hiich derm Tode. Nach den V arsteUungen dcr
altm Israel isnd des Judcnlums einschliesslich. dee
Volksglaubens im Zcilalkr Chrisli (Ciessen, 1892);
Irlit/ticon der christlich-palOstinischen Aramdisch
(1S9.1); Kultur des alien Orients (1896); Ibraham ibn
.1/ iiliiiiiimi i! r 1-liriilhifj) Kii-'ih 1 1 .l/'i/i'ifiVr >-al MasAiri
(3 parts, Leipsic, 1899-1902); assisted in putting
forth a critical edition of the Hebrew text of the
Book of Kings (1904); and edited the second edition
of T. Noldeke's Geschiclue dee Qorarts (1909).
SCHWASE, shvd'ne, JOSEPH: German Roman
Catholio; b. at Dorsten {35 m. s.w. of Munster),
"Westphalia, Apr. 2, 1824; d. at Munster June 6,
1892. He studied at Miinster, 1843-18; at Bonn
and Tubingen, 1848-50; became privat-doccnt
in the theological faculty at Munster, 1853; pro-
fessor extraordinary there, 1859; and ordinary
professor, 1867. He waa author of Das gdtUiclie
Vorherwissen (Miinster, 1855); De controversia inter
Sanctum Stephanum el Sanctum Cyprianum (1859):
Dutjmengesrhichte (1862-90); De operibus super-
trogatoriis (1868); Specielle MoralthedlogU (1871-
1878) ; AUgemeine MoraltkeohgU (1885).
SCHWARTZ, shvBrts, CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH:
German Protestant missionary; b. at Sonnenburg
(19 m. n.e. of Frankfort-on-tbe-Oder), Prussia,
Oct. 26, 1726; d. at Tanjore (170 m. s.a.w. of Ma-
dras), India, Feb. 13, 1798. He studied theology at
Halle; and having made himself master of the Tamil
language, was sent as missionary to Tranquebar in
1750 by the Danish Missionary Society in Copenha-
gen. Having entered the service of the Society for
Promoting Christian Knowledge in London, in 1767,
his station was in 1779 removed to Tanjore, where
he remained to his death. He founded many con-
gregations among the natives, exercised a most
beneficial influence during the war of Hyder Ah,
and contributed much to make the name and
character of Europe respected and trusted in India.
Biiuooutbt: Rtmaiiu of . . . C. F. SchirarU. Mutton-
ary in India, confuting of hi* Letter* and Journal*; with
a Sketch of Kit Life, 2d ed.. London. 1828: H. M. Pearson.
Memoir, of . . . C. F. SchwarU. new ed., 2 rola., 1855;
J. D. Jaeoicae. Memein of . . . Jaenieke . . . vith . . .
Letter, and Notice, of SchirarU, ib. 1833; W. Germann,
Atutionttr C. F. Sehwaru.tein Lehrn unit Wirken, ErlanE-
SD. 1870; W. P. Walab. Heme of the Mutton Field,
London, 1879: A. C. Thompson. Protectant Mutton,,
their Rite and Early Proorat, Sen York. IBM; Helen H,
Holootnb, Men of Might in Indian Mutton,, ib. 1901;
■C. C. Cree«an, Pioneer Mittionarict of the Church, ib. 1903;
H. C. Vedder, Chrutian Epoch Maker,, Philadelphia, 1908.
SCHWARZ, shvarts, FRIEDRICH HEIHRICH
CHRISTIAN: German Lutheran; b. at Gieesen
May 3D, 1766; d. at Heidelberg Apr. 3, 1837. After
completing his education at the university of his
native city, he assisted his father as pastor at
Alsfeld, and was then pastor of Dexbach (1790-
1796}, Echzell (1796-98) and Munster, near Buti-
bach (1798-1804), where he developed con-
spicuous ability as a teacher, in addition to his
clerical duties. From 1804 until hia death he
was professor of theology at Heidelberg, his spe-
cial fields being pedagogics and systematic the-
ology. Hin theological point of view was one of
Biblical and practical supernatural ism, combined
with a unionislic tendency. Besides issuing works
on pedagogy, in which field he is perhaps better
known than as a theologian, he edited for several
years the Theologitche Annalen (1824 sqq.), Die
Kirche (1816-17), and also the pedagogical Frei-
mUtigc Jahrb-ucher. His independent theological
writings were Sciagraphia dogmtUices Christiana in
usum pTalcctinnum (Heidelberg, 180S; revised under
the title of Grundriss dt r kirchlirliai protcstantischen
Dogmatic, 1816); Das Christentum in seiner Wahr-
heil und GotiUchktit brlnu-httt, oder die Lehre de*
Evangdutms aus Vrkundcn dargrskllt (1808); and
llandbuch dor euangelisch-chrUtlirhcn Ethik fur
Thculoiidt unit iji-biitkte Christen (1821; revised in
1830 as Die Siltentehre des euangelischen ChriUen-
tums als Wissenschaft).
Schwars was a zealous advocate of the union of
the Lutheran and Reformed Churches in Baden,
and after the union toiled with his colleague Daub
to this end, also in preventing loose latitudinarian-
ism and in giving proper validity to the creeds of
both denominations. (C. B. HundeshagenI".)
SCHWARZ, J0HANN EARL EDUARD: Ger-
man Lutheran; b. at Halle June 20, 1802; d. at
Jena May 18, 1870. He was educated at the uni-
versity of hiB native city (1822-24), and after being
281
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Schwall
8ohwe
II*
a teacher at Magdeburg for a year, was appointed,
in 1826, pastor in the neighboring town of Altenwed-
dingen. In 1829 he was called to Jena as chief pastor
and superintendent, being at the same time honor-
ary professor at the university. In 1844 he was
appointed full professor, lecturing on homiletics, cat-
echetics, and ethics, besides directing the homiletic
and catechetic seminars, but in 1865 was compelled
by illness to retire from active life. He was for many
years theological editor of the Jenaer aUgemeine
Litter aturzeitung, was one of the founders of the
Protestantische Kirchemeitung, and in 1859 edited
the Weimar8che8 Kirchenblatt. Besides writing a
volume of sermons (Jena, 1837) and an unfinished
biography of Nikolaus Amsdorf , he had charge of an
Evangelisches Kirchenbuch (2 vols., Jena, 1860-63),
of which he wrote vol. ii. (C. PETEBf.)
SCHWARZ, KARL HEINRICH WILHELM:
German theologian and historian; b. at Wiek (21
m. n. of Stralsund), on the island of Rugen, Nov.
19, 1812; d. at Gotha Mar. 25, 1885. He attended
the gymnasium at Greifswald, 1826-30; studied
theology and philology under Gesenius and Tholuck
at Halle; in 1831 went to Bonn; studied in Berlin,
1832-34; whence he returned to Greifswald. While
under sentence of imprisonment at Wittenberg in
1837 for breach of academical regulations, he was
allowed to attend the preachers' seminary conducted
by Heubner and Rothe. In 1841 at Greifswald he
became licentiate in theology and in 1842 licentiate
at Halle, where he collaborated on the HattUche
Jahrb&cher. At Leipsic and Cothen he attended the
meetings of the "Protestant Friends" but their
rationalism repelled him. The minister of public
worship decreed his suspension and he was rehabili-
tated at Halle only in 1848. In his Wesen der
Religion (Halle, 1847) he deals in the first part with
the conception of religion as the realization of God
and in the second part with the history of religion
and the philosophic systems of Kant, Jacobi, Schlei-
ermacher, Hegel, and Feuerbach. In 1849 he be-
came extraordinary professor and in 1854 published
Leasing als Theolog. His most important work is
Zur Ge&chichte der neuesten Tfieologie (Leipsic, 1856),
wherein he treats of the antithesis between rational-
ism and supernaturalism, which was overcome by
Schleiermacher and Hegel. In contrast with them
stands modern orthodoxy, typified by Hengstenberg,
while Strauss's Leben Jesu characterizes the histori-
cal critical process. The third part describes the
philosophic-dogmatic process, first the redemption
theology of Strauss and Feuerbach, then the reaction
against it and Schleiermacher's school, finally the
transition to the free theology of the future for
which he stood. In 1856 Duke Ernst II. of Coburg-
Gotha called him to Gotha as court preacher. In
1858 he became head court preacher and member
of the ministerial department for public instruction
and worship, and in 1877 general superintendent of
the state church of Gotha. In 1866 he published
for the public schools of the duchy of Gotha a very
popular Leitfaden fUr den Religionsunterrichi. He
was also active in matters affecting the organisation
of the church and in those which concerned Church
and State. (G. Rudloff.)
SCHWEBEL, shve'bel, JOHANN, AND THE
REFORMATION IN PFALZ-ZWEIBRUECKBN:
Johann Schwebel, or, as he styled himself,
Schweblin, was born at Pforzheim (50 m. w.n.w.
of Carlsruhe) in 1490; d. at Zweibrucken May 19,
1540. Thoroughly prepared in the excellent Latin
school of his native town, he entered the Univer-
sity of Tubingen in 1508, that of Leip-
Education sic in 1509, and that of Heidelberg in
and Early 1511, taking his degree in canon law
Labors, in 1 513. Still earlier he had entered the
Hospitallers' order of the Holy Ghost.
Consecrated as priest at Strasburg on Apr. 15, 1514,
he lived in his cloister at Pforzheim, where he con-
tracted intimate relations with Melanchthon. From
1519 Schwebel preached in the hospital of his order
in Evangelical fashion, and although he observed
moderation, he roused the hostility of the "old
believers" to such a degree that he deemed it advi-
sable, in 1521, to leave the order and seek protection
in Sickingen's castles, where, in communion with
Sickingen, Hutten, Butzer, and others, he grew still
more decided. Like GScolampadius, Schwebel now
read the mass in German, though he held no official
post with Sickingen. He married in 1521, and in
the autumn of 1522 returned to Pforzheim, where
he again occupied his position in the hospital, at
first unmolested. In a tract that appeared at
Pforzheim Dec. 1, 1522, Ermahnung zu dem Ques-
tionieren, abzusteUen tLberflOssige Kosten, Schwebel
opposed the "farming" of the credulous common
people in connection with collecting donations for
hospitals and the poor. He is also perhaps the
author of another work that soon appeared at the
same place, Liber vagaiorum, describing the artifices
employed by the vagabonds of that age for swindling
the people.
In the spring of 1523, Schwebel had to leave
Pforzheim again. An invitation from Duke Ludwig
II. of Pfalz-Zweibrucken then led him to Zwei-
brucken; where no later than April of
Beginning 1523 he appears as preacher and forth-
of Work in with developed a fruitful activity, to
Zwei- which Ludwig interposed no obstacle,
brttcken. In a series of sermons, Schwebel ex-
pounded Matthew, Romans, Galatians,
and Corinthians. When in 1527 he preached on the
Old Testament, he studied Hebrew so eagerly that
his adversaries in ridicule styled him Judaicus.
When Duke Ludwig published the Nuremberg edict
of Mar. 6, 1523, and in 1526 put a new edge on the
same, prohibiting preaching of the Gospel except
as approved by the Church, Schwebel did not change
his manner of preaching, and before long his in-
fluence began to spread over neighboring places.
Early in 1524 Schwebel victoriously defended his
doctrine against the arch-priest Nicholas Kalten-
heuser of Bitsch, who denied his authorization to
preach. Schwebel's first wife having died early, he
married again, and justified the step in a special
tract. In a sermon on I Cor. iii., delivered at the
beginning of 1525, he expressed himself openly
against purgatory. About this time Schwebel sent
a brief presentation of his doctrine to a citizen of
Metz, which was translated into French and printed
at Strasburg. Another small tract of his, HaupUtUck
Schwabs!
Sohwoiser
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
£88
und Summa des ganten Evangeliums, dates from
1525. In 1526, when, previously to the Diet of
Speyer, the bishops took measures against the
Evangelical preachers, the bishop of Metz desired to
call Schwebel to account. And although Jacob
Schorr, an influential counselor of Duke Ludwig's,
in a repeatedly printed Radschlag aber den Luther-
ischen handel auf Speyerischen Reychstag, had as
early as 1524 made spirited defense of the "invin-
cibly authenticated" doctrine of Luther, Ludwig
still entertained serious scruples, and Schwebel, for
a time, discontinued the communion under both
species. Through Ludwig's marriage with the
Evangelical Elizabeth of Hesse (Sept., 1526), the
friends of reform obtained powerful support, yet
Ludwig did not side openly with the Evangelical
cause. He did not refuse his protection to Evan-
gelical preachers who were assailed by their bishop,
and he also drew men of Evangelical sentiments
into his circle; but, on the other hand, he left
priests undisturbed who discharged their office in
the traditional manner. When Ludwig died on
Dec. 3, 1532, aged only thirty years, Ludwig's
brother, Palsgrave Ruprecht, together with the
widowed mother, assumed the regency in the name
of his only son, Wolfgang, six years of age.
Ruprecht was originally destined to the spiritual
career, and had early become a canon in Mainz and
Strasburg. He was a zealous friend of the Reforma-
tion, and evinced full confidence in
Palsgrave Schwebel. Immediately after assu-
Ruprccht's ming the regency, he summoned Schwe-
Regency. bel to prepare a liturgy, which as early
as Jan., 1533 (not 1529), obtained the
regent's approbation, and was printed at Strasburg
under the title: Form und Mass, wie es von den
Predigern des Furstenthums Zweibruck in nachfol-
genden Mdngeln soil gehalten werden. This liturgy
treats in twelve articles of the life and official con-
duct of the clergy, the solemn observance of Sundays
and festivals, week-day sermons, baptisms, com-
munion and confession, visitation of the sick, burial,
catechetical sermons, and prayer. The volume was
sent to the clergy with the remark that whoever
could not adhere to the same in good conscience
should communicate his opinion to the ducal
chancery. On May 5, 1533, when Pastor Meissen-
heimer of Zweibrucken resigned his office, Schwebel
became his successor, and soon gained controlling
influence upon the church administration. The
liturgy was now gradually introduced throughout
the principality. Ruprecht paid no heed to protests
lodged against the same, on July 23, 1533, by Vicar-
general Tettenleben of Mainz, by Archbishop Al-
brecht of Mainz, in Nov., 1533, and again early in
1534, and by the bishop of Speyer. Schwebel, in a
statement rendered by Ruprecht's direction, de-
clared it a duty of the civil authority to proceed
against the scandalous living of the Roman Catholic
clergy, concerning which everybody made com-
plaint. The bishops tolerated that scandal, yet
sought to punish something instituted by Christ
himself. Though even Schorr counseled prudence,
Schwebel influenced Ruprecht, early in 1535, to
command all priests and monks who lived in concu-
binage to marry before Easter under penalty of ex-
pulsion. And though the. bishop of Metz, Apr. 0,
1535, lodged complaint, and urgently entreated to
"leave the priests in their ancient and customary
manner of life according to the precepts of thi
Church," only reporting those who lived unseemly
for chastisement, Ruprecht consistently enforced
his mandate. With the reforms that Ruprecht
devised, the great majority of the population stood
thoroughly in harmony. The assertion of N. Paulus
(Historisch-polUische Blatter, cvii. 805), to the in-
tent that their introduction was coercive and had
been wrought contrary to the will of the people, has
no support in the records. In 1533 Schwebel gained
a like-minded fellow-laborer in his friend Kaspar
Glaser, who was adopted as such by reason of his
mediating position as the young Palsgrave Wolf-
gang's teacher. A second very able compatriot,
Michael Zimmermann (Hilsbach), assisted him
from the close of 1532 at first as schoolmaster and
later as pastoral colleague.
Schwebel's theological position was of a moderate
tone. With Ruprecht's consent, he subscribed the
Augsburg Confession and Apology.
Completion Of the Lord's Supper it is stated in
of Reform the liturgy prepared by Schwebel,
Measures, that, waiving subtle questions, one
should set faithfully before Christians
what the Evangelists write of the Lord's Supper,
to the end that they may in faith receive what Christ
offers them when he says, "Take, eat; this is my
body"; and "Drink ye all of it. This cup is the
new testament in my blood." Schwebel followed
with interest the proceedings that led to the Witten-
berg Concord, subscribed the same himself, and
invited the remaining preachers of the duchy to
subscribe. On occasion of a church visitation under-
taken in the Lichtenberg jurisdiction, in 1538, a
great diversity manifested itself both in doctrine and
in practises. One priest continued to administer
his office, quite to the displeasure of his congrega-
tion, in Roman Catholic fashion. Doubtless this
helped to induce the most eminent of the duchy's
clergy to convene in a kind of synod. The resolu-
tions which, on May 21, 1539, this body submitted
for approval aimed at a greater unity in doctrine,
proposed the appointment of churchwardens to
administer the church properties and Christian dis-
cipline. In the town of Zweibrucken, at the be-
ginning of 1540, this "Church Discipline" was
adopted. On occasion of a church visitation not
long afterward in the jurisdiction of Veldenz this
"Discipline" was introduced there as well. For
sixteen years Schwebel labored in Zweibrucken.
His death was probably caused by the pestilence.
By that time the Reformation was diffused through-
out the duchy. Glaser, his successor, continued
the work in like spirit. Under the rule of Pals-
grave Wolfgang, the process was completed through
the introduction of the excellent liturgy of 1557.
Julius Net.
Bibliography: The " Works " of Schwebel were collected
and issued by his son in three parts, 4 vols., Zweibrucken,
1597-98, though the work was badly done, but the charge
is not proved that they were distorted in the Reformed
interest. To the second part (the letters) a biography was
prefixed which has been the one source of all later sketches.
Additional letters were published by J. Schneider in Ze&tr
288
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Sohwebel
Schweizer
thrift far OeechichU dee Obcrrheins, xxziv (1882), 223
sqq. Later and more accessible sketches are in M. Adam*
Vitm Oermanorum iheologorum, pp. 62 sqq., Heidelberg*
1020; J. Q. F. Pflager, Qeechichte der Stadt Pforzheim, pp.
805, 336 sqq., Pforzheim, 1861-62; F. Jung, Johannes
Schwebel, der Reformator von ZweibrQcken, KaJserslautera,
1910; J.Iiey^inZeitechnftfi^bayeriecheKirchenoeechichte,
1010, pp. 174 sqq.
SCHWEGLER, shveg^er, FRIEDRICH CARL
ALBERT: Distinguished representative of the
Tubingen School; b. at Michelbach, near Halle
(35 m. n.e. of Stuttgart), Wtirttemberg, Feb. 10,
1819; d. at Tubingen Jan. 5, 1857. He studied
at the seminaries of Schdnthal and Tubingen;
devoted himself especially to the study of church
history; was for nearly a year pastor at Beben-
hausen; became docent in philosophy at Tubing-
en, 1843; professor of Roman literature and an-
tiquities in 1848; and, shortly before his death,
professor of ancient history. He distinguished him-
self greatly at the university, and studied with seal
the Hegelian philosophy. In 1841 appeared Der
Montanismns und die christliche Kirche des zweiten
Jahrhunderts (Tubingen, 1841). Through Strauss's
Leben Jesu and other studies he found himself at
variance with the teachings of the Church, and
published Das nachapostolische ZeitaUer (1846). It
exaggerates the Baur hypothesis of the early Church,
and dislocates the origin of the writings of the New
Testament. The work asserts that early Christian-
ity was pure Ebionism (see Ebionites) and builds
up the history of the early Church on this founda-
tion. He edited the Clementinischen Homilien
(Stuttgart, 1847); and published Die Metaphysik
des Aristoteles, text, translation, commentary, and
exposition (4 vols., Tubingen, 1847-48); Geschichte
der Philosophie im Umriss (Stuttgart, 1848; 16th ed.,
1905; Eng. transl., New York, 1881); the Historia
ecclesia of Eusebius (2 vols., Stuttgart, 1852);
Rdmische Geschichte (3 vols., Tubingen, 1853-58);
and Geschichte der griechischen Philosophie (1859).
SCHWEINFURTH, GEORGE JACOB. See
Church Triumphant, I.
SCHWEINITZ, shvoi'nits, EDMUND ALEXAN-
DER DE: Bishop of the Unity of the Brethren; b.
at Bethlehem, Pa., Mar. 20, 1825; d. at South
Bethlehem, Pa., Dec. 18, 1887. He was grad-
uated from the theological seminary of his denom-
ination at Bethlehem in 1844; studied at Berlin,
1845; was pastor at Canal Dover, O., 1850; Leb-
anon, Pa., 1851-53; Philadelphia, 1853-60; Lititz,
Pa., 1860-64; and Bethlehem, Pa., 1864-80; and
was consecrated bishop in 1870. He was president
of the provincial board — i.e., the governing board
— of the American province of the Unity of the
Brethren, and of the theological seminary, 1867-84.
He was of a family that for more than a hundred
years has furnished ministers in an unbroken line
to the American branch of the Moravian Church,
and was a great-great-grandson of Count Zinzendorf
(q.v.)- He was the author of The Moravian Manual
(Philadelphia, 1859), The Moravian Episcopate
(Bethlehem, 1865) ; The Life and Times of David
Zeisberger (Philadelphia, 1870) ; Some of the Fathers
of the Moravian Church (Bethlehem, 1881); and
The History of the Unitas Fratrum (1885).
SCHWEITZER, shvoit'ser, ALBERT: German
Protestant; b. at Kaysersberg (39 m. s.w. of Stras-
burg) Jan. 14, 1875. He was educated at the uni-
versities of Strasburg, Paris, and Berlin (Ph.D.,
Strasburg, 1899), and since 1902 has been privat-
docent for New-Testament exegesis at Strasburg.
He has written Die Religionsphilosophie Kants von
der Kritik zur reinen Vernunft bis zur Religion
innerhaJb der Grenzen der blossen Vernunft (Freiburg,
1899) ; Das Abendmahl im Zusammenhang mit dem
Leben Jesu und der Geschichte des Urchristentums
(2 parts, Tubingen, 1901) ; Von Reimarus zu Wrede,
eine Geschichte der Leben-Jesu-Forschung (1906;
Eng. transl., The Quest for the Historical Jesus; a
critical Study of its Progress from Reimarus to Wrede,
New York, 1910); and Deutsche und franzdsische
OrgeVbaukunst und OrgeUcunst (Leipsic, 1906).
SCHWEIZER, shvoit'ser, ALEXANDER: Swiss
Protestant theologian, follower of Schleiermacher;
b. at Murten (15 m. w. of Bern) Mar. 14, 1808; d.
at Zurich July 3, 1888. He studied at Zurich, Ber-
lin, and Jena, and was ordained in 1831. While yet
a student he wrote Kritik des Gegensatzes zwischen
Rationalismus und Supranaturalismus, and Dor-
steUung der Versuchungsgeschichte (published to-
gether, Zurich, 1833), in both of which his depend-
ence on Schleiermacher is evinced. In 1833, while
a student at Jena, he received a call as assistant
preacher to the Reformed congregation at Leipsic.
In 1834, he visited Berlin and saw Schleiermacher
for the last time a few weeks before the latter's
death, after which he wrote Schleiermacher '* Wirk-
samkeit als Prediger (Halle, 1834). In 1834 he
received a call from Zurich as instructor at the
newly founded university, where he taught New-
Testament exegesis and practical theology and acted
as vicar at the cathedral. He became full professor
in 1840. In the excitement attending the candidacy
of Strauss for a position on the faculty at Zurich
Schweizer condemned an unfair criticism of the
former's Leben Jesu, but, while he recognized the
greatness of that work, himself disputed some of the
author's main positions, and attempted to prevent
his call to Zurich, and, after this call had been
given, protested against the action. In his Evan-
gelium Johannes fur das Leben Jesu hritisch un-
tersucht (Leipsic, 1841) he attempted to show that
the Fourth Gospel is composed of two parts, one
Galilean, the other Judean, a hypothesis which he
later gave up. Meanwhile he had issued Leitfaden
zum* Unterricht in der christlichen Glaubenslehre
(Zurich, 1840), which was followed by Die Glaubens-
lehre der evangelischrreformierten Kirche (1844-47),
an apology for the Reformed doctrine, and supple-
mented by Die protestantischen Centraldogmen in
ihrer Entwicklung innerhaJb der reformierten Kirche
(1854-56). In Die christliche Glaubenslehre nach
protestantischen Grundsdtzen (Leipsic, 1863-69) he
betrays an eminently speculative spirit and a philo-
sophically monistic point of view, and shows that
modern dogmatics must go to the living Christian
consciousness for its material. Schweizer paid
much attention to ethics (although he issued no
formal treatise upon it), especially as connected
with threatening social problems. He is also recog-
Sohwenokfbld
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
284
nized as a scientific organiser of the study of prac-
tical theology, in this interest writing Ueber Begriff
und EirUeilung der praktischen Theologie (Leipsic,
1836); HomUeiik der evangdUch-protestantUchen
Kirche (1848); and Pastor altheorie; oder die Lehre
von der Seelsorge dee evangelischen Pfarrera (1875).
His own homiletic activity during thirty years of
preaching in the cathedral illustrated the worth of
his conceptions, and five volumes of his sermons
were published between 1834 and 1862.
(P. CHRISTf.)
Bibliography: Profetwr A. Schwexser. Btographuche Auf-
Meichnungen, von ihm •eSbtt entworfen, ed. P. Schweiser,
Zurich, 1889.
SCHWENCKFELD, shvenk'felt, VON OSSIG,
CASPAR, SCHWENCKFELDIANS.
I. Biography.
Early Life (| 1).
Reformer: Works (| 2).
II. Characterisation.
III. Theology.
Word and Spirit (| 1).
Creed and Sacrament
(§2).
Christology (| 3).
IV. The Schwenckfeldiana.
L Biography: Caspar Schwenckfeld was born
in Nov. or Dec., 1490, on the Ossig estate near
Luben (41 m. n.w. of Breslau), duchy of Liegnitz;
d. at Ulm Dec. 10, 1561. Descended from an an-
cient aristocratic family, in consideration of an
annuity, he later surrendered the an-
i. Early cestral estate to his younger brother.
Life. After visiting the school at Liegnitz,
he went to Cologne, in 1505,* to pursue
general study, though probably without matricu-
lating; proceeded to Frankfort-on-the-Oder, 1507;
and later, perhaps, to Erfurt. His university
studies embraced the liberal arts, scholastic the-
ology, and canon law. It does not appear that he
came into close touch with Humanism (q. v.) ; nor did
he acquire an acquaintance, during his period of
study, with Hebrew and Greek. At the close of
1510, or beginning of 1511, he entered the court serv-
ice, from which he withdrew in 1522 or 1523. Re-
ligiously his attitude, in the mean time, was one of
indifference; and he first came under the influence
of religion in the Evangelical sense when, after the
protest of Luther against the traffic of indulgences,
the latter' s writings were circulated and reprinted
in Silesia, which also suffered grievously from the
practise. Notwithstanding his later antagonism
to Luther, Schwenckfeld always acknowledged that
he owed to him his conversion to the Gospel, and
his adherence to the Reformation probably dates
from the winter of 1517-18. He now committed
himself to the study of Luther's writings and of the
Holy Scriptures, of which, during 1519, he read
four chapters daily, so as to complete their perusal
within a year. When his sovereign decided in favor
of the Reformation, he publicly espoused the
transformation of ecclesiastical conditions in Lieg-
nitz, and in Silesia at large, by allying himself with
clericals and laymen of like views, foremost of
whom was V. Crautwald, by means of letters and
personal preaching, and by direct influence upon
his sovereign prince and the church rulers.
Meanwhile, Schwenckfeld had formed personal
connections with Wittenberg, where he had visited,
Dec., 1521, or Feb., 1522. He became acquainted
with Philipp Melanchthon, J. P. Bugenhagen,
Justus Jonas, the Zwickau Prophets (qq.v.), and
Carlstadt (see Draconites, Johannes). He did
not meet Luther while at Wittenberg, although
he shortly afterward entered into
2. Reform- correspondence with him. Though
er: Works. Schwenckfeld continued to be es-
pecially associated with Carlstadt, yet,
he by no means followed in all the latter' s methods
and those of the Zwickau enthusiasts. On the con-
trary, his course as a Reformer, despite his seal,
was, in that first period, conservative. Soon began
a certain estrangement from Luther. The collapse
of the former ecclesiastical relations with the con-
comitant decline of both morals and religion, the
dearth of fruits from Luther's preaching, and the
carnal conduct of many who loudly professed their
adherence to the Reformation with their lips, only
disquieted and saddened Schwenckfeld. As early
as 1524, he wrote Ermanung dess missbrauche etlicher
fUrnempster Artikel des Evangelii, atu woWier
unverstandt der gemayn man in flayschliche Frey-
hayt und yrrung gefUret urirt. Antagonism to Luther
first set in when Schwenckfeld put forward his
peculiar doctrine of the Lord's Supper in 1525.
Schwenckfeld had studied the writings of both
Zwingli and Luther, had taken a keen interest in the
dispute on the communion, and now affirmed that he
had received through special revelation a new under-
standing of the Lord's Supper and of the words of
institution. These he submitted to Crautwald, who
at first stood aloof, but then went over to Schwenck-
feld's opinion, which he aided in establishing upon
thoroughgoing premises. Schwenckfeld next re-
ferred his views, together with the deliverances of
Crautwald, to the Wittenberg theologians, on the
occasion, at the close of 1525, of a visit to Witten-
berg. In successive interviews with Jonas, Bugen-
hagen, and Luther, both sides stood firm on this
and other questions; and henceforth Luther and
the Wittenberg theologians regarded Schwenck-
feld as a dangerous heretic. The first consequence of
this separation was an overture to Schwenckfeld
from the Reformed theologians. CEcolampadius
(q. v.) issued, with a friendly preface, Schwenckf eld's
tract, De cursu verbi Dei (Basel, 1527); and in 1528
Zwingli fostered the printing (without Schwenck-
feld'8 knowledge) of one of the circular letters of
Schwenckfeld regarding the communion (Zwingli's
Opera, iii. 563-588, Zurich, 1832). Losing the favor of
King Ferdinand of Bohemia because of befriending
the Anabaptists, Schwenckfeld left Silesia in 1529,
never to return. He also departed from Strasburg,
where he had taken refuge, in 1533 and 1534. Dur-
ing this period he repeatedly asserted himself in
positive terms on the subject of the communion,
collecting his utterances in the tract Bekanntnus
vom heiligen Sacrament des Leibe und BluU Ckristi
(Strasburg, 1530). During the ensuing years,
Schwenckfeld sojourned in various towns of Swabia.
From 1538 new controversies arose, involving, be-
side his previous divergencies, now also his Chris-
tology. His treatment of this theme in a series of
essays was followed in 1538-39 by the tracts Von
der gdttlichen Kindschafft und Herrlichkeit dee ganl-
ten Sones Oottes, and Ermanunge turn waren und
seelig machende ErkdnntnU Ckristi {Der erste TheU
285
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Sohwenokfeld
der Christlichen orthodoxischen Backer und Schriften,
pp. 486 sqq. and pp. 77 sqq., 1564-70). His chief
opponent was Martin Frecht (q.v.) at Ulm, who
brought about his departure 'n 1539, and his for-
mal condemnation at the convention of Evangelical
theologians at Schmalkald in 1540 led by Melanch-
thon. No less hostile were the Swiss theologians,
mainly to his Christology; foremost of these was
Vadianus at St. Gall (see Watt, Joachim von).
Schwenckfeld defended his view in numerous mis-
sives and tracts; among which the most compre-
hensive in substance was Konfession und Erkldrung
vom Erkdntnus Christi und seiner Gdttlichen Herr-
Uchkeit (1540; ut sup., pp. 91 sqq.). During the
succeeding years he frequently changed his abode,
though not without a successful propaganda of his
doctrines among both theologians and laymen, the
latter including various princes: His death was
followed by a more favorable judgment of his life
and greater esteem for his personality.
IL Characterization: Schwenckfeld *s character
was marked by a genuine piety and religious feeling,
attested beyond question by a transformation from
a state of religious and moral indifference — though,
at its worst, not of a perverted type — to that of a
man for whom religion came to be his one and all.
Many passages in his writings bear witness of pure
devoutness and profound Christian mysticism,
which, however, did not render him guilty of indif-
ference to morality or wholesome activity. In his
personal life he laid stress on holiness; and those
persons who without prejudice expressed judgment
had a favorable, even a hallowed, impression of him.
Even his worst enemies scarcely attribute any evil
to him. His industry in matters of religion was
enormous, and, as far as possible, in a personal way.
He preferred to treat all subjects either by letter
or oral discussion. The picture of a practical Pietist
which he presents was not without its shady side.
Devout and humble, he yet became quite often
conscious of a feeling that he was not " as other
men are." His polemics, compared with that of
most of his antagonists, was more mild, leaving
here and there, however, the impression of artificial-
ity. He was inflexible in opinion; for, self-taught,
he was so thoroughly imbued with self-discovered
truths that no authority could make him waver.
An aristocrat he continued to be all his life, refusing
either to bow to another or to the multitude, but
desiring to find a resonant echo in a small circle of
like-minded associates. He had no appreciation
of the necessity of larger associations, external or-
dinances, or anything statutory; and in this he was
by nature a pure enthusiast. His intellectual pow-
ers, both of constructive thought and expression,
were affluent; nor was he wanting in originality,
though of restricted compass. In the course of
years, he acquired a respectable knowledge of
patristic and medieval theology, particularly on the
mystical side, as well as an acquaintance with the
current output. His own theology was not a
finished system, but certain dominant and funda-
mental ideas repeatedly recur. Pertinent for re-
view are those points which bear a historical sig-
nificance; namely on the Word and the Spirit, the
Lord's Supper, and Christology.
IIL Theology: Central in Schwenckfeld 's theol-
ogy was his relative definition of the Word and the
Spirit; or of historical revelation and present re-
generation. In the development of
z. Word his thought, he shows contact with
and Spirit Augustine, German mysticism, espe-
cially with John Tauler (q.v.), and
perhaps with the Bohemian, or Moravian, Brethren
(see Bohemian Brethren; Unity of the Breth-
ren). In addition he makes a series of independ-
ent deductions, and rounds off this aggregate com-
plex, beside making skilful correlations with the
teaching of Holy Scripture, on the one hand, and,
on the other, with the doctrines of faith, regenera-
tion, and justification. Taking issue vigorously
with the Lutheran theology, he distinguishes himself
from men like S. Franck (q.v.), in so far as he does
not represent the innate theory of the inner Word,
but is a strict supernaturalist; and has, besides, a
far deeper apprehension of the corruption of hu-
man nature through sin, and places a higher val-
uation upon the importance of historical redemp-
tion through Jesus Christ. To this theme, indeed,
Schwenckfeld more or less explicitly recurs in al-
most all his writings. His first connective presen-
tation of the relation of the Word and the Spirit,
though unfinished in outline and less sharply de-
fined against the Lutheran view, was in the tract
issued by CEcolampadius (ut sup.), a document of
no great length, but rich in matter. What in-
duced definiteness in both respects was the publica-
tion of a great number of tracts against Flacius.
The principal of these, constituting also the chief
sources for Schwenckfeld's doctrine of the Word
and the Spirit, were the following: (1) Vom unter-
schaide dee worts Gottes und der Heyligen Schrifft;
(2) Von der hailigen Schrifft irem Innhalt / Ampt /
rechtem Nuts / Branch und Missbrauch (Strasburg,
1594); (3) Vom leerampt des newen Testaments.
Das khein predicant der nicht from ist und Gottselig
lebt / das Evangdium . . . khan seliglich mil frucht
predigen (1555); (4) ConfutaHo und AUainung des
dritten Schmachbuchlins F. lUyrici; (5) Beschluss
unnds Valets AuffFlaciy IUyrici letste zwai schmachr
buchlin . . . (1555) ; and (6) Vom worte Gottes das
khein ander wort Gottes sei / aigentlich zu reden, denn
der Sun Gottes. Schwenckfeld correlates the doc-
trine of the Word as a means of grace with that of
the Scripture as revelation, and conditions one upon
the other. He shares the ancient orthodox con-
ception of inspiration, save that he contests the
point that its direct product appears in the Bible;
which, for him, has rather merely the value of a
human, imperfect image and similitude of that
which inspiration wrought in the hearts of the
prophets and apostles. Accordingly, Scripture has
no manner of significance as regards the inception
of the religious life in man, but simply adverts to
the same, and bears witness thereof. It is not the
Scripture which brings the Spirit, but man filled
with the Spirit brings this to the Scripture {Vom
Worte Gottes, xxii.c). Without arriving at perma-
nent and very closely defined ideas on this point,
he valued the Scripture mainly as a trustworthy
historical documentary source of Christian revela-
tion (bod., xvi.); and, like Zwingli, as a normative
Sohwenckfeld
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
*M
guide for all inward revelations (ii.r sqq.). As not
every one possesses, by nature, " his immanent liv-
ing Word " (Christlichen orthodoxischen BUchern,
p. 887) the renewing of man depends upon the im-
mediate efficacy of Christ in the Holy Ghost; who,
however, is intrinsically identical with the historic
incarnated Christ (ut sup., pp. 566 sqq., p. 324;
Vom Worte Gottes, li.r; Von der heiligen Schrift,
cviii.). The main ground for separating the opera-
tions of Word and Spirit, and thereby ascribing
regenerative grace exclusively to the immediate ac-
tivity of the Spirit, lies for Schwenckfeld, as for
the Reformed, in his distinctly expressed predes-
tinarianism: God wills that all his gifts flow from
the same celestial fountain into the hearts of the
elect, through Jesus Christ, the head of the Church
in the Holy Ghost; and that no external medium
can be set up between them, not even as between
the head and the body (De cursu verbi Dei, xiii.).
Beyond these deductions, in the main, on the rela-
tion of the Word and the Spirit, no closer construc-
tion is warranted. Schwenckfeld may be said to
have been the author of that mediating spiritualistic
trend of thought after the Reformation (" middle
way "), which, holding fast to the doctrine of grace
and redemption, historically obtained by Christ, yet
attributes the operation of that grace upon the pre-
destinated to the immediate activity of the Spirit
alone, allowing, however, a certain importance to
Scripture and preaching.
If Schwenckfeld did not concede religious sig-
nificance, in the strict sense, to Holy Scripture, his
valuation of the confessions must needs be yet
slighter. When the matter came to a thorough test,
he stood in accord with not a single
2. Creed doctrine of the Augsburg Confession,
and The whole Confession, and more so the
Sacrament obligatory subscription to the same,
had its place, in his view, among the
statutory measures for the founding of a Church;
which measures he disputed as conflicting with the
Spirit and freedom. His ideal of church organiza-
tion was of separate congregations, which were to
be brought together, at most, into a moral and holy
fellowship by the creation of a proper jurisdiction.
Not improbable is it that he inspired certain merely
sporadic tendencies of Luther. On such grounds
Schwenckfeld could not ascribe to the sacraments
a real character as vehicles of grace. In the doc-
trine of baptism, he has been classed with the Ana-
baptists, but incorrectly; for, though he was at one
with them in rejecting the baptism of infants (ac-
cording to some of his utterances, he was willing to
retain that practise as an outward ceremony), he
nevertheless regarded the baptism of adults as
equally unavailing. Schwenckfeld 's doctrine of the
Lord's Supper is rooted, first, in his general theory
of the essence of the means of grace; then, in his
construction of the meaning of the words of institu-
tion; and, finally, in his peculiar Christology. In
his exposition of the words of institution, Schwenck-
feld, resting upon a " visitation from on high," ad-
vanced the view that the words " This cup is the
new testament " (cf. Luke xxii. 20) are not accord-
ing to the original rendering by the Holy Spirit.
The demonstrative touto is not an adjunct of the
word for " cup "; but, being separated by the arti-
cle, to, it is absolute, " This." Afterward Luke and
Paul, by way of emendation, added the word " cup "
or " drink." Accordingly, the Lord speaks of the
character of his blood, saying: " This (drink) is
the new covenant in my blood " (Epistolar, ii. 16).
Complemented with John vi., the proper sense
of the eucharistic words proved to be: " My
body is this; namely, bread, in the signification
of spiritual food. My blood is this; namely, drink,
in the signification of spiritual drink for the soul."
If Schwenckfeld not only dismisses from the very
words of institution all manner of reference to
any intimate, real connection of the elements
with Christ's body and blood in the Roman Catho-
lic or Lutheran sense, his Christology, or still more
strictly, his theory of the relation between the di-
vine and the earthly, debarred him from such an
assumption. He combined, even more closely than
the Lutherans, the humanity of Christ with his di-
vinity; so that a conclusion for the physical ubiq-
uity of Christ would not have been illogical, and so
far the Philippists (q.v.) were correct in regarding
him as the author of that doctrine; but, on the
whole, he was unwilling to bring deity, including the
deity enveloping the humanity of Christ, into closer
relation with anything created. Forasmuch, then,
as the divine never mediates itself through the
created, the presence of Christ is certainly not me-
diated by the eucharistic elements; and their ap-
prehension spiritually by faith is no longer impeded.
Accordingly, Schwenckfeld's doctrine of the Lord's
Supper is to be classified with the spiritualistic-
dynamic; and, among the Reformation theories,
is in closest affinity with Calvin's.
Schwenckfeld '8 Christology grew out of his con-
ception of the relation between the divine and the
human in general. Everything human, whatever
comes into being by creative process,
3. Chris- stands in strong contrast with God:
tology. " All creatures are external to God, and
God is external to all creatures " (Epis-
tolar, ii. 105). Wherefore, if the relation of Christ
to God is to be unique, that of perfect oneness with
God, then a unique condition must underlie the
origin of his human nature. Such is the fact; since
his nature was not " created," but " begotten."
God is the Father of Christ's humanity also (Epis-
tolar, i. 612; Christlichen orthodoxischen Buchern,
p. 521). Schwenckfeld is particularly intent upon
the designation of Christ as the second Adam,
through whom the creation of man first attained its
consummation. This flesh of Christ, standing from
the very beginning in a peculiar relation to God,
came into the world, like his divinity, by the Virgin
Mary. For the entire life of Christ, no less than for
his birth, Schwenckfeld aims, so far as possible, at
a mutual absorption of the human and the divine.
The Lutheran formulas seemed to him insufficient;
they still persistently savored of Nestorianism; on
the other hand, he would fain retain the constant
integrity of the two natures, and rejects all manner
of reciprocal transformation (Chrisilichen orthodoxi-
schen BUcher, pp. 218, 230). Schwenckfeld shared
with the Lutherans the interest in the close union
of Christ's humanity with his divinity and its en-
287
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Sohwenckfeld
durance even after his exaltation. In his formal
expression of this, he more nearly approximated
Eutychianism (q.v.) and brought to view a number
of paradoxical phrases rather than a clear represen-
tation of a state of reality. The work of Christ is
considered as the winning of salvation through the
historic Christ, and the dispensation of salvation
through the glorified Christ. According to G. L.
Hahn both propositions comprise: (1) redemption
from the power of the devil; (2) purification of
human nature from sin, or justification; and (3)
emancipation from the state of the creature and
adoption into the state of sonship, or regeneration;
the entire emphasis falling upon the distributive
activity of the exalted Christ, and the acceptance
of the same by faith. And here, again, Schwenck-
feld lays greater stress on moral and religious trans-
formation, than on justification; though the latter
is not altogether eliminated. This appears most
evidently in the sentence: " God regards no one
righteous in whom there is none of his essential
righteousness " (Epistolar, i. 812). These concep-
tions, however, are not original with Schwenckfeld.
Likewise in his mystical conception of faith and
resignation, he no more than reflects medieval heri-
tage.
IV. TheSchwenckfeldians: Personally Schwenck-
feld occupied a neutral position (" the middle way ")
between the great ecclesiastical and religious par-
ties of his time; and he was desirous of gaining this
neutral status for his adherents as well. These,
therefore, withdrew quietly from the organized
Church; adopting, at first, the designation " Con-
fessors of the Glory of Christ," and after 1539 that
of " Schwenckfeldians." They grouped them-
selves in individual congregations, and soon ac-
quired the more or less distinct character of a sect.
Congregations grew up most numerously in the two
regions where Schwenckfeld had carried on his per-
sonal propaganda, Silesia and Swabia, and in the
towns where he had sojourned. Beside these,
Gorlitz, Glatz, Goldberg, Lowenberg, Jauer, and
Wohlau became permanent sites of considerable con-
gregations. At a comparatively early date, the move-
ment also took root in Prussia. Schwenckfeld had
become personally acquainted with Duke Albrecht
(see Albrecht of Prussia), and sought to win both
him and the foremost theologians in Prussia; Paul
Speratus (q.v.), for instance. Especially in south-
ern Prussia, there was a strong favorable movement
between 1530 and 1535; but it declined after a col-
loquy at Rastenburg in 1531, and after the leading
theologians and the duke declared themselves more
and more adversely. At the present stage of re-
search, a prolonged, in main outline intelligible
history of the Schwenckfeldians appears only, be-
side at Landau in the Rhenish Palatinate, in Wtlrt-
temberg and specially in Silesia. Duke Christopher
of Wurttemberg issued a stern restriction against
them in 1554, though some traces of them were still
evident in the seventeenth century. In Silesia the
congregations increased, toward the close of the
sixteenth century, by receiving Anabaptists, and
in the seventeenth century, through the accession
of the adherents of Jakob Boehme (q.v.). But they
retained the Schwenckfeldian type, as shown by
confessions published at the beginning of the eight-
eenth century. During the entire seventeenth cen-
tury, they flourished principally in the vicinity of
Goldberg; but at the beginning of the eighteenth
attention was drawn to them by means of an ad-
verse tract. As a result a confession of faith was
demanded of them, and in 1720 the Emperor Charles
VI. despatched a Jesuit coercive mission against
them, which, however, did not effect their exter-
mination. A part of them emigrating into Saxony
were denied tolerance and proceeded successively
to Holland, England, and to eastern Pennsylvania
in the United States. When Frederick the Great
had taken possession of Silesia, he not only granted
them tolerance, by an edict of 1742, but also res-
toration of their confiscated properties. Their con-
gregations are famed for their earnest piety and
sound morality. R. H. GrCtzmacher.
The Schwenckfeldians, or Schwenckfelders, are
found in this country only in Pennsylvania. In
1734 some 200 of Schwenckfeld's followers emigrated
to America and settled in Bucks, Berks, and con-
tiguous counties in Pennsylvania. They have al-
ways been opposed to war, secret societies, and the
judicial oath. Their doctrines are drawn from the
Bible in the light of the indwelling Word. They
hold that the higher nature of Christ was progress-
ive, rising steadily from the human into the divine,
and that faith, justification, and regeneration mean
a positive change and that the constant aim in
Christian life should be Christ-likeness. Discipline
is strictly maintained. There are district confer-
ences and a general conference in which all members
without distinction of sex are entitled to sit. The
Schwenckfeldians support missions at home and also,
through other societies, in China, India, and Japan.
There are 6 ministers, 8 churches, and 827 commu-
nicants. The number of churches has doubled, and
the number of communicants more than doubled,
since 1800. H. K. Carroll.
Bibliography: The full edition of the Works of Schwenck-
feld has never been published, but one is projected under
the editorship of C. D. Hartranf t and others, see below.
Corpus Sehwenckfeldianorum. The Sehrifften as published,
to which reference is made in the text, is the 4 folio-vol-
umes edition, i. Der erste Theil der christlichen orthodoxischen
BQcher, 1564; ii. Epistolar, 1st part, 1566; ill. Epistolar,
2d part, vol. i.. 1570; iv. Epistolar, 2d part, vol. ii., 1520.
Consult: J. Wigand, De Schwenckfeldiemo, Leipsic, 1587;
Q. Arnold, Kirchen- und Ketzerhistorie, ii. 241 sqq., 4
vols., Frankfort, 1700-15; C. A. Salig, Vollstandioe His-
toric der augspurgischen Konfession, book XI., Halle, 1730;
O. L. Hahn, Schwenckfeldii sententia de Christi persona ei
opere, Wratislaw, 1847; H. W. Erbkam, Geschichte der
protestantischen Sekten im ZeitaUer der Reformation, Gotha,
1848; O. Kadelbach, A uefuhrliche Geschichte Sch-venk-
feldts und der Schwenkfeldtianer, Lauban, 1861; Hampe,
Zur Biographie Kaspar von Schwenckfeld, Jauer, 1882;
F. Hoffmann, Kaspar Schwenckfeld* Leben und Lehren,
Berlin, 1897; R. H. Grutsniacher, Wort und Geist, f 16,
Leipsic, 1902; H. W. Kriebel, The Schwenkfelders in
Pennsylvania, Lancaster, 1904; Corpus Sehwenekfeldi-
anorum. Published under the Auspices of the Schwenck-
/elder Church, and the Hartford Theological Seminary, vol.
1., A Study of the earliest Letters of Caspar Schwenckfeld v.
Ossig, ed. C. D. Hartranft, O. B. Schlutter, and E. E.
Schults Johnson. Leipsic, 1907; F. W. Loetscher,
Schwenckfeld: s Participation in the Eucharistic Controversy
of the 16th Century, Philadelphia, 1907; A. A. Seipt,
Schwenckfelder Hymnology and the Source* of the First
Schwenckfelder Hymn-book printed in America, Philadel-
phia, 1909; ADB, rami. 403-412.
8ohw«rin
Selene*
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
SCHWERHf, shv6-rtn': A former German dio-
cese, established in the second half of the twelfth
century, and secularised about the middle of the
seventeenth. It replaced the short-lived diocese of
Mecklenburg, which had come to an abrupt end on
the martyrdom of its bishop, Johannes Scotus, by
the Wends in 1066. On Sept. 25, 1149, Archbishop
Hartwich consecrated Emmehard bishop of Meck-
lenburg, but the opposition of Henry the Lion
seems to have prevented him from ever entering his
see, and in 1160 Henry conferred the bishopric on a
Cistercian named Berno, then resident at Schwerin.
Meanwhile this city had become the seat of a Ger-
man count and the principal town of the Abo-
dritians, and the new prelate accordingly made
Schwerin his see city. The boundaries of the dio-
cese were henceforth formed by a flat curve from
the Bay of Wismar to the Elde on the west, the
coast from the Bay of Wismar to the Greifswalder
Bodden on the north, and by the diocese of Havel-
berg (q.v.) on the south. On the east the boundary
was long uncertain, but in 1260 it was finally de-
cided that the strip of territory between the Reck-
nitz and the Trebel should belong to the diocese of
Kammin (q.v.). (A. Hauck.)
Until the end of the episcopate of Brunward
(1102-1238) the diocese of Schwerin suffered much
from the hostility of the pagan Wends, but despite
all obstacles the cause of Christianity triumphed.
The bishops came to rank as princes of the empire,
although subject to the archbishop of Bremen. In
the administration of Magnus (1516-50), who was
also duke of Mecklenburg, the Reformation prac-
tically put an end to the diocese, the bishop himself
openly declaring for Lutheranism in 1553. His
cousin and successor, Ulrich I. (1550-1603), whose
election was never confirmed by the pope, was most
contemptuous in his treatment of the ancient faith.
The succeeding " administrators " of the diocese
were insignificant, and in 1648, at the Peace of West-
phalia, Duke Adolph Frederick of Mecklenburg-
Schwerin received the bishopric as a hereditary
principality in lieu of Wismar and other districts
which Mecklenburg was obliged to cede to
Sweden.
Bibliography: Mecklenburguchet Urkundenbvch, 12 vols.,
Schwerin, 1863 sqq.; A. Rudloff, QachichU Mecklenburg*,
pp. 64 sqq., Berlin, 1901; Hauck, KD, vok. iiL-ir.;
Gams, 8tU§ ipitcoporvm, p. 310.
I. The Official Statement.
1. The Founder.
Early Preparation (f 1).
The Discovery of Christian Science
(12).
Organisation of the Church of Christ*
Scientist (§ 3).
Mrs. Eddy's Work as a Teacher
(14).
Mrs. Eddy as a Leader (f 5).
SCIENCE, CHRISTIAN.
The Teaching of Christian Science
(16).
II. Judicial Estimate of the System.
The Theological Situation (f 1).
Mrs. Eddy's Idealism (f 2).
Her Teaching (f 3).
Suggestion as a Basis (J 4).
Prospects (f 5).
III. Critical View of the Doctrines.
Doctrine of God (f 1).
Doctrine of the Trinity (| 2).
Christology (f 3).
Doctrine of Christ's Presence (f 4).
Doctrine of the Holy Spirit (f 5).
Anthropology (f 6).
Doctrine of Sin (f 7).
The Atonement (J 8).
Doctrine of Prayer (f 0).
The Scriptures (f 10).
Servioe (f 11).
[Note: "I have examined this article, edited it,
and now approve it." — Mary Baker G. Eddy.*]
L The Official Statement: Christian Science,
discovered and founded by the Rev. Mary Baker
G. Eddy, is defined in the Standard Dictionary as
"a system of moral and religious instruction,
founded upon principles formulated by Rev. Mary
Baker G. Eddy and combined with a method of
treating diseases mentally. 'Christian Science is
based on teachings of Scripture which it interprets,
giving the Christ principle and rule in divine meta-
physics, which heals the sick and sinner. It ex-
plains all cause and effect as mental, and shows the
scientific relation of man to God.' " The full ex-
position of this Science is given in Mrs. Eddy's book,
Science and Health with Key to the Scriptures, which
was first published in 1875.
1. The Founder: . The consideration of Mrs.
Eddy's unique and extraordinary achievements as
a religious reformer and as the founder and leader
of a religious denomination, which in a compara-
tively short time has gained world-wide recognition
and now commands the allegiance of a multitude of
* This approval extends, of course, only to the first part
of this article, which is printed as submitted, except for
ehanges in matters of typography and paragraphing, and
in the incorporation by the author of later figures and re-
statements made necessary by revised bases.
thinking people, naturally divides itself into four
chronological periods: her early preparation for
what was to be her lifework; her discovery of Chris-
tian Science in 1866 and her pioneer work in es-
tablishing it; her career as a teacher, and her
crowning success as a leader.
Mrs. Eddy was born in Bow, near Concord, N. H.,
July 16, 1821, and died at Chestnut Hill, Mass., Dec.
3, 1910. She came of Scotch-English stock and
numbered among her ancestors Capt. John Love-
l K l we^ °^ Dunstable, N. H., a famous
PreparaJ Ino^an fighter and Gen. Henry
tion. Knox of Revolutionary fame. Her
parents, Mark and Abigail Ambrose
Baker, were earnest Christians. Her mother's
father, Deacon Nathaniel Ambrose, founded the
North Congregational Church of Concord, N. H.,
which was known as "Deacon Ambrose's church."
The Baker family was also largely interested in the
establishing of the Methodist Episcopal Church in
the same city. Mrs. Eddy's great-grandfather,
Captain Joseph Baker, was a member of the provin-
cial congress and actively assisted the province to
take its stand for the new republic. His sons, one of
whom was Mrs. Eddy's grandfather, were all soldiers
of the American Revolution. The early trend of
Mrs. Eddy's thought was markedly spiritual and
philosophical, as was shown by her girlhood choice
980
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Schwerin
Science
of such studies as natural science, logic, and moral
philosophy. At an early age she wrote verses,
which express thoughts akin to the teaching of Chris-
tian Science. Her inherent breadth of view was
evidenced by the fact that when in her girlhood
she joined the Congregational Church, she refused
to subscribe to the doctrine of unconditional elec-
tion or predestination. In addition to her academic
education, Mrs. Eddy had the advantage of instruc-
tion from a number of private teachers, among
whom was her brother Albert Baker, a graduate of
Dartmouth College and .a distinguished lawyer,
Mr. Corser of Sanbornton Bridge Academy, and
Professor Dyer H. Sanborn. Her careful training,
supplemented by years of research and study, bore
fruitage in her writings, which were voluminous
before she began her labors as a Christian Scientist.
During her residence in the South as the wife of
Major George W. Glover of Charleston, S. C, she
wrote much for southern magazines. No one can
study her writings without being impressed by the
thorough familiarity with the best in literature
therein displayed. An important forerunner of her
discovery of Christian Science was Mrs. Eddy's
study of homeopathy, which she entered upon in
her early womanhood mainly for the purpose of im-
proving her health. Her aversion to the dissecting-
room prevented her from obtaining an expert
knowledge of surgery and from completing her
course, but her experiments in homeopathy were
valuable in directing her attention to the proposi-
tion that all causation is mental.
Regarding her discovery of Christian Science,
Mrs. Eddy says in her book, Retrospection and In-
trospection: " It was in Massachusetts in February,
1866, that I discovered the Science of divine meta-
physical healing, which I afterwards named Chris-
tian Science. The discovery came to
2. The Die- pasg 'm ^his way. During twenty
OhTTian vears P"or *° mv discovery, I had
Science. keen ^O^g *° trace all physical effects
to a mental cause; and in the latter
part of 1866 I gained the scientific certainty that
all causation was mind and every effect a mental
phenomenon. My immediate recovery from the
effects of an injury caused by an accident, an injury
that neither medicine nor surgery could reach, was
the falling apple that led me to the discovery."
Mrs. Eddy spent the next three years in retirement,
studying the Bible and finding there the principle
and rule of her healing. She then tested her healing
system practically in every possible way, and finally
in 1875, after nine years of preliminary work, wrote
the Christian Science text-book, Science and Health
with Key to the Scriptures. Her literary output after
that was tremendous, comprising books, sermons,
essays, polemics, poems, magazine articles, editorials.
Her chief books in addition to Science and Health
are: Miscellaneous Writings (1896); Retrospection
and Introspection (1892); Pulpit and Press (1898);
Unity of Good (1891); Rudimental Divine Science
(1891); No and Yes (1891); Christian Science versus
Pantheism (1898) ; Christian Healing (1886) ; Peo-
ple's Idea of God (1886); Christ and Christmas
(1897); Message to the Mother Church (1900); Our
Leader' 8 and Communion Messages (1901).
X.-19
In 1879, Mrs. Eddy organized in Boston, Mas-
sachusetts, The First Church of Christ, Scientist,
and was ordained as its pastor. This body was
composed of twenty-six members. In 1895, six-
teen years later, the church, to accommodate its
increased membership, erected a handsome edifice
on the corner of Falmouth and Norway Streets,
Boston, at a cost of $200,000. This
SatiSn*11^ fieats about 1'200 P^Pfe- fr June>
the Church *906, a magnificent new structure, ad-
of Christ joining this and having a seating ca-
Scientist. parity of 5,000, was completed. It
cost about $2,000,000. The First
Church of Christ, Scientist, in Boston is known as
the Mother Church of this denomination. The Chris-
tian Science denomination had, in Jan., 1911, 1,244
branch churches and societies, holding Sunday
services. Chicago has nine large churches with five
handsome edifices. Greater New York has twelve
churches. In Greater New York there are eight
church buildings, First Church edifice having cost
over $1,150,000. Concord, N. H., has a strong or-
ganization and a beautiful granite church, a gift
from Mrs. Eddy, which cost over $200,000. Mrs.
Eddy located this church, bought the land, started
the building, and paid for it, part of the money
having been contributed to her for this especial
purpose by Christian Scientists in all parts of the
world, who wished to have a share in the work.
There are influential Christian Science churches in
San Francisco, Los Angeles, Oakland, San Jose",
Minneapolis, Milwaukee, Brooklyn, Philadelphia,
Washington, Cleveland, St. Louis, Buffalo, Pitts-
burg, Cincinnati, Atlanta, Providence, Toronto,
and, it may be said, in all the large cities of the
United States and Canada. There are firmly es-
tablished churches in London, England, of which
First has recently completed a fine edifice at Sloane
Terrace, S. W. The organization in Manchester,
England, has its own church edifice, as has that in
Edinburgh, Scotland. There are organizations in
Australia, Germany, France, Scandinavia, Holland,
South Africa, South America, Mexico, Hawaii, The
Philippines, and in many of the English Colonies.
The following incident, which occurred in Chicago,
June 13, 1888, at the meeting of the National
Christian Science Association, illustrates Mrs.
Eddy's quality as a publicist and in-
tj4ffrJl" dicates the vital importance of the
Work as n1683*1^ entrusted to her. Mrs.
a Teacher. Eddy had been invited to this gather-
ing as a guest, and one of her stipu-
lations on accepting the invitation had been that
she should not be called upon to speak. The meeting
was held in Central Music Hall, then the largest and
best in the city. When Mrs. Eddy arrived at the
hall, she not only found a great assembly, which
occupied every seat and every foot of standing-room,
extending out even into the corridors, but she was
also astounded to learn that she was announced
as the only speaker. Catching her theme as she
walked from the entrance to the platform, she de-
livered extemporaneously the remarkable address,
"Science and the Senses," which may be found in
her Miscellaneous Writings. The effect of her words
was so great that many authenticated cases of
Science
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
990
healing are recorded as having occurred in the au-
dience. Modern thought, to which the term, "the
effect of mind on the body/' is a psychological and
medical commonplace, finds it difficult to compre-
hend the crassly materialistic conditions which
confronted Mrs. Eddy when, in 1867, she taught
her first student the elements of the theory and
practise of Christian Science. As she claimed,
and as her followers firmly believe, her new
light on the Bible and on the sayings and teachings
of Jesus Christ came as a divine revelation, as a
result of which she was able to demonstrate through
spiritual means only the truth of Jesus' statement,
"These signs shall follow them that believe," by
healing the sick, reforming the sinner, and eVen
raising those pronounced dead by reputable materia
medico, practitioners. She had formulated a new
system of religion, philosophy, and medicine —
a system which annihilated the accepted belief in
the reality and substantiality of matter; and she
stood before the whole world its sole advocate. As
soon as she found one individual willing to learn of
her discovery, she began teaching, and from this
humble beginning developed the educational sys-
tem, which has made Christian Science an inter-
national propaganda. "The motive of my earliest
labors has never changed," writes Mrs. Eddy in
Retrospection and Introspection. "It was to relieve
the sufferings of humanity by a sanitary system
that should include all moral and religious reform."
In 1881, Mrs. Eddy obtained a charter from the
Commonwealth of Massachusetts— rthe only one of
the sort ever granted — and organized the Mas-
sachusetts Metaphysical College, in which during the
eight succeeding years she taught over 4,000 persons.
Many of these were indigent students, who received
their tuition free. It was her custom to make it
possible for all worthy applicants to avail them-
selves gratuitously of her personal instruction. In
1889, she closed the college, notwithstanding that
hundreds of applicants were awaiting admission.
Her purpose, in doing this was to secure time to re-
vise Science and Health and further to extend her
field of labor. Later she established a board of
education, based on the college, which board is now
in active operation. Mrs. Eddy founded the Chris-
tian Science Journal in Apr., 1883, and was for many
years its editor as well as its chief contributor.
She founded the Christian Science Quarterly in 1890,
the Christian Science Sentinel in 1898, Der Christian
Science Herold (in German) in 1902, and The Chris-
tian Science Monitor, a daily newspaper, in 1908.
She gave these periodicals to her church together
with the plant of the Christian Science Publishing
Society. For many years her only income was from
the sale of her books and the interest on her in-
vestments. She healed the sick and the sinner with-
out price. She contributed a large portion of her
means to various charities and public enterprises.
She was also public-spirited and took an interest in
the affairs of her state and in matters pertaining to
the betterment of her own city. She was simple
in her tastes and habits, punctual and systematic in
her work.
The organization, nature, constitution, and gov-
ernment of the Mother Church, its tenets, its church
manual, and its special form of public service are all
of Mrs. Eddy's devising. They are in most respects
_ unique, without precedent in church
Eddy as a economy, proofs of her wisdom, and
Loader, evidence of her ability as a leader.
While the business of the Church of
Christ, Scientist, is conducted by a board of direc-
tors, the inspiration and fountain head of the series
of remarkable steps, which have brought Christian
Science to the fore so unswervingly and so rapidly,
can be traced to this modest and unassuming, but
strong and resourceful woman. It is impossible to
investigate the far-reaching effects of the majority
of her acts without coming to the inevitable con-
clusion that she was divinely directed. One
can not study Mrs. Eddy's interpretation of the
Lord's Prayer as it is given in "Science and
Health" without being strongly impressed by the
absolute absence of literalism in her exegesis of the
Scripture, the spirituality, idealistic morality, and
pure ethics of Christian Science. The First Church
of Christ, Scientist, has no creed, but the funda-
mentals of Christian Science are stated in the form
of church tenets, written by Mrs. Eddy, which every
person joining the Mother Church is required to
sign. These tenets are copyrighted and published in
Science and Health, from which they are reprinted
with Mrs. Eddy's permission:
1. As adherents of Truth, we take the inspired Word of
the Bible as our sufficient guide to eternal Life.
2. We acknowledge and adore one supreme and infinite
God. We acknowledge His son one Christ; the Holy Ghost
or olivine Comforter; and man as God's image and likeness.
3. We acknowledge God's forgiveness of sin in the destruc-
tion of sin and the spiritual understanding that casts out
evil as unreal. But the belief in sin is punished, so long as
the belief lasts.
4. We acknowledge Jesus' atonement as the evidenoe of
divine, efficacious Love, unfolding man's unity with God
through Christ Jesus the Wayshower; and we acknowledge
that man is saved through Christ* through Truth, Life, and
Love as demonstrated by the Galilean Prophet in the heal-
ing of the sick and overcoming of sin and death.
5. We acknowledge that the crucifixion of Jesus and his
resurrection served to uplift faith and understanding to
understand eternal life, even the allness of Soul, Spirit, and
the nothingness of matter.
6. And we solemnly promise to watch and pray for that
Mind to be in us which was also in Jesus Christ; to do unto
others as we would have them do unto us; and to be merci-
ful, just, and pure.
Christian Science churches have no pastors in
the ordinary sense of the term and no personal
preaching. In 1895, in order to secure uniform-
ity in the statement of Christian Science, Mrs.
Eddy ordained the Bible and Science and Health
as the impersonal pastor of the denomination.
The Sunday services are presided over by read-
ers, usually chosen from among the members of
the church, who serve a term of three years.
These readers present a lesson-sermon, prepared by
a committee appointed by the trustees of the
Publishing Society, which consists of a compi-
lation of Scriptural texts with correlative passages
from the Christian Science text-book. In corre-
spondence with the order in other churches, the re-
mainder of the service includes Scripture-reading,
hymns, prayer, and benediction. The Wednesday
evening meeting is devoted to individual testi-
monies and experiences. The branch churches con-
891
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Solenoe
form to requirements stated in the Manual of the
Mother Church, but they have their separate con-
gregational government. The readers, who conduct
the services in branch churches, must be members
in good standing of the Mother Church and are
subject to its discipline. For the purpose of ex-
pounding Christian Science and bringing it to
the attention of the public at large, Mrs. Eddy
constituted through the Mother Church a body of
qualified speakers called the Christian Science
Board of Lectureship. The members are subject
to the call of the various churches, which are re-
quired to give at least one lecture annually, to
which the public is freely invited. The denomina-
tion also provides publication committees, the duty
of which is to correct misstatements in the public
press regarding Christian Science or Christian Sci-
entists. It will be seen that although of compara-
tively recent development, the Christian Science
denomination is completely organized down to
details.
The Christian Science text-book sets forth Chris-
tian Science as a religious system based upon Scrip-
tural teachings. It elucidates faithfully the great
fact that God is the only cause and creator; that
God made man in his own image and
**• The likeness; that " all is infinite Mind and
fChri^ *te m^n*^e manifestation.'* Christian
tlan " Science affirms that God is Person in
Science. *he infinite sense, but not in the hu-
manly circumscribed sense; that the
Holy Ghost, as taught in the Scriptures, is "the
spirit of truth"; that Christ is the spiritual idea,
the image of divine Mind which is one with
the Father. By means of direct logical deduc-
tions from these premises, the Christian Science
text-book teaches that sin, disease, and all the
woes of mankind, though seemingly real to mor-
tals, have no divine authority; that they are
material, erring, mortal phenomena, must be so
recognized and overcome by spiritual understand-
ing of divine reality. This eternal verity gives hope
and courage to those afflicted with disease by reveal-
ing to them the divine power, which heals and saves
mankind. Christian Science has no kinship with
pantheism, theosophy, spiritualism, Hinduism, or
hypnotism. It holds that man is inseparable from
Deity, being, as Scripture declares, the image, ex-
pression, or likeness of God, but denies that he is
part of God as pantheism teaches. Christian
Science recognizes no mind apart from God. Its
practise is in harmony with Jesus's declaration,
"Not as I will, but as thou wilt." It therefore
repudiates the action or influence of the human
mind or will as employed in hypnotism. In the
practise of Christian Science, human will is stilled
and the divine will governs.
Healing the sick is not the prime mission of
Christian Science. Its higher mission is to effect
the triumph over all evil. Bodily improvement
follows as the natural sequence of spiritual re-
generation. It holds that the evil-doer is surely
on the road to doom though he may not yet have
realized this, while the well-doer is in the right path
though he may not yet understand it, for " whatso-
ever a man soweth, that shall he also reap." Chris-
tian Science teaches that true and effectual prayer is
the spiritual realization of divine Truth and Love
and of God's infinitude and omnipotence, which
lifts mortals above the power of sin and disease.
Lewis C. Strang.
IL Judicial Estimate of the System: The human
soul was never so insistent as it is to-day on some-
thing adequate to rest upon. It wants to know
experimentally and immediately that God is all in
all. Orthodoxy is to some no longer satisfying;
historic forms to an increasing number seem hope-
lessly inflexible. Coin current ages
x. The long in the soul's vocabulary has lost
Theological much of its luster and not a little of
Situation, its acceptability. Meanwhile, prophets
true and false are crying everywhere:
"Repent ye: for the kingdom is at hand." One
prophetic voice was heard above all others, the
voice of Mrs. Eddy; and it gained a hearing
both unexpected and phenomenal. Though there
are at most not more perhaps than 70,000 actual
members in the Christian Science organization,
these are representative of a larger number of ad-
herents. It is easy to account for the astound-
ing growth of Christian Science. Materialism is a
spent force. The world has given it fair trial and
is turning definitely from it. Materialism has
neither satisfied the deeper yearnings of the soul
nor met the body's constant needs.
Mrs. Eddy was the first person in the modern world
to proclaim the psychic kingdom so convincingly
as *.o gain a respectable following and organize it into
a compact cult not to be dismissed by
2. Mrs. smart criticism or unintelligent abuse.
Eddy's She did not, to be sure, think the
Idealism, psychic problem through. She knew
neither the evolution of philosophy
nor the content of psychology. She had reach but
not grasp. With no sense of humor she could bear
to quote in introduction to a book for which she
claimed a more than "human origin" those well-
known burlesque lines of Fichte's Idealism:
" 1, 1. 1, 1 itself, I,
The inside and the outside, the what and the why,
The when and the where, the low and the high,
All 1, 1. 1, 1 itself, I."
Mrs. Eddy was an idealist, but had no disposition to
be one with other idealists. She would stand alone,
associated not with man but God. Sometimes she
so used language as to give the impression that
her proper place was in the Trinity. These were
her words in 1906: God is "divine Principle — as
Life, represented by the Father; as Truth, repre-
sented by the Son; as Love, represented by the
Mother." Sometimes, as a few years earlier, she
allowed the reader's mind to drift another way
in verse like this:
" As in Blessed Palestine's hour, so in our age
"Tis the same hand unfolds His power and writes the
page."
And the leader of the cult in New York City once
wrote Mrs. Eddy thus : * ' They who refuse to accept
you as God's messenger, or ignore the message
which you bring, will not get up by some other
way, but will come short of salvation."
However Mrs. Eddy might describe herself, she
Soienoe
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
909
acted as one having unique authority. Being unable
to see that spirit can be both original and ultimate
and yet for all practical purposes mat-
3. Her ter may have the character and corn-
Teaching, position which it appears for this earth-
ly while to have subject to laws which
must be obeyed, she ventured to explain not how
God actually works but how He ought in her judg-
ment to work, and stilled in advance all criticism of
what might appear to some as presumption with
the announcement that she is not "apart from God/'
she moved on to the assertion that God does work
as she described, that evolution both in matter and
in spirit is but the explication of her theory of life.
Historic Christianity she dismissed as summarily as
science and philosophy. The Trinity was to Mrs.
Eddy a variable and not a constant. Sometimes
she assigned the third place in the Trinity to Chris-
tian Science; sometimes she kept it for herself.
When she did not write that " the true Logos is de-
monstrably Christian Science" she was sure to say
that "Jesus is the human man and Christ is the
divine" and to allow one of her accredited teachers
to teach that "Jesus of Nazareth is often mistaken
for the real Christ." One of the Sacraments she
abandoned altogether, putting in the place of the
Lord's Supper a Galilean breakfast, and the other
she evacuated of its historic meaning. Prayer she
robbed of its petitional element and turned it into
declaration of existing facts. To evil she denied
all real existence and yet was obsessed habitually
by what she called malicious animal magnetism
which had all the attributes of the legendary devil
except his horns and hoofs. In spite of these
limitations and crudities, Mrs. Eddy won a fol-
lowing as obedient to her every wish as any
modern army is to its commander. Convinced
that Spirit is invincible and that "matter and
mortal body are the illusions of human belief,"
she lived up to her convictions in the face of
every jeer and joke. Insistent that "mind is all
in all" and that "health is not a condition of
matter but of mind," she would heal every ill that
flesh is heir to by explaining to the seeming ill that
things are not what they seem and — to quote one
authorized to speak for her — "though the evidences
of the senses may declare to the contrary we should
still stick to the spiritual truth and should con-
tinue to denounce the false evidences." Broken
bones and contagious diseases may appear a little
stubborn because they have on their side a public
opinion not yet permeated by the Christian Science
spirit. Defer a while, said Mrs. Eddy, to public
ill-informedness. The time will come when the limb
lost in a railway accident may be replaced "as
readily as the lobster's claw," and boards of health,
she evidently thought, understand with her that con-
tagion is "engendered solely by mortal belief."
Exactly what the therapeutic value of Christian
Science is no one knows. The cures so widely ad-
vertised have never been subjected to any search-
ing test which satisfies the trained pathologist.
Judge Clifford P. Smith solemnly affirms that
Christian Science has cured every kind of illness
known to medicine, and Mrs. Eddy claimed to
have added to the list the raising of the dead and the
causing of an apple blossom to unfold in January.
Although the full measure of the efficacy of
Christian Science healing is not known
4. Sugges- it is known that the principle of sug-
tion as a gestion underlies the cure in every
Basis. Christian Science case as in every other
case of mental healing. The disavowal
of the principle is either ignorance or fatuous policy.
In no other cult has auto-suggestion proved so
powerful. Through the complete isolation of the
patient from all alien influences the suggestion in
many instances amounts to hypnotism, which is
nothing but suggestion narrowed and in conse-
quence profound. If Christian Science were to con-
fine its therapeutic activity to diseases in which
— as practically all psychologists and pathologists
agree to-day — there is proper place for it, much
criticism of its therapeutic methods would promptly
disappear. It is only the Christian Science dis-
regard of the distinction, which if not always evi-
dent yet is usually existent, between the organic
and the functional in disease that causes disquiet
and has led in some sections to active legislation
to protect children, small and great, from the dan-
gers existing m a rapidly advancing civilization,
which often experiments first, sometimes with
disastrous consequences, and later formulates its
theories.
The life-story of the founder of Christian Science
has been told both by unfriendly and friendly hands,
and the result has been to minimize her claims
to sanctity. If the public is not inclined to-day to
take the attitude of those who love
5. Pros- her best and, because they read no
pects. records save those she approves, know
her least, it has no longer any disposi-
tion to deny that from the standpoint of achieve-
ment Mrs. Eddy stood alone among the women of
the world. The mystery surrounding both the
founder and the faith is gone. But the fact re-
mains that Mrs. Eddy and her followers identi-
fied themselves as have no other people in the
world with the religious and the philosophical re-
volt against materialism, and if as years go by they
prove wise enough to eliminate the crass and the
crude, the foolish and the dangerous, and to
profit by the criticism, not all of which has been
ill-natured or disrespectful, which they have of
late received, Christian Science may become a
blessing to the world. Lyman P. Powell.
m. Critical View of the Doctrines: Christian
Science, as a distinct cult, dates back to 1866, when
Mrs. Mary Baker Grover Eddy formulated its teach-
ings or principles into a system. In 1875 her book,
Science and Health, with Key to ike Scriptures, was
published and since then has been the recognized
text-book of Christian Science, and is given a place
side by side with the Bible. Mrs. Eddy claimed that
forty-odd years ago she discovered " the Christ
Science," which she named " Christian Science,"
and also that her book came to her as a direct rev-
elation from God. This latter claim is made in the
book itself and in many utterances of Mrs. Eddy
and her followers. How definite this claim is may
be learned from the following quotation from The
Boston Herald, of Dec. 2, 1900, which appeared in
203
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Beience
that paper over the signature of Mrs. Eddy: " I
should blush to write of ' Science and Health, with
Key to the Scriptures/ as I have were it of human
origin, and I, apart from God, its author. But as I
was only a scribe, echoing the harmonies of Heaven
in divine metaphysics, I can not be super-modest in
my estimate of the Christian Science text-book. "
The present has to do with Christian Science only
as a religious system; and with an authorized copy
of Science and Health, with Key to the Scriptures in
hand (74th ed., 1893, 103d ed., 1896), there can be
no doubt as to the principles which constitute the
system.
Any system of thought or philosophy, which
claims to be a religious system, must be tested first
by its idea of God. In this department
z. Doctrine Christian Science is a confused and con-
of God. fusing system. It is a strange mixture
of pantheism and platonism, borrow-
ing from both and differing from each. The panthe-
ism of the East admitted the reality of the universe
and taught that it is God. Christian Science denies
the reality of matter (Science and Health, 103d ed.,
p. 173), teaches that mind is all and identifies mind
with God (Science and Health, 103d ed., pp. 166,
171). This is the old monism, of which J. G. Fichte
was the foremost apostle. He declared that God
alone is and beside him is nothing. Christian Sci-
ence says that " nothing possesses reality or exist-
ence except Mind, God " (103d ed., p. 226). The
following sentences, found everywhere on the pages
of Science and Health, give the belief of this system.
" In Christian Science we learn that God is definite-
ly individual, and not personal "; " An individual
God rather than a personal God." This individual-
ity is defined as " the infinite and divine principle."
Again, " God is a spirit, and spirit is divine princi-
ple." And definitely is it stated, " God is divine
principle." " God is Spirit, and Spirit is divine
Principle " (103d ed., pp. 225-227). This is the
answer given to the question, " What is God? "
" God is divine Principle, supreme incorporeal being,
Mind, Spirit, Soul, Life, Truth, Love " (103d ed.,
p. 461). On the same page it is declared that these
terms are synonymous and that they are " intended
to express the nature, essence, and wholeness of
Deity." The system identifies the existence of God
with the existence of man as a spiritual being.
" God, without the image and likeness of himself,
would be a nonentity, or Mind unexpressed " (103d
ed., p. 199). " Man is coexistent with God " (103d
ed., p. 473). According to this system God is Prin-
ciple, is love, is Life, is Truth: but principle without
personality, love without a lover, life without a liv-
ing being, truth without any consciousness. Mrs.
Eddy's favorite word for God is Principle, an abso-
lute depersonalized term, one which does not ad-
mit of the ideas of consciousness, volition, or feel-
ing. Mrs. Eddy says, " God is good, God is truth,
God is love." But she says more than that and it
is that addition which defines Christian Science;
for she declares: " Good is God, truth is God, love
is God." Thus Mrs. Eddy puts attributes of God
in the place of God, and deifies the attributes. All
admit that God is good, is truth, is love, but objec-
tion arises when it is said that good is God, truth is
God, love is God. There are many detached sen-
tences in Science and Health which any Bible stu-
dent would accept as true expressions of the Bib-
lical idea of God, but these sentences are offset by
others which teach the very opposite ideas. Pres.
William Herbert Perry Faunce, of Brown Univer-
sity, holds that " much of the success of Christian
Science is due to the fact that its vague phraseology
is equally acceptable to the evangelical Christian
and to the atheist. The average Christian, approach-
ing the Christian Science creed on one side, hears
that God is ' spirit, omnipresent and eternal '; and
at once accepts the teaching. The atheist, coming
up on the other side, hears that God is ' principle,
truth, harmony/ and he can accept it without the
slightest change of position " (Search-Lights on
Christian Science, New York, 1899).
A system is to be judged not by isolated sen-
tences, but by its tone and tendency, its ultimate
reach. The essential idea of God presented in Chris-
tian Science is that God is principle, not personal-
ity. As such the God of Christian Science has no
existence apart from the mind or life that thinks
God. President Faunce tells of a young man who
had passed through Christian Science into atheism,
who, when asked to describe the path he had trav-
ersed, answered: "The Christian Science teacher
began by thoroughly persuading me that God is not
personal, but is pure ' Principle.' After some months
I accepted that; and then I said to myself: ' What
is a principle? Does it have real existence? Is it
an entity or reality? ' I soon saw that a ' principle '
is simply an idea of my own mind, and when the
Scientist dissolved my God into ' principle ' I ceased
to believe in any God whatever. I now believe sim-
ply in myself."
This is the ultimate of the Christian Science idea
of God, it teaches one to find the spiritual reality,
the " divine principle," within himself. But this does
not accord with Biblical teaching, which is that
God is Spirit, distinct from nature which he has
created: that he is a being who wills and loves, who
is to be obeyed and loved; a real, substantive exist-
ence, a self-conscious, intelligent, voluntary agent;
a being who can say " I am," and to whom we can
say " Thou "; a being on whom men are dependent
and to whom they are accountable. Christian Sci-
ience denies all this in denying personality to God.
Since the God of Christian Science is other and less
than personal, he is other and less than the Chris-
tian's God, the Father of our Lord Jesus Christ and
the Father of our spirits.
After defining God as Principle, the question is
asked, "Is there more than one Principle?" (Sci-
ence and Health, 103d ed., p. 461). And the answer
is: " There is not. There is but one
2. Doctrine Life, one Truth, one Love; and this is
of the God." On page 227 is this definite
Trinity, statement concerning the Trinity:
" Life, Truth, and Love constitute the
triune God, or triply divine Principle. They repre-
sent a trinity in unity, three in one — the same in
essence, though multiform in office: God the Father;
Christ the type of Sonship; Divine Science, or the
Holy Comforter. These three express the three-
fold, essential nature of the Infinite." Such utter-
Science
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
994
ances as these are out of harmony with all that
teaching of the Scriptures which represent the Eter-
nal God as manifesting himself as Father, Son, and
Spirit (Matt, xxviii. 19; I Cor. xii. 4-6; II Cor. xiii.
14; I Pet. i. 2, etc.).
The position of Christian Science concerning the
person and work of Jesus Christ radically differs
from that generally accepted. To begin with, Chris-
tian Science teaches that " Mary's conception of him
(Jesus Christ) was spiritual " (Science
3. Chris- and Health, 103d ed., p. 228). This is
tology. what Mrs. Eddy says of it: " The illu-
mination of Mary's spiritual sense put
to silence material law, and its order of generation,
and brought forth her child by the revelation of
Truth, demonstrating God (Principle) as the Father
of men " (103d ed., p. 334). There is need to ob-
serve closely this claim of Christian Science. It
claims to be the Holy Spirit, and as such to be the
generating cause of Jesus. But if of Jesus, why not
of other children? Mrs. Eddy meets the question
by the statement: " The time cometh when the
spiritual origin of man, the Science which ushered
Jesus into human presence, will be understood
and demonstrated "; but " until it is learned that
generation rests on no sexual basis/' Mrs. Eddy
advises, " let marriage continue " (103d ed., p.
274). Of the existence of this tenet of Christian
Science multitudes of the adherents of the system
have no knowledge. But it is a fundamental ele-
ment in the structure of the whole system and is
essentially immoral. No accusation of immoral
practise is brought against Christian Scientists, yet
the accusation of immorality must be laid against
this teaching of Christian Science. Though it is an
absurd and preposterous teaching and might con-
ceivably be laughed out of court, still it can not be
merely laughed at as teaching what is subversive of
the marriage relation. In her Miscellaneous Wri-
tings (p. 288) Mrs. Eddy asks the question, " Is
marriage nearer right than celibacy? " and this is
her answer: " Human knowledge indicates that it
is, while science indicates that it is not."
In harmony with this notion concerning his con-
ception Christian Science denies the actual incar-
nation of Christ, and so the reality of his person.
Mary did not give birth to an actual body, but to a
spiritual idea, an idea produced by her communion
with the divine Principle. She gave birth to an
ideal. But what Jesus said of himself is the oppo-
site of this. He said: " A spirit hath not flesh and
bones as ye see me have " (Luke xxiv. 39). In
explanation of this utterance Mrs. Eddy says: " To
accommodate himself to immature ideas of spiritual
power — for spirituality was possessed only in a
limited degree, even by his disciples — Jesus called
the body, which by this power he raised from the
grave, ' flesh and bones ' " (103d ed., p. 209). In
the theory of Christian Science flesh is an illusion,
therefore Christ did not come in the flesh. There
is a verse in St. John which may well be quoted in
this connection: " Hereby know ye the Spirit of
God: every spirit that confesseth that Jesus Christ
is come in the flesh is of God; and every spirit that
confesseth not that Jesus Christ is come in the flesh
is not of God; and this is that spirit of anti-Christ,
whereof ye have heard that it should come; and
even now already is it in the world " (I John iv.
2-3).
Christian Science deals with Christ as a dual exist-
ence, the seen and the unseen, the Jesus and the
Christ. Jesus is a mortal belief which has disap-
peared (Science and Health, 103d ed.,
4. Doctrine p. 229). Christ is a principle, a spin-
of Christ's tual idea, which continues " to exist in
Presence, the eternal order of Divine (Christian)
Science." According to this teaching
the only Christ which humanity has to-day is Chris-
tian Science (103d ed., p. 293). That this is a legiti-
mate inference from the teaching of Christian Sci-
ence is sustained by the teaching in Science and
Health that Christ is " Divine Science." Here is a
sentence from that volume: " There is but one way
to Heaven and harmony, and Christ, Divine Sci-
ence, shows us that way." Another thing that sus-
tains the inference that Christian Science is hu-
manity's Christ, is the teaching that identifies the
second coming of Christ with Christian Science (103d
ed., pp. 43, 293). Mrs. Eddy says, " The second
appearance of Jesus is unquestionably the spiritual
advent of the advancing idea of God in Christian
Science " (103d ed., p. 126). Adherents of Chris-
tian Science may not accept this teaching, but they
readily fall into the habit of attributing to Christian
Science the blessings which they receive and their
praise is all of Christian Science. The leaders en-
courage this and they are consistent in doing so,
for in their teaching, if not in their convictions,
Christian Science is the Christ present and opera-
tive in human life. The acceptance of the Chris-
tology of Christian Science, as it is presented in
Science and Health, may be considered the most
effective way of destroying the soul's consciousness
of the Christ of Christian thought and belief.
Denying personality to God and to Christ, Chris-
tian Science likewise denies personality to the Holy
Spirit. There is no Trinity, as it is
5. Doctrine generally understood. Science and
of the Health affirms: " The theory of three
Holy persons in one God suggests heathen
Spirit gods, rather than one ever present I
Am " (103d ed., p. 152). Then, true
to its idea of the impersonal deity, Christian Science
teaches that " Life, Truth, and Love constitute the
triune God, or triple divine principle. God the
Father, Jesus the type of Sonship (not Sonship,
only the type of sonship), and Divine Science, or the
Holy Comforter " (103d ed., p. 227). It is here
that Christian Science approaches the blasphemous
by claiming to be the Holy Spirit. Mrs. Eddy very
definitely says with reference to the Comforter whom
Jesus promised, " This Comforter I understand to
be Divine Science." The following quotations from
Science and Health (103d ed.) establish this fact of
the identifying of Christian Science with the Holy
Spirit. " It (Christian Science) is a divine utter-
ance, the Comforter which leadeth into all Truth "
(p. 21). " John the Baptist prophesied the coming
of the immaculate Jesus, and saw in those days the
spiritual idea as the Messiah, who would baptise
with the Holy Ghost — Divine Science " (p. 553).
In the Glossary (p. 579) is this definition: " Holy
soft
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Setenoe
Ghost, Divine Science; the development of eternal
Life, Truth, and Love."
Christian Science makes a distinction between
" mortals " and " immortals." " Mortals," who
are not created in God's image, are simply human
beings, " material falsities, errors which must dis-
appear to give place to the facts which
6. Anthro- belong to immortal man." The life of
pology. these mortals, or temporal life, is a
false sense of existence. " To him-
self, mortal and material man seems to be substan-
tial; but this is mere belief, or a false view of sub-
stance, and involves error." " Mortal man seems
to himself to be substance, but he is ' image ' "
(Science and Health, 103d ed., p. 197). " Mortal
body and material man are delusions which spiri-
tual understanding and science destroy " (p. 198).
" Mortals are material falsities " (p. 472). The
" immortals " are the ideas or reflections of God,
they always have been, never shall cease to be, and
are absolutely perfect. According to this system
the " immortal," the essential or spiritual man,
" is coexistent and eternal with God " (pp. 231,
509), " has existed forever, and is always beyond
and above the mortal illusion of any life, substance,
and intelligence as existent in matter " (p. 198),
has no separate existence apart from God (p. 257),
" possesses no life, intelligence, or creative power
of his own " (p. 471), " is perfect even as the Fa-
ther is perfect " (p. 191), " can do no harm, for his
thoughts are true thoughts, passing from God to
man " (p. 283). The doctrine of man is stated in
the paragraph on " Real Life " (p. 242): " When
Being is understood, Life will be recognized as
neither material nor finite, but as infinite — as God,
universal Good; and the belief that life, or mind,
was ever in a finite form, or good in evil, will be
destroyed. Then it will be understood that Spirit
never entered matter, and was therefore never
raised from it."
In its teaching on man Christian Science puts
him on an equality with God in his origin, charac-
ter, and eternity. It declares in unequivocal lan-
guage that man never was formed from the dust
of the earth, that God never breathed into his nos-
trils the breath of life, that in his case there is
neither birth nor growth, maternity nor decay,
that he is and always has been as perfect as the
God whom he reveals and whose character he re-
flects. It is only necessary to compare this teach-
ing with the Bible statements concerning man to
see how widely Christian Science differs from the
Bible on this subject. The Bible says: " God cre-
ated man " (Gen. i. 27). That which is created
can not be coexistent with its creator. The Bible
represents man's life as a vapor appearing for a
little time (James iv. 14), as a weaver's shuttle
(Job vii. 6), as a hand-breadth (Ps. xxxix. 5), as a
tale that is told (Ps. xc. 9). These and similar ut-
terances do not accord with the idea that man is
coexistent with and eternal like God . The Bible says
that " death has passed upon all men " (Rom. v.
12), that "it is appointed unto man once to die "
(Heb. ix. 27), that his years are three score and
ten or four score (Ps. xc. 10). Such utterances con-
tradict the Christian Science teaching that " man
is incapable of death." The teaching of Christian
Science that " man is perfect even as the Father
is perfect," is denied in such passages as Job ix.
20; Ps. cxliii. 2; Isa. lxiv. 6; Ephes. ii. 1, and simi-
lar passages, all of which are in line with the gen-
eral teaching of the Bible. It is impossible to
accept the teaching of Christian Science on the crea-
tion and constitution of man and the teaching of
the Bible on the same subject. If one is true the
other is false. They are distinctly unlike and there
is no possible compromise between the two.
Long ago it was said that the sign-post at which
true and false theology parts company is sin.
Christian Science knows no such thing as sin.
Dominated by the idea that man is coexistent with
God and has no actual entity apart
7. Doctrine from God (Science and Health, 103d
of Sin. ed., p. 471), Christian Science affirms
that sin is only a belief of mortal mind.
Mrs. Eddy declares " man is incapable of sin, sick-
ness, and death, inasmuch as he derives his essence
from God, and does not possess a single original, or
underived power. Hence the real man can not de-
part from holiness " (p. 471). The dictum of Sci-
ence and Health is that " evil should de denied iden-
tity or power, because it has none of the divine
hues " (p. 475), that " evil is but an illusion, and
error has no real basis, it is a false belief " (p. 476),
that " evil can only seem real, by giving reality to
the unreal " (p. 466), that " evil is the awful de-
ception and unreality df existence " (p. 103). All
these utterances are condensed in this one: " Evil
has no reality. It is neither person (hence there
is no devil, the idea is ' pure delusion'; (p. 559),
nor place (hence there is no hell), nor thing (hence
there is no accountability), but is simply belief, an
illusion of material self " (p. 237). Growing out of
this doctrine of the unreality of evil, Christian Sci-
ence teaches that sin has no existence, that it is
not of the verity of being, and that it " exists only
so long as the material illusion remains " (p. 207).
The Christian Science principle of the " unreality
of evil " plunges a dagger through the Bible doc-
trine of man's moral accountability and lets out
the very heartblood of the distinctive teaching of
the Scriptures. The Bible says: " The soul that
sinneth, it shall die " (Ezek. xxviii. 4, 20); Chris-
tian Science says: " The soul can not sin." The
Bible doctrine is: "If we say we have no sin, we
deceive ourselves, and the truth is not in us "
(I John i. 18); the doctrine of Christian Science is:
" Man is incapable of sin." The Bible statement
is: " He is just to forgive us our sins " (I John i.
9); Christian Science says: " To suppose that God
forgives sin is to misunderstand Love." The Bible
declares: " He that covereth his sins shall not pros-
per, but whoso confesseth and forsaketh them, shall
find mercy" (Prov. xxviii. 13); Christian Science
exhorts: Deny the reality of sin.
Denying the reality of evil and the existence of
sin, Christian Science denies the fact
8. The of the atonement. According to its
Atonement teaching Christ did not suffer or
die to deliver men from sin. In fact
Christian Science denies altogether the reality of
the suffering of Christ and calls his death " the great
Solenoa
SoilH
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
sm
illusion." But Mrs. Eddy has difficulty in facing
its historic reality and even at the cost of sacrificing
consistency says: " Had wisdom characterized all
the sayings of Jesus, he would not have prophesied
his own death." In a paragraph on " Reconcilia-
tion " we read that " Jesus aided in reconciling
man to God, only by giving man a truer sense of
Love, the divine Principle of his teaching, which
would redeem man from under the law of matter,
by this explanation of the law of Spirit " (Science
and Health, 103d ed., p. 324). Here we are taught
not that Jesus reconciled man to God, but " aided
in reconciling man to God," and that he did this
" only by giving man a true sense of love." This
certainly is not Pauline theology. " Reconciled to
God by the death of his Son " (Rom. v. 10) ; " Rec-
onciled us to himself by Jesus Christ " (II Cor. v.
18) ; " Reconcile both unto God in one body by
the cross" (Eph. ii. 16); " Having made peace
through the blood of his cross, by him to reconcile
all things unto himself; . . . you that were some-
times alienated and enemies in your mind by
wicked works, yet now hath he reconciled in the
body of his flesh through death " (Col. i. 20-22).
It is impossible to reconcile Paul's doctrine of the
reconciliation with that of Christian Science. Paul
presents reconciliation as fact accomplished by
Christ through his death. Christian Science pre-
sents reconciliation as a process, in which Jesus aids
by giving man a truer sense of Love. In a para-
graph on " Substitution " we read: " One sacrifice,
however great, is insufficient to pay the debt of sin.
The atonement requires constant self-immolation
on the sinner's part. That God's wrath should be
vented upon his beloved Son is divinely unnatural.
Such a theory is man-made. The atonement is a
hard problem in theology; but its more reasonable
explanation is, that suffering is an error of sinful
sense, which Truth destroys, and that eventually
both sin and suffering will fall at the feet of ever-
lasting love " (Science and Health, 103d ed., p. 328).
The statements of this paragraph are quite out of
harmony with statements in the Bible. " One sac-
rifice, however great, is insufficient to pay the debt
of sin," but the Bible says: " By his own blood he
entered in once into the holy place, having obtained
eternal redemption " (Heb. ix. 12); " once in the
end of the world hath he appeared to put away sin
by the sacrifice of himself " (Heb. ix. 26) ; " by the
which we are sanctified through the offering of the
body of Jesus Christ once" (Heb. x. 10); "this
man after he had offered one sacrifice for sins for-
ever " (Heb. x. 12). " The atonement requires
. constant self-immolation on the sinner's part."
Then atonement is not made by Christ for the sin-
ner, but by the sinner for himself. The Bible
teaches that we do not atone for ourselves; that
we " receive " the atonement, and that we receive
it through our Lord Jesus Christ (Rom. v. 11).
" That God's wrath should be vented upon his well-
beloved Son is divinely unnatural. Such a theory
is man-made." Yet the Bible says that he was
" smitten of God," that " the Lord hath laid on
him the iniquity of us all," that " it pleased the
Lord to bruise him " (Isa. liii. 4, 6, 10) ; and " God
spared not his own son, but delivered him up for
us all " (Rom. viii. 32). In Christian Science there
is no place for the atonement as generally under-
stood by Christians. In this system salvation is
not through a Savior sacrificing himself for man,
but through an illumination of man's own mind.
This is the way in which Christian Science defines
salvation: " Explaining and demonstrating the
way of Divine Science, he became the way of sal-
vation to all who accepted his word, that mortals
might learn of him and escape from evil. The true
man being linked by Science to his Maker, mortals
need only turn from sin, and lose sight of them-
selves, in order to find the real man and his rela-
tion to God, and recognize the divine sonship "
(Science and Health, 103d ed., p. 211). According
to this the medium of salvation is not a Savior, but
Christian Science. So it is definitely stated. "Christ
is the idea of Truth, and this idea comes to heal
sickness and sin, through Christian Science, which
denies corporeal power " (p. 469). This denies in
toto the idea of a personal Savior. Of course, in a
system which denies the reality of sin, as moral evil,
there can be no place for atonement. One asks,
" What becomes of the atonement when suffering
which was not suffering (only a ' great illusion '),
in a body which was not a body (only a ' mortal
belief '), was offered in expiation for sin which was
not sin? "
As prayer is generally understood it has no place
in Christian Science. Prayer implies that God is a
personal conscious Being. Christian Science de-
nies this, declares that God is princi-
9. Doctrine pie and hence inhibits prayer. Mrs.
of Prayer. Eddy asks: " Who would stand before
a blackboard and pray the principle of
mathematics to work out the problem? The rule is
already established, and it is our task to work out
the solution. Shall we ask the Divine Principle of
all goodness to do his own work? That work was
finished long ago; and we have only to avail our-
selves of God's rule, in order to receive the bless-
ing " (Science and Health, 103d ed., p. 308). She
also asserts that " Prayer to a personal God is a
hindrance, it is a misapprehension of the source and
manner of all good." The Christian Scientist may
declare that he believes in prayer, but if pressed
for his definition of prayer, provided he be well
versed in the doctrines of his system, he will state
that " prayer is the affirmation of principle." " A
request," writes Mrs. Eddy, " that another may
work for us never does our work. The habit of
pleading with the divine Mind, as one pleads with
a human being, perpetuates the belief in God as
humanly circumscribed " (p. 308). Prayer is de-
fined as " the habitual struggle to be always good "
(p. 309). It is said that " the only beneficial effect
of prayer for the sick is on the human mind, ma-
king it act more powerfully on the body, through
a blind faith in God," and that " it is not Truth
which does this " (p. 317), so Christian Science
would eliminate all prayer for the sick, because the
•' common custom of praying for the recovery of
the sick, finds help in blind belief; whereas help
should come from the enlightened understanding "
(p. 318). The idea of prayer, presented in Christian
Science, is quite opposite to the whole idea and
297
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Scienoe
SoilU
economy of prayer as presented in the Bible, under-
stood and practised by Christians in all ages.
Christian Science recognizes Mrs. Eddy's Sci-
ence and Health, with Key to the Scriptures as of
equal authority with the Bible. Great attachment
for the Bible is declared, but any passage which
contradicts any of the postulates of the
xo. The system is rejected. Thus, Mrs. Eddy
Scriptures, gives no explanation of Gen. ii. 7,
" And the Lord God formed man of the
dust of the ground and breathed into his nostrils the
breath of life ; and man became a living soul . ' ' Com-
menting on this verse, Mrs. Eddy asks: " How can
the material organization become the basis of man?
How can the non-intelligent become the medium of
Mind, and error the enunciator of Truth? Is this
truth? or is it a lie, concerning man and God?"
And she answers: " It must be the latter, for God
presently curses the ground " (Science and Health,
103d ed., p. 517). Adam has made a good deal of
trouble for theologians of all schools. Mrs. Eddy
met the difficulties and in her own way solved them
by a display of philological skill. She holds that
Adam is merely a name for the " matter " which
opposes " mind." In order to prove this she says:
" Divide the name Adam into two syllables, and it
reads, a dam, or obstruction. This suggests the
thought of something fluid, of mortal mind in so-
lution " (p. 233). These two instances of exegesis
are samples of the way in which the Bible is treated
by this system. Such treatment utterly destroys
its majesty and meaning. A comparison of the
estimate which Christian Science puts on the Bible
and on the text-book Science and Health shows the
relative place of each in the system. The follow-
ing parallel column exhibits these estimates. This
column is made from sentences in Science and Health
and the Miscellaneous Writings:
The Bible.
(1) In parts composed
of legends, meta-
phors, fables, alle-
gories, and myths.
(2) Full of mistakes.
(3) Full of thousands of
errors.
(4) A compilation of
human documents.
(5) Contains statements
which are not true.
Science and Health.
(1) Revealed truth, the
perfect word of
God.
(2) Uncontaminated
truth.
(3) Truth without mix-
ture of human
error.
(4) Divine teaching.
(5) Infallible teaching.
This comparison might be drawn out to great
length, but these statements are sufficient to show
the superior place which Christian Science assigns
Mrs. Eddy's book.
Christian Science centers thought on self and
self as free from all maladies, from sin, suffering,
and sorrow. If the reality of sickness and suffer-
ing be denied, the channels of sympathy and phi-
lanthropy dry up. If the reality of
zz. Service, sin and death be denied, that act
quenches all missionary ardor. Chris-
tian Science builds splendid temples of stone and
adorns them with all the genius of architect and
artist. But Christian Science builds no hospitals
or orphanages, or schools; for sickness, which needs
a hospital; want, which needs an orphanage; and
ignorance, which needs a school, have no actual
existence. They are only illusions of mortal mind.
Genuine Christianity builds churches, but does
not lavish all its money on them, for there are hos-
pitals and asylums and kindergartens and colleges
to be built and to be built by the money of those
who kneel at the cross of Christ and from him learn
that the true economy of life is to minister even
unto the least of the children of men.
J. F. Carson.
Bibliography: W. H. Holcombe, Letters on Spiritual Sub-
jects in Answer to Inquiring Souls, Philadelphia, 1885;
H. M. Tenney, Christian Science: its Truths and Errors,
Cleveland, Ohio, 1888; E. P. Terhune, Fallacy of Chris-
tian Science, New York, 1890; J. M. Buckley, Christian
Science and Superstitions, ib. 1899; R. H. Newton, Chris-
tian Science: Truths of spiritual Healing and their Con-
tribution to the Growth of Orthodoxy, ib. 1898; J. H. Bates,
Christian Science and its Problems, ib. 1898; W. P. Mo-
Corkle, Christian Science, Philadelphia, 1900; C. F. Win-
bigler, Christian Science and Kindred Superstitions, New
York, 1901; M. W. Gifford, Christian Science against itself,
Cincinnati, 1902; M. C. Sturge. Truth and Error of Chris-
tian Science, New York, 1903, new ed., 1908; C. G. Pease,
Expose of Christian Science Methods and Teachings, ib. 1905;
£. A. Kimball, C. P. Smith, S. J. Hanna, Christian Sci-
ence and Legislation, Boston, 1906; R. D. Kathrens, Side
Lights on Mary Baker Eddy Glover-Science Church Trus-
tees Controversy, Kansas City, 1907; L. P. Powell, Chris-
tian Science, the Faith and its Founder, New York, 1907;
F. T. Brown, The Truth and Error in so-called " Christian
Science" New Haven, 1907; J. M. Gray, The Antidote for
Christian Science, New York, 1907; R. C. Harker, Chris-
tian Science, Cincinnati, 1908; F. S. Hoffman, The Sphere
of Religion, New York, 1908; L. A. Lambert, Christian
Science before the Bar of Reason, ib. 1908; G. C. Mars, The
Interpretation of Life, in which is Shown the Relation of
Modern Culture to Christian Science, ib. 1908 (a defense
of Christian Science) ; Sibyl Wilbur, Life of Mary Baker
Eddy, Concord, 1908 (circulated by Christian Scien-
tists); F. Ballard, Eddyism "Christian Science" mis-
called. A Delusion and a Snare, London, 1909; I. M.
Haldeman, Christian Science in the Light of Holy Scrip-
ture, New York, 1909; S. J. Hanna, Christian Science:
the Religion of the Bible, Boston, 1909; The Faith and
Works of Christian Science, New York, 1909; F. E.
Marston, The Mask of Christian Science, ib. 1909; G. Mil-
mine, The Life of Mary Baker G. Eddy and the History of
Christian Science, ib. 1909 (critical and adverse); S.
Paget, Faith and Works of Christian Science, ib. 1909
(thorough medical criticism of the system) ; F. Podmore,
Mesmerism and Christian Science. A Short History of
Mental Healing, London, 1909; C. R. Brown, Faith and
Health, New York, 1910 (adverse, by a former Christian
Scientist) ; B. O. Flower, Christian Science as a Religious
Belief and a Therapeutic Agent, Boston, 1910 (critical;
rejects the philosophy of Christian Science but admits
numerous cures) ; F. E. Marsten, The Mask of Christian
Science: a History of the Rise and Growth of the System
together with a Comparison of metaphysical Healing with
Matters scientific. New York, 1910; W. W. Walter, Five
, Years in Christian Science, Chicago, 1911; R. C. Arm-
strong. Christian Science Exposed, Fort Worth, Texas,
1911.
SCILLI, MARTYRS OF: Twelve Christians,
seven men and five women, martyred on July 17,
180, either at Scilli, a city of the proconsular province
of North Africa, or at Sila or Silli, two small cities
of Numidia. The story goes that on July 17, 180,
six Christians who were named Speratus (the spokes-
man), Nartzallus, Cittinus, Donata, Secunda, and
Vestia, were brought before the proconsul Satur-
ninus and repeatedly urged to swear by the genius of
SolUi
Sootland
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
998
the emperor and thus to secure imperial clemency
for their crime, which consisted in simple adherence
to Christianity. This demand was steadfastly re-
fused, and a respite of thirty days twice offered by
the proconsul was as firmly declined. Saturninus
thereupon condemned the six Christians and an
equal number of absentees — the four men, Veturius,
Felix, Aquilinus and C&lestinus, and the two
women, Januaria and Generosa — to be beheaded.
Until 1881 the martyrdom was known only from
the Latin Acta martorum SciUitanorum proconstdaria
(fid. C. Baronius, Annates ecclesiastici ad annum
Christi 202, 12 vols., Mainz, 1609); Fragmentum de
martyribus SciUitanis (ed. J. Mabillon, Vetera ana-
lecta, vol. iv., part 3, Paris, 1723); a document
edited by T. Ruinart (Acta martyrum, pp. 131-132,
Regensburg, 1859); eight Latin manuscripts men-
tioned, though not published, by the Bollandist
Cuperus (ASB, July, iv., 207-208); and a text
edited by Aube' (Lea Chretiens dans V empire romain,
pp. 503-509, Paris, 1881). On the basis of these
texts, the martyrdom was assigned to the year 200.
In 1881, however, H. Usener edited in the list of
lectures at Bonn a ninth-century Greek text of the
passion discovered by him in the Bibliotheque
Nationale, Paris. This text is not only far more cor-
rect than the Latin Acta, but apparently comes
from an eye-witness or ear-witness who drew up the
record shortly after the execution of the martyrs.
Since this discovery the Latin versions themselves
have been reedited by the Bollandists in the Ana-
lecta BoUandiana (viii. 5-8, Paris, 1889), and by
J. A. Robinson in Texts and Studies (I., ii. 106 sqq.,
Cambridge, 1893), both unduly exalting the Latin
versions at the expense of the Greek. There is,
however, no martyrology which gives so purely
and unfeignedly a true picture of early Christian
life and death as the text published by Usener.
It is clear from the Acta that considerable hatred
of the Christians was still possible in the early years
of the reign of the third Antonine emperor, although
the rigor of Marcus Aurelius had been much miti-
gated, as shown by the fact that Saturninus did not
resort to torture, but repeatedly offered the Chris-
tians time to reconsider. It is also noteworthy
that it would appear that the martyr Speratus
made a distinction between the Pauline writings
and the other books of the New Testament.
(Franz Gorres.)
Bibliography : Consult the following works cited under Per-
secution of Christians: Keim, 1881, Neumann (i. 71-
76. 284-286), and Allard (i. 436-439); and also: B. Aube,
he* Chrttien* dan* r empire romain lSO-t\9, Paris, 1881;
idem, lttude sur un nouveau texte des Acts* de* martyr*
aeiUitain*, ib. 1881; F. Gorres, in ZWT, 1884, pp. 37-84,
1891, pp. 235-243; idem, in Philologu*, 1884, pp. 134-140,
615-624; idem, in JPT, x. 228-268. 395-434; R. Hilgen-
feld, in ZWT. zxiv. 3, pp. 291-331; DCB, iv. 592-593.
SCOT, MICHAEL: Scottish scholar; b. [in the
county of Durham] England, c. 1190; [d. c. 1235,
probably in Italy], After studying natural science
at Oxford, he went to Paris, the court of Emperor
Frederick II. of Germany [in Sicily], Toledo, back
to Frederick's court, and at a later period returned
to England, where he is supposed to have held some
office at the court of King Edward I. [He is said to
have taken holy orders tird to have enjoyed the
favor of Honorius III. and Gregory IX., but never
held an office in the Church, though once he was
nominated archbishop of Cashel.] Scot owed his
fame to his translations into Latin of Arabic works,
those of Averrote among others. By commission of
the emperor, he also translated Aristotle's " History
of Animals" and his books De ccdo et mundo. His
own writings did not attain to the merit of his
translations. [A number of them are still in manu-
script. To later times he was a necromancer and not
a scientist, and as such Dante puts him in hell
(Inferno, cant, xx.).] Carl Mirbt.
Bibliography: Earlier works are in large part superseded
by J. Wood Brown, Life and Legend of Michael Scot {1176-
1832), Edinburgh, 1897. Consult further: P. F. Tytfer,
Live* of Scottish Worthies, 3 vols., London, 1831-33; Hie-
toire litteraire de la France, xx. 43 sqq.; A. Jourdain, Re-
cherche* critique* *ur tage et Vorigine de* traduction* latine*
cVAristote, Paris, 1843; B. Haureau, De la philoeophie
scolastique, i. 467 sqq., ib. 1850; L. Leelerc, Hist, de la
mUecine Arabs, ii. 451 sqq., Parte, 1876; DNB, 1L 50-42;
Bayle, Dictionary, v. 100.
SCOTCH CONFESSION OF FAITH: A confes-
sion drawn up by John Knox and five associates ap-
pointed by the Scotch Parliament which assembled
at Edinburgh in August, 1560, after the death of
the queen-regent, Mary of Guise, in June and at the
close of the civil war. It consists of a preface and
twenty-five articles on the chief doctrines of religion
which are briefly, tersely, and vigorously stated.
It agrees with the other Reformed confessions of the
sixteenth century, but in some articles is more
pronounced in its opposition to the Roman Catholic
Church than most of them. These parts Mitchell
(ut inf., p. 123) called the " unrestrained " portions.
It was composed in four days, twice read, article by
article, in Parliament, and adopted by the same as
being "based upon the infallible Word of God/'
Only three temporal lords voted against it, for the
reason that they believed as their forefathers be-
lieved. The Roman Catholic bishops were called
upon to object and refute, but kept silence. Seven
years later (1568), after the abdication of Queen
Mary, the confession was readopted, and the Re-
formed Kirk of Scotland was formally acknowledged
and established. In 1580 the confession was signed
by King James II., and a supplementary confession
(sometimes called the Second Scotch Confession)
added to it. It was practically superseded by the
Westminster Confession, which was adopted by the
Scotch Assembly in 1648. The confession is printed
in the Acts of the Scotch Parliament for 1560; in
John Knox, History of the Scotch Reformation (ed.
D. Laing, vol. ii., Edinburgh, 1895); in D. Calder-
wood, History of the Kirk of Scotland (Edinburgh,
1842) ; in W. Dunlop, Collection of Scotch Confes-
sions (vol. ii., London, 1857); in H. A. Niemeyer,
Collectio confessionum Reforrnatarum (Leipsic, 1840;
Latin only) ; and in Schaff, Creeds, iii. 437-485 (Eng-
lish and Latin), cf. i. 680-696.
(Philip ScHAFPf.) D. S. Schaff.
Bibliography: J. Knox, Hist, of the Reformation . . . in
Scotland, ed. C. Lennox, pp. 213-215, London, 1905* the
literature under Knox, John, especially T. MoCrio, and
H. Cowan (pp. 222-234); W. M. Hetherington, Hist, of
the Church of Scotland, pp. 50-54, New York, 1881; P. H.
Brown, John Knox, i. 88-90, London, 1895; idem. Hiat.
of Scotland, ii. 70-72, Cambridge, 1902. A. F. Mitchell,
999
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Mill
Sootland
Th* Scottish Reformation, pp. 99, 123, Edinburgh, 1900;
C. G. McCrie, The Confession* of the Church of Scotland,
thmr Evolution in History, fl>. 1007.
SCOTCH PARAPHRASES: A book of praise for
church use made in Scotland in the eighteenth cen-
tury. In May, 1742, the general assembly of the
Church of Scotland appointed a committee to make
or collect translations in verse of select passages of
Scripture. Their work was sanctioned by the As-
sembly, 1751, and appeared as Scripture Songs,
forty-five in number, and now rare. In 1775 an-
other committee undertook the revision of these,
adding twenty-two paraphrases and five hymns the
precise authorship of which can not be determined
in all cases. Some twenty were altered or rewritten
from Watts, and three from Doddridge; one each
was contributed by Thomas Blacklock, John Ogil vie,
and Thomas Randall; three are by William Robert-
son (1742-51), and several by John Morrison (d.
1798). The name of William Cameron (d. 1811) ap-
pears chiefly as an improver of other men's verses.
The most important share, both for quantity and
quality, was taken from the manuscripts of Michael
Bruce (1746-67). The Paraphrases are marked by
a dry neatness and precision of style, which excludes
whatever could offend the most sober taste, and
leaves little room for lyrical or devotional fire. Their
eminent respectability and long service have made
them household words in Scotland, and they have
been constantly and largely drawn upon by F,ngliah
and American hymnals.
Bibuoobapht: Julian, Hvmnology, pp. 1024-25, 1033-84.
I. The Presbyterian Church.
1. As a Whole.
History (§1).
Separation and Union (f 2).
SC0TLAJTD.
Mode of Worship (| 3).
Constitution (f 4).
2. Severally.
II. The Scotch Episcopal Church.
III. Concreg&tionjdists.
IV. Other Protestant Bodies.
V. The Roman Catholic Church.
Scotland is the northern member of the United
Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland; area, nearly
30,000 square miles; population 4,579,223. In
1851 the population was eighty-four per cent. Pres-
byterian. While this high percentage has not been
maintained during the increase from 2,888,742 (in
1851) to the figures given above, the population is
still predominatingly Presbyterian.
L The Presbyterian Church. — 1. As a Whole: The
struggle of the Reformation in Scotland was brief
and decisive. It soon gave place to the contest for
supremacy between Presbyterianism and Episco-
l siato pahanism, which lasted over a century;
with the revolution of 1688, Scotland
became as overwhelmingly Presbyterian. The first
presentation of Scotch Presbyterian doctrine was the
confession formulated by John Knox (q.v.) in 1560
(see Scotch Confession op Faith). This was
replaced in 1647 by the Westminster Standards
(q.v.). This confession, together with the two
catechisms of like name, has exercised a positive
influence upon organization and worship, wherever
Scottish Presbyterianism has spread.
The Church in Scotland did not share in the politi-
cal and industrial prosperity that followed the union
with England (1707). Religious indifference which
found expression in Deism (q.v.) made itself felt in
Scotland. The question of clerical patronage became
a stumbling block to the peaceful growth of the
Church. The claim of the landed aris-
^tiSePaXd" tocracv anc^ of the crown to the right of
Union, appointing clericals to office was incom-
patible with the unity and independence
of the system of Scotch Presbyterian organization.
The claim had been at various times abolished; but
in 1712 the Tory majority in Parliament revived it,
causing a profound state of dissatisfaction among the
masses of the people bearing fruit in church divisions.
The first of these, called 'The Secession," occurred in
1733 under Ebenezer Erskine (q.v.). While this
was the first formal and organized separation, the
Covenanters (q.v.) had already separated and in
1743 organized as Reformed Presbyterians (see |
Presbyterians, I., 5). The opposition to the ex-
ercise of patronage grew to such an extent that
ministers could be installed in office only with mili-
tary aid. In 1752 arose a new separate body called
the " Relief " (see Presbyterians, I., 2, § 3) . In the
course of a century the number of separatist organ-
isations had grown to about 500 congregations and
in 1847 they were combined as the United Presby-
terian Church. With the beginning of the nineteenth
century a reawakening took place in the Church of
Scotland (see Presbyterians, I., 1) under the
leadership of such men as Thomas Chalmers (q.v.),
under which the church aligned itself more and more
with the doctrinal viewpoint of the separatists.
The patronage struggle, stimulated by the spiritual
revival, was again resumed, with a view to restric-
tion and correction of evils, and the general ques-
tion of the spiritual independence of the Church
came to the front. This led to the ' ' Disrupt ion " and
the organization of the Free Church of Scotland
(see Presbyterians, I., 2). In the next sixty years
the Free Church doubled in membership. In 1874
the right of patronage was removed by parliament,
the election of the clergy was granted to communi-
cants and adherents, and the Established Church
has consequently gained in popularity.
At the close of the last century there were, ac-
cordingly, three great Presbyterian churches in
Scotland: the Established Church consisting of
1,377 congregations; the Free Church with 1,068
congregations; and the United Presbyterian Church
with 593 congregations. The difference between
them was principally involved in the relation of
Church and State. The Established Church was in
accord with the existing state of things. The Free
Church theoretically favored State recognition and
endowment, but entered increasing protest against
the prevailing arrangements, which, in spite of the
abolition of patronage, were felt to be identical with
the former state of things. The United Presbyte-
rians repudiated all connection between Church and
State. All adhered to the Westminster Confession,
but the United Church in 1879 and the Free Church
Soot land
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
800
in 1892 adopted a declaratory act, defining more
closely their attitude, to the effect mainly of moder-
ating ultra-Calvinistic points and not requiring total
subscription from candidates to clerical office. Ne-
gotiations for union between the Free and United
Churches opened in 1863, broken off in 1873 and
resumed in 1896, resulted, Oct. 31, 1900, in the or-
ganization of the United Free Church of Scotland
(see Presbyterians, I., 2). While this resolution
for union was carried in the general assembly of the
Free Church by a vote of 643 to 27, this small
minority now declared itself to be the only true and
legitimate Free Church and laid claim to all the prop-
erty of the organization. For the resulting legal
complications and the settlement see Presbyte-
rians, I., 2-3. For a detailed history of the Pres-
byterian Church in Scotland in its several branches
and for the present situation see Presbyterians, I.
The time of worship is in the morning and evening
of the Sabbath. In the country, if the second serv-
ice is held at all, it is usually in an adjoining chapel,
school, or hall. Prayer is voluntary and extempore,
s Mod f no ^^iUr8y having been used from the
Worship. ^xne °* Archbishop Laud (see Laud,
William). Except in the Highlands
singing is usually accompanied by a musical in-
strument, and the number of church organs is in-
creasing rapidly in the cities. Some congregations
sing metrical versions of the Psalms of the seven-
teenth century, but the great majority sing hymns
also. The Church Hymnary published (1898) by the
authority of the established church, the two parties
in the present United Free, and the Irish Presbyte-
rian Churches, has been widely adopted. The
sermon, usually from twenty-five to thirty-five
minutes in length, is the chief part of the service.
Systematic exposition of the Scriptures, though still
prominent, especially in the morning service, is
on the wane. Baptism is performed in church as
part of the public service, or at home. Communion
is received by all at least twice a year; and by many,
four times. There is no confirmation in the proper
sense of the word, but the minister gives special
instruction to the young people before their first
communion. Weddings are usually at home, but
there is a tendency to transfer them to the church,
as in England. There is a service in the house of
mourning; and at the grave, including a short
prayer, but no address. The minister is expected
to visit not only the sick but all the members of his
congregation regularly. He is the superintendent of
the Sunday-school and usually leads the highest or,
so-called, Bible class at a special hour. Of late
years there has been a very large growth of young
people's societies called "gilds," associated with
the church, and especially of the Young People's
Society of Christian Endeavor. The organization of
Scotch Presbyterianism is essentially alike in all the
Churches. The church elders are chosen by all the
communicants and bound by the confession, and,
together with the minister, they constitute the
4 c « church session and have authority
tution " over m&^rs °f church discipline. A
number of congregations, varying be-
tween 10 and 200, each represented by an elder
elected by the church session (one elder for every
400 communicants in the United Free Church),
and the minister, constitute a presbytery, which
has general oversight over the congregations. A
group of presbyteries forms a synod to which the
acts of the presbyteries may be appealed. The
members of the general assembly are chosen an-
nually by the presbyteries from the ministers and
elders, and it is the court of final appeal (see Polity,
Ecclesiastical; Presbyterians, X.). In the Es-
tablished Church some of the members are chosen
by the towns and the universities. Candidates for
the ministry must have attended lectures on the
classics, mathematics, and philosophy, at a univer-
sity, for at least three semesters. Each candidate
is then examined as to his moral and religious
fitness by a presbytery, and then again on his uni-
versity studies by a committee of the general as-
sembly. Four more years of theological study
follow.
2. Severally: The Established Church— offi-
cially, the Church of Scotland — is ideally independ-
ent neither in legislative nor administrative powers,
since it did not decline the dispositions of the civil
courts with which the decisions of the general as-
sembly were in conflict prior to 1843. In addition,
when the right of patronage was abolished and the
privilege of creedal modification was obtained, these
changes were not valid for the church before the
approval of the State was given. Notwithstanding
this Church is freest among the State churches. The
king is in no sense its head. His representative,
the lord high commissioner, has no vote in the gen-
eral assembly. He may summon and dismiss it,
in the name of the king, as may the moderator in
the name of Jesus Christ. For the statistics and
work of this church see Presbyterians, I., 1.
The decision of the house of lords against the union
of the Free and United Presbyterian Churches, in-
stead of crushing the United Free Church, awoke an
enthusiasm for it that had not previously existed.
Clergy, missionaries, and students, with scarcely
an exception, stood by it, and by 1904 the organiza-
tion showed an actual increase in membership. As
a consequence of the decree of the house of lords
which pronounced the constitution of the Free
Church unalterable, the committee representing
the assembly between sessions raised, within ten
days, the claim for the privilege of heeding the com-
mands of Christ without the fear of legal conse-
quences. This was reiterated by the general as-
sembly of 1905 more formally and explicitly.
The ancient Scotch doctrine of spiritual independ-
ence was restated, emphasizing that the Church
and it alone possessed the right to alter its creed,
and asserting the rule of majority in all church
affairs, governing also the matter of property. For
the statistics of this body see Presbyterians, I., 2.
The Free and the United Presbyterian Churches had
different methods for raising contributions for
clerical support. In the Free Church contributions
were made to a central fund which was propor-
tionately divided among the ministers, each con-
gregation usually having a parsonage and being al-
lowed to add a bonus to its minister's compensation,
after satisfying the central fund. In the United
Church the congregations paid the ministers di-
801
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Scotland
rectly, but when the salaries did not come up to
about $750 (generally with parsonage), the differ-
ence was made up from a reinforcement fund. The
effort to coordinate these two methods met with dif-
ficulties.
The Free Church of Scotland is relatively strong
only in the highland districts (see Presbyterians,
I., 3), is rigidly conservative, especially insisting on
the plenary inspiration of the Scriptures, and vio-
lently opposes the spirit of modern criticism. Its
general assembly in 1905 rejected the declaratory
act of 1892, and forbade the singing of "human
songs" and the use of the organ in divine service.
There are three other small Presbyterian churches
in Scotland, remnants of minorities that refused to
follow majorities in falling away from what they
considered the truth. They are (1) the Free Pres-
byterian Church; (2) the Reformed Presbyterian;
and (3) the Original Secession, properly called the
"Old Light" (see for data and history of these
churches Presbyterians, I., 4-6).
IL The Scotch Episcopal Church: This church
was in former times the great rival of the Presbyte-
rian Church. After the downfall of the Stuarts its
service was forbidden and subjected to other re-
strictive measures, while the church itself was almost
expelled from the country. In 1792 full toleration
was again granted. Owing to English influence
most of the aristocracy and the landed nobility be-
long to this Church. Its cause has gained also by
thorough organization. The country is divided into
seven dioceses: Moray, Aberdeen, Brechin, St.
Andrews, Edinburgh, Glasgow, and Argyle. From
1876 an excellent system of lay representation has
been organized, whose aim is the support of the
bishops in all financial affairs. The attractiveness
of the church service and the earnest and self-deny-
ing activity of the clergy have contributed to its
rapid growth. In 1910 it reported 404 churches
and mission stations, 335 clergymen, and 51,289
communicants, with contributions of about $100,-
000 for main purposes. On account of its alleged
High-church proclivities, a small body forming
nine parishes has separated, and claimed direct
connection with the Church of England.
UL Congregationalists: There is no trace of a
movement in Scotland simultaneous with that tur-
bulent period in political life which gave rise to the
Independents. However, in 1728 John Glas (q. v.) , a
minister of the Established Church, founded a body
still represented by one or two small congregations.
From the end of the eighteenth century an Inde-
pendent movement has achieved notable results.
It had its origin in the revival of the Christian ideal
in which the brothers Robert and James Haldane
(q.v.) took a part, which was no doubt reenforced,
from England. The congregations formed joined
the Congregational Union organized in 1863. A
division in the Secession Church in 1841 resulted
in the founding of the Evangelical Union. James
Morison (q.v.) had been expelled from the old
church for emphasizing the love of God without
leaving room for election by grace. The denomina-
tion which he founded, often called the Morisonian
church, preferred the Congregational to the Presby-
terian government. In 1896 the Congregationalist
and Evangelical Unions were united to form the
present Congregational Union of Scotland. This
body has a theological faculty at Edinburgh with
three professors. It is distinguished for its zeal in
mission and temperance organization. A minority
of eight congregations and five ministers refused to
follow the Evangelical Union in joining with the
Congregationalists in 1896. The total of Congre-
gationalists reported for Scotland at the end of
1909 was 207 ministers, 4 evangelists or lay pas-
tors, 70 lay preachers, 213 congregations, 35,845
members, with Sunday-school teachers to the num-
ber of 2,744 and 26,194 scholars. The Baptist
Union has existed in Scotland from 1750 (according
to some only from 1765) when a renowned Baptist,
Archibald Maclean, preached in Edinburgh. The
movement doubtless received impetus with the ac-
quisition of the Haldane brothers. The numbers of
Baptists are comparatively small; their doctrine
is Calvinistic; their worship simple; and their or-
ganization strictly congregational, although a
Union and an interior mission have been provided
for. Some of their preachers are laymen, and numer-
ous congregations practise open communion. This
church has a seminary with five instructors and
fourteen students. It reports at the end of 1909
122 ministers, 156 local preachers, 155 congrega-
tions, 21,240 communicants, 2,127 Sunday-school
teachers, and 18,969 scholars.
IV. Other Protestant Bodies: The Methodists
are weakly represented in Scotland. There are two
branches, the Wesleyans and the Primitive Method-
ists, which form parts of the English organizations
of the same name. Wesley first visited Scotland in
1751, and in 1767 there were 468 members of his
church. There are now forty-five circuits and mis-
sions with forty-five ministers. A powerful mission
established in recent years in Edinburgh bears the
outline of an institutional church, and wields great
influence. The Primitive Methodists have eighteen
circuits and twenty ministers. There are small
representations of the Quakers, the Catholic Apos-
tolic Church (Irvingites), Unitarians, and the New
Jerusalem Church or Swedenborgians. Probably
none of these consists of more than twelve congre-
gations.
V. The Roman Catholic Church: This numbers
considerably more than half a million. Most of
them are of Irish descent, but about 30,000 are
Scotch. This element is found among the High-
landers of Gaelic tongue and has been steadfastly
loyal from primitive times. The Roman Catholic
hierarchy was reorganized in 1878 into six dioceses;
St. Andrew's and Edinburgh, Glasgow, Aberdeen,
Dunkeld, Galloway, and Argyll, the first two of
which are archbishoprics. At the close of 1909
there were about 250 parishes, 600 priests, 400
church buildings, 13 cloisters for men, and 51 for
women. Week-day schools attended by thousands
of children are conducted, partly supervised and
supported by the State.
A glance finally is to be given at those who have
drifted away from all church connections. It is
calculated that they amount to 1,600,000 or thirty-
seven and one-half per cent, of the total popula-
tion. A number of institutions like the Bible and
Sootna arisen*
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
tract societies, the city missions, the schools for
morally neglected children, the temperance societies,
and others have been created by the Church as a
whole for the elevation of all classes.
(Johw Caihnb.)
Bibuoobaphit; For the eariy period the moat important
literature will be found under Crtt/nc Church; tor tbe
Presbyterian enurebea under Prksbttibianb; other books
' r tbe arlicloe on tbe worthies of
i*, John Knox, sod other* named
i use: Hoddan sod Stubbs. Coun-
n.jfo-.trolirunl (80 n.c-1189 •.0.1.
, 1-Jll.crfeld. 1803. Eng. transl in J.
colUnd. such as Col
.'; Chronica
al*,v
on the Hist, v
A. C. W.
Stevenson's Church Historians of England, Londc
Thomas of Burton, Chronica momncrii it Melta, ed.
E. A. Bond in Rolli Stria, uo. 43, 3 vols., Loudon, lSBfl-
1868; Chronica at Mailrot (731-1275). ed. J. BWrepmon,
Edinburgh, 1835, En*, transl., Chronicle of M droit, in J.
Stevenson's Church Historian* of England, London, 1850;
A. Tbeiner, Yettra monumeiUa Hiftei-iwnim et Snstoriim hi*-
loriam itlustranlia, I3W-I64T. Home. 1804; A nnaleiAngl ia
tt Scotia {1192-1300), ed. H. T, Riley in Roll* Stria, No.
28, vol. ii.. London. 1885; li. Hart, EecletiaMticnl K«oro*
of England . . . and .Scoilanrf to the Rtformation, 2d ed.,
Cambridge, 18*6; J. F. 6. Gordon . /.■tImmJuiI r.'.rwi-
icle for Scotland. 4 vol*.. Glasgow. 1887; M. E. C. Wat-
oott, Scoti-MonaUicon, tht Ancient Church of Scotland.
Hilt, of the Cathedral*. Conventual Foundations, and Hot-
pitals, London, 1874.
On the antiquities consult: T. 8. Muir, Ecelenological
Nota on the Itlandt of Scotland, Edinburgh, 1885; W. [■'.
Skene. Celtic Scotland. 1 vols., new od.. Edinburgh, 1888-
1890; G. Chalmers. Caledonia, 8 vol*., Paisley. Wtt-
1902: J. Robertson. Scottish Abbey* an.l Cathedrals, Aber-
deen. 1891; II. C. Bullet. Scotland"* Ruined Abbet/t, Hew
York, 1809; M. K t. A.i.ii-i, The i;-«l„ilrala and Abbeys
of Scotland, Philadelphia. 19111: U. BuLlor, Scottish Cathe-
dral! and Abbey', Luuduii. lyol; J. Anderson. Early Chrit-
tian Monument, of Scotland, Edinburgh, 1903.
General works are: A. Stevenson. Hit. of the Church
and Slate of Srolland from the Accession of King Charltt 1.
to . . . WIS. ad ed.. K.bnliiirgh. 1844; J. Lee, Lecture*
te Churih of Scotland from the Reformation
n Settlement, ed. W. Leo, 2 vnl-i., Kdin-
bunjh, I860; f.l. Gnil). Krclrtiattiail History of Scotland
from the Inlroduttii?n -if Christianity to tht Present Time.
* vols., Edinburgh. I.1DI ; W Chnmboni andOthere, The
Scottish Church from the Earliest Timet to MSI, Edinburgh
nod \t« York. 1S81: J. Campbell. Mcdiaml Scotland,
1093-1613, Edinburgh. 1881; N. L. Walker. Scottish
Church Hi*. Eiiinl-.ii rah, 1882; J. Cunningham. Tht
Church Hi«urj -f Scotland from the Commencement of tht
Christian Era, 2 vols., 2d ed.. Edinburgh, 188.1; J M.
Roan. Scottilh Hint, to the Reformation. (Unsgow. 1884,
J. Anderson, Scctland in Each, Christian Timet. 2 parts.
Edinburgh. 1880; D. Keith, .4 Hitt. of Scotland. Civil and
Ecclesiastical. . . . to . . . 1163, 2 vol*., Edinburgh,
1888; W. G. Ulniki.-. T'o- f'r hers of Scotland, Past and
Present, 5 nit.. Edinburgh, 1890-9], a. T. Innes,
Studies in Scolti'h Hi-Jury, chiefly Kcclciastiral, l.fi«-
don. 18B2; D. C. Edmr.nd-.. Thr Early Scottish Church, ilt
Doctrine and l>i.-Hnlinc. land.nl. 1WJ0; J. II. Sh.nhenl.
introduction toll:/ Hi.", of ihc Church „t Seoilaml, ib. I9IW;
G. W. T. Mrliijwn. Scollisl, Heroes nl the P.iith, ib. UK 17:
J. Watson, The Scot of the ISth Century, his KHitdm Cftd
his Life, ib. 11*17: W. Beveridge. M-thers of tic Scottish
Church, Edinburgh. 1908; R. C. Mnrlagan, Rdigio Scotica.
Its Nature as traceable in Scottish saintly TnatKKortt, ib.
1908; Cambridge Modern History, v. 279 »qq.. New Y.-,rk.
1908. A. Mnr.rao, Scotland from the Treaty of Union with
England to the Present Time (1707-1007). London. 1909;
D. Macmillan. Tht Aberdeen Doetori. A notable Orfmp ■>!
Scottish Theologians ol the first episcopal Period, IS10S3,
ib. 1909; C. W. Thomson, firoltonj's ITori and P7orrt. 2
vols., ib. 1910; P, H. Brown, Hist, of Scotland. 3 vols,.
ib. 1910; W. L. Mathinson. The Awakening in Scotland;
a Bistort/, 17*7-97. Glasgow. 1911.
For the period prior (o the Reformation consult. C.
Innes. Scotland in the Midtile Aries. Edinburgh. I860;
T. MeLaughlan, The Early Scottish Church; Eccla. Hist.
of Scotland from the firU to the tTctfth Cenlur,,, Edinburgh,
1864: Miss M. G. O. Kinloch, Hi*, of Scotland, chiefly in
its ecclaiattical Aspect . . . to the Pall ol the old Hier-
archy, Edinburgh. 1873; W. Lockbsrt, 77w Church of
Scotland in the Thirteenth Century; Tht Life and Times of
David de Btmham of St, Andrea. 1*39-63, London. 1880,
R. M. Stewart. Tht Church of Scotland from tht Tin* of
Queen Margaret to the Rtformation. London. 1892; J.
Dowden. Tht Celtic Church in Scotland, London, ISM;
W. Cathcart, 7"Ae Ancitnt British and frith Churches.
London. 1894; J. Palon, Scottish Hist, and Lift. Glasgow.
1902: R. W. Billings. Tile Baronial and Ecclaiattical star
tiavities of Scotland. London, 1909 sqq.
On the Roman Caiholir rim,. I, in s-.itlond consult:
J. Robertson, Concilia Scotia, Edinburgh, 1864; W. M.
Brady, Annals of the Catholic Hierarchy in England and
Scotland, London, 1883: W. Forbea-Leith, Xornaires o
Scottilh Catholics under Man, Stuart and Jama VI.. Edin-
burgh. 1885; A. Belleaheim. History of the Catholic Church
in Scotland, 4 vols., Edinburgh. 1887-00; W. Patenwn.
Letlert to tub Csunlrvnen, 0 parts, Edinburgh, 1900; J.
Forbes, VEglise calhalique en Scosst 0. la fin du xvi.
tittle, Paris. 1901; W. F. Leith, Memoirs of Scottish
Catholics during tht 17th and ISth Ctnluria. 2 vols., Lon-
don. 1909.
On episcopacy in Scotland read: J. P. Lawson. Hist.
of tht Epiieirpal Church of Scotland, 3 vols.. Edinburgh,
1844; J. B. Craven, Hitt. of the Episcopal Church in
Orkney, Kirkwi.ll, 18W; H. 11. Luckuck. The Church in
Scotland. London. 1H93; H. D. Henderson. Tht Episcopal
Church in Scotland, London, 1902; J. T. F. Farquhar. The
Visible Church in the Ut/ht of Reason and Hitt., Abeideeo,
1904.
SCOTLAND, FREE CHURCH OF, FREE PRES-
BYTERIAN CHURCH OF, REFORMED PRESBY-
TERIAB CHURCH IN, UNITED PRESBYTERIAN
CHURCH OF, UNITED ORIGINAL SECESSION
CHURCH OF. Sec Presbyterians.
SCOTT, CHARLES ANDERSON: Presbyterian;
b. in London May 30, 1859. He received his edu-
cation at Uppingham School, at St. John's College,
Cimibridge (B.A.. 1882; M.A., 1806; Hulaean
priic, 1834), New College, Edinburgh, and the
iini verities of Leipaic and Jena; was assistant min-
ister of Queen"s Cross Church, Aberdeen, 18S7-S!>;
minister at Cfil!e(re Park, Willesden, 1892, and of St.
John's, Kensington, 1898-1907, being also examiner
in historical theology for the University of London,
1902-07; and Dunn professor of the New Testa-
ment in the Theological College of the Presbyterian
Church of England at Cambridge since 1907. He
has published: Ulfila.*, tipotG* of the Goth* (Lon-
don, 1885); Evangelical Doctrine BiWe 7Yu/fc (1901);
.U<iii>r; of a Christian (1902); and contributed to
til'- Dii'oli-iital mill I'mrtir-il Commentary the volume
on Revelation (190?), as well as the same volume
in the Century BiU- d'.KiL'i; also the essay on" Jesus
and Paul" in Cambridge Biblical Essays (1909).
SCOTT, HUGH McDONALD: Congregationalist;
b. at Guysborough, Nova Scotia, Mar. 31, 1848; d.
at Chicago Apr. 29. 1909. He was graduated from
DtJhouiia College, Halifax (A.B., 1870), and from tbe
University nf Kdmhurgli (1-S73). During the same
year he studied at Berlin, and later (1878-81) at
Leipaic. In 1874 he was ordained to the ministry,
and for four years (1874-77) was pastor of the
Presbyterian church at Merigomish, Nova Scotia.
After 1881 he was professor of church history at
the Chicago Theological Seminary. He wrote The
Nwenti Theology (Stone lectures; Chicago, 1896).
while from 1883 to 1890 he contributed the section
on church history to Current Diicvtmont in Theol-
ogy, published by the faculty of the divinity school.
303
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Sootl&nd
Sootna Erigena
SCOTT, ISAIAH BEN JAMIE: Methodist Epis-
copal bishop; b. in Woodford County, Ky., Sept.
30, 1854. He received his education at Clark Semi-
nary (now Clark College), Atlanta, Ga., and Central
Tennessee College (now Walden University), Nash-
ville (B.A., 1880; M.A., 1883); entered the Ten-
nessee conference in 1881, and was transferred to the
Texas conference, where he was professor in Prairie
View State Normal and Industrial College, 1881,
and served as pastor at Houston, Galveston, Austin,
and Marshall, 1882-87; was presiding elder of the
Marshall and Houston Districts, 1882-93; presi-
dent of Wiley University, Marshall, Tex., 1893-96;
editor of the Southwestern Christian Advocate, New
Orleans, 1896-1904; was elected bishop for Africa,
1904.
SCOTT, ROBERT: Church of England; b. at
Bondleigh, Devonshire, Jan. 26, 1811; d. at
Rochester Dec. 2, 1887. He was educated at Christ
Church, Oxford (B.A., 1833); was fellow and tutor
ofBalliol College, 1835-40 (M.A., 1836); rector
of Duloe, Cornwall, 1840-50; prebendary of Ex-
eter Cathedral, 1845-66; rector of South Luff en-
ham, Rutland, 1850-54; select preacher at Oxford,
1853-54, 1874-75; master of Balliol, 1854-70;
professor of Scripture exegesis, 1861-70; and dean
of Rochester, 1870-87. He was a member of the
New-Testament revision committee; author of
Twelve Sermons (London, 1851); University Ser-
mons (1860) ; and of a commentary on the Epistle of
James (1881) in the Bible Commentary (1872-82).
From 1836 to 1843 he labored together with H. G.
Liddell in the preparation of the great Greek-English
Lexicon (Oxford, 1843; 7th enlarged ed., 1883),
upon which he was occupied all in all for forty-
seven years.
Bibliography: The Guardian, Dec. 14, 1887; E. Abbott
and L. Campbell, Benjamin Jowett, 3 vol*., London, 1897-
1899; DNB, li. 65-66.
SCOTT, THOMAS: Church of England; b. at
Braytoft, Lincolnshire, Feb. 4, 1747; d. at Aston
Sandford (near Thames, 11 m. e. of Oxford),
Buckinghamshire, Apr. 16, 1821. He was ordained
priest in 1773, and in 1781 succeeded John New-
ton, who had converted him to Calvinism, as
curate of Olney. In 1785 he became chaplain of the
Lock Hospital, London; and in 1801, vicar of Aston
Sandford. His first publication was The Force of
Truth (London, 1779, and numerous editions),
narrating his change from rationalistic Unitarian-
ism to the highest type of Calvinistic fervor, a work
regarded as one of the most impressive spiritual
autobiographies ever written. His most important
work was The Holy Bible with Notes (5 vols., 1788-
1792; very many reissues and reprints). This has
long been considered a model family Bible, and has
been read more widely, perhaps, than any other.
It speaks volumes for Scott's industry and persever-
ance that without early educational advantages, op-
pressed by poverty, and compelled for years before
his ordination to earn his living as a farm-laborer, he
yet was able to acquire considerable learning, and
produce a work, published under the severest pecu-
niary straits, yet spoken of as the greatest theo-
logical performance of his age and country. J. H.
Newman wrote of him as a man to whom he almost
owed his soul. Scott's Essays on the Most Important
Subjects in Religion were published in 1793, 15th ed.,
1844 ; and his Village Discourses in 1825. His Works
in ten vols., edited by his son, appeared 1823-25.
Bibliography: A. C. Downer, Thomas Scott the Commenta-
tor, A Memoir of hie Life, London, 1909; The Life of
... 7*. Scott . . . Including a Narrative Drawn up by
himself, lb. 1822; The Life of . . . Thomas Scott, in Chris-
tian Biography, ib. [18387]; J. Stephen, Beeaye in Ecclesi-
astical Biography, pp. 413 aqq., 14th ed., ib. 1860; DNB,
li 73-75.
SCOTTJS ERIGENA, JOHANNES.
Early life (f 1).
Participation in Controversy ({ 2).
Reports of Later life (f 3).
His Learning (f 4).
Views on Reason and Authority (| 6).
His System (f 6).
Doctrine of God (f 7).
The Ideal World (f 8).
The World of Sense (f 9).
Anthropology; Doctrine of Evil (| 10).
Consummation of AH Things (f 11).
His Position in General (f 12).
Johannes Scotus Erigena stands out as one of the
most distinguished figures not only of the ninth
century but of the whole history of philosophy and
theology. His early life, however, as well as his inner
development, is hidden up to the time
i. Early to which his writings bring us. The
Life. one fact which is clear is that his birth-
place was Ireland; to this the name
Scotus (or Scotigena) as well as Erigena testifies
(both these titles in those times indicating Ireland),
and there is the express statement of Prudentius,
"Hibernia sent thee to Gaul11 (De prcedicatione, in
AfPL, cxv. 1104). It was probably in Ireland that
he received his education, though in the Frankish
kingdom he first comes into historical light, but as
already a man of mature powers. From this last
fact it would follow that he was born in the early
years of the century. That he won the distinguished
favor of Charles the Bald is clear from the dedication
to the latter of numerous writings and from many
passages in his poems. He became celebrated and
was the acquaintance of the distinguished men of the
times — Hincmar, Servatus Lupus, Usuardus, Rat-
ramnus and others, not to omit Prudentius of Treves
(qq.v.). As the last-named left the court in 847,
Scotus must have arrived there before that.
Here probably Scotus did his literary work, though
not as an ecclesiastic; there is no trace of his being
a monk, and it is doubtful whether he was a priest.
But he entered into the theological controversies of
the time.
His first essay in this direction was in the matter
of the eucharistic controversy begun by Ratram-
nus concerning the change of the elements, though
the writing long ascribed to Scotus is now known to
be the De Eucharistia of Ratramnus (Lauf s, in TSK,
1828, pp. 755-756). Yet Hincmar
a. Partici- charged him with regarding the
nation in elements as symbols of the presence of
Controversy. Christ, though whether this view was
put forth in Scotus' own writing is
doubtful, in spite of the fact that his position must
have been well known. More important for Scotus
Scotus Erigena
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
804
was his entrance into the Gottschalk controversy
concerning predestination (see Gottschalk, 1).
He was urged by Hincmar and Pardulus of Laon to
take part in this, and wrote between 849 and 853
the De divina prcedestinatione, in which he charged
Gottschalk with heresy and ignorance, and expressed
with great frankness his views on the being of God,
the identity of foreknowledge and predestination,
and good and evil. These views sounded so strange
and blasphemous to his contemporaries that a very
storm was aroused and synodical condemnation
of some of his theses was evoked (Synod of Valence,
855). Hincmar pronounced against some of the
positions of Scotus, though holding others. Pope
Nicholas disapproved of Scotus in a letter to Charles
(extant in C. Du Boulay, HisL universitatU Parisienr
sis, i. 184, Paris, 1665), because the translation of the
writings of Dionysius had not, as ecclesiastical cus-
tom demanded, been sent for approval, an offense
aggravated by the fact that the translator was under
suspicion in respect to matters of faith. He desired
Charles to notify Scotus to appear before the pope
or at least to remove him from his place at the head
of the school in Paris.
The poems of Scotus permit the tracing of his
life till the death of Charles in 877, and he seems to
have lived even until 882, if an extant epigram may
be attributed to Hincmar. But of the end of his life
French sources give no information.
3. Reports This last is not surprising considering
of Later the confusion of the times and the fact
Life. that Scotus held no ecclesiastical
preferment. There are reports of
activity in England. Thus Asser, the biographer of
Alfred the Great, speaks of a certain Johannes "of
the race of old Saxons" called to England and made
abbot of Athelney where he was assassinated by
Gallic enemies (Monumenta historica Britannica,
i. 493 sqq., ed. H. Petrie, J. Sharpe, and T. D.
Hardy, London, 1848) ; but this can not have been
John Scotus Erigena, who was not a Saxon. The
same author (p. 489) mentions a " Johannes, a priest
and monk, a man of acute intellect, skilled in letters
and other arts," who may be identical with the one
named above but is more likely another man, and he
can not be Scotus since he is designated a monk.
While there is no reason for holding, as has been
maintained, that Alfred would not have invited
Scotus to England because of the latter's unortho-
doxy, the advanced age of Scotus at this time would
be a real obstacle. Later reports like that of William
of Malmesbury (MPL, clxxix. 10, 1653) rest upon
inference from the statement of Asser and from a
tradition about the murder of an abbot of Malmes-
bury, over whose grave a light appeared to show that
he was a martyr and a saint. Tradition identified
this abbot with Scotus, and possibly upon the basis
of a combination of these different supposed data
arose the medieval tradition and the making of a
statue to "John Scotus who translated Dionysius
from Greek into Latin.'1 Little dependence can be
placed upon this entire story. The most probable
conclusion is that Scotus died in the Frankish
kingdom.
Among his contemporaries he enjoyed a reputa-
tion for wonderful gifts and learning and great keen-
ness and eloquence. Yet his writings do not show
that he towered above the great men of his time.
What seems to have made his reputa-
4. His tion was his close knowledge of Greek,
Learning, an acquirement rare and in that period
usually elementary when it was known.
While the extent of his knowledge of Greek authors
is uncertain, since he cited many of them from Latin
translation, his translation of Dionysius and of the
difficult Ambigua of Maximus speaks for a real
scholarship. With his knowledge of Greek went a
high valuation of Greek ideas, evinced in various
ways — in his manner of speaking of the Greeks, and
in his regard for the formula regarding the proces-
sion of the Holy Spirit from the Father through the
Son, though he held also that the filioque was
justified. The knowledge of Greek mediated for him
a freer handling of theological and philosophical
questions. But the entire disposition of Scotus dif-
fered from that of his contemporaries by virtue
of his aptness in handling philosophical and philo-
sophical-theological questions, added to a certain
ready facility. From Dionysius and Maximus he
learned how to treat speculatively the doctrine of
God and the problems related to this in a way
strange to the western theological discussions of
the period. He thus had the key to an understand-
ing of the speculative elements so rich in such older
theologians as Basil, the two Gregorys, Origen,
Ambrose, and Augustine, — elements which went
back to Neoplatonism or to Philo. It is suspected
but not proved that Scotus knew and used the works
of the Greek philosophers; he certainly had in hand
Boethius, Macrobius, Marcianus Capella, and other
mediators of ancient learning to the Middle Ages,
and he gained from them a meaning different from
the more literal and constrained results won by his
contemporaries. He was the first Westerner of the
Middle Ages to think comprehensively and philo-
sophically and to attempt the construction of a
system.
Scotus made no sharp distinction between philos-
ophy and theology; rather they were both essential
means by which to gain knowledge of truth. He
never stopped to consider whether his system was
more philosophy than theology. So, in the matter
of reason and authority he would not
5. Views on have said that the first belonged to
Reason and philosophy and the other to theology;
Authority, for him both had their right in both
regions and sprang from the same root
— divine wisdom. Still, reason had the precedence,
and authority had its origin from reason; reason,
being in itself worthful and invariable, did not need
the support of authority, while, on the other hand,
authority appears feeble when not upheld by reason.
Hence Scotus would employ authority for those
who could not rightly use reason; yet he could ad-
vise: "Let no authority drive thee in terror from
the conclusions suggested by right contemplation"
{De divisione natures, i. 66). As contrasted with his
times, he had a clear consciousness of what might be
accomplished by means of human reasoning power.
Yet he did not undervalue authority, though he
emphasized reason where it led to clear results.
The authority of Scripture he fully allowed. The
305
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Sootus Erlffena
involved meaning of Scripture was infinite, so that
the exegesis of different commentators might all
contain truth (iii. 24). With respect to the Fathers,
he claimed the right in cases where they differed to
follow the one who to him seemed to be right, though
he disclaimed the purpose of deciding between
them.
The philosophic-theological system of Scotus is
set forth in his great work De divisions natwra [ed. T.
Gale, Oxford, 1681 (1685?) and C. B. Schluter, Mon-
ster, 1838; Germ, transl., 2 vols., Berlin, 1870-76],
which must be taken as the basis in an exposition
of his ideas, though other works furnish confirmation
and illustration. It is in dialogue
6. His form, between a master and a pupil;
System, and it has been well said in praise of the
composition that both contribute to the
development of the line of thought. By nature
Scotus means everything with which thought has
to do, existence and non-existence — the last, to
be sure, in the special sense in which the author
regards God as non-existent. Nature includes God
and the world, even though neither has a predicate
in common with the other. The word "nature" is
not quite a fitting expression of what Scotus had in
mind; it might be rendered by "the All." This
he divided into four categories: that which creates
but is not created ; that which creates and is created ;
that which is created and does not create; and that
which is not created and does not create. Un-
created creating nature is God, as is also uncreated
and non-creating; the last is the world in its return
to God [i.e., God as the end of all things]. The
second and third categories are those of the ideal
and the real world; the system thus leads from
God through the ideal and the real back to God.
Book i. discusses the being of God in his self-
existence, book ii. the first revelation of God in the
world of ideas or original causes, books iii. and iv.
discuss the real world, and book v. deals with the
return of the world to God. Scotus*
7. Doctrine doctrine of God goes back to the kata-
of God. phatic and apophatic ("affirming and
denying") theology of Dionysius (i.
13). All positive predicates attributed to the mun-
dane can be superlatively attributed to God as the
transcendental or "super-being," but these pred-
icates are positive in form only, in fact negative
(by virtue of the "super"; iii. 20). Hence positive
leads to negative, and in this way all predicates may
be denied to deity, since deity is incomprehensible.
His being is a "super-being," hence not in the cate-
gory of being as applied to the mundane, and so can
be called a "not-being." But this "not-being" is
not to be understood as pure negation. Considering
the self-existence of God, Scotus affirms that God
can not grasp the entire fulness of his being; God
knows that he is nothing of all that is in the world,
but does not know what he is (by which Scotus
means that even God can not comprehend and de-
fine himself as a certain definite something). The
whole mundane existence is by God created and
formed after his plan, and the realization of the
world involves the self-consciousness of God, but
this self -consciousness is not to be thought of as like
that of man, since God is absolute and most com-
X.— 20
plete unity (i. 12, 73). This conception of unity is
for Scotus the highest, most comprehensive, and
transcendental, its fulness unattainable by man;
it means the absolute oneness of willing and
knowing. It was Scotus' doctrine on this point
which led him so bitterly to assail Gottschalk's
doctrine of predestination. While on the one side
Scotus regards God as altogether severed from the
world, there is another side of the consideration
according to which God and the world are identical
(iii. 17) ; the reconciliation of these two sides is in the
conception that the world is the revelation of God
(i. 13). God creates himself in the world and is All
in all; he is the substance of all things, the last un-
knowable basis of its existence as of its accidents;
hence God is all and all is God, yet meanwhile he
remains over all within himself, does not go forth
into what he creates. The analogy employed is the
relationship between human thought and speech;
thought clothes itself in speech but does not go forth
in the speech. While God's inner being remains un-
known, yet there is knowledge of him according to
the measure by which he reveals himself. Scotus
borrows from Dionysius and Maximus the expres-
sion "theophany," which he uses in various senses.
It may mean special divine appearances or visions
to a creature, or the virtues which God works in a
creature which then become the basis of a knowledge
of God; or, finally, each creature is itself a theoph-
any in so far as God is revealed in it. Consequent-
ly the knowledge a creature has of its own being
is a knowledge of God proportionally as God is
revealed in the creature.
The next category, which leads from the absolute-
ly unknowable divine unity to the manifoldness of
the world, is the creation of the ideal world or the
totality of potencies which in turn
8. The Ideal emits from itself the world of sense.
World. Scotus knows as ideas divine pre-
destinations, acts of will, original
causes (ii. 2), which are the names he gives to
goodness, essence, life, reason, intelligence, wisdom,
virtue, blessedness, truth, eternity, greatness, love,
peace, unity, perfection (ii. 36, iii. 1). But this is
not a complete enumeration or arrangement of these
ideas, which, in view of the divine unity in which
they issue, is impossible. They are the radii of which
the unity is the center, which can be indefinitely
multiplied without changing the being of the cir-
cumference. The first step of the self -revealing God
is taken in making himself accessible to the creature;
the means of doing this is unknown; but it is af-
firmed that God is eternal, according to his eternal
(not temporal) being. The unlimited fulness of the
ideas is summed up in the divine Logos or Son of
God; in him in whom they are created do they exist
without change. To be known in a certain sense
coincides with being; so one may say that one is in
another when he is known by that other (ii. 8, iii.
4, iv. 9), and of God it is true that he becomes so far
as he becomes known (i. 12) . Hence the " invariable
movement" taking place in the Trinity by which
God is made accessible to knowledge is a real crea-
tion, and ideas become so far as they are made ac-
cessible to knowledge. Scotus conceived the primal
causes as wholly enclosed in the divine being, yet
SootUB Briffena
Soribes
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
806
as also proceeding thence and as having in a certain
manner independent existence.
The third category of Scotus is the world in the
usual sense of that term. The basis of this is the
primal causes; it is therefore eternal in the same
sense as those causes (v. 25). This eternity did not
come about through constant repetition of a world
cycle, as with the Stoics and Origen.
o> The The apparent contradiction involved
World of in the conception of the world's return
Sense. to God (the fourth category) is solved
by the distinction of Scotus between
the material or sensible existence and the purely
spiritual existence of the world. At the head of the
created world stood the angels, with spiritual bodies
and free from all material qualities; at times these
really appeared to men (v. 38) . They were produced
all at once from the primordial causes, were in nine
classes, of which only those in the highest class were
free from error. Their knowledge comes not from
experience but from view of God in theophany and
of their own being. The fallen angels, Satan at
the head, fell immediately after their creation, they
have material bodies which feel desire and will go out
of existence with the world (v. 13, iv. 24). Next
to the creation of these was that of the world of
space and time. In considering space (cf . i. 21 sqq.)
he regarded locality as limitation in space equivalent
to definition or circumscription in logic; space is
that in which matter is extended. Space and time
are not prior to the world, but with it came into
existence from the eternal basis. Geometrical rela-
tions Scotus distinguished from the figures which
represented them (iv. 8), and they are reducible to
absolute spacial unity. The monad is the principle
of number (iii. 1, 12). Matter is not eternal (iii. 14),
but came into existence in the course of creation by
the concourse of immaterial principles, quantity and
quality. Elsewhere (i. 56) it appears as the vari-
ability of variable things, i.e., that which lies at
the basis of everything variable, the Aristotelian
hyle. Distinction is to be made between matter
and the physical world; a body comes to exist when
the substantial form unites with matter, and these
two are to be distinguished apart. The "form" is
something constant, eternal, issues from the pri-
mordial causes, and returns thither; but constant
change underlies matter. One can hardly explain
how Scotus derived matter from quantity and
quality, but his realism shows in his drawing the
particular from the general.
Scotus' anthropology is difficult because it is
involved with his doctrine of evil and sin. He held
that by divine appointment man had preeminent
rank in the All. Man shares in the being of lower
creatures that are without souls, in the
io. Anthro- life force of plants, in the physical life
pology; of animals, and in the intellectual life
Doctrine of angels (iv. 8, 14). He is the world's
of Evil, central point and the part which leads
in the return to God. As to evil, the
monistic conceptions of Scotus compelled him to
think of evil as a necessary factor in evolution, which
was, however, to be overcome. But this involved
him in difficulties which he did not surmount. He
sought to exclude evil from divine appointment,
even from divine foreknowledge, since God knew
only what he created; he did not create evil, there-
fore did not know it (ii. 28). Elsewhere Scotus was
compelled to concede to God knowledge of evil, but
he did not reconcile the disagreement. To do this he
would have had to show a difference in the kind of
divine knowledge, and that would have conflicted
with his doctrine of unity. Even though God did not
create evil, he included its existence or entrance in
his world plan. If the basis of evil were sought, the
answer was — it had none (v. 35) ; yet the instability
of the will was noted by Scotus and the pride which
made man and not God the end. If there were in
Scotus' system a ground for evil, it was in formal
creative freedom. Paradise was for Scotus man's
original complete condition, to which he will again
attain in the future (iv. 17 sqq.). Exactly in view
of the fall it is said that the origin of man was so
ordered that not all individuals at one time pro-
ceeded from the background of existence as did the
angels (iv. 12, ii. 6). Originally man was, like the
angels, in spite of the mass of individuals, intended
to be a unity; but in consequence of sin the female
sex was derived from the male (iv. 23). This con-
ception can be held only by means of a fully spiritual
interpretation of the history of creation, for which
Origen furnished the pattern. Original sin is not
purely a matter of inheritance but is to be brought
into relation with man's origin. But how sin comes
as an actuality in the life and soul Scotus does not
explain. Nevertheless, according to this author,
the present material condition is determined by
human sin, though a clear presentation of the facts
is not given.
The last division in the system of Scotus is the
termination of the entire course of the world and the
return of all things to God. Central in this process
is the person of Christ, in whom are embraced all
mankind and the whole world, who
ii. Con- leads all back to God and frees man.
summation This comes about through his death
of All and resurrection, which last abolishes
Things, distinction of sex, the risen being nei-
ther male nor female (ii. 13, v. 20, 25).
Following resurrection comes a double change; one
affects all men, and is attainment of all knowledge
suited for the creature; the other affects the most
exalted clarified spirits, and is induction into the
deepest secrets and into the transcendent absorption
into the godhead. A development of the lower
creature into the higher with continual progress to
the highest is affirmed — after the elimination of
sex distinctions earth and paradise will become one
(v. 20), then paradise and heaven, the higher ab-
sorbing the lower. All unnatural distinctions will
be abolished, all natures will return to their primor-
dial causes and with these become one in God.
Evil is nothing substantial, it had no place in pri-
mordial cause, it is only instability of will which is
an accident attendant upon God-created natures.
Since the changes outlined above produce a will
fully sanctified and united with God, the will is in
full accord with the divine will; there is then no
cause of evil. The consequences of evil likewise
vanish, since that which is only an accident can not
assume the form of substance; at the end of world-
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
OlbM
history evil in every form is to be annihilated. This
is the necessary consequence of the system of Scotus,
to which he gave extended discussion. According to
his system, it was impossible that a nature, some-
thing created by God, could suffer eternally. And he
attempted to show how a vice could attach to a pure
nature without corrupting it, also how it might be
punished, though in itself nothing, otherwise than
in the nature possessed by it; his demonstration,
however, is unsatisfactory. How the bad will can
continue to exist while the nature is completely pure
is not made clear, and this difficulty is tlie greater
because Scotus regarded the will not as an accident
but asanessential. Yet Scotus has (x. 38) a sentence
which should be noticed. He says that practically
all authors agree that as many men attain to the
heavenly kingdom as there are angels who have
fallen, and remarks that, if that is correct, then must
the number of men who eventually are born equal
that of angels or else not all men attain to the pur-
pose of their creation, which last is contrary to the
reasons already given for the salvation of all men in
Christ. In that case only demons and the devil are
doomed to eternal condemnation. The system of
Scotus in its consequences favors throughout the
doctrine of Apocatastasis (q.v.).
The foregoing points have been the more thor-
oughly considered because in his general think-
ing this scholar was true to the teaching of the
Church. Where he differed from it he seems to have
concealed the fact even from himself. He used trini-
tarian formulas frequently; he as-
sumed that the Father created in the
a Son — the Logos or intelligence — the
primordial causes, while in the Holy
Spirit he saw the active principle
through which those causes issued in effects. The
teaching of the Church on Christology he assumed
in his system without regarding the deep-lying dif-
ficulties. Whether Scotus can be called " the father
of scholasticism" is the more doubtful inasmuch as
hi* ind-rest was more philosophical than theological.
His personal position is freer and more independent
than that of later schoolmen. His relation to mys-
ticism is peculiar; he can not be called a mystic, for
the personal experiences of mystics were never his
or at least never found expression; yet his system
is full of mystical thought dia lee tic ally justified.
Through this thought and by the translation of the
Di'iiiy.-ian writ inn* he exercised an uncommon in-
fluence upon mysticism. He also greatly affected
medieval s|>eculation, especially in the twelfth cen-
tury; in the first part of the thirteenth century he
had considerable vogue in Paris, ecclesiastical op-
position to him found voice, and Honoriua 111.
ordered the destruction of his De division* nature:.
This worked forgetfulness of him so that he does not
appear on the Tridentine index. A requirement of
tin- present, is a complete critical edition of hia works,
with an adequate investigation of his relation to his
predecessors. (S. M. DjUfiMUt-)
Bi»uoo«»htt; For the life consult: O. B. SohQter, Scotus
Enema, Manner. 1838: F. CbrtatUeb, lebtn und Lthrt
da Johanna Scotus Enema. Goths. I860; J. Huber. Jo-
Jkmws Scotus Enema. Munich. 1881: O. Hertneua. Da,
Ltbm dee cfeotus Enema. Seat.. 1868; L Nouk. Utbm
Ltbm und Hfhriltm da Joh. .Srotu. Enema, die Wimn-
i). His
Position i
tchaft und Btidwie si
maun. De Johannie Scoti Enema
1877; K. Werner. Johanna Dun.
r hii philosophy consult: P
Mrtgtm,
Hjor
Johann Scott*
mtWUUM Phi-
heiliem Bcrvf. Copenhagen, 1823; H.
loeophit und ih\
Schmidt, Der Myetieiemu* da Mitteiaitm
Mtehunerpcriode, Jens. 182*: F. C. Baur. Die ehrtMiah*
Lehre mm der Drtieiniektil und SfcnsrAiMrduno, ii. 283-
344, Tubingen, 1842: A. Helflerich. Die chrittlieke My
h*. vol. ii.. Gothn, 1842; St. Rent Tnillandier. Scot.
Eriatne rt la philoiophir eealaitique, Strssbuis, 1843;
N. Moller. Joh. Scotut Erigma und trine trrthumm. Mains,
1844; J. P. Hnureau, Da la philosophic, ecalaetiaue. Paris,
I860; idem, Hietoirt de la phitoeophie Ko/oetiyue , lb. Is;.';
W. Kaulich, Gexhichte der tchotaetitrhm Fhihitaphie,
Prague, 1883; A. SUekl. Oachichte drr Philoiophtt und
Thrologie im Miudaller. L 31-128, Mains, 1884: idem,
De Joh. Scotus Enema, Monster, 1887; J. G. Boivin.
Philoeopkia auadripartM Scoti, 4 vols., Paris, 1888; H.
RsJue, Da Joh. Enema* Sletlung rur mittelalurlicken
St/utaMik und Myetik. Roetook, 1874: F. J. Hoffmann,
Der Gotta- und Schapfuneebeariff den Johanna Scotus
Enema. Jena. 1878; G. Anders. Darelellune und Kritik
dm AneieJil von Johanna Sroiua Erieena. dost die Kalt-
gorim nictu auf Gotl anuendbar eeim. Jena. 1877: G. Buch-
wald. Der Logotbegriff det Johanna Scotus Erieena, Lein-
*je, 1884; T. Wotachka, Fichle und Erigma. Halle, 18B8;
M. DeWulf. Hietoire de la philosophic nt£ditvote. Louvnin,
1900; A. Gardner. Studies in John thr Seal {Erieena).
London. 1B00: J. Droseke, Johanna Scotus Enema and
deteen Gewahrrmann, Leipsic, 1902 (on the boutom used
by Scotus); the works on the history of philosophy by
H. Ritter. Hamburg. 1844 (vii. 208-298): J. E. Erdnunn,
Eng. transl., 3 vols.. London, 1892-98; W. W,i,.|,,li..ir!,l.
Eog. transl.. Ne» York. 1893; and F. Ueherweg, ed.
Heinse, 9th ed.. Berlin, 1901-05.
SCOTUS, JOHANNES DUNS. See Draa Scotub.
SCOULLER, sku'ler, JAMES BROWN: United
Presbyterian; b. near Newville, Cumberland
County, Pa., July 12, 1820; d. at Newville, Pa.,
1899. He graduated at Dickinson College, Carlisle,
Pa., 1839, and at the Associate Reformed Theolog-
ical Seminary, Allegheny, Pa., 1842; was pastor of
United Presbyterian churches in Philadelphia,
1844-46; Cuylerville, N. Y-, 1847-52; Argyle,N.Y.,
1852-62; and editor of The Christian Instructor,
Philadelphia, 1862-83. He was the author of A
Manual of the United Presbyterian Church (Pitts-
burg, 1881); and Calvinism; its History and In-
fluences (1885).
SCOVEL, SYLVESTER F1THIAN: Presbyte-
rian; b. at Harrison, O., Dec. 29, 1835; d. at
Worcester, Ohio, Nov. 29, 1910. He was gradu-
ated from Hanover College, Hanover, O. (A.B.,
1853), and New Albany Theological Seminary,
New Albany, Ind. (1857). He then held pastorates
at Jefferson ville, Ind. (1857-60), and the First Pres-
byterian churches of Springfield. O. (1861-66), and
Pittsburg, Pa. (1866-83); he was president of the
University of Wooster, Wooster,0. (1883-99); and
after 1899 professor of morals and sociology in the
same institution. In theology he was a conservative,
and wrote Centennial History of the First Pres-
byterian Church of Pittsburg (Pittsburg, 1884).
SCRIBES: A term used, especially in the New
Testament, to denote those skilled in the Mosaic
law. The profession or calling came'tnto being after
the return from the exile (for mention of scribes in
its more literal sense cf. Jer. viii. 8), when in place
of the kingdom there was set up the dominion of
the Mosaic statutes, which furnished the rule for
ScribM
Scrivener
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
308
the guidance of life in all its aspects among the He-
brews. The man who initiated this condition of
things, Ezra, himself bore this designa-
Meaning tion (cf. Ezra vii. 6, 11, 12, 21; Neh.
of Term. viii. 1, etc.), which was given to him
probably on account of his [supposed]
care for the law in respect to the making and
distribution of its exemplars or manuscripts. The
New-Testament word for " scribe " is often gram'
mateus (Matt. ii. 4, v. 20, etc.) ; but two other sides
of the activities of these men gave rise to the
designation nomikos, "lawyer" (Matt. xxii. 35,
etc.), and nomodidaskalos, "doctor of the law"
(Luke v. 17; Acts v. 34; cf. the expression "in-
terpreter of the Jewish laws," Josephus, Ant.,
XVII., vi. 2).
The first task of these men was to preserve the
text of the sacred books, particularly of the law of
Moses (the Pentateuch), in a form suited to the
maintenance of the Hebrew religion. This task they
sought to perform through copies which guarded on
the one side the essential content and
Work on on the other had regard for scruples
Hebrew which might be raised. Exact in-
Tcxt formation of the means employed by
the early scribes in carrying out these
purposes is unfortunately not obtainable because
of the sparseness and fragmentary character of the
material at hand. Yet careful and critical use of
this material as found in scattered notices leads to
results quite worth while. Over the reading in pub-
lic worship much care was exercised. According
to the Mishna (Megilla, iv. 10) Gen. xxv. 32 and Ex.
xxxii. 21-24 were read but not interpreted (see
Synagogue) ; and according to the old tradition in
Megilla 25b for expressions which might give offense
or which might raise scruples euphemisms or other
phrases were substituted. For the divine name
Yhwh was substituted "Adonai," except that in
the combination Adonai Yhwh, Elohim was sub-
stituted for Yhwh (see Jehovah; Yahweh). There
were changes too in the written text. Such a change
is the one which results from the confusion which
might come from Baal, meaning "lord" or " mas-
ter," and Baal as the name of a heathen deity (cf.
Hos. ii. 16-17) ; thus with the Ish-bosheth of II Sam.
ii.-iv. cf. the Esh-baal of I Chron. viii. 33, in ac-
cordance with which the Chronicler replaces the
earlier name (Merribbaal) for Mephibosheth; the
other name of Gideon used in Judges vi.-ix., Jerub-
baal, is replaced in II Sam. xi. 21 by Jerubbesheth;
in II. Sam. v. 16 appears the form Eliada for which
the older form was Beeliada (I Chron. xiv. 7). A
testimony to this habit exists in the gloss found en-
closed in Num. xxxii. 38, " (their names being
changed)," referring to the mountains Nebo and
Baal-meon [one of which is the name of a heathen
deity Nebo, see Babylonia, VII., 2, § 11, and the
other contains the element Baal]. In II Sam. vii.
23 a plural verb accompanies the plural form Elo-
him, but in the parallel I Chron. xvii. 21 a singular
verb is employed, by which the unity of God is
maintained. Especially important is the regarding
as holy of the names Yah and Yahweh (note Lev.
xxiv. 11: "And the Israeli tish woman's son blas-
phemed the name," where "Yahweh" is not writ-
ten in the text). In effect this has been treated
above, but the practise further involved the inclu-
sion of Yah as one word in "Hallelujah" in the
psalms, and also in other expressions. Similarly
the Jews put such expressions as " heaven," " name,"
and the like in place of a name for God. Moreover,
before the introduction of the vowel sounds, the
pronunciation of many words had been changed
through the working of varied influences. The word
Molek (Moloch, q.v.), formerly pronounced Melek
(cf . Isa. xxx. 33) has received the vowels of bosheth,
"shame," and the same is probably true of Ashtoreth
and Tophet; in imitation of ahikkuz, "monster,"
are vocalized Chiun and sikkuth, "tabernacle"
(Amos v. 26). Milcom, the name of the god of the
Ammonites, is to be restored in II Sam. xii. 30 in
place of "their king's" (cf. Jer. xlix. 1-3, margin).
An artificial distinction is made for the sake of
theology in the word 'obbir (the original pronuncia-
tion) as it applies to bulls as possessions of men and
to the word in such passages as Isa. i. 24 and Isa. x.
13 (in the last passage a new reading is substituted
in the keri; see Keri and Kethibh). Euphemistic
expressions are substituted by a difference in the
pointing of the original text in such passages as
Deut. xxviii. 30; Gen. xxxiv. 2. In the Biblical
Aramaic of the verb "to be" a lamedh is substi-
tuted for a yodh as pref ormative in the imperfect,
probably in order to avoid producing a word
which looks like the divine name Yhwh and so
leading to accidental pronouncing of that name;
in early Egyptian-Aramaic papyri the forms with
yodh appear. In the study of the text one has to
guard against both undervaluation of the text by
the scribes as well as against overvaluation. For
further discussion of these topics see Bible Text;
and Masorah.
The Mosaic law was not what would according
to modern conceptions be considered a systematic
body of ecclesiastical law, still less a complete legal
code. Yet after this law had gained its unique
position, only those statutes and usages which had
the sanction of long custom and had so
Activities become sacred could attain to the
as Inter- position of official law; a new code
preters of could not be created. As a result it
the Law. became necessary so to explore and ex-
plain the written law that it should be
found sufficient to meet the exigencies of everyday
life. Of Ezra (Ezra vii. 10) it is said that he " pre-
pared his heart to seek the law of the Lord, and to
do it, and to teach in Israel statutes and judgments."
When one recalls the condition under which the
law existed (as just noted), also its nature, and that
since Malachi the prophetic spirit had died out, and
that the impulse which had come with the return
from exile and its experiences had died out with the
generation which had known them and had taken
with it the stimulus to independent religious life,
explanation is easy of the tendency to slavish ob-
servance of the letter of the law, and the way was
opened for that scribal exposition of the law which
"strained at a gnat and swallowed a earner' (Matt,
xxiii. 24). One may compare Christ's proof of the
resurrection which rests upon Ex. ill. 6 (Matt. xxii.
32) with that adduced in the Babylonian Talmud
809
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Scribe*
Sorivener
on Deut. xzxi. 16, where Gamaliel cites "thou ahalt
sleep with thy fathers, and this people will rise up,"
and may note that in thus quoting Gamaliel was
supported by other rabbis almost as noted as he.
By a certain method of exegesis this was regarded as
justified. The exigencies of civil, legal, and ritual
life occasioned ever new questions, and these called
for progress in the science of interpretation of the
law, and these interpretations came to codification
in the Mishnah (see Talmud). A supplement di-
rected toward the insuring of observance of the law
resulted from this scribal activity in the matter of
study of its provisions. In order to forestall trans-
gression, additional regulations or commands were
provided which were hardly within the range of
possibility to observe. Thus in Pirke Aboth i. 1 it is
said "make a bridle about the law." The scribes
were not so much theologians as jurists; and so
they were members of the Sanhedrin (q.v.) and are
mentioned constantly in that relationship.
If the Jews were to remain "the people of the
law," the science of law being once obtained, it must
be preserved for future generations. In carrying
out this purpose, especially before the essential
matter was reduced to writing, there
Work as was required of the scribes a teaching
Teachers, activity. The instruction was oral;
only manuscripts of the Bible were at
hand; the lectures and discussions were held gen-
erally in special places designated for that purpose,
in Jerusalem halls and chambers in the forecourt of
the Temple. Teacher and pupils sat, the teacher
upon a platform somewhat elevated. The religious
discourses of the sabbath and other occasions were
in no small part delivered by the scribes. Many of
them busied themselves with the Haggada, though
the Halaka was their especial province (for Haggada
and Halaka see Midrash). Most of the scribes
naturally belonged to the party of the Pharisees
(see Pharisees and Sadducees), and as a con-
sequence were to be found mostly in Judea and
especially in Jerusalem. Yet, inasmuch as the high
priests were Sadducees, there must have been Sad-
ducean scribes. For their judicial or professorial
activity the scribes received no compensation.
Many supported themselves by manual labor, and
not a few were so well-to-do as to be able to live upon
their income from property; but they might also
receive entertainment so long as they continued
their teaching activities. It was regarded as im-
proper to make knowledge of the law a means of
gain {Pirke Aboth, i. 13; Baba bathra, 8a). But
there must have been many exceptions to this rule
(cf. Mark xii. 40; Luke xx. 47, xvi. 14); and the
circumstance that the scribes demanded an abnor-
mally high degree of honor may be taken as proof
that disinterestedness was not so general as Jewish
sources seem to make it. (H. L. Strack.)
Bibliography. Discussions of the subject are to be found
in the commentaries on the Gospels and on Acts, gener-
ally at the passages where mention of the scribes occurs,
often in the works on the history of the Apostolic Age,
in those on the life of Christ (e.g., Edersheim, i. 93 sqq.;
Farrar, i. 255-256) , and in works on the history of Israel
(such as those of Jost. Gratz, and Ewald). For the Eng-
lish reader there is nothing better than § 25 of the Eng.
transl. oi SchQrer's Geschichte (same section in the Ger-
man). Consult further: T. C. Lilienthal, De nomikois
juris utriusque apud Hebraos doctorSbus privatis, Halle,
1740; A. T. Hartmann, Die enge Verbindung des Alien
Testament* mit dem Neuen, pp. 384-413, Hamburg, 1831 ;
A. F. Gfrdrer, Das Jahrhundert des Heils, i. 109-214, Stutt-
gart, 1838; W. Bacher, Die Agada der babylonischen
Amoraer, . . . der Tannaiten, . . . der palAsHnensischen
Amoraer, 0 vols., Strasburg, 1878-99; V. Ryssel, Die
Anfange der judischen SchriftgeUhreamkeit, in TSK, 1887,
pp. 149-182; F. Weber, Judische Thedogie, Leipsic, 1897;
C. D. Qinsburg. Introduction to the Hebrew Bible, pp. 241
sqq., London, 1897; L. Blau, Studien sum althebrAisehen
Buchwesen, vol. i., Strasburg, 1902; J. W. Lightley, Lea
Scribes . . . lew origine ches les Israelites, Cahora, 1906;
DB, iv. 420-423; EB, iv. 4321-29; JE, xi. 123-120;
DCO, ii. 582-584; and the literature under Phabisus
AND SaDDUOUDS.
SCRIPTORIS, soip-to'ris, PAUL: Scholastic
theologian; b. at Weil (14 m. w. of Stuttgart) about
1450; d. at the monastery of Kaisersberg in Upper
Alsace Oct. 21, 1505. At an early age he entered
the order of the Minorites of the strict observance,
and was educated at Paris, where he became a
firm adherent of Scotistic realism. In this spirit
he labored first, apparently, at Mainz and later at
Tubingen, where he was guardian of the Franciscan
monastery until 1 501 . Although not connected with
the university, he lectured in his monastery on the
" Sentences " of Duns Scotus, the throngs that came
to hear him including Thomas Wyttenbach, Johann
von Staupits (qq.v.), and other leaders of nascent
Protestantism. These lectures, entitled Lectura
frairis Paidi Scriptoris . . . quam edidit dedarando
svbtilissimas doctoris svbtilis sentential circa Magis-
trum in prima liber, constituted the first book
printed at Ttlbingen (1498), and amply prove that,
while their author foresaw the coming of a new re-
gime in which scholasticism should yield place to
patristics, he was neither a humanist nor, as some
have claimed, a "Reformer before the Reforma-
tion.11 Acquainted with Greek, although not em-
ploying his knowledge in Biblical studies, Scriptoris
also lectured on the cosmography of Ptolemy and
on Euclid. He was likewise active as a preacher in
the vicinity of Reutlingen and Horb, but his merci-
less castigations exposed him to the censure of the
Tubingen theologians, and complaints were lodged
against him with his provincial, particularly as he
was unpopular with his monks. In 1501 he was re-
moved from office. Henceforth he was obliged to
restrict himself to literary labors in the monastery
at Basel, later being required to defend his views
before his superiors at Zabern. He escaped, how-
ever, possible imprisonment and went to Rome to
lay his cause before the Curia. Returning un-
molested, he was directed by the Franciscan vicar
general to teach theology in Toulouse, but died
while on the way to take up his new office.
(H. Hermelink.)
Bibliography: N. Paulus, in TQ8, 1893, pp. 289-311;
J. J. Moeer, Vita professorum Tubingensium, pp. 60-68,
Tubingen, 1718; ADB, xxxiii. 488-489.
SCRIPTURE, READING OF, IN WORSHIP. See
Pericofes.
SCRIVENER, scriv'ner, FREDERICK HENRY
AMBROSE: Church of England, New-Testament
scholar; b. at Bermondsey, London, Sept. 29, 1813;
d. at Hendon (8 m. n.w. of London). Middlesex, Oct.
Scrivener
Sculpture
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
810
30, 1891. He was educated at Trinity College, Cam-
bridge (B.A., 1835; M.A., 1838); became assistant
master of King's School, Sherborne, 1835; was cu-
rate of Sandford Orcas, Somerset, 1838-1845; head
master of Falmouth School, 1846-56; perpetual
curate of Penwerris, Cornwall, 1846-61; became
rector of St. Gerrans, Cornwall, 1861; prebendary
of Exeter, 1874; and vicar of Hendon, 1876. He
was a member of the New-Testament revision com-
mittee, 1872-80; received a pension of £100, in
1872, in recognition of his eminent Biblical services;
and was the author of A Supplement to the Author-
ized English Version of the New Testament (London,
1845) ; Collation of Twenty Greek Manuscripts of the
Holy Gospel (Cambridge, 1853); Codex Augiensis,
. . . (and) Fifty other Manuscripts, Gk. and Lat.
(1859); Novum Testamentum Textus Stephanici
(I860; 7th ed., 1877); Plain Introduction to the
Criticism of the New Testament (1861 ; 4th enlarged
ed., 2 vols., 1894) ; Collation of the Codex Sinai-
ticus (1863; 2d rev. ed., 1867); Beta Codex Cantor
brigiensis, Gr. and Lat. (1864) ; Six Popular Lectures
on the Text of the New Testament (1875) ; and edited
The Cambridge Paragraph Bible (1870-73), the in-
troduction to which appeared in separate revised
edition (1884); and The New Testament in the
Original Greek, according to the Text Followed in the
Authorized Version together with the Variations
Adopted in the Revised Version (1881).
Bibliography: P. Schaff, Companion to the Greek Testament
and the Revieed Version, New York, 1883; C. R. Gregory,
Canon and Text of the N. T., pp. 460-162, New York, 1007;
DNB, li. 126.
SCRIVER, scrt'ver, CHRISTIAN: German
Lutheran devotional writer; b. at Rendsburg (18
m. w. of Kiel) Jan. 2, 1629; d. at Quedlinburg (31
m. 8.w. of Magdeburg) Apr. 5, 1693. He entered the
University of Rostock in 1647, and in 1653 was ap-
pointed archdeacon at Stendal, whence he was called
in 1667 to Magdeburg as pastor of St. James's. Here
he remained twenty-three years, until in 1690 he
was made chief court chaplain at Quedlinburg, a
position which he held until his death. The friend
of Spener, Scriver was one of those theologians of
the latter part of the seventeenth century who op-
posed the formalism then besetting Lutheranism,
and thus prepared the way for Pietism, even while
himself maintaining strict orthodoxy. The writings
of Scriver now most interesting were devotional,
those including the Gottholds vierhundert zufdllige
Andachten (1667; lasted., Basel, 1893; Eng. transl.,
Gotthold's Emblems: or, Invisible Things understood
by Things that are madet by R. Menzies, Edinburgh,
1857), a collection of 400 parables; Gotthold's Siech-
und Siegesbette (1687; new ed., Stuttgart, 1870);
and Chrysologia Catechetica, Goldpredigten Hber die
HauptstUcke des lutherischen Katechismus (1687;
new ed., Stuttgart, 1861). His most important
work, however, was his Seelenschatz (5 parts, 1675-
1692; new ed., 3 vols., Berlin, 1852-53), describing
the progress of the soul from misery to eternal life
and combining allegory, dogmatics, and ethics.
Scriver was also a hymn-writer, though here he was
but second-rate. Nevertheless, three of his com-
positions have been translated into English: " Auf,
Seel, und danke deinem Herrn" as "To God, my
soul, thank-offerings pay " ; " Der lieben Sonne Licht
und Pracht" (his best hymn), found in a number of
renderings; and "Hier lieg ich nun, mein Gott, su
deinen Fussen" as "Here, O my God, I cast me
at Thy feet." The collected works of Scriver have
been edited by J. H. Heinrich and R. 8tier (6 vols.,
Barmen, 1847-52). (Hermann Beck.)
Bibliography: To the funeral sermon by 8. Calvishis,
Helmstadt, 1684, there ia added a sketch of Scriver's life.
There are biographies by O. Weinsohenk, Leipeic, 1729;
and H. Krieg, Dresden, 1872. Consult further, H. Beck,
Die reUgioee VotksUtteratur der evanoeHeehen Kirch*
Deuteehlande, pp. 143 sqq., Gotha, 1891; C. Grouse, /He
alten Troster, Hemnannsburg, 1900; Julian, Hymnology,
pp. 1034-36.
SCUDAMORE, scud'a-mor, WILLIAM EDWARD:
Church of England; b. at Wye (24 m. s.e. of Roches-
ter), Kent, July 24, 1813; d. at Ditchingham (12
m. 8.e. of Norwich), Norfolk, Jan. 31, 1881. He
was educated at St. John's College, Cambridge
(B.A., 1835), of which he became a fellow in 1837.
After teaching for a time, he was appointed, in 1839,
rector of Ditchingham, a parish which he held until
his death. Theologically he was distinctly a High-
churchman, though not of the most advanced type.
An admirable patristic and liturgical scholar, he
was the author of The Communion of the Laity (Lon-
don, 1855) ; Litanies for Use at the various Seasons
of the Christian Year, before and after the Holy Comr
munion, and on other Occasions (1860); The North
Side of the Table: An historical Enquiry (1870) ; and
Notitia Eucharistia (1872 ; a masterpiece in its field) .
In the sphere of polemics and church history he
wrote Letters to a Seceder from the Church of England
(London, 1851); England and Rome: A Discussion
of the Principal Points of Difference (1855); and
The Diocesan Synods of the Earlier Church (1878).
He also gained a lasting reputation as a devotional
writer, his works here being Steps to the Altar: A
Manual of Devotions for the Blessed Eucharist (Lon-
don, 1846, and constantly reprinted) ; Words to Take
with us: A Manual of Daily and Occasional Prayers
(1859); The Hour of Prayer, being a Manual of
Devotion for the Use of Families and Schools (1873) ;
and Incense for the Altar: A Series of Devotions for
. . . Communicants (1874).
Bibliography: A. Davenport, Scudamore and Bickersteth;
or " Steps to the Altar " and " The Devotions of the Reform-
er* " compared, Hobart Town, 1861; DNB, li 157-168.
SCUDDER, scud'er, HENRY MARTTN: Mis-
sionary to India and Japan; b. at Panditeripo,
Jaffna District, Ceylon, Feb. 5, 1822; d. at Winches-
ter, Mass., June 4, 1895. He was the son of John
Scudder (q.v.); was educated at New York Uni-
versity and Williams College, and graduated at the
former, 1840; studied at Union Theological Semi-
nary, New York, 1840-43 ; was missionary under the
American Board at Madras, India, 1844-51; and,
after exploring the Arcot district, was stationed
there where he established a dispensary. His study
of medicine gave him special facility for access to
the people. In 1864, his health declined and he re-
turned to America, becoming successively pastor of
the Grand Street Reformed Church, Jersey City,
N. J., 1864-65; the Howard Presbyterian Church,
San Francisco, Cal., 1865-71 ; the Central Congrega-
tional Church, Brooklyn, N. Y., 1871-82; and the
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Scolptn
Plymouth Congregational Church. Chicago, 1882-87.
He joined his aon and daughter in missionary service
in Japan, 1887-00. He published in Tamil) Liturgy
of the Reformed Protestant Dutch Church (Madras,
1862); The Bazaar Book (1865); Sweet Savon of
Divine Truth (1868); and Spiritual Teaching (1870;
Eng. trans!., 1870).
SCUDDER, JOHH: Missionary of the Reformed
(Dutch) Church; b. at Freehold, N. J., Sept. 13,
1793; d. at Wynberg (7 m. s.e. of Capetown),
Southern Africa, Jan. 13, 1856. He was graduated
at the College of New Jersey, 1811; and at the
College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York, 1815;
and practised medicine until 1819. While in profes-
sional attendance upon a lady, he took up a tract
entitled The Conversion of the World and his religious
sense of duty was so impressed that he gave his life
to missionary labor. After being licensed by the
New York classis, he proceeded, under the American
Board, to Ceylon, where he arrived 1820; was or-
dained there, 1821 ; established a hospital at Jaffna-
patam; was foremost in organizing a college there,
1822; had an extensive revival 1824; and in 1836
with Miron Winslow was transferred to Madras, in
order that he might print Scriptures and tracts in
Tamil. In the first year they printed six million
pages. Scudder fixed his residence at Chintadrepet-
tah, near Madras, and thus, under his attention, there
grew up the Arcot mission, which was received under
tin1 can' of the American Board in 1852, and of the
Reformed (Dutch) Church the next year. He was
in America, 1842^6, in the interest of foreign mis-
sions. In 1849 he was in the Madura mission, and
with this exception all his energies were given to the
Arcot mission. His health gave way in 1854, and
he went to the Cape of Good Hope, where, upon
the point of returning to India, he was stricken by
apoplexy. He was incessant in his heroic labors,
given much to Evangelistic itinerancy. It is re-
markable that his eight sons, two grandsons, and
two granddaughters have been members of the Arcot
Mission, He published Letters from the East (Boston,
1833); Letters to Pious Young Men (1846); and
Provision for Passing over Jordan (New York, 1852).
Bibliography: J. B. WeWrbury, Memoir of Ret. John
Scudder . . . TAirtv-rLr Yran Miirionarv in India. New
York, 1870: W B. Spmgue. AnnaU a/ the Amrricnn Pul-
pit, vol. i.,, ib. 1873: E. T. Corwiu, Manual oftht Re-
formed Chtath in America, pp. 716-720, 4th ed., ib. 1902.
SCULLARD, scrjl'ard, HERBERT HAYES: Con-
gregational is t; b. at Bclper (7 m. n. of Derby),
England, July 4, 1862. He received his education
at Pembroke House School, Lytham, Lancashire,
Lancashire Independent and Owen's Colleges, Man-
chester, St. John's College-, Carahridge (B.A., 1888;
M.A., 18911; and London University (C.A., 1883;
MA.. 1885; B.D., 1904; D.D., 1907); wasminister
of York St. Congregational Church, Dublin, 1890-
1896; and of Howard Congregational Church, Bed-
ford, 1897-1907. Since 1907 he has been professor
of church history, history of Christian ethics, and of
religions tn New and Hackney Colleges, London
Viiivursity. In theology he is an Evangelical, He
has written: St. Martin of Tours (Manchester, 189J);
John Howard (London, 1899) ; Early Christian
Ethics in the West (1908); and contributed an essay
to Christ and Civilization, issued by the National
Free Church Council (1910).
SCULPTURE, CHRISTIAH USE OP.
I. The Early Christian Period.
II. The Middle Agee.
Influents of Early Models (| 1).
Results of Gothic Development (1 2).
HI. The Modem Period.
The Renaissance la Italy (I 1).
The New German Era (| 2>.
Recent Art (I 3>.
In the artistic life of the Church and of Chris-
tianity Painting and Architecture (qq.v.) took pre-
cedence of sculpture.* In the Middle Ages the
plastic arte were an adjunct of architecture; in the
preceding epochs under the influence of the antique
their position was freer but less independent. The
Renaissance first set forth new views of art and gave
to the other branches their equal rights. In the
primitive Church and even in the Middle Ages the
development of sculpture, especially in statuary,
was hindered by its old association with idolatry.
So in the early period, where the plastic art appears,
it is limited to relief forms.
I. The Early Christian Period: Christian work of
this sort In the early period worked most upon sar-
cophagus relief and ivory. The peculiar history of
the sarcophagus began with the fourth century,
when new forms of burial were sought. In the
churches and the cemeteries above ground, then be-
coming more numerous, the stone coffin found ita
use, and numerous exemplars come from the cen-
tral points of Rome, Ravenna, and Aries. On the
front of the sarcophagus, seldom on the other sides,
in high relief are portrayed Biblical events, gener-
ally in historical sequence, though sometimes freely
arranged. Usually the series is arranged without
pillars, trees, and the like separating the different
scenes. Often, after the ancient fashion, the portrait
of the deceased was worked into the fabric of the
relief. Western art showed inclination for human
figures, the Hellenist-oriental preferred animal and
plant forms. While there was a general uniformity,
individual tendencies showed themselves locally.
Recent discovery has made clear in Hellenist'
oriental work a commingling of Syrian and Egyp-
tian elements in varying proportions; this field far
artistic worth the western-Latin sculp-
the sarcophagi. The leading position of
By can tine art appears particularly in ivory carving,
emanating from Byiantium, Antioch. and Alexan-
dria as the principal centera; facility in execution
best shows itself in copies of work from the fourth
to the sixth centuries. There is an inner connection
with the antique; in conception, execution, and con-
tent, the graceful naturalness of Hellenistic art
lived on in ornament. The variety of objects is
large, these being found as diptychs, chests for
sacramental or secular use, medallions for the adorn-
ment of episcopal chairs, figurines, and the like.
For work in wood the relief on the door of the St.
• " Sculpture " »
include carving as I
Sculpture
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
812
Sabina Church in Rome is a fine example, so far as
archeological purpose goes. Terra-cotta and the
noble metals furnished material also, while the furni-
ture of church and home provided other ground for
work. Here the lamps were especially selected for
ornamentation with cross, monogram, animals,
plants, secular and sacred figures or scenes. A long
list of clay and metal objects also offered a basis,
while portals, pillars, railings, ambo, and other ob-
jects were enriched by ornaments of this kind. Of
statuary proper, especially of a monumental char-
acter, little has come down, though there is literary
testimony to a once abundant material. Among ex-
tant examples, the good shepherd takes the first
place. While the brazen statue of St. Peter in the
Vatican is of the thirteenth century, there is one of
marble of early date, and the seated Hippolytus in
the Lateran is of his own times, though modeled
on antique lines.
IL The Middle Ages: As the spiritual life of the
Carolingian period took its departure from classical
tradition, so the plastic arts followed the same trend.
While the Germanic tribes, as they came into the
sphere and under the influence of the Roman cul-
ture, recognized and bowed to the imposing force of
these forms, they yet retained their
i. Influence own genius which shone out with
of Early greater or less clearness. Sculpture
Models, was largely expressed in carving of
ivory, and the lineage of the work was
Roman, with a relatively high facility in execution.
But there is often to be discovered the naive fresh-
ness of German genius. In lands like Ireland and
England, where Roman influence was less direct, the
native genius is still more in evidence. In France
there were many centers for this class of produc-
tions, in Germany the Lower Rhine was the busiest
workshop, though northern Germany had an artistic
carver in Tuotilo of St. Gall. The eleventh-century
architecture, developing out of the old Carolingian
style, gave opportunity for the development of
sculpture. On the outside the space over the portal
was employed; while on the inside capital, baptis-
mal stone, ambo, and the cultic objects formed
the ground for this sort of adornment. The plastic
arts took their place alongside of painting and served
on the great surfaces to set forth the symbolism of
Christendom. This is especially true of Germany
(Hildesheim, 1015; Augsburg, 1060; and the doors
for Novgorod, Gnesen, and of St. Zeno in Verona,
all from German hands). The conception follows
the trend of the architecture and is decorative in
purpose, the pattern is antique with little tendency
to novelty; in the carving of ivory (book covers,
diptychs, chests, croziere, and the like) Carolingian
influence often remains unbroken, while at times
independent observation and execution are ap-
parent, especially in a Saxon environment. Monks
and the clergy were the principal artists of the
eleventh and the twelfth centuries.
After a slow development in the twelfth century,
under the stimulus of Gothic architecture, German
plastic art of the Middle Ages reached its culmina-
tion in classic completeness and monumental
creations, the Saxon countries being in the lead.
Wechselburg, Freiburg, and Naumburg furnish the
noblest and oldest expressions of the invention of this
period. While in South Germany masterpieces are
found, French influences, naturally, are
a. Results stronger — indirect in Bamberg, direct
of Gothic in Strasburg. The tendency was to
Develop- give way to individualistic expression
ment in the concrete, though the means
chosen were not always happy; there
was moreover the effort after a harmony between
the solemnity of place and of purpose and individual
life. The ideal was more subjective and artistic,
though the tradition of the twelfth century was not
abandoned. France also in the twelfth century ex-
perienced a lively development in plastic art, in
which the schools of Provence, Toulouse, and Bur-
gundy were prominent, and this development was
not uninfluential even in Spain. Roman traditions
are in evidence still, with a fondness for adornment
of entrances. The thirteenth century, that of the
Gothic style of architecture, brought about a dis-
tinct revolution. The mighty structures which
arose, especially in the central provinces of northern
France, demanded, with their imposing doors and
lofty and richly membered architecture, a wealth
of statuary and relief work. With enthusiasm the
plastic art took up its task and achieved the clas-
sical completeness of Christian imagery. Painting,
equally zealous, followed the lead and limited itself
no more to figures, scenes, and groups, but set forth
the whole drama of salvation from the creation to
the judgment. Fancy had full play, while the Bible,
legend, popular and learned conceptions, history,
and typology combined to furnish the subjects (cf .,
e.g., the cathedrals of Chartres and of Reims). Yet
the call of architecture imposed its limits upon
sculpture, within which there were a depth of sen-
sibility and a fineness of observation which justifies
comparison with the antique. The general effect
was that of a more youthful and graceful style than
obtained in Germany. Especially in the portrayal
of the person of Christ this century surpassed all
previous ones, and long stood in the lead. In this
and in the figures of the apostles the Renaissance
was anticipated. Hence French influence flowed out
to the neighboring lands. So strong was this in Ger-
many that connection with the past was practically
broken. With this development came also applica-
tion of this art to the cultic objects, even the most
insignificant, and color was used to enhance the
effect; additional to stone as materials were used
wood, stucco, the precious metals, and enamel.
The Netherlands felt even more forcibly than Ger-
many the influence of France. In England native
elements mingled with the French. In Italy during
the eleventh and twelfth centuries there were
mingled the various streams of Byzantine, Roman,
and Lombardic art. In the thirteenth century Pisa
led the way to a higher exposition through Niccolo
Pisano, a man thoroughly and intelligently ground-
ed in appreciation of the classical ideals of beauty,
while his son Giovanni was even more influential.
In the East, Christian art employed itself with archi-
tecture and painting, the early prejudice against the
plastic continuing. Carving in ivory is the one
branch of this art which reached eminence there.
HI. The Modern Period: In the fifteenth century
813
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Sculpture
in Italy art released itself from the traditions of the
Middle Ages, and in the process individualism, for
which Humanism (q.v.) had victoriously fought, led
the way back to nature as a source of
i. The inspiration and thence to an increasing
Renaissance richness of creations, in which the
in Italy, deep content of life was exhibited. As
compared with Greek art, which drew
from the same source, the Christian is distinguished
by an effort to portray the inner life and not mere
external beauty of form. Plastic art, recognizing
its task, released itself from the limits imposed by
architecture and then imparted some of the freedom
thus gained to painting. The artists were encour-
aged, moreover, by native enthusiasm, the nobility,
both secular and ecclesiastical, serving as patrons.
Thus the Church offered no opposition, and plastic
art was allowed free scope in the churches. Even
mortuary monuments, which hitherto had followed
the old style, joined the new movement. Monastic
structures, in spite of conservative tendencies, fol-
lowed on, and the workmen were now found among
the laity. A higher idealism guided the hand of the
artist, who conceived his work in the spirit of a
holy service. While the artists were many, they
were united in this conception of their province,
though individuality was not submerged. While
the most varied material was employed, marble
was most highly regarded; there was also much
use of many-colored terra-cotta, rendered durable
by glazing or enameling. Florence was the leader,
where Lorenzo Ghibcrti (d. 1455) and Donatello
worked, in whom the strength of invention and ex-
ecution which characterized the new era unfolded
itself. In the latter full yielding to nature and
reality, elevation almost to harshness, grace even
to delicacy flow together in the harmony of art. Por-
trayal of the human form was recognized as the
highest result here; while the influence of the clas-
sical was felt, it was rather by assimilation of its
ideals than by imitation. As Florence was the cen-
ter in the early Renaissance, so Rome became the
center in the "high Renaissance," containing, as it
did, not merely the remains of antiquity but also
the recollections of a great history. The incarna-
tion of the ideals and powers of this later period
were concentrated in Michelangelo Buonarotti.
None had so great power in forcing the marble to
express his will; he created a new era in the exal-
tation of the common forms into the gigantic, where-
in nature was expressed but after the type of civi-
lized man. Examples of his art are the Pieta, David,
Moses, and the dying slave, each exemplifying a
phase of his art which has its own excellencies and
greatnesses. It was inevitable that such a man
should influence not only his own time but also
dominate largely the future through his inspiration
of other artists.
In Germany not only the views but the social and
especially the cultural organization of the Middle
Ages still obtained, and where new
2. New Ger- motives and pictures came in, these
man Era. were of a religious character. There
were lacking the keen spirit, the gener-
ous patronage of the rich, and the immediately work-
ing influence of antiquity that were present in Italy.
There was no attempt at the great and monumental ;
but in place of this, there was an appreciation of
reality and of the truth of the phenomenal, without
earnest effort after or concern for an ideal of beauty.
The nude was not employed, the draperies of figures
being heavy and abundant and in the fashion of the
period. Yet there was earnestly sought the com-
bination of internal and external truth, the expres-
sion of the personal, perception of the spiritual. Art
is here the expression of common life and speaks a
popular language, dwelling upon sacred history and
the history of the saints; Mary was not the queen of
heaven but rather the lovely virgin or the agonized
mother. But these aims were sometimes marred
by a repellent materialism. The sculptor and the
painter united forces and together produced such
works as altar-pieces and the like. The period be-
tween 1450 and 1530 is the second period of bloom in
German plastic art. Everywhere were created great
altar-pieces, the joint production of painting and
sculpture, while the registers of corporations exhibit
numerous names of artists, though there were no
such prominent centers of influence as were Florence
and Rome in Italy. As the center of the Frankish
school, however, Nuremberg must be named. The
carvings which came out of the workshop of Michael
Wohlgemut show the first traces of the new move-
ment, and in the work of his younger contemporary
Veit Stoss this movement reached its culmination.
The medium was wood, and the aim was sharp defini-
tion and a conception of reality. Examples of his
work are the altar of Mary in Cracow, the greeting of
the angels in the Church of St. Lorenz, and creations
in the Jakobskirche in Nuremberg. With him should
be mentioned as the master in stone work Adam
Kraft (b. about 1450; d. 1509), who had an archa-
istic bent which he used in pieces that exhibit a devo-
tional restfulness, &3 shown in his Seven Stations
and his group of the crucifixion, while in the celebra-
ted chapel of the sacrament in the Lorenzkirche a
feeling for the decorative and mastery of technique
are combined. A third name is that of Peter Vischer
(b. about 1455; d. 1529), the author of numerous
works, with whom his sons collaborated. He ex-
celled both his contemporaries in largeness of con-
ception and feeling for beauty, though between him
and Adam Kraft significant relations existed. To-
ward the latter part of his life he came under the
influence of the Renaissance, but retained his Teu-
tonic traits, as is shown by his chief work, the me-
morial in the Sebalduskirche (completed 1519). A
man held in highest honor was Tilmann Riemen-
schneider (d. 1531), artist in both stone and wood,
and a great body of disciples attest his eminence.
Swabia participated in this development of Ger-
man art, although painting was there more favored.
Ulm Jttrg Syrlin, father and son, developed a sig-
nificant activity; to the son was ascribed the high
altar at Blaubeuren, one of the masterpieces in this
line of Christian art, with which must be named the
crucifix in the chief church at Ndrdlingen. The
Tyrol produced in this period Michael Pacher, a man
of high artistic capacity. On the Lower Rhine home
production was stifled by the importation of art
work from the Netherlands, and what work was
done there was patterned after the models thus ob-
Sculpture
Seabury
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
314
tained. In North Germany Hans Brttggemann,
though incited by Netherlands art, through his own
genius gave his work distinction, producing the
great altar in the cathedral at Sleswick.
During the sixteenth century the Italian Renais-
sance began to diffuse its results over Germany with
the result that the classicism then fashionable came
in. In Italy at the end of this century the baroque
style entered and prevailed. The creator here was
the papal architect Lorenzo Bernini (d. 1680). This
style ran to the pathetic and affecting; and since it
needed for effectiveness the aid of painting, plastic
art surrendered its independence to its sister art.
Thus there came into being the theatrically com-
posed portrayals of history of saints and martyrs
characterized by unbalanced piety, frivolous sen-
sualism, and repellent realism. While the Thirty
Years' War shattered German art for the time,
Prussia showed the first recovery, artists being
imported. But the baroque stylist Andreas Schluter
(d. 1714) was of home growth, whose equestrian
statue of the great elector is the most characteristic
production, though his marble pulpit in the Marien-
kirche in Berlin is a graceful and decorative com-
position.
With the end of the eighteenth century the in-
dependence of art ceased. There began a rechauffS
of all periods and styles which gave both to architec-
ture and to sculpture a chaotic impress. Modern
intercourse and expositions facilitated
3. Recent methods of reproduction, brought per-
Art sons and schools of all lands together,
and produced the great mixture of
style* which is found in the present. At first, the
antique was in fashion, represented by the Italian
Antonio Canova (d. 1822) and the Dane Bertel
Thorwaldsen (d. 1844). The latter lives through his
great creation, now in the Vor-Frue-Kirke in Copen-
hagen, the Christ accompanied by his band of dis-
ciples, a work which vividly brings to mind Matt. xi.
28. Exaltation and gentleness envelop this form,
fashioned in antique beauty. The most eminent
representative of classicism in Germany was Chris-
tian Daniel Rauch (d. 1857), who, though his in-
clination was toward the secular, yet left in his
praying Moses (in the Friedenskirche at Potsdam)
evidence of perception of the needs of religious sculp-
ture. In Ernst Rietschel there was completed an
approach to realism. While his delicate Pieta in the
Friedenskirche at Potsdam is based on ideal classi-
cism, the Luther memorial at Worms has received
the entire force of historical presentation. But in
Germany classicism is worthily represented only by
Adolf Hildebrand. For the rest, plastic art is show-
ing all types from fantastic symbolism to the
sharpest realism and the most bizarre impression-
ism. The same may be said of France, where August
Rodin, following his predecessors Francois Rude and
David d1 Angers, has made a break with the classi-
cistic past and introduced a thoroughgoing sub-
jectivism, his figures showing emotionalism and the
sensual. Yet the representative Frenchman of to-
day is not Rodin but Albert Bartholomew whose
creations reveal lofty conception, harmony, and
proportion, especially as exhibited in his Monument
aux morts in the churchyard of Pere la Chaise in
Paris. In Belgium Konstantin Meunier (d. 1905)
placed his great talents at the service of the social
question, portraying the laboring classes with
fidelity to life.
As a whole the art of the present is eclectic,
though originality is not lacking, while strong in-
dividuality is also a marked characteristic. Hellen-
ism is still distinguishable in plastic form, and
romantic and ecclesiastical traditions remain in
force, especially in Roman Catholic art. But the
tendency of art as a whole is to walk in the free
paths of subjectivism, and it reflects, equally with
literature, the spiritual, ethical, and religious in-
coherence which marks the times. Moreover, the
close bonds, so evident in the Middle Ages, between
architecture and sculpture have been severed. On
the other hand, in the works of memorial char-
acter religious art has produced some memorable
results, though even in these great dangers are
manifest. In decorative work ecclesiastical art still
leans upon the models presented by the Middle Ages.
(Victor Schultze.)
Bibuoobaphy: In general, much of the literature under
Axt and Chubch; Cbmxtbribs; and Painting has bear-
ing on the subject, some of it is immediately pertinent,
especially the works of Auguste, Didron, Lenoir, Hemans,
Otte, Jameson, Schlosser, Kraus, Lowrie, Schultse,
Garrucci, Burckhardt, W6lfflin, and Rosenberg. The
reader is directed also to the series of monographs pub-
lished as Zur Kunstgeschichts, Strasburg, 1900 sqq.;
KOnsUer-Monographien, Bielefeld, 1901 sqq., and Great
Masters in Sculpture, published by Bell, London, 1903
sqq. Also to H. Stegman, Sculpture of the West, London,
1907; and A. Kuhn, Allgemeine Kunst-Geschichte, Ein-
siedeln, 1908.
For the ancient period consult: W. LQbke, Oeschichte
der Plastik, Stuttgart, 1880; idem, Grundriss der Kunst-
geschichts, ed. M. Semrau, 5 vols., ib. 1903-06; C. C. Per-
kins, Hietorical Handbook of Italian Sculpture, London,
1883; A. Bayersdorfer, Klaeeiecher SkulpturenschaU,
Munich, 1896; A. Springer, Handbuch der Kunstgeschichts,
2 vols., 4th ed., Leipsic, 1895; J. Fioker, Die altchristiichen
BUdwerke im christlichen Museum dee Laterans, Leipsic,
1890; Q. Stuhlfauth, Die aUchristiiche Elfenbeinplastik,
Freiburg, 1896; J. Wiegand, Das altchrietliehe Hauptportal
an der Kirche der heiligen Sabina tu Rom, Treves, 1900;
F. Freiherr Goeler von Ravensburg, Orundriee der Kunst-
geschichte, ed. M. Schmid, Berlin, 1901-03; J. Strsygowski,
Koptische Kunst, Vienna, 1904; K. M. Kaufmann, Hand-
buch der chrietlichen Archaologie, Paderborn, 1905; E.
Redslob, Das Kirchenportal, Jena, 1909. A rich source
of knowledge is Cabrol, Dictionnaire, e.g., the article
" Agneau," L 878 sqq.
For the pre-Reformation period consult: W. Bode, Of
echichU der deutschen Plastik, Berlin, 1885; A. Schmarsow,
Donatella, Leipsic, 1886; P. Clemen, Merovingieche und
karolingische Plastik, Bonn, 1892; E. von Flottwell,
Meisterwerk deutscher Bildnerei in Naumburg, Magdeburg,
1892; E. Meyer, Die Skulpturen dee Strassburger Mun-
sters, Strasburg, 1894; W. Vdge, Die Anfange dee monw
mentalen Stiles im MiUelaltcr, ib. 1894; L. Gonse, La Sculp-
ture francaise depuis le xiv. siecle, Paris, 1895; M. R.
James, The Sculptures in the Lady Chapel at Ely, London,
1895; E. Stueckelberg, Longobardische Plastik, Zurich,
1896; A. Weese, Die Bamberger Domskulpturen, Stras-
burg, 1897; M. Q. Zimmermann, Oberitalienische Plastik
im fruhen und htihern Mittelalter, Leipsic, 1897; S. Lami,
Dictionnaire dee sculpteurs de VScole francaise du moyen
age, Paris, 1898* E. Male, VArt religieux du xiii. siode on
France, ib. 1898; K. Moris-Eichhorn, Der Skulpturency
klus in der Vorhalle dee FreSburger Munsters, Strasburg,
1899; J. Mantuani, Tuotilo, Strasburg, 1900; L. J. Free-
man, Italian Sculpture of the Renaissance, New York, 1901;
A. Venturi, Storia deW Arte Italiana, Milan, 1901 sqq.;
A. Qoldschmidt, Die Freiberger Goldene Pforts, Berlin,
1902; A. Marignan, Hist, de la sculpture en Languedoc dm
zii-xiii. siecle, Paris, 1902; K. Franck, Der M sister der
Bcclesia und Synagoge am Strassburger Munster, DQssel*
315
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Sculpture
Seabury
dorf, 1903; R. S. L. Gower, Mickad Angdo BuonarotH,
London, 1003; D. A. E. Lindsay, Donatella, fb. 1003;
A. Brach, Nicola und Giovanni Pieano und die Plastik don
xie. Jahrhunderte in Siena, Strasbuxg, 1004; M. Sauer-
land. Die Bildwerke dee Giovanni Pieano, DQaeeldorf, 1004;
A. Alexander, DonaUUo, Paris, 1005; H. Bergner, Hand-
buck dor kirchlichen Kunttaltertumer in Deutschland, Leip-
sic, 1005.
For the modern period consult: A. Woltmann, Die
deutsche Kvnet und die Reformation, Berlin, 1867; A.
Oppermann, Ernst Rietschel, Leipaic, 1873; F. and K.
Eggers, C. D. Ranch, 5 vols., Berlin, 1873-91; C. Ourlitt,
Geachichte dee Barock, Rokoko vnd Klassisismus, Stutt-
gart, 1887-89; L. and E. L. de Taeye, fitudss eur lee arte
plaetiquee en Belgique, Brussels, 1801; A. Saeh, Hone
Bruggemann, Sleswick, 1806; B. Daun, Adam Kraft,
Berlin, 1807; idem. Veil Stoee und eeine Schule, Leipaic,
1003; A. R. Willard. Hist, of Modem Art, London, 1000;
M. H. Spielmann, Britten Sculpture and Sculptor* of To-
day, ib. 1001; W. C. Brownell, French Art, Westminster,
t1002; D. Christison, The Carving a and Inecriptione on
the Kirkyard Monuments of the Scottieh Lowlands, Edin-
burgh, 1002; E. Claris, De V impressionisms en sculpture,
Paris, 1002; H. Thode, Michelangelo und doe Ends der
Renaissance, 2 vols., Berlin, 1002-03; A. Heilmayer, Die
moderns Plastik in Deutechland, Leipaic, 1003; E. Hum-
blot, Documents eur la sculpture religieuee, Saint-Disier,
1003; L. Taft, The Hist, of American Sculpture, New York,
1003; 8. Trier, Thorvaldeen, Copenhagen, 1003; L. de
Fourcaud, Francois Rude, Paris, 1004; C. Mauclair, Au-
gusts Rodin, London, 1005; C. Meunier, ConetanHn Meunier
eteon omvre, Paris, 1005; F. Bond, Wood Carvings in
English Churches, London, 1010.
SCULTETUS, scul-tf'tus (SCHULTETUS), ABRA-
HAM: German Reformed; b. at GrQneberg (86 m.
n.w. of Breslau) Aug. 24, 1566; d. at Emden (60 m.
w.n.w. of Bremen) Oct. 24, 1624. Educated at the
universities of Wittenberg (1588-90) and Heidelberg
(1590-91), he was ordained in 1594 to the ministry of
Schriesheim near Heidelberg, whence he was called,
a few months later, to be court chaplain to the Elec-
tor Frederick IV. In 1598 he became pastor of the
Franciscan church at Heidelberg, ecclesiastical coun-
cilor and inspector of pastors and schools in 1600,
succeeded Pitiscus as court preacher on his death in
1614, and in 1618 was made professor of theology at
the university. Meanwhile he had been employed
in various missions of importance. He was called in
1614 to the court of Brandenburg to counsel the Re-
formed convert, Elector John Sigismund, in arran-
ging the ecclesiastical affairs of the province; in 1618
was one of the Palatine delegates to the Synod of
Dort; in 1619 he accompanied the electoral envoys
to Frankfort to choose the new emperor, and in
1620 followed his elector, who had been offered the
Bohemian crown, to Prague, where he was involved
in the fatal events after the battle of Weissen-
berg (Nov. 8, 1620). Scultetus fled from Prague
to Heidelberg, but further residence there was
impossible, and he sought refuge with his ad-
herents successively in Bretten and in Schorndorf
in WOrttemberg, and was called, in 1622, to be
pastor at Emden, where he passed the remainder of
his life.
One of the most distinguished Reformed theolo-
gians of his period, Scultetus was a prominent figure
in the irenic proposals steadily refused by the Lu-
therans. His chief works were the Medulla theo-
logian patrum syntagma (4 parts, Heidelberg, 1598-
1613), and the Annalium evangelii passim per
Europam quinto decimo salutis porta seculo renovati
decas prima et secunda ab anno 1616-36 (Heidelberg,
1618-20); to these may be added the posthumous
NarraHo apologetica (Emden, 1625).
(H. MALLETf.)
Bibliography: The funeral sermon by F. Sslmuth was
published, Emden, 1625. Consult: £. Meiners, Oostvriesch-
landts Kerkdijke Geschisdsnisse, ii. 439 sqq., Gronin-
gen, 1739; P. Bayle, Dictionary, v. 100-104; ADB,
xxxiii. 492 sqq.
SCYTHIANS. See Goo and Magog.
SDRALEK, shro/lek, MAXIMILIAN LUKAS:
German Roman Catholic; b. at Woschczyti (a vil-
lage near Sohraul, 57 m. s.e. of Oppeln), Upper
Silesia, Oct. 11, 1855. He was educated at the uni-
versities of Breslau and Freiburg (D.D., 1880), and
in 1882 became privat-docent for church history and
canon law at the former institution. In 1884 he
was called to Monster as professor of church history,
but in 1806 returned to Breslau to accept his present
position of professor of the same subject. He has
also been resident canon of the Breslau Cathedral
since 1900, and was rector of the university 1906-
1907. Besides editing the KirchengeschichUiche
Studien and the Kirchengeschichtliche Abhandlungen,
he has written Hinkmars von Reims kanonistische
Gutachten Hber die Eheseheidung des Konigs Lothar
II. (Freiburg, 1881); Dis Streitschriften AUmanns
von Passau und Wezilos von Mainz (Paderbom,
1891); WolfenbuMler Fragmente, Analekten zur
Kirchengeschichte (Monster, 1891) ; and Die Strass-
burger Diozesansynode (Freiburg, 1894).
SEABURY, SAMUEL: First bishop of the Prot-
estant Episcopal Church; b. at North Groton (now
Ledyard), Conn., Nov. 30, 1729; d. at New London
Feb. 25, 1796. He graduated at Yale College, 1748,
and soon after began the study of medicine. In
1752, though he had already devoted himself
to the clerical calling, he went to Edinburgh to com-
plete his medical studies, and there became ac-
quainted with a remnant of the ancient Church of
Scotland. He was ordained deacon by the bishop
of Lincoln, Dec. 21, 1753; and priest two days later
at London; arrived at New Brunswick, N. J., as
missionary, 1754; was rector at Jamaica, L. I.. 1757-
1767; and at Westchester, N. Y., from 1767. De-
riving his support as missionary from the Church of
England, and being under the oath of allegiance,
he remained stanchly loyal, which brought him into
disfavor with the patriots. He made himself par-
ticularly obnoxious by a series of pamphlets signed
A. W. Farme and entitled, Free Thoughts on the
Proceedings of the Continental Congress (Nov. 16,
1774); The Congress Canvassed (Nov. 26); and A
View of the Controversy between Great Britain and her
Colonies (Dec. 24). He was seized by an armed
band, removed to Connecticut, and held prisoner at
New Haven, for six weeks. Upon being passed
through the British lines he retired to New York,
where he supported himself in part by the practise
of medicine, served as chaplain of the king's Amer-
ican regiment, and maintained his loyalty till the
end of the war. In 1783 he was elected bishop by
the clergy of Connecticut, and proceeded to Eng-
land foi ordination. This was refused by the arch-
bishop of Canterbury, because certain complica-
tions with the civil oath of allegiance had not yet
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
been resolved, and Seabury turned to Scotland,
where he waa consecrated in 1784 by three non-
juring prelates. He returned to Connecticut, 1785,
where, resident as rector at New London, hia epis-
i'"j>;i! jurisdiction veil: recognized, it mi was extended,
by invitation, over Rhode Island. He waa the
first presiding bishop of the churches in the several
stales united under the general convention in 1789.
lie united with tile three tii.-h'ps sulwjuently con-
secrated in England in the formation of the new Con-
stitution rendering the American churcli iinlepeud-
cut and autonomous, in the joint consecration of
the first bishop of Maryland, Thomaa J. dagger t.
Consequently no bishop has ever been consecrated
without- deriving his prerogatives both through the
Scottish and AngJieaii lines o! descent.
Seabury was fitted by his ecclesiastical knowledge
and persistent devotion to his church system, exer-
cised with remarkable prudence and patience, to
render services making him a pioneer and founder of
American Episcopal! an ism, fortunately resulting in
guiding a free, valid, and regular succession through
the crisis of American independence, and demon-
strating that the episcopacy was adaptable in a
free state. His permanent services include the
securing, by amendment, of coordinate legislative
functions for tie- house of bishops, and the restora-
tion of the oblation and invocation to the commun-
ion office, according to hia pledge to the Sooton
Church which ordained him. His Discourse* on
Several Subject* was published (New York, 1793;
2 vols., Hudson, 1815).
Bibliui.raj-ht: E, E, Beafdaley, 24k and Corrapantlirnrs
of Rev. S. Sraburv, Boiton. 1SS1: W. B. Bpmgue, Annals
of Hit American Pulpit, v. 149-153, New York. 1840; W.
8. Perry, Hut. of the AmerUan Episeopai Chunk, poaaim,
2 vols., Boston. 1385: idem. The Episcopate in America,
pp. 1-3, Now York, 1885; C. C. Tiffany, in American
Church History Serin, vol. vii. passim, ib. 1895; S. D.
McCoonell, Hiit. of the American Episcopal Church, pas-
sim, 7tb ed., ib. 1897; W. J. Senbury, Memoirs of Bishop
Stahury, ib. 1908; and in general the literature under
PeuTtsrAST Episcopal Chchch which deals with the
SEABURY, WILLIAM JONES: Protestant Epis-
copalian; b. in New York City Jan. 25, 1837. He
was educated at Columbia College, New York City
(A.ri, lS.r>6), and, after practising law for a few
years, entered the General Theological Seminary,
from which he was graduated in IWJ6. He waa
ordered deacon and ordained to the priesthood in
the same gear. He was rector of ihe Church of the
Annunciation, New York City (1868-BS), and since
1S73 has also been professor of ecclesiastical polity
and law in the General Theological Seminary. Be-
sides editing S. Seahury's Memorial (New York,
1874) and the same theologian's Discourses on the
Nature and Work of the Holy Spirit (1874), he has
written Suggestions in Aid of Devotion and Holiness
(New York, 1878); Manual /or Choristers (1878);
.1 (luide to the Observance of the Canons of the Church
affecting those teho are seeking Holy Orders (1888);
Lectures on Apostolical Succession (1893); An
Introduction to the Study of Ecclesiastical Polity
(1894); Notes on the. Constilutian of 1901 (1902);
and Memoir of Rev. Samuel Seabury (190S).
SEALS. See Dress and Ornament, Hebrew, § &
I. In Great Britain.
Work in the Navy (| 1).
Work in the Merchnnt Murine (4 2).
Various Societies Operating (| 3).
SEAMEN, MISSIONS TO.
II. Continental Missions.
Scandinavian (| 1).
German (I 2).
III. American Missions,
Friend Society (1 1)
Stations and Opomtioi
(I*
L In Great Britain: As early ae the middle of
the eighteenth century sermons were preached and
printed on behalf of seamen by John Flavel (q.v.,
1630-91). An organization named The Bible
Society (see Bible Societies, I., 1) was organized
in London in 1780 to supply English soldiers with
the Holy Scriptures, Very soon its efforts were ex-
tended to embrace the seamen of the
I, Work in royal navy. The ill-fated "Royal
the Havy. George," sunk off Spithead, England,
Aug. 29, 1782, was the first ship sup-
plied with Bibles. The society's name was changed
to The Naval and Military Bible Society, and it
still continues its beneficent work of supplying the
Scriptures to the army and navy of Great Britain.
Incidentally, it helped to form the British and
Foreign Bible Society (see Bible Societies, I., 2),
whish society in turn helped to call into existence
the American Bible Society (sec BrBLE Societies,
III., 2). Seamen as a class, in those days, were
devoid of scriptural knowledge, neglected by the
Church at large, without Gospel ministrations or
privileges, sea missionaries, or any special humani-
tarian effort on their behalf. When attempts were
made to furnish seamen with church services and
the Holy Scriptures, unchristian officers in the royal
navy opposed with considerable spirit the new move-
ment, but in the year 1828 the king was petitioned
to abrogate an admiralty order, then issued, pro-
hibiting the free distribution of tracts in the navy.
Outside of the navy a Methodist clergyman,
George Charles Smith, established prayer-meetings
for seamen on the Thames at London. The first
recorded prayer-meeting was held on the brig
" Friendship " on June 22, 1814. These prayer-meet-
ings multiplied until on Mar, 23, 1817, the first
bethel flag — indicating that divine
3. Work in service would be held on board ship —
the Mer- was unfurled by Captain Hindulph of
chant Ma- South Shields, England. The Port
rine. of London Society, organized Mar. 18,
1818, was the first regular seamen's
society in England formed for the specific purpose
of preaching to seamen. Its first meeting-place
was on a ship of three hundred tons and Smith was
the first chaplain. Nov. 12, 1819, The Bethel Union
Society was formed to establish unity of purpose
and action between various seamen's societies in
Great Britain, formed by the exertions of chaplain
Smith. An amalgamation of these two societies
produced the British and Foreign Sailors' Society,
international and interdenominational in its plan.
817
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Beabury
The object of the society is the religious, intellectual,
and social elevation of British and foreign seamen.
It is world-wide in its operations, having stations in
the chief ports of the world, and is associated with
113 missions in 110 ports. In these ports there are
111 buildings, called palaces, bethels, institutes,
homes, rests, reading-rooms, or missionaries' quar-
ters. For harbors, roadsteads, and rivers, there are
forty-three floating bethels, steam launches, mission
cutters, sail and row boats; 1,191 Christian ship-
masters, and 124 helpers, have joined, since 1866,
its Bethel Union Association, an association of Chris-
tian shipmasters who have a flag which they hoist
in port, indicating their connection with the union
and their willingness to hold or attend religious
worship. In the service of the society there are
167 chaplains and missionaries.
The Missions to Seamen, the official society of the
Church of England (headquarters 11 Buckingham
Street, London, England), is the largest seamen's
society in the world. It employs
3. Various sixty-four chaplains and sixty-eight
Societies lay assistants, with twenty-six large
Operating, and small boats in various parts of the
world. The Royal National Mission
to Deep Sea Fishermen, London, England, carries
on a vigorous work on the North Sea (England),
and in Labrador, Newfoundland, by means of its
hospital work ashore and afloat. The society owns
five large steam vessels, a number of luggers, and
has been instrumental in destroying the iniquitous
system whereby liquor and tobacco were sold to the
fishermen at enormous profit, resulting in loss of life
and character. Within the last five years its super-
intendent, Dr. Grenfell, has interested America in
the work on the Labrador coast. Besides the larger
national societies in England, there are a number of
smaller missions to seamen independent in govern-
ment and local in their operations, such as the
Glasgow Seamen's Friend Society and the Liver-
pool Seamen's Friend Society. The Seamen's
Mission, headquarters at the "The Queen Vic-
toria's Sailors' Rest," Poplar, E., London, is associ-
ated with the Wesleyan Methodist Church of Eng-
land and has for its primary object to minister to the
spiritual wants of the thousands of seafaring men
who frequent the port of London. The Liverpool
Seamen's Friend Society, formerly known as the
Liverpool Seamen and Emigrants' Friend Society
and Bethel Union, having its headquarters at
"Gordon Smith Institute for Seamen," Paradise
Street, Liverpool, has for its object to promote the
religious and social welfare of seamen, their families,
and other persons connected with shipping, and of
emigrants, by earnest endeavour to bring them un-
der the power of the Gospel of Jesus Christ, and to
encourage among them habits of temperance and
frugality.
There are several other local societies of minor
importance. The foregoing are singled out for notice
because of their size and importance.
II. Continental Missions: Continental mission
work for seamen is of a later date than that of
Great Britain or America. The Scandinavian sea-
men's mission was begun by the Norwegian minister
Storrjohann. In 1864 he founded the Society for
Promoting the Gospel Among Norwegian Seamen
in Foreign Ports, popularly known as the " Norwe-
gian Seamen's Mission" with its head-
z. Scandi- quarters in Bergen, Norway, and
navian. having forty-four stations abroad.
A similar organization was started
in 1867 in Denmark, at Copenhagen, the Society for
the Preaching of the Gospel for Scandinavian Sea-
men in Foreign Ports, with six stations in England
and America. In 1869 the Svenska Afdelningen
af Foreningen ftr upps&ttande af skandinaviska
Sjftmanshem i utlandska Hamnar, a mission for the
erection of Scandinavian sailors' homes, was estab-
lished. These homes have nearly always a chaplain
attached to them and an active missionary work is
usually carried on, resulting in accessions to the reg-
ularly established Scandinavian churches in Sweden
and abroad. The Scandinavian churches on the
Pacific coast of the United States are largely the
outgrowth of this movement which has preserved
the Scandinavian element and given it remarkable
solidarity in a part of America settled by emigration
of mixed character.
Germany's entry into missions for seamen is
coincidental with her rise as a naval and maritime
power in the decade from 1880 to 1890. Johann
Heinrich Wichern (q.v.), the father of the Innere
Mission (q.v.), became interested in
2. German, the needs of seamen and made some
suggestions as early as the year 1849.
German Evangelical congregations in foreign coun-
tries, seeing the needs of their countrymen abroad,
were the first to realize their obligations and to make
efforts for the moral welfare of German seamen.
The Rev. F. M. Harms, pastor of the German Evan-
gelical congregation in Sunderland, organized the
first congregation in Great Britain and in 1885
founded the General Committee for General Evan-
gelical Seamen's Mission in Great Britain. The
Central Board of the Innere Mission in Berlin
awakened interest in the Fatherland which resulted
in a quickened movement for seamen all over the
world wherever Germans were located. The field
of the General Committee is Great Britain, except
the Bristol Channel, and it is active in forty-two
ports with twenty missionaries, six sailors' homes,
thirteen reading-rooms. The local committees are
subsidized with 30,000 marks annually. The Ger-
man Lutheran Association for the Care of Seamen
began the work on the Bristol Channel in 1887 and
sent the Rev. J. Fungclaussen as first German
seamen's pastor to Cardiff, Wales. The association
began work in 1891 at Hamburg, in 1896 on the
lower Weser at Bremerhaven and Gcestemunde,
in 1906 in New York. A third organization was
founded in 1895 by members of the Evangelical
High-Consistory and the Central Board for Innere
Mission in Berlin, to interest the old provinces of
Prussia. This is the Committee for German Evan-
gelical Seamen's Mission. The Baltic ports from
Memel to Ltibeck are under supervision of a special
seamen's pastor. The chief ports connected with
the committee's work are Antwerp, Rotterdam,
Marseilles, Genoa, Constantinople, St. Petersburg,
Copenhagen, Shanghai, Buenos Aires, Valparaiso,
and Baltimore, Md.
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
818
There are now 175 ports where the work of the
German Evangelical Seamen's Mission is carried on
in some way. There are twenty-nine sailors' homes
(with lodgings) and forty-four institutes (reading-
rooms). For the welfare of sailors twenty seamen's
pastors and forty missionaries (house-fathers,
deacons) are at work in the field, besides about
ninety who devote a part of their time to this serv-
ice. The statistics for 1907 show that 13,800 men
took lodging in the homes; the reading-rooms were
visited by 160,000; 29,400 attended the religious
services; more than 900,000 marks were deposited
by sailors for safekeeping or to be sent home.
in. American Missions: The mission to seamen in
America began in 1812, and was initiated by The
Boston Society for the Religious and Moral Improve-
ment of Seamen. As far as is known it had no
direct visible relation to the move-
i. Begin- ment in Britain, for the operations of
flings; Amer- the war between Great Britain and
lean Sea- the United States created such dif-
men's Friend Acuities that the work was suspended.
Society. In 1816 prayer-meetings were started
in New York and in 1819 the first
mariners' church ever erected was opened in
Roosevelt Street, New York, by the New York
Port Society, now in its ninety-second year. Bethel
Unions or Marine Societies, as they were called then,
were opened in Philadelphia, Baltimore, New Or-
leans, Charleston, S. C, Portland, Me., and New
Bedford, Mass. In 1828, the year of the founding
of the National Society for Seamen, the American
Seamen's Friend Society, 76 Wall Street, New York
City, unquestionably the most widely operative
and efficient of existing missionary societies for
seamen, came into being. Its first president was
Hon. Smith Thompson, then secretary of the United
States Navy; Rev. C. P. Mcllvaine, afterward
Protestant Episcopal bishop of Ohio, was its cor-
responding secretary; and Rev. Joshua Leavitt its
general agent. Article II. of its constitution pro-
vides:
" The object of this society shall be to improve the so-
cial and moral condition of seamen by uniting the efforts of
the wise and good in their behalf, by promoting in every
port boarding-houses of good character, savings-banks,
register offices, libraries, museums, reading-rooms, and
schools, and also the ministration of the gospel, and other
religious blessings."
Its first foreign chaplain was Rev. David Abeel
(q.v.), who reached his field of labor at Whampoa,
the anchorage for ships trading at Canton, China,
Feb. 16, 1830. In its fortieth year (1867-68)
its laborers (chaplains and sailor missionaries)
were stationed at twenty foreign and thirteen do-
mestic seaports. The services rendered in the evan-
gelization of the Hawaiian Islands by the American
Seamen's Friend Society's chaplains, 1840-70, Rev.
Titus M. Coan and Rev. S. C. Damon, popularly
known as " Father Damon," are worthy of mention
because of their association with the American
Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, and
with an almost forgotten chapter in American
marine history, the whaling industry.
At the eightieth anniversary held in 1908 the
society had seventeen foreign stations and sixteen
domestic stations. In the United States of America:
Brooklyn Navy Yard; Gloucester, Mass.; Norfolk,
Newport News, Va.; Charleston, S.
a. Stations C; Pensacola, Fla.; Savannah, Bruns-
and wick, Ga.; Mobile, Ala.; Galveston,
Operations. Tex.; New Orleans, La.; Portland,
Astoria, Oregon; Tacoma, Seattle,
Wash.; San Francisco, Cal.
In South America: Buenos Aires, Rosario, Argen-
tine Republic; Montevideo, Uruguay; Valparaiso,
Chile; Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
In Europe: Stockholm, Gothenburg, Sweden;
Copenhagen, Denmark; Rotterdam, Holland; Ham-
burg, Germany; Antwerp, Belgium; Genoa, Naples,
Italy; Funchal, Madeira.
In Asia: Bombay, India; and Yokohama, Japan.
At that time the society had shown a steady ad-
vance and decided increase in efficiency. From its
beginning the national society had cared for the
physical and mental needs of seamen along with its
spiritual ministrations, and in its eightieth year the
society opened the new institute, 507 West Street,
New York, costing $325,000, the largest institution
in the world for merchant seamen. In brief terms,
the institute aimed to reach the whole ship and the
whole man. Around the Bethel was grouped a
hotel, club, and social features adapted to the steam-
ship sailor's needs. So successful was the effort
that in one year three or four new places modeled
after it had been initiated. The loan library work
began in an organized way in 1859, and became
and has remained an important and regular feature
of the society's operations, circulating since 1859 a
grand total of 25,708 libraries, an average of 521
per year for fifty years. In the fifty-second year of
the loan library work 3,000 libraries are in active use.
These libraries contained 620,808 volumes of gen-
eral matter, and 26,702 Bibles were sent in them,
12,000 manuals of worship for seamen, and 25,938
(estimated) hymn-books. 445,044 seamen have
had access to the books by actual record, although
more than one million seamen must have been
reached by them. The number of books sent to sea
by this system since its start in 1859 would nearly
equal the present combined libraries of Princeton
and Columbia universities. Public recognition of
this work has been generous and frequent. In 1900
the Paris Exposition medal was granted the society
for its literary work, and at the Jamestown Ex-
position, 1907, a diploma and bronze medal was
awarded for the society's exhibit. When the ex-
plorer Peary went to the North Pole he had two of
the American Seamen's Friend Society's Loan li-
braries with him on the "Roosevelt."
Chief among the local societies unattached to
the American Seamen's Friend Society are the fol-
lowing: Seamen's Church Institute, New York
(Protestant Episcopal), with a sailors' home, a boat
for work in the harbor of New York
3. Auxiliary and a branch at Houston and West
Movements. Streets; the New York Port Society
with the Mariners' Church and reading-
room, and a work among the Latin seamen; and the
Boston Seamen's Friend Society (Congregational).
Extra missionary effort on behalf of seamen which
may legitimately be called " Missions to Seamen
»»
819
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
is carried on by establishments known as sailors'
homes. London, Liverpool, Glasgow, Newcastle-
on-Tyne, Cardiff, Leith, Antwerp, Buenos Aires,
Rosario, Sydney, Bombay, Karachi, Calcutta, New
York, Boston, Philadelphia, Baltimore have such
places supported by (1) the income from lodgers;
(2) general subscriptions; (3) state subsidy, or city
grant. Nearly all of them have resident chaplains,
missionaries, or helpers who devote time to the
spiritual and moral welfare of the seamen. Sailors'
homes are no longer being built, the changed con-
ditions of sea life rendering them obsolete, and sea-
men's institutes, adapted to modern conditions of
sea life, are taking their place.
The papers published by the missionary societies
laboring among seamen are an important factor in
the work, helping to carry the Gospel afloat. The
oldest paper in the world for seamen is the Sailors*
Magazine and Seamen's Friend, in its eighty-second
year, published by the American Seamen's Friend
Society, 76 Wall Street, New York, which society
also publishes the Life Boat, devoted to creating
marine interests in the Sunday-schools of America.
The Chart and Compass is published by the British
and Foreign Sailors' Society, London England;
The Word on the Waters is the organ of the English
Church's society; Sea Breeze is issued in furthering
the interests of the Boston Seamen's Friend Society,
Boston, Mass.; Toilers of the Deep is sent out by
Royal Missions to Deep Sea Fishermen, London,
England; Ashore and Afloat, edited by Miss Weston
of Portsmouth, England, is circulated in the
British and American Navies. Blotter far Seemans-
Mission is published at Berlin.
Since the Spanish-American War the Young
Men's Christian Association in America has devoted
considerable energy and money to promoting the
standards and principles of that organization among
the men of the United States navy, thus leaving
the societies engaged in welfare work for seamen to
concentrate their energies on the merchant marine,
a class of men numbering three millions and a half
of all nationalities.
The Seamen's Christian Brotherhood, an or-
ganization for Christian seamen, was started at an
international conference of seamen's chaplains, held
under the auspices of the American Seamen's
Friend Society in 1908. In two years it spread into
the ports of twelve different countries and promises
to be of significance and spiritual worth to seamen.
Its flag is a star, cross, and crown on a blue ground.
Wherever a chapter of the organization is formed,
ashore or afloat, the flag is hoisted on Sunday. The
missionary movement on behalf of seamen held
aloof from work of a social nature until the last
decade when a healthy and conservative movement
set in, recognizing the physical and social needs of
seamen, resulting in a changed method of work
which attracts all classes of seamen, the irreligious
as well as the religious.
George McPherson Hunter.
Bibliography: T. C. Garland. Leave* from my Log of Chris-
tian Work among Sailor*, London, 1882; The Word on the
Water*. Quarterly Record of Mission Effort amongst
Sailor*, London, 18S9 sqq.; A. Gordon, What Cheer Of
The Mission to Dcei> Sea Fi*herm n, London, 1890; T. 8.
Treanor, The l^g of a Ska Pilot, London, 1893; S. G.
Winti, Our Blue Jackets. Mite Weston** Life and Work,
London, 1894; M. Mao Lean. Seafarer* from the Land of
the Hieing Sun in London, London, 1896; J. Slater, The
Bast in the West; or. Work among the Asiatics and Africans
in London, ib., 1896; H. Dalton, Deutsche Seemansmission,
Berlin, 1897; O. Streoker, Die Qeschichte der . . . ver-
bundenen lutherischen Vereinen fur inner* Mission getrie-
benen kirchlichen Versorgung deutscher SeeUute, Hanover,
1899; F. T. Bullen, With Christ in Sailor Town, London,
1901; idem, With Christ at Sea, New York, 1901;
idem, A Sailor Apostle, ib. 1903; M. L. Walrond, Launch-
ing out into the Deep. The Missions to Seamen, London,
1904; N. Duncan, Dr. Gren fell's Parish. The Deep Sea
Fishermen, London, 1905; R. Munchmeyer, In d. Fremde.
Binige Zeugnisse aus der Auslandsarbeit, Marburg,
1905; and the Reports of the various societies named in
the text.
SEARLE, strl, JOHN PRESTON: Reformed; b.
at Schuylerville, N. Y., Sept. 12, 1854. He was
graduated from Rutgers College (A.B., 1875) and
New Brunswick Theological Seminary (1878);
was ordained (1878), and after holding pastorates at
Griggstown, N. J. (1878-81), and the First Re-
formed Church, Somerville, N. J. (1881-03), he was
appointed in 1893 to his present position of professor
of systematic theology at the New Brunswick
Theological Seminary. He has also been president
of the faculty of the same institution since 1002.
He is vice-president of the Board of Foreign Mis-
sions of his denomination, and is the author of a
number of sermons, addresses, and contributions
to religious periodicals.
SEARS, sirs, BARN AS: Baptist educator; b.
at Sandisfield, Mass., Nov. 10, 1802; d. at Saratoga
Springs, N. Y., July 6, 1880. He was graduated
from Brown University in 1825; and from Newton
Theological Seminary in 1828; was pastor at Hart-
ford, Conn., 182&-31 ; professor of ancient languages
in Hamilton (N. Y.) Literary and Theological Insti-
tution, now Madison University, 1831-33; and
pastor at the same time at Hamilton. He studied at
Halle, Leipsic, and Berlin, 1833-35, and in 1834
baptized J. G. Oncken and six others, forming the
first German Baptist Church in communion with
the Baptists of England and America. He returned
to Hamilton in 1835; was professor of theology in
Newton Theological Seminary, 1836-48; and presi-
dent, 1837-48. For several years he was the editor
of the Christian Review. He was president of Brown
University, 1855-67; and general agent of the Pea-
body Educational Fund, with residence at Staun-
ton, Va., 1867-80. He published a Life of Luther
(Philadelphia, 1850), and an edition of P. M. Roget's
Thesaurus (Boston, 1854).
SEARS, EDMUND HAMILTON: B. at Sandis-
field, Mass., Apr. 6, 1810; d. at Weston, Mass.,
Jan. 14, 1876; was graduated from Union College,
1834; and from Cambridge Divinity School, 1837;
was pastor of Unitarian societies at Wayland, Mass.,
1830-40 and 1847-65; at Lancaster, Mass., 1840-47;
and at Weston, 1865-76. Though connected with
the Unitarian body, he held Swedenborgian opin-
ions, and often professed his belief in the absolute
divinity of Christ. He wrote largely for the Monthly
Religious Magazine, of which he was joint-editor,
1850-71. He published Regeneration (Boston, 1853),
Pictures of the Olden Time (1857), Athanasia, or
8eba
'Second Advent
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
320
Foregleams of Immortality (1858), The Fourth Gospel
the Heart of Christ (1872), and Sermons and Songs
(1875). His writings are noted for their great
spiritual power and beauty; he wrote also two ex-
quisite Christmas-hymns, ''Calm on the listening
ear of night," and "It came upon the midnight
clear" (1834 and 1849 or 1850).
Bibliography: S. W. Driffield, English Hymns, pp. 264-
265, New York, 1886; Julian, Hymnology, p. 1036.
SEBA. See Table of the Nations, § 6.
SEBASTIAN, se-bas'ti-on or bast'yan: Saint and
martyr; patron of archers, and formerly invoked
to avert pestilence; martyred at Rome. Ambrose
(MPL, xiv. 1497) states that Sebastian was born at
Milan and suffered martyrdom at Rome; and it is
also certain that he suffered martyrdom on Jan. 20 of
an unknown year (305?) . These few facts are all that
are certainly known concerning him. The Acts of
St. Sebastian (ASB, Jan., ii. 265-278) contains, be-
sides many miracles and conversions, such a mass
of historical inconsistencies that, even though prob-
ably written in the early part of the fifth century,
they can not be regarded as original documents.
Three data in the life of the saint, however, were
from an early period regarded as authentic. His
martyrdom was fixed in the first reign of Diocletian;
he was an officer of the imperial bodyguard; and he
was shot with arrows in the Colosseum. These three
statements are derived from the forged Acts. That
he fell a victim to the great Diocletian persecution
of 303 sqq., as the Acts state, is merely a conjecture
not wholly devoid of plausibility; but the so-called
Depositio martyrum of the Chronicle of Liberius
affirms that St. Sebastian was buried in the cata-
combs on Jan. 20, 354. Again, Roman criminal law
did not prescribe execution by shooting with arrows
as a death penalty for Christians, the punishments
in question being decapitation, crucifixion, fighting
with wild beasts, or death by burning or scourging.
A mosaic picture of the saint, dating from about
682, is preserved in the church of San Pietro in Vin-
coli. It represents St. Sebastian, not, as in Renais-
sance art, as naked and young, but as a bearded man
of adult age, with a long mantle, the fine raiment of a
courtier, a nimbus, and a diadem in his right hand.
No representation of the martyrdom is known from
the first six centuries; nor does even this earliest
portrait contain any trace of an arrow to symbolize
the supposed manner of St. Sebastian's death.
(Franz GOrres.)
Bibliography: Documents other than the Ada are pub-
lished in MGH, Script., xv. 1 (1887), 379-391, 2 (1888),
771-773; ASM , iv. 1, pp. 383-410; and the fragment of
the Sebastian saga by C. R. Unger in Heilagra Manna
Sogur, ii. 228-235, Christiania, 1877. Consult further:
J. C. F. Bahr, Geschichte der riimischen Litcratur im karoU
ingischen Zeitalier, p. 259, Carlsruhe, 1840; P. J. Chapusot,
Notice sur la vie de S. Sibastien et sur la riliquie . . . con-
serves dans Viglise de Chalons, Chalons-sur-Marne, 1863;
J. M. Trichaud, La IAgende de S. S&asticn, Marseilles,
1872; F. X. Kraus, Roma Sotterranea, pp. 119, 133,181,
518, Freiburg, 1879; F. G6rres, in ZWT, xxiii (1880), 31-
64. 165-197; idem, in JPT, xiii. 511-518; P. Allard. La
Persecution de DiocUtien, i. 131-132, Paris, 1890; V.
Cocchi, Memorie di S. Sebastiano, Frosinone, 1892; DCB,
iv. 593.
SEBASTOS CYMINETES: Greek Orthodox theo-
logian; b. at Cymina, near Trebizond, 1630; d. at
Trebizond Sept. 6, 1702. He was apparently edu-
cated in his native country, and in 1671 became the
head of the Greek patriarchal school in Constan-
tinople. Later he assumed a like position at Tre-
bizond, where he spent the remainder of his life.
He energetically opposed the entrance of Western
theology into the Greek Orthodox Church. Only
a few of his many works have appeared in print,
among them being the Heortologion (Bucharest,
1701) and especially the posthumous Dogmalike
didaskalia (1 703) . The latter consists of three parts :
" When the elements are changed into the body and
blood of Christ; that the Virgin was subject to
original sin; that the 'parts1 are not changed
into the body and blood of Christ." Some of the
work was obviously not written by Sebastos, a
portion being ascribed by Sathas to the patriarch
Dositheos. In his work Sebastos maintains that the
elements are transformed through the Epiklesis
(q.v.), as the Orthodox liturgy teaches, but that the
"parts11 are not changed; he holds that the Virgin
was born in sin, but was delivered from original sin
through the annunciation, as Christians are freed
through baptism.
Sebastos again discussed the Eucharistic contro-
versy in a long letter to Chrysanthos, later patriarch
of Jerusalem ("True Church," I., ii. 245 sqq., 253
sqq.; cf. viii. 92). His philosophical writings are
devoted to the dissemination of ecclesiastical Aris-
totelianism. (Philipp Meter.)
Bibliography: Fabricius-Harles, Bibliotheca Graca, xL
531, 634, Hamburg, 1808; F. Kattenbusch, Lehrbuch der
vergUichenden Confessionskundet ii. 413-414, Freiburg,
1892; E. Legrand, Bxblxoaraphie helUniquc, iii. 47, 62,
Paris, 1895.
SECESSION CHURCH. See Presbyterians, I.,
2, 3, 6.
SECESSION CHURCH IN IRELAND. See Pres-
byterians, III., 3.
SECESSION CHURCH OF SCOTLAND, UNITED
ORIGINAL. See Presbyterians I., § 6.
SECKENDORF, sek'en-dSrf, VEIT LUDWIG
VON: German Lutheran statesman and scholar;
b. at Herzogenaurach (6 m. s.w. of Erlangen) Dec.
20, 1626; d. at Halle Dec. 18, 1692. He was edu-
cated at the University of Strasburg (1642-45);
after which he was appointed page to Duke Ernest
the Pious, his duties being to supervise the library,
to draw useful and interesting material from desig-
nated books, and to communicate the results to the
duke, a task which laid the basis for his own wri-
tings. In 1648 Seckendorf was made gentleman of
the bedchamber, and in 1652 court councilor and
councilor of justice. Three years later as privy
court councilor and councilor of the board of do-
mains he rendered important service in regulating
the finances of the country and in a number of diplo-
matic affairs. In 1664 Duke Ernest made him
chancellor, but in the same year he entered the serv-
ice of Maurice, duke of Saxony-Zeitz, as chancellor
and president of the consistory. These positions
he held, in spite of many jealous attacks, until the
death of Maurice in 1681. Still retaining his posi-
tion as district director at Altenburg, Seckendorf
now found time and leisure to indulge his literary
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
tastes. His interest became more and more con-
centrated on the problem of the value and essence
of practical Christianity, and he thus became closely
associated with such men as Philipp Jakob Spener.
whom he had called to Dresden. Seckendorf could
scarcely be called a Pietist, though he defended
Spener in his ISiricht iind Erinnerungen auf einc
neulich im Drttck luJeinisck vnd deutsch augegc-
streuU Schri/t Imago piclatis <IIulle, 1692), after
having translated into Latin Spcner's Frankfort
sermons of 1077 under the title Capita doctrinal et
praxis Christiana; insignia (1689). The qualities
of Pietism which attracted Seckendorf were its
moral earnestness and its emphasis upon practical
t'hristiunity. though his critical nature kept him
from sympathy with Pictistic mysticism. But in the
evening of his life he was again drawn into the move-
ment when, on Sept. 9, 1692, Elector Frederick III.
of Brandenburg appointed him chancellor of the
newly founded University of Halle. On Oct. 31
rVekendorf entered upon his duties, where the dif-
ficult task awaited him of reconciling the contro-
versy between Francke and the clergy of Halle, A
few weeks later he died.
Despite his manifold official activity, Seckendorf
found time at Gotha for a series of writings, such as
the Justitia profcclionis in civitate Erfurlenei (1903),
Repetita et nrcexsaria defensio jualft protcclionis
Saxonum in ciritaJc Erfitrtcnsi (1664), and the
Compendium historia; rcdesiastiea ... ire IWM
gyinnaisii Golhani (Leipsic, 1606). During this
period he likewise wrote his TevUcher Furxten Stat
(Hanau, 1658), followed by the Chruttn Stat (1685).
The lat ti-r work, inlliieiKvd largely, imperially in the
first part, by the Penttes of Pascal, was partly an
apologetic directed against atheism, and partly
reformatory in purpose.
The work on which Seckcndorf's fame rests,
however, is his Cammcntarius historicas et apolo-
gcticus de Lvtheranismo sen de reformatione (Leipsic,
1688-92). The work was essentially a refutation of
the H Moire 'In Luthimiiisme of the Jesuit L.
Marstbourg (Paris, 1680), of which Seckendorf
tnade a partial Latin translation, with a Din.'ertatio
hislorica et apologetica pro dodrina D. Lviheri de
tniasa to serve as a sort of preliminary work (Jena,
1686). For his Commentnritts Seckendorf, as the
trusted friend of alt the Saxon princes, had access
to original documents to a degree enjoyed by no
Liter seliolar. and a mass of sources, both manu-
script and printed, hitherto unutilised, were also
Bent him, thus enhancing his wealth of material.
His method is to give, paragraph by paragraph.
Maimbourg's presentation in Latin translation, with
a, refutation from original sources, pertinent addi-
linnn. often of considerable length, being appended.
The Commentaries is, therefore, not a uniform
artistic presentation, but is still an indispensable
Source for every historian of the Reformation be-
cause of its wealth of material. (T. Kolde.)
Bihliographt: Tho funeral sermon by J. J. Breitbsupt
was published n( Zc-iti. 109.1. and ■ memorial address by
C. Thomasius in hh Klrint Srhriflcn, no. XIII.. p. 407
Bqq., Halle. 1721. Consult further: R. Pahner. Veit Lwl-
wie von SecktTHl&rf und Hint Grdanktn Qbtr Erxirfiung
und Vntrrrirhi, I,"ip-ic, 1H!>J: I). G. Srhmher. Hutoria
... Viti Ludoviti a Seektmlorf. tt>. 1733; J. V. von Lude-
X.— 21
•Hi OeturwmiwAr Anmerkunarn tlbrr SecJcendorfy Far-
•tmttoat, Frankfort. 1753; A. Beck, t'ml dcr fromm., 2
roll., Weimar. 1806; W. Scbrader. GetcAidm dtr Fried-
ricKt-Univeriitot iu Salle, vol. i., Berlin. 1SB4.
SECKER, seck'er, THOMAS : Church of England ;
b. at Sibthorpe, Nottinghamshire, 1693; d. at Lon-
don, Aug. 3, 1768. He was graduated at Leyden
(M.D., 1721); then entered Exeter College, Oxford;
was ordained priest, 1723; rector of Houghton-le-
Spring, 1724; of St. James's, Westminster. 1733;
appointed chaplain to the king, 1732; consecrated
bishop of Bristol, 1735; was transferred to Oxford,
1737; and in addition was installed dean of St.
Paul's, 1750; and was archbishop of Canterbury,
1758-68. Seeker was a remarkable instance of
the ortbodov eighteenth-century prelate, assumed a
lively interest in the questions of his time, and pos-
sessed a fund of knowledge wide and deep. His
Works were collected, twelve vols., London, 1770,
with a Review qf his Life and Character by B.
Porteus.
Biiiijookapbt; Consult, besides the sketch by Porteus. ut
sup.; J. H. Overton and F. Relton. The >M|Kal it-.,,../,
UTU-I80O), passim, London, 1008; DNB. li. 170-173.
SECOHD ADVEBT.
Old Testament (| I).
Jewish Apocrypha and Apocalypses (i 2).
New Testament <) 3).
The Twofold Conception (( 4).
Compounded in the New Testament (f 5).
The Fsrousis.fi 01-
The Ooniriousness of Jesus (I 7).
Practical Estimation (| 8).
The belief in the second coming of Christ can bo
understood only as presented in a coherent historical
outline. The e-r.'liiitolocy of the t Nil Trstamcnt and,
in its main ideas, of the Jewish apocalyptical litera-
ture, is concerned with the confident
I. The Old assurance that God's rule must finally
Testament, prevail. The concrete forms of this
hope vary with the conception of the
universe and the horiion of religious interests.
The prophetic hope, especially of the more remote
period, casts its pictures on the background of this
world, with the predominant interest in Jerusalem
and Israel. The Day of Yahweh (see Day ot tub
Loitn) must come, which will free God's people from
unjust oppression and bring judgment on the enemy
(Ob. 15; Isa. xiii. 6 Bqq.). At first this was not con-
ceived as a single derisive epoch, but as a day of
visitation upon a particular enemy, which might be
multiplied (cf. Jer. xlvi. 10). The view was gradu-
ally extended so as to include not only the neigh-
boring peoples but all nations. With this, real
eseli/itotogieal elements are approximated, with at
least a suggestion of transcendental tendency. Only
the righteous nation shall be saved, from whom
sinners shall be separated, leaving only a " remnant "
(Isa. i. 27, iv. 3). Whoever will call upon Yahweh
shall be saved, and for this the grace of God pro-
vides beforehand (Mai. iii. 1 aqq.), in which the
personal and eternal relation to God appears as the
essential, working itself out of the historical situa-
tion. That the scene, however, is mundane shows
itself in the narrower idea of the Messianic hope.
The Messiah is never the judge of the world but the
king awakened and enthroned by God, and he shall
Seoond Advent
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
322
lead his people to victory and rule over them in jus-
tice and peace (Jer. xxx. 9; Isa. ix. 6-7). God shall
be present with his people and sin and evil shall
vanish. This shows a tendency toward transcend-
ence, although Zion is yet in this world (Isa. ii. 2,
iv. 5). There is to be no world cataclysm and re-
newal, although there shall be signs and wonders.
No universal resurrection is implied, the passages so
taken merely representing additions (Isa. xxvi. 10;
Dan. zii. 2), as well as that expressing a unique ex-
pectation of a new heaven and a new earth (Isa.
lxv. 17 sqq., lxvi. 22). The average consciousness
in the Old Testament implies no dual theory, no
dual world; hence no ground for a dual Messianic
revelation.
A decided change first appeared in the century
before the birth of Christ. More and more distinctly
the apocryphal and apocalyptical literature created
a transcendent picture of the end of the world, until
the rabbinical writings after Christ produced a fin-
ished system of eschatology. As the
a. Jewish older earthly hopes for Israel and Jeru-
Apocrypha salem continue, an ellipse, so to speak,
and Apoc- with two foci appears; one is the center
alypses. of a group of Messianic expectations
here, the other of more strictly deduced
new transcendent and more individualistic ideas.
This led ultimately to a double revelation, parallel to
the Christian view. The judging of the nations ap-
pears according to the older prophetic style. The
Messiah shall redeem Israel, and as judge shall
punish, and be king after God's own heart. The
New Jerusalem shall be created by God and trans-
ferred from preexistence into the world; yet it has
a mundane character, and its inhabitants have not
eternal but long and peaceful life. Above all this
is erected a transcendent world, not only by the
later apocalypses, which, surpassing the Book of
Daniel, employed themselves with the background
of an earthly history and the conflicts of a spirit
world, not only at a later stage, by identifying the
Messiah with the Son of Man of Daniel and re-
garding him as a preexistent Being; but in early
times, the claims of an individual personality appear
alongside of the national Messianic hope. The hope
of a common blessedness in this world is transferred
to another, after death, involving the individual
resurrection of the just for life eternal. Two eons are
recognized, separated by the day of Yahweh, which
after a universal resurrection shall determine the
deserving fate of the blessed and the damned. Be-
yond is a new heaven and a new earth. The in-
dividual interest, not content with the transcendent
blessedness of the single personality, regains coales-
cence with history and totality. Yet the picture is
variously shortened by particularisms: redemption
is not universal like that of Joel and the New Testa-
ment; the saved are to be at most the Jews only
4 'in this country"; the Messiah gains no universal
significance and has no place in the final judgment,
except in the Book of Enoch, where the Son of Man
ascends the throne in glory and chooses among men.
This, however, was the result of Christian influence.
According to IV Esdras vii. 28 sqq. the Messiah
dies, after reigning 400 years, together with all men.
Then the new eon opens with resurrection and judg-
ment, paradise and gehenna. The tendency was
generally to restrict the function of the Messiah in
this world and dilate upon the eon of the next world
at the termination of the Messianic period, in which
eon the Messiah has no longer any part.
It was otherwise in Christianity. The dual con-
ception of the universe was assumed; the division
between the "the present eon1' and the "eon to
come" is the inseparable assumption of Christian
thought (Matt. xii. 32; Luke xvi. 8).
3. New But the Old Testament's Messianic
Testament idea, which served to give value to the
personality of Jesus, is employed in
undiminished force with reference to the final goal
beyond. The inheritance of the Old Testament is
clothed in apocalyptic transcendental form. The
Messiah does not perform an earthly work, which
can not be transferred to the beyond, but reveals in
his person the personality of the Father. The basis
of salvation hence is not membership in the nation
from which the Messiah is descended, but personal
relationship to the Messiah, who gathers about him
his nation of believers. The mother of the Chris-
tians is no longer an earthly Jerusalem, but that
city above which is identical with the congregation
of the perfect (Gal. iv. 26). The personality of
Jesus acquires eternal significance; those who be-
long to him belong for time and eternity to God.
The central position of the personality of Christ
leads to the conception of a double Messianic revela-
tion, the end of which, however, is not, as in the
Jewish apocalyptic system of thought, an exaltation
of the kingdom of the Messiah, first
4. The Two- established upon earth, into the
fold Con- heavenly world, but a return of Christ
ception. from the kingdom beyond into the
midst of conceivable reality. For no
earthly Messianic kingdom was established at the
first coming of Christ. On the contrary, he was
rejected by his people. If he is nevertheless to re-
main the Messiah, the basis of his kingdom must
be a transcendent one, centering in himself as a
personality secured in God, and conserving other
personality with his own. Jesus himself certainly
lays claim to an actual reign. He will come as the
Son of Man in the clouds and will establish the. king-
dom which shall absolve all earthly kingdoms
(Mark xiii. 26, xiv. 62). But the same title is used
of him in expressions that declare that Jesus is
homeless upon the earth, that he sows only for the
future, that he suffers in order to rise hereafter,
that he serves in order to give his life as a sacrifice
for sin, that his authority upon the earth is to for-
give sins, and that he has come to seek the lost
(Mark ii. 10, viii. 31, x. 45). Thus the purely per-
sonal character of the Messiahship of Jesus is
harmonized with the apocalyptic transcendental
plan. Personalities constitute the materials of the
transcendent structure of which the personality of
Christ is the cornerstone (Mark xii. 10; Eph. ii. 20
sqq.). The resurrection of Jesus was not that
coming again ; for he appeared personally only to the
disciples and later exists in spiritual continuity.
For Israel and the world, there began another period
of waiting, during which the words of his witnesses
are at work bringing about repentance and faith.
1
/
823
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Second Advent
Those that surrender themselves to him he includes
in his unseen fellowship, so that, although they live
in the flesh, they no longer essentially belong to the
present world (Gal. i. 4). They are, by virtue of
their membership in the body of the living Christ,
though in the world not of the world, but translated
into eternity (John xvii. 11, 14 sqq.; Eph. ii. 2, 5
sqq.). Such expressions as these are not meant
figuratively in the New Testament, but serve to de-
scribe an unseen reality which is future in so far as it
has not yet entered the domain of tangible appear-
ance, but is present in so far as it exists behind the
visible world and is accessible to faith. The only
thing yet looked for is the episode transforming the
mystical fellowship of the Head and members into
the actual. This will result in Christ's return desig-
nated as parousia (Matt. xxiv. 3, 37, 39) ; or erchetai,
"he cometh" (Mark xiii. 26; Rev. i. 7, xxii. 7, 20);
but, from an earthly viewpoint better expressed as
a "revelation," "coming," or "appearance" (Luke
xvii. 30; I Cor. i. 7).
As evidence how inseparably associated with
New-Testament faith the expectation that Christ
must, from his focus of the redemption of souls,
carry it out to its utmost consequences, stands the
fact that in all the varying doctrinal
5. Com- types of the New Testament, the
pounded in blessing of salvation is everywhere
the New described as present and future. The
Testament "salvation" of the primitive apostolic
mode of expression is to be realized at
the return of Christ, but for the "saved" (Acts ii.
47) it is a reality dominating present life, since it is
guaranteed by the Spirit and by personal relation
to the exalted Christ (ii. 38; I Pet. iii. 21). The
Johannine "eternal life" is certainly a present
possession, but instead of being conceived as im-
manent it is to await its perfection and reduction to
form in the future (John xvii. 3, vi. 40). As cer-
tainly as Paul's experience of justification forms the
present and actual basis of the Christian life of faith
so certainly is it adapted to eschatological concep-
tion. "Justification" is awaited as an acquittal in
the final judgment (Gal. v. 5; Rom. viii. 30). It is
a "giving of life" (Gal. iii. 21), the operative as-
surance of the favorable outcome of the final judg-
ment. Salvation is by hope (Rom. viii. 24) ; so also
adoption is partly a future reality (Gal. iv. 5; Rom.
viii. 15). The eschatological element comes for-
ward no less in the thoughts of Jesus on the king-
dom. However, he who accepts it in the present is
received within its secure protection (Mark x. 15).
The perfected kingdom is identical with the future
world; it is a " kingdom of heaven." As the future
world, according to the apocalyptic view, opens with
the appearance of the Messiah, so also the kingdom
of God on earth is at hand when the Messiah ap-
pears; the King is the kingdom. The force of Luke
xvii. 20 is to rebuke the manner of judging by signs
and seasons, and does not negate the main point of
receiving the present revelation of the kingdom in
order to gain admission to its complete future devel-
opment. Already evidences appear. The power
of Jesus over demons demonstrates that he has
wrested the dominion of the world absolutely from
Satan (Matt. xii. 28-29). His own are now con-
cealed in the community of the kingdom (Col. i. 13) ;
its complete realization is only a matter of time.
The reign of God which shall come with power, con-
trasted with its first weak appearing (Mark ix. 1),
is only its unfolding, just as Christ who as the Son of
God was established with power seems, but was not,
a contradiction of the Christ crucified (Rom. i. 4).
The significance of the parousia consists in finally
bringing about this transformation; the surviving
tension between center and circumference is re-
moved. A complete termination of earthly history
is expected. The Son of Man unrecognized on earth
shall appear again unmistakably in
6. The a glory that shall bring terror to his
Parousia. enemies and perfect redemption to his
faithful (Matt. xxiv. 27, 30). The
offenses shall be removed from his kingdom, and
the chosen shall be gathered and reunited into
an eternal community of glory (Matt. xiii. 31,
40, 49 sqq.). History, however, must first be
fulfilled to the extent that the Gospel shall be
preached to all nations (Matt. xxiv. 14). The
preaching of the Gospel serves only as a testi-
mony; the final deliverance will appear no more
as developing out of humanity than the first,
but as an act of God entering from without. The
coming of the Son of Man is cataclysmic. The
human race of all periods of history shall be sum-
moned for judgment. The belief in a general
resurrection of the dead is implied with this expec-
tation (John v. 29; Rev. xx. 11 sqq.). The ap-
pearance of Christ as judge of the world is a step
beyond Jewish apocalyptic literature. In the New
Testament he has become the representative of God
on earth, not in an incidental matter but to actualize
in history and person God's revelation of grace.
Apart from all metaphysical statements, the
"power" of Jesus is adequate to forgive sins, to
establish the basis for the coming judgment (Mark
ii. 10). Standing at the center of humanity whence
access to God is only through him, the fate of every
individual rests on him. Its consummation is
postponed to the end of the world in agreement with
the history of Christian faith, inseparable as it is
from transcendence. If Jesus is the expression of
the purpose of God in the history of revelation,
then his personality as Savior and Judge must also
stand at the goal of this history (Matt. xi. 27, xxvi.
64). The day of Yahweh becomes the day of Jesus
Christ (I Cor. i. 8, v. 5), and Christ's seat of judg-
ment is that of God (II Cor. v. 10; Rom. xiv. 10).
For believers the significance of the parousia lies
in the consummation of that which they already
possess within themselves; after the salvation of
the soul comes the complete salvation of the body
(I Cor. xv. 43 sqq.). Even impersonal creation, as
the scene of redeemed humanity, shares in the
transformation. A new heaven and a new earth
in which all contradiction between inner and outer
is overcome appears in place of the old (Rev. xxi.
1). Not a nebulous ideal world is pictured, but
the new Jerusalem coming down from heaven has
all the characteristics of reality, though without
the elements of the earthy (xxi. 2).
Whether these thoughts on the second advent
necessarily fit together harmoniously from the given
Second Advent
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
324
premises or are the result of wilful systematizing
must be determined by the answer given to two
questions: Did Jesus himself actually
7. The Con- have in mind his coming again to
sciousness judge the world? Is the hope for his
of Jesus, return one of the inalienable elements
of Christian faith? The literature
of the New Testament appears without ex-
ception controlled by the apocalyptic eschatological
expectation that Jesus as the Christ will some time
terminate the history of the world, and open the new
world of God for the reception of his followers.
There appears, in place of the fantastic apocalyptic
" watching," just as clearly the idea of a present
fellowship with Christ which guarantees to faith
the attainment of its goal. Who is the author of
this grand conception? Jesus or Paul? Is this a
theological speculation, or rather a comprehensive
expression of the belief in the religiously understood
and yet in reality world-ruling Messiahship of
Jesus? If the latter, then the outcome of the his-
torical judgment will depend upon the justification
of this belief. Whoever does this will not assume
that Jesus used the name of Messiah uncertainly
and sustained himself inwardly in his sufferings
with a vague hope of returning; but the religious
Messianic faith of the New Testament, instead of
indulging a meaningless return, involves the claim
to the judgment of the world. W. Bousset's asser-
tion, that the faith of the Church pushed the self-
assumed position of Jesus as a witness in the divine
judgment gradually forward to a world- judgment,
rests merely upon an unproved presupposition that
Jesus disavowed himself as the judge of the world.
The prevailing critical assertion that a finished little
apocalypse was inserted with the discourse of Jesus
in Mark xiii. would be valid proof against the origin
from Jesus of that apocalypse pertaining to the
parousia. If, in addition, the authentic literature
on the life of Jesus be restricted to the Gospel of
Mark, it would be easy to interpret from the few
remaining passages the consciousness of a mere
witness in the divine judgment and the triumph of
his person and kingdom in history (Mark viii. 38,
xiv. 62 sqq.). However, the theory of a little apoc-
alypse would also be of historical value only if
Jewish origin could be assumed, but, in general, it
is of a specifically Christian character, placing the
figure of Jesus prominently at the center of the
transcendent expectations. The decision of the
matter lies deeper than with mere critical literary
research. It appears that various critics would
assent to only one side of the twofold problem
they face, particularly those who would segregate,
in the consciousness of Jesus, the eschatological
elements from his person. Jesus would thereby be
isolated in a position inconceivable to human per-
ception; the Jewish and Christian contemporaneous
literature would be filled with apocalyptic hopes,
while the faith of Jesus without discriminating
emphasis would have contented itself with the other
world, resurrection, judgment, and the kingdom of
God, in general. Similarly, but creating less dis-
order in the historical situation, is the theory of the
" eschatological school " said to have been left be-
hind by Jesus, which claims that every statement of
the Evangelists concerning the presence of the king-
dom is an intrusion of rabbinical representation.
As to the truth of the matter itself, this is supposed,
on many sides, to be resolved by the ignorance of
Jesus concerning the nearness of the time. As truly
as a change occurs in Paul's idea of the nearness
(II Thess. iv. 17; II Cor. v. 2 sqq.), a historical view
may not assume that Jesus announced his return
in the following generation. No words are so well
authenticated as the statement that he knew neither
the day nor the hour (Mark xiii. 32). Is this to
refer to the particular moment, while as the general
extension, the immediate future is self-evidently
fixed? But the events pronounced under the woes,
particularly the appearing of many false messiahs,
and the preaching of the Gospel to all the nations,
necessarily imply a longer development and thoughts
of a community of the kingdom on earth. This
being so, then the words relating to a personal re-
turn of Jesus are to be taken as pointing to the
destruction of Jerusalem (Matt. x. 23, xvi. 28).
Even if the mistaken formulation of these words
effected in the community a wide-spread belief in
the near approach of the end (John xxi. 23; II
Thess. ii. 2); and this belief gave rise, in the ac-
count, to the close temporal approximation of the
judgment of the people of God and the universal
judgment of the human race, although only inwardly
associated by Jesus, yet the distinction of the two
acts is unmistakably present throughout.
For the positive estimation of the belief in the
second coming no clear direction can be given. It
all depends on the attitude taken with reference to
the authority of Jesus and the personal needs seeking
satisfaction in the truths of Christian faith. A mere
regulative idea to act as an ethical incentive would
be indifferent to eschatological hopes. This position,
especially prominent from Kant to
8. Practi- Schleiermacher and Ritschl, results
cal Estima- more and more in the divergence of
tion. individual immortality and the con-
summation of society. The chief in-
terest, according to Ritschl, accrues to the kingdom
of God, unfolding upon an earthly basis, as the end
or ideal common to God and his chosen religious
community, which, rising above the natural limita-
tions of ethnic distinctions, advances to the ethical
unity of all the peoples. Whether this involves
merely a constant ideal hovering before, or a real
historical goal, is nowhere made distinct; but if the
latter, there is no light thrown upon the relation in
which the individuals departing previously from
history stand with reference to the common goal.
These projects rule the newer theology so far as it,
not without candor, applies itself to a philosophy
of the world, as well as to the religion of Jesus and
the Apostles. For the modern attitude, resting on
the basis of an empirical world, the acme of thought
is a personal society, realized, with the conquest of
purely natural motives, in ethical ends. Timidly
and insecurely the consequence is scarcely ven-
tured upon that this kingdom of God may be in full
reality the goal of historical evolution subserved also
by the natural world. The result is scarcely more
than an idealistic self-reflection. In fact all ideas
are enlisted in the scheme of the immovable con-
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Second Advent
trast of nature and spirit. Personal spiritual exer-
tions have the value of preserving from absorption
in mere nature, but not the promise of ever becom-
ing reality in the historical sense. Individual postu-
late reaching over into transcendent realization are
possible, tiut not u consistent, sustaining certainty.
On the contrary the incomparable power of the un-
constricted New-Testament faith which unites the
apocalyptic assurance of actual consummation with
tin' interest in personalities is assured in God and in
their community. The combination of the cer-
tainty of the beyond with the positive worth of
personality constitutes the sure ground of life for
believers. This certainty is guaranteed through the
purely personal activity and experience of Christ
who possessed in this world, which rejected him,
nothing but his personality assured in God, but de-
parting with this possession inwardly triumphant
to open the outward victory by the resurrection,
to iwamllle his own to his exalted activity, and to
raise them in unity with himself as head to God in
the other world, and, finally, In his last revelation,
to extend the ultimate consequences ofthereignof
Cod over the world and his society of the kingdom.
The certainty of redemption includes this hope as
an essential element, and the conviction that the
disappearance of one would mean the loss of entire
Cf>n:iinty ,.f redemption engirdling real life, is proof
that this nil >.-!.- u not on illusions. Meantime, a self-
reliant faith has no occasion to indulge the utiliza-
tion of phenomenal expressions presuming to be
" realistic," the forms thence available for the de-
scription of transcendent realities being obtained
from the hither world only. Most significant, how-
ever, for the ethical judgment of tie world by the
Christian and bis attitude therein is an earnest be-
lief in the return of Jesus and in the world-compre-
hend i til: Uiiti-ee [illicit consummation of his kingdom.
From the point of view of the kingdom of God as the
" Father's house" for redeemed personalities assem-
bled in eternity, the purely contingent state of life is
judged as mere scenery, "for the fashion of this
world passes away" (I Cor. vii. 31). Therefore
the Christian emulates not things in the course of
this life but persons, not culture but Evangelization.
He also docs not look for an uninterrupted ethical
evolution; all attempts in this direction, which are
to he prosecuted because the kingdom of God aims
to comprehend nil life as one, are ever doomed to
violent interruption, so long as the world of sin will
stand, in which a progressive revelation of light
Wills forth a corresponding revelation of darkness.
No Church in its outward aspect and no Christian
state is therefore an immediate vestibule of the per-
fect kingdom: on earth there can lie only folds to
guard the memliers of Christ mingling with other
elements, until his appearing, and with him that
of the Baints hitherto scattered throughout all his-
tory, as the everlasting community.
( E. F. KAHL MtTLLER.)
BiBTjo<:niPtiT For the doctrine u found fa the Bible eon-
»ult the literature ia and under Biblical Theoloot (es-
peciiillv the works by Duhiu. Smend. Dillmann. Bennett,
Davidson, Toy, and Schulti for iheO. T.: and by Bsy-
Khlag, Adency. Holtsmsnn, Stevens, and Gould 'or the
N". T,); D»i or the Lord; and under Escha-toumit.
For the doctrine in the apocryphal and pseudepiaraptii
literature consult the works under Messiah, Mxsbunum
(especially those by Briges, Orelli. Stanton, and Woods),
and under PaitTDtriolupnA (especially tliusn by I kite*
and Drummond). Commit further; W. Bumh, Lecture*
on the Second Advent of our Lord Jeeuo Christ, 4th ed.,
London. 1845; D. Brown, Christ's Second Come;..- inn
it be Prcmillennialt lb. 1848; S. Lee, Eechatologu: or the
Scripture Doctrine of the Coming of our Lord, Boston, 1858:
D, N. Lord, The Coming and Reign of Christ. Now York.
Bttl J. Berg. The Second Advent of Jesus Christ not Pre-
millcnnial. Philadelphia, 1859: E. Luthardt, Die Lehrt
bob dm Ictzttn Dingen, Leipsic. 18fll: J. F. Demarost and
W. R. Gordon, ChritUcmry; or, Essay on the Coming and
Kingdom of Christ, Now York. 1807; J. Grant, The End
of All Thing*; or, the Coming and Kingdom of Christ. 3
series. London, 1866-07; W, WcilTonbach, Der Wieder-
kvnflagedanke Jttu, Leipaic. 187LI; S. M. Merrm. The Sec-
ond Coming of Chritt Considered in He Relation to the Mil-
lennium, the Rceurreetion, and Judgment, t :iinirnuilj. 1879;
B. Davlntan, Doctrine of the Last Thingi, London, 1S82;
O. N. H. Peters, The Theocratic Kingdom of our Lord
Jesut Christ, as covenanted in the O. T. and presented in
the H. T„ New York, 1885; J. C. Rankin. The Coming
of the Lord, it.. 1SS5; R. N Bums, II'Aen trill Chritt Count
Toronto, 1886; W. Kelly. Lecture* on the Second Coming
and Kingdom of the Lord and Saviour Jesui Chriet, Lon-
don, 1836; T. Khcfoth, Chrielliche Esehataloaie, Leipsio.
the New Testament Doctrine of our Lord's Second Coming,
Lunrlon, 1887; N. Wast, Studies in Eschalology; or, thou-
sand Years in hoth T'esfamenli. New York, 1880; C. A.
Brigas. The Messiah of the OoipeU, New York, 189*;
idem. The Messuih of the Apostles, ib. 1895: H. Dieok-
mnnn. Die Parusie Christi, Geestemiinde, 1808; R. H,
Charles, Doctrint of o Future Life in Itrael, in Judaism,
and in Christianity, London, 18519; J. Weisa. Die Predigt
Jetu vom Reiche Cottes. Giittinjn?n, 191HI, !■:. Cremer, Die
Wiedtrkunft Christi and die Aufyabc der Kifhr. < Intention.
1002; P, Poll, JOdijcAs Etchaloloaie. Leipflic. 1903; W.
Rheinland (F. W. Stuckert). Das Kommen dej Uerrn, 8th
od„ Neumilnstcr, 1904; W. Bouwet, Die Religion dee
Judcntumt im neuteetamentlirhen Zrilaltcr, Berlin, 1906;
S. Modslski, Jesu W icdrrkunft, Breklum, 1907: M. Ksh-
lor. Angewandte Dogmen, pp. 487 iqo,., Leipsic, 1908:
F. Tillmann. Die Wiederkunft Chrieti narh dm naulini-
echen Briefen, Freiburg, 1909: A. D. Fairbanks. Chriett
Second Coming, Boston, 1910; Schilrer, Ceschiehte. ii. 496
acjq.. En*, trnnal,. II., i. 126 sqq. (gives a good list of
literature); DB, i. 741-757. The subject is discussed also
in the works on systematic theology (see Dooha, Doq-
SECRECY OF THE C08FESSI0KAL; When, in
the early Middle Ages, the discipline of auricular
confession prevailed in the Church, the obligation
of absolute secrecy on the part of the confessor fol-
lowed as a necessary consequence. The secret of
the confessional partakes of the nature of the ordi-
nary secret called professional, e.g., that of the
lawyer with respect to his client, or of the physician
toward his patient, and adds thereto a special re-
ligious obligation resulting from the sacramental
character of the confession. This obligation, often
referred to in the statutes of ecclesiastical law, and
expressly formulated in the Fourth Lateran Coun-
cil (1215), chap, xxi,, admits of no exception or at-
tenuation even though the life of the confessor were
at stake (cf. Hefole, Ctmciliengeschichle, v. 888). It
extends to all matter strictly pertaining to sacra-
mental confession independently of the circum-
stance whether absolution he granted or not.
Though primarily binding the confessor, the same
obligation rests also on other persons whether lay
or cleric who by accident or otherwise may have
obtained knowledge of the confession. To induce
this obligation the confession should be sacramental
in character, i.e., it should be made in good faith
Secret Discipline
Secularization
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
326
and with the intention of receiving absolution. Thus
if a penitent were to simulate confession by way of
a joke, the confessor would incur only the natural
obligation governing such matters, and likewise if
the narration of one's sins were made merely in
order to obtain counsel or consolation, the secret,
though still of the professional kind, would not,
however, entail the strict obligation of the sacra-
mental seal. There are on record a few historic in-
stances in which the secrecy of the confessional has
been heroically defended. The most notable per-
haps is that of St. John of Nepomuk (q.v)., who is
honored as a martyr of the confessional. In 1377
he was chosen by the pious Johanna, wife of the
Emperor Wenceslaus, to be her spiritual guide. The
emperor, whose life was that of a dissolute tyrant,
being jealous of his consort, endeavored first by
cajolery and later by threats to obtain from the con-
fessor a revelation of her confessions. John re-
mained firm, and after much inhuman treatment he
was ordered by the enraged Wenceslaus to be cast
into the River Moldau. The order was carried out
after nightfall on the vigil of the Ascension, May
16, 1383. James F. Driscoll.
Bibliography: J. P. Gury, Compendium Theologies M oralis,
Paris, 1881; and in general writers on moral theology;
F. Marne, Vie de Saint Jean Ntpomucene, Paris, 1741; A.
Butler, Lives of the Saints, iv. 332.
SECRET, DISCIPLINE OF THE. See Akcani
DlSCIPLINA.
SECRET AN, sec"re-ton', CHARLES: Swiss
Protestant; b. at Lausanne Jan. 18, 1815; d. there
Jan. 21, 1895. Educated at Lausanne and Munich,
he became, in 1838, associate professor of philosophy
at the Academy (after 1891 the University) of
Lausanne, where he was promoted to a full profes-
sorship three years later. In 1845 he was one of the
professors suspended by the radicals during the Vaud
revolution, and accordingly delivered his lectures
privately until, in 1850, he was called to the Acad-
emy of Neuchatel. In 1866, however, he was re-
called to Lausanne, where he spent the remainder
of his life. His view of the universe, as revealed
in his writings, was threefold; philosophically he
passed from the position of SchelHng and Baader to
that of Kant; theologically he abandoned all posi-
tive speculation for a dogmatic of ethical con-
sciousness based on Kantian philosophy; sociolog-
ically his position was original, though destined to
exercise little influence.
Secreian's Philosophie de la liberU (2 vols., Paris,
1849) postulates the identity of the principle of
being with the Deity, which is free in self-limitation,
and endowed with spirit and will. Man, free to make
his own choice, preferred voluntary independence,
which he used in favor of evil, this selection being
explained by the theory of a preexistent fall. In-
stead of permitting evil to work itself out, however,
the Creator planned a return to redemption, the
primeval purpose of creation, by begetting a perfect
type of humanity (the Son of God), whose sufferings,
representing man's pain in consequence of sin, cause
a reaction realized in Christian history, the end of
which is the everlasting life of emancipated human-
ity. In the two subsequent editions of this work
(1866, 1879) Secretin sought to adapt his old text
to his changing views, but the attempt was impossi-
ble and his ethical and religious concepts received
their new form in his Recherches de la mithode qui
conduit a la v&riU sur nos plus grands inUrUs (Neu-
chatel, 1857), La Raison el le christianisme (Paris,
1863), Discours briquet (1877), Religion et thiologie
(1883), La Civilisation et la croyance (Lausanne,
1887), and the posthumous Essais de philosophie et
de litterature (1896). But despite all his shifting of
position, he steadily maintained the two principles
of freedom and duty, though he surrendered all
derivation of the cosmos from a single principle.
To him religion was neither the uncritical accept-
ance of a sum of data, nor the observance of certain
rites, nor poetic feeling, but obedience to the moral
law in man's own heart, conceived as the operation
of a personal force outside him. His attitude to-
ward dogma, therefore, may be described as increas-
ingly indifferent, especially in relation to man's
moral position; and he utterly rejected the doctrines
of plenary inspiration, the equal importance of all
the books of the Bible, and the vicarious sacrifice in
the death of Christ, giving this, like the resurrection
and the ascension, a distinctly symbolic meaning.
He likewise rejected the tenets of eternal punishment
and the moral requirement of belief in miracles,
and, in his humility, sometimes doubted personal
immortality. Personally he preferred the free
churches to those supported by the State, though
he held that the Church failed to meet the demands
of modern times, and advocated greater familiarity
with modern culture on the part of ministers, with
an intensification of practical work and less stress on
purely theological problems.
Shortly after the publication of his second great
work, the Principe de la morale (Lausanne, 1883),
Secretan turned his attention especially to sociology,
his Civilisation et la croyancet already noted, treating
its theme from the threefold point of view of philos-
ophy, theology, and sociology, while the economic
and political sides receive almost exclusive attention
in his Le Droit de lafemme (Paris, 1887), Etudes
sociales (1899), Les Droits de VhumaniU (1890), and
Mon Utopie (1882). He sought, on the one hand,
to secure for the masses that prosperity which the
economic development of centuries had taken from
them by unequal division of property and class
favoritism; and on the other hand, here parting
company with socialism, he emphasized the natural
and inherent inequality of individuals, and their
consequent rights to different degrees of wealth and
wages. He strongly advocated cooperative labor,
savings-banks, insurance against old age, accident,
and loss of employment, as well as the emancipa-
tion of woman, for all which he strove with the
technical knowledge of a political economist and
the motives of an ethicist and friend of the peopK
(E. C. Platzhoff-Lejeune.)
Bibliography: G. Frommel, in Esquisses eontemporatnee,
Lausanne. 1891; F. Pillon, La Philosophie de Charles
SecrHan, Paris, 1897; J. Duproix, Ch. SecrHan et la phi-
losophie kantienne, ib. 1900.
SECULARISM: An atheistic and materialistic
movement established in England about the middle
of the nineteenth century, at one time counting
hundreds of thousands of adherents. The founder
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Beairot Diiioiplina
was George Jacob Holyoake [b. in Birmingham Apr.
13, 1817; d. at Brighton Jan. 22, 1906; received UB
education at the Mechanic's Institution in Birming-
ham, where he taught until he entered political and
literary life; began lecturing in 1841 on Robert
Owen's social philosophy, and directed his efforts
to the uplift of the laboring classes; in 1842 he was
imprisoned for blasphemy], who, in 1846, assisted
in starting a periodical called The Reaaover, which
Mjun became the chief organ of English freet bought,
a movement which was atheistic rather than the-
istic, but possessed of a marked tendency toward
the formation of associations, and characterized by
utilitarian aims in the sphere of morals. Although
the followers of the sebool repudiated the design a-
tion " atheists " (see Atheism), and claimed to be
simply " non-theista," they were soon termed " sec-
ularists " because of their avowed purpose of work-
ing " for the welfare of men in this world," ignoring
altogether any hypothesis of a future life. The sole
ethical principle of the school was utilitarian, and
its dogmatic position was entirely negative, deny-
ing the justifiability of assuming the existence of
God, the divine governance of the world, the rea-
sonableness of prayer, the possibility of a future
life, and the like. At the same time this position
was primarily not one of absolute denial, but rather
of extreme agnosticism, with the assumption that
what can not be positively and indubitably known
should be ignored, both in theory and in practical
life.
Under the guidance of Holyonke secularism was
■ relatively tame movement, but with the early
eighth decade of the nineteenth century its charac-
ter changed under the leadership of the well-known
Charles Bradlaugh (q.v.), and it became not only
radical in politics, but bitterly hostile to all forms of
religion, even while adopting a sort of religious cere-
monial drawn up by Bradlaugh's friend, Austin
Holyoake, and entitled Rituale Hatyoakense, five
hierurgia xecidaris. In all this the more vulgar
forms of secularism revealed a certain degree of
affinity with Positivism (q.v.), whilo the more cul-
i u red adherents of the movement came to prefer to
term themselves "agnostics" (see Agnosticism).
Kince the closing decades of the nineteenth century
welfarism as a distinct sect seems more or less to
have disappeared or to have been merged in such
forms of modern anti-Christian radicalism as so-
cieties for ethical culture (see Ethical Culture,
Societies for). (O. ZocklerT)
Bibuogkapht: J. Buchanan, Faith in God and liodtrn
Athtim, ii. 233-291, London. 1857 (records the hegin-
nimp of the movement}; M. Dnvios. Helerodoz Ijiadon,
i. 3tH «qq.. ii. 110-201). it>. 1874 (gives the lata Amrtiop-
mint); C. Bradlaugh, A uiebioaraphu. it). 1873; J. Mi
Cann. Sccularitm: unphilotophical, imnorat. and ai
•octal, ib. 1881; ChriMianilv and Stculariim. A m
DtbaU bttatm »«■. G. Salon and C. Watt*, ib. 181
J. Foxley, Srtuiaritm, ib. 1882: R. G, logcraoll. Srruiai
Utlurn. Manchester, 1882; W. G. Blnilde, ChrittianUt
and Sirularigm Camparrd, Loiidop, IB83; B. Poller. El
ominoiian of Snhnn, Melbourne. 1883; B, H. Geo
Christianity and Sauli-rism. I-onrton. 1H0O; W. H. Harrii
Tht Sttularut Proerammi, ib. IS91; M. Keibcl. Die Rr-
liaion unit iltr Rrt-hl Qtyrnttber dim modemrn M^yiffviu.',
pp. &1 TO-- Halle. 1891; R. A. Armstrong. AonotUeitm
and Thrim in tht 18th Ceniurv. London. 1905: D.\B,
luppdment, i. 218-250 (life of Brsdlaugh).
SECULARIZATIOH.
Carolingian and Merovingian Action (| l).
Tendencies at End of Middle Ages (f 2).
Conditions under the Holm-motion tf 3>.
Effects on Ihn Princes of the Church (| 4).
Conaequeneea of the French Revolution <i G).
Effect on Pupil Authority nod Property (t a).
Legal Aspects of the Process (j 7).
Legnl Basis of Alienation of Property (| 8>.
Modem Roman Catholic Theory Invalid <| 9).
The States of the Church (j 10).
Anomalous Position of the Papacy (| 11).
By secularization is meant confiscation of church
property by tht; State and the use of the revenues
thus acquired for other than church purposes; or,
in the narrower sense of the term, it denote* the
transformation of spiritual domains into secular
possessions, the first instance of this being the nego-
tiations immediately preceding the IVaci* of West-
phalia (q-v.), particularly in France.
At the very beginning of the Carolicgian period
there was a comparatively extended secularization
in France, and medieval tradition is essentially cor-
rect in declaring that Charles Martel
i. Care- deprived the Church of a great part of
Itngian and its estates for the benefit of his vassals.
Merovingian The reason fortius course was the finan-
Action. cial poverty of the State, especially in
view of the exhaustion of the crown
lands and the inerea>inn danger of Sane-en invasion,
while Charles had in addition the personal motive
of creating a vassal body rivaling that of his Mero-
vingian predecessors. The estates thus enislir-catcd
were not restored under (he sons of ( Italics Martel,
but a legal form was devised which, while recog-
nizing tin* spiritual quality uf the confiscated estates
and while laying a tax on the church institutions
affected, protected the present incumbents, even
while further DM of church property by the State
was rendered possible through new investiture in
case of a change of incumbent. Under Henry II.
(he monasteries were the object of attack, while,
following the traditions of his house, he regarded
the episeopate as his surest defense against the sec-
ular lords. The emperor availed himself of the pre-
text of reforming the monasteries to appropriate a
large portion of their property, with which he re-
imbursed both himself and his followers for his po-
litical generosity toward the episcopate. At the
same time, whatever was necessary to the main-
tenance of the monastery itself was spared.
In the course of the Middle Ages half of the na-
tional estates of (icniiany had come under Mort-
main (q.v.), and poverty-stricken jn'usanls, In their
blind fury, longed for the seculariga-
2. TenrJen- tion of all church property — a desire
citss at End ominously echoed in the hearts of
of Middle many who elsewhere had no sympathy
Ages. for the lower classes. Roman Catholic
princes, the Archduke Ferdinand
among them, vied with Protestants here, and as
early as 1525 a general secularization was proposed,
which was to be carried out by the Empire, not by
the common people. Spiritual princes and prelates
were to have so much as was sufficient to proper
dignity, and canons were to retain their canonries,
but prelacies and canonries were gradually to die
Secularization
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
328
out. A few nunneries were to be retained; and the
income of the confiscated estates was to be devoted
especially to the salary of parish priests, the main-
tenance of a bishop (stripped of all temporal power),
and the erection of a high school in each district.
Though the power of the spiritual princes was too
strong to permit such drastic measures, it was the
Roman Catholics themselves, with Austria to set
the example, who commenced the abolition of mon-
asteries. All this was the tendency of the day, but
Luther warned his adherents that the property of
the Church must be administered in the interests
of the Church, and that the conditions of country
pastors must first of all be improved, after which
the residue might be devoted to benevolent institu-
tions and to general interests. It was in this spirit
that the Saxon visitation was conducted and that
Melanchthon advised the council of Strasburg in
1538. At the same time, many secular authorities
grasped the opportunity to turn to private advan-
tage the course advocated by Luther and Melanch-
thon, and failed to make proper provision for preach-
ers and schools, the care of the poor, and the
advancement of education, so that the Schmalkald
Convention of 1540, at the instance of Melanchthon,
formally demanded reformation of church property
rather than secularization, even while advocating
the secularization of spiritual domains. In many
lands, as in Hesse, large institutions, such as the
strongly Protestant University of Marburg, were
endowed from suppressed monasteries, while in
1525 Prussia was changed from a spiritual state to
a secular archduchy.
The estates of the Church in the various territories
at the rise of Protestantism fell into three cate-
gories, each of which underwent a separate develop-
ment: the property and income of individual
churches and benefices, the property
3. Condi- of religious corporations (property of
tions under chapters, monasteries, etc.), and the
the Refor- property and income of ecclesiastical
mation. dignitaries (local bishops). The prop-
erty and income of individual parishes
remained practically unchanged, although there
were minor losses, as in the case of Stole Fees (q.v.)
and certain cases of enforced contribution, while
instances of deliberate violation of the spirit of the
new regulations were not unknown. In Wtirttem-
berg Duke Christopher sought to offset the attempts
of Ulrich to secure complete secularization by a
specially administered " general church fund "
which should permanently apply ecclesiastical
property to the benefit of Protestantism. This fund
was to provide for the endowment of new pastor-
ates, the repair of pastors' residences, the support
of aged pastors, and the like; but the destruction
of the multifarious local legal persons which the
ecclesiastical properties formed under Roman,
canon, and common Protestant church law were a
peril to Christopher's scheme, which finally suffered
incameration in 1806. In many districts the estates
of ecclesiastical corporations were undiminished,
although their objects were changed, only hospitals,
poorhouses, etc., retaining their original purposes.
Much of the confiscated property was devoted to
educational ends; in other cases the corporations
survived, though they became benevolent institu-
tions; while yet others, when their incumbents died
or resigned, were given back to their patrons or
founders. In Wurttemberg the monasteries were
retained as schools; and this transformation of
monasteries, rather than entire secularization, was
the course pursued by Duke Ernest the Confessor
of Luneburg and Duchess Elizabeth of Calenburg-
Gottingen, as well as by Duke Julius of Brunswick.
The University of Helmstadt was endowed from
suppressed monasteries, and educational and elee-
mosynary institutions were founded in similar fash-
ion in Hanover, Hesse, Mecklenburg, and elsewhere.
The property and income of ecclesiastical digni-
taries underwent a profound change with the rise
of the new doctrine. Protestantism left no room
for the union of temporal and spiritual
4. Effects lordship in the bishops which had
on the hitherto prevailed, and some bishops,
Princes of like those of Samland and Pomerania,
the Church, voluntarily- resigned their secular
powers when they embraced the ten-
ets of Luther. More than this, the entire episcopate
vanished with the extension of the consistorial sys-
tem, and as bishops died, they were not replaced.
Members of the secular nobility were elected or ap-
pointed to administer the vacant sees, and the epis-
copal estates gradually became incorporated with
the secular domains. In many religious founda-
tions immediately dependent on the Empire the
Reformation was similarly carried out, and in this
way Protestantism gained control of the dioceses
of Magdeburg, Bremen, Verden, Lubeck, Osna-
bruck, Ratzeburg, Halberstadt, and Minden, while
for a time the Roman Catholics were threatened
with the loss of Minister, Paderborn, Hildesheim,
and Cologne, although the Counter-Reformation ul-
timately enabled them to retain possession of these
sees. The Protestantized dioceses, on the other
hand, went their course to secularization, such being
the fate of Bremen, Verden, and Magdeburg, which
became secular duchies, of Halberstadt, Minden,
Camin, Schwerin, and Ratzeburg, which were
changed into principalities, and of many lesser
foundations. By the provisions of Jan. 1, 1624, the
only unsecularized imperial diocese in Protestant
hands was Lubeck, and the sole unsecularized mon-
asteries were those of Gandersheim, Hervorden, and
Quedlinburg; while the Protestants were now de-
clared entitled to peaceful possession of all seques-
trated and transformed ecclesiastical estates and
foundations.
The suppression of the Jesuits in the eighteenth
century gave secular lords wide pretexts for confis-
cation of church property, such sequestration fol-
lowing the banishment of the order from Portugal
(1759), France (1764), Spain (1767), Naples, Malta,
and Parma (1768). On the suppression of the order
by Clement XIV. on July 21, 1773, the pope ap-
pointed a special congregation to decide concerning
their property, and this congregation accordingly
addressed a circular letter to the episcopate direct-
ing the bishops to take possession of Jesuit prop-
erty and apply it to the purposes designated by the
pope. Since, however, German law refused to rec-
ognize the papal supremacy which was thus implied,
320
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Secularization
and since the bishops could not, by the provisions of
the papal brief, take any independent action, the
secular authorities everywhere seized the Jesuit
estates, even though the imperial councilor deemed
this property to be essentially that of the Church.
The French Revolution was especially fateful for
church property, for the financial needs of France
were deemed too great to be satisfied by merely
taxing such property. The excuse
5. Conse- alleged by the revolutionists formed
quences of but the counterpart to the theory
the French which gained supremacy in the Gal-
Revolution, lican Church, as well as among seven-
teenth-century Roman Catholic canon-
ists in general, that the church property of the
clergy consisted in their associations. This en-
countered Protestant opposition by its basal hier-
archic identification of clergy and Church, and from
the alleged usurpation of church property by the
clergy the Encyclopedists (q.v.) argued that, since
the clergy as a corporation was dependent on the
State, the State could confiscate the estates of the
clergy. The National Assembly declared, on Nov.
2, 1789, that all ecclesiastical property was at the
disposal of the nation, at the same time guaran-
teeing the salaries of the clergy. The suppression
of all monasteries soon followed, and in quick suc-
cession came the fall of the church organization
and of the Church itself. Even on its restoration
by the concordat of July 15, 1801, it was forced to
submit to the sale of its property, although the
government pledged itself to pay the clergy a suita-
ble salary; and even when a portion of the Church's
belongings were again returned to its own control,
these were held to be not its property, but to ap-
pertain to the State and the communes. No less
ominous for the possessions of the Roman Catholic
Church were the consequences of the French Revo-
lution in Germany. Here an important factor was
the theory of " the law of nature," which had been
evolved in the eighteenth century, largely on the
basis of the legal tenet of eminent domain — a the-
ory which by some writers was carried so far as to
make the Church a mere society subserving the in-
terests of the State. In the second half of the eight-
eenth century the idea of secularization was wide-
spread, and was exemplified not only by Joseph II.
of Austria and the elector of Mainz, but even by
the course proposed by a Roman Catholic canon,
Friedrich Karl von Moser, in 1787. By the secret
provisions of the peace of Campo Formio (Oct. 17,
1797) the emperor agreed to cede to France the
greater part of the region to the left of the Rhine,
including Mainz. This implied not only the secu-
larization of this region, but also, since Austria
claimed compensation on the right bank of the
Rhine, the devotion, and consequent seculariza-
tion, of church estates in the empire. Only the
quondam prince elector of Mainz (now electoral
archchancellor) and the heads of the Maltese and
Teutonic Knights remained spiritual estates; all
other imperial spiritual principalities and dignities
were declared secularized and apportioned among
secular estates, chiefly Protestant.
The effect of these secularizations and the regu-
lations accompanying them was so great as to in-
volve the destruction of the organization of the
Roman Catholic Church in Germany. The severest
blows were struck at the authority of
6. Effect on the pope, who was not even consulted
Papal Au- in the matter, and with the suppres-
thority and sion of the monasteries he lost a host
Property, of devoted adherents. The mingling
of Protestant and Roman Catholic
populations opened a way to Protestantization
which was checked only by the infiltration of ultra-
montanism into the Roman Catholic laity and later
into the clergy, and by the weakening of the State
Church and the concessions of the government;
while the erection of a German primacy fostered the
schismatic tendency which characterized the Ger-
man episcopate in the time of Joseph II. Against
all this the Curia could only protest, and with so
little effect at the time that the spiritual estates
hitherto spared were quickly secularized. Far more
perilous was the fact that the promised reorganiza-
tion of the dioceses and chapters was not realized,
despite the exertions of the primate, Prince Dal-
berg. Pending this delay vacant sees remained un-
filled, and the old bishops died one by one, until in
1814 there were but five bishops in Germany. The
dioceses were administered by vicars general, and,
as the number of suffragans was likewise dimin-
ished, the sacraments of confirmation and ordina-
tion could no longer be performed. Cathedral chap-
ters were also unfilled, and countless parishes were
empty or impoverished, while temporal dignitaries,
on the basis of the estates they had received through
sequestration, alleged the right of succession to the
prerogatives of presentation and collation which
had been granted to bishops and monasteries.
In this general trouble Protestantism also shared.
In Wurttemberg the property of the Church was
declared to belong to the State; and in Prussia war
expenses led to the confiscation of the property of
those monasteries and spiritual foundations which
still survived, only the chapter of Brandenburg
escaping suppression, while in Westphalia the secu-
larization even of Protestant foundations was ac-
complished within a few years.
In considering the legal aspects of secularization
in Germany a distinction must be drawn between
the various reasons underlying it. The abolition of
the temporal lordship of imperial dio-
7. Legal As- ceses and prelacies involved no inva-
pects of the sion of church property, for this secular
Process, power was due to purely political, not
religious, causes, and originated under
the conditions in which the Church, as the great
civilizing factor of the West in the Middle Ages, had
been forced to discharge many purely secular func-
tions if all the higher culture of the Greco-Roman
world was not to disappear amid the wild struggles
of the ruder northern nations. Thus the Church
opposed to the factions of the secular State the
marvelous ideal of the spiritual universal State.
But the days had passed when kings must reign
through their bishops because they could not reign
through temporal princes, counts, and lords, and
by the end of the thirteenth century the political
states had passed their period of disability, having
become able to dispense with ecclesiastical guard-
Secularisation
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
830
ianship. As early as the fifteenth century the
modern concept of the State had arisen, and with
the abolition of the old confusion of public and
private spheres of right the union of temporal sov-
ereignty with spiritual dignity came to be regarded
as anomalous, though for a considerable time it
dragged out an ostensible existence in the constitu-
tion of Germany. The Curia demanded a restitu-
tion of the old status, including the restoration of
the Holy Roman Empire, the reerection of the spir-
itual principalities, and the return of the property
wrested from the Church, but all in vain. The sole
consolation of the pope was his continued control
of the States of the Church in Italy. Neither can
the confiscation of royal fiefs and of Regalia (q.v.)
be regarded as invasions of the rights of the Church,
since they had been used distinctly for political
ends. It is, however, a question what constituted a
royal fief, some defining it as the temporal rights
connected with an imperial bishopric or abbey,
while others restrict it to specific estates and privi-
leges. In the Frankish kingdom the royal monas-
teries were deemed the property of the king or of
the treasury, while the king controlled, though in
more restricted degree, the property of the dioceses.
In Germany churches and their endowment were
the possession of the laity who had established them,
though after the twelfth century the Church suc-
ceeded in reducing this control to the mere right of
Patronage (q.v.). From the end of the ninth cen-
tury the great majority of German bishoprics, in-
cluding all their estates and prerogatives, were the
property of the Empire, so that the property be-
longing to a church really meant only the perma-
nent usufruct of such estates and prerogatives.
The object of Investiture (q.v.) was the bishopric
and the episcopal office, or both temporal and
spiritual functions, and it is clear that previous to
the investiture controversy the king controlled the
bishoprics, i.e., the temporal side. After 1111,
however, the king not only restricted himself to
the temporal aspect of the matter, but expressly
granted that a part of the temporalia, such as
church edifices and oblations, belonged uncondi-
tionally to the Church.
The diversion of the property of the estates of
the Roman Catholic Church to Protestant uses in
territories where the new doctrines were introduced
was deduced from the reformatory
8. Legal rights of secular rulers as construed in
Basis of the form which it assumed in the six-
Alienation teenth century as distinct from the
of Property, extinct positive law of the Middle Ages.
Historic relations to the western
Church and the necessity of control in the midst of
confusion had placed the empire in jurisdiction, and
this was transferred to the territorial rulers. Since
Protestantism gained its legal basis through the help
of temporal lords, its endowment was accomplished
in legal form; and the church organizations arising
from the Reformation were not due to the exit of
Protestants from the Roman Catholic Church, but
to the cleavage of the Western Church into Roman
Catholic and Protestant. On the basis of their legal
position as assured in the religious treaties of peace,
the Protestants could claim that since their organ-
ization was no less a legitimate continuation of the
pre-Reformation Church than Roman Catholicism,
so the property which they received from this pre-
Reformation body had not been decatholicized by
the Reformation, and had consequently not been
alienated from the Church to which it had been
dedicated. On the other hand there was at least a
formal injustice in the diversion of true church
property for secular uses. It is true that many of
the older secularizations represent a reaction against
the excessive accumulations of property under mort-
main, which disturbed the economic balance of so-
ciety. But this plea can not be alleged in extenua-
tion of the confiscation of church property in the
early nineteenth century, nor is the excuse valid
that many of the richer ecclesiastical corporations
and institutions of recent centuries served the in-
terests of the privileged classes rather than the ends
of the Church. It must further be recognized that
the false theories of the " law of nature/' alleged in
extenuation of the illegal confiscation of a great
part of Roman Catholic and of no small portion of
Protestant church property at the commencement
of the nineteenth century, can not validate injus-
tice. This holds true both of the theory of eminent
domain and of the doctrine that the property of the
Church is really the property of the State, and may
be devoted to religious ends only so long as the
State pleases. The modern theory of the State re-
jects the tenet of eminent domain [not, however,
in the United States], and while recognizing the
supremacy of the State over private property, for-
bids such property to be devoted to mere political
or economic needs of the State [in the United States
the rights of eminent domain operate only upon
just compensation to the owners of property].
Equally erroneous is any foundation of the State
right of secularization on the alleged supremacy of
society, for the right of the State to sequester the
property of corporations is bound by precisely the
same restrictions as its right to confiscate the prop-
erty of individuals. False also is the theory that
the power of the State absorbs all social and spiritual
life, for religion, in particular, is no function of the
State. The Church is a special organization for the
promotion of the moral life and has its own justifi-
cation; its property serves its special end, and is as
exempt from the capricious control of the State as
is any other private property. It is with justice,
therefore, that modern legislation declares the
property of the Church inviolable and expressly
guarantees its security, although, as in the case of
private property, it reserves the right of escheat-
age; nor does the mere fact that the property of a
particular foundation is designed for spiritual ends
of itself make the diocese, and eventually the Ro-
man Catholic Church, the legal heir in case the
foundation in question lapses. At the same time,
a number of modern codes expressly enact that the
property of individual foundations which can no
longer be applied to their original ends may be
used only for religious purposes.
The modern Roman Catholic theory that, al-
though the religious corporations were suppressed,
their property was reserved for religious and edu-
cational purposes, so that the Roman Catholic
881
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Secularisation
Church has a permanent claim on the property in
question, is legally untenable, and has been granted
only by the Austrian concordat. Secu-
9. Modern larized property and the property of
Roman the Church are irreconcilable concepts,
Catholic and only through rededication could
Theory property once sequestrated again come
Invalid, to belong to the Church. At the same
time, the State is ethically bound, since
it holds so large a portion of the possessions of the
Church through its secularizations, to provide ade-
quately for the needs of the two communions which
all German states regard as corporations in public
law. This has been carried out perhaps more fa-
vorably to the Roman Catholic than to the Protes-
tant communion. And it should be noted that pur-
chasers of secularized property, having a legal title
from the State treasury, are the valid owners of
such property, though Roman Catholic purchasers
are in duty bound, according to canon law, to gain
the approval of the pope to their purchase.
The secularization of the States of the Church
deserves special consideration. This " patrimony
of Peter " (see Papal States) was regarded as the
property of the Church, and every pontiff was re-
quired to pledge himself that none of it should be
alienated — a fact which did not pre-
10. The vent Pius VI. from accepting the peace
States of of Tolentino (1797), by which Avignon
the Church, and Venaissin, together with Ancona
and the legations of Bologna, Ferrara,
and Romagna, were lost to the Church. Between
the States of the Church and the concept of the
modern secular State there was the widest discrep-
ancy. The modern State is construed as an inde-
pendent organization resting on its own ethical
foundation, as the legitimate organization for the
complete life of its people, in whose behalf all its
energies are devoted. That the State should be in
control of a subject beyond its own borders, which
was the relation of the Roman Catholic Church to
the States of the Church, is irreconcilable with the
modern theory of the State; and though the States
of the Church were incapable of the profound trans-
formations undergone by secular powers, this very
fact would ultimately have proved fatal. The States
of the Church lacked, moreover, an organic national
basis, and the whole trend of modern history was
opposed to them. In 1798 the boundaries of the
States of the Church were abolished, though re-
stored, essentially undiminished, at the Congress of
Vienna; but the temporal power of the pope over
his states was possible only through repeated, and
finally permanent, armed intervention of foreign
powers, until, amid profound changes in Europe,
the Italian revolutions of 1859-60 robbed the States
of the Church of a great part of their possessions,
while the overthrow of the French Empire in 1870
encouraged the Italians, after taking Rome on Sept.
20, 1870, to incorporate the remainder of the papal
dominions in the kingdom of Italy. True to the
principle that the continuance of the temporal
power of the pope was essential, especially at that
period, to the independence of the Roman Catholic
Church and of her earthly head, Pius IX. placed all
who had taken part in the act which he termed
" robbery of God " under major excommunication.
Meanwhile the kingdom of Italy, on May 13, 1871,
promulgated its law concerning the Curia and the
Roman Catholic Church. By this the pope was
guaranteed the personal prerogatives of a sovereign,
the Holy See was endowTed with a yearly pension of
3,225,000 francs (corresponding to the former papal
budget for apostolic palaces, the holy college, the
congregations, the secretaryship of state, and diplo-
matic representation abroad), freedom was granted
the pope in the discharge of his office in the govern-
ance of the Church, while on Italian soil he was
granted free communication with his bishops and
foreign governments, and the full immunity of dip-
lomats was accorded his nuncios and legates to
foreign courts as well as to the diplomats accredited
to the Holy See.
Despite the loss of his temporal sovereignty, the
pope still possesses a quasi-sovereignty in his rela-
tions, as a spiritual power, to sovereign states, as
well as a still more real power which gives him, be-
sides the honors rendered to his per-
11. Anomal- son, the right of embassy and of con-
ous Position eluding quasi-international treaties,
of the On the other hand, the essential differ-
Papacy. ences of his quasi-sovereignty from
the full sovereignty of temporal powers
forbids any actual equality between the two. He
can not, for example, wage war, since he has no
state to form the object of attack. All this involves
difficult and thus far unsolved problems of interna-
tional law, which are only complicated by the Ital-
ian law of guaranty. Not only would Italy have
to answer, by the law of nations, for any armed
attack upon the pope, but, again by the law of na-
tions, the Italian government must be responsible
for any misuse of its guaranty to the pope of the
privilege of legal immunity, even in the case of
breaches of the peace which otherwise violate in-
ternational law. On the other hand, considerations
of practical policy justify recognition of a privileged
and immune legal position of the pope in the inter-
national fellowship of Christian nations so long as
the Roman Catholic Church maintains its quasi-
state organization. This assures to the papacy the
possibilities of such far-reaching political develop-
ment that, recognizing that a double sovereignty
of spiritual and temporal power over the same peo-
ples is irreconcilable, the pope, since his loss of tem-
poral sovereignty, has renewed with increased
energy those ancient claims to spiritual universal
monarchy which represent him as the one true
sovereign over the national states, these being re-
garded by curialists as mere provinces of his world
dominion, over which he is to exercise rule. The
Roman Church is, in a word, both an institution of
political power and a Christian body for the worship
of God, and for this reason the relation of temporal
states toward it can be governed only by individual
rules, not by any general theory of the relation of
the State to the Christian Church as a whole.
On the secularization of churches, and especially
of monasteries, in Italy see Italy, I., §§ 1-2, and
on the secularization in France, wrought by the law
of separation of Dec. 9, 1905, see France, I.
(E. Sehling.)
Sedarim
Sedulius
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
332
Bibliography: A. Kleinschmidt, Die Sakularieation vom
1808, Berlin, 1878; F. A. Gasquet, Henry VIII. and the
English Monasteries, rev. ed., London, 1899; M. Anglade,
De la secularisation dee biens de clerge sur la revolution,
Paris, 1901; M. Ersberger, Die Secularisation in Wurt-
temberg, 1802-10, Stuttgart, 1902; H. Reimera, Die Sakur
larisation der Kldater in Ostfriesland, Aurieh, 1906; K.
Schornbaum, Die Sakularieation dee Klosters Heidenheim,
Neuendettelsau, 1906; F. Kdrholx, Die Sakularieation
und Organisation in den preussischen Entechadigunge-
landern . . . 1 802-06, MOnBter, 1907; M. Pfeiffer, £etafl0«
tur Oeschichte der Secularisation in Bamberg, Bamberg,
1907; A. M. Scheglmann, Geachichte der Sakularieation im
rechterheinieehen Bayern, 3 vols., Regenaburg, 1903-08;
KL, x. 1526-34.
SEDARIM, SEDAROTH. See Parashah.
SEDES VACANS: The ecclesiastical term for a
" vacant see." For the principles and practise gov-
erning in case of vacancy of the papal see, see Pope,
Papacy, Papal System. The cases here consid-
ered are those of actual and constructive vacancy
in ordinary bishoprics.
An episcopal vacancy occurs through death, ab-
dication, translation, deposition, and the like; and
lasts till the occupancy has been regularly renewed.
In such a case, the episcopal jurisdiction devolves
upon the Chapter (q.v.), which [in the Roman Cath-
olic Church], within eight days as reckoned from the
moment of certified knowledge that the vacancy
has begun, must appoint one or more stewards, and
a capitulary vicar (see Vicar); the latter may be
the former episcopal vicar general. In case the
chapter is dilatory, or if no chapter attaches to the
vacant church, the right of nomination devolves,
in connection with a suffragan church, on the metro-
politan; in the case of a metropolitan church, on
the eldest suffragan bishop; in the case of an ex-
empt church, on the bishop nearest. Where the
vacant church has no chapter, if at the time the
metropolitan church itself is without an archbishop,
the nomination devolves on the metropolitan chap-
ter. According to the Council of Trent the capitu-
lary vicar is expected to be at least a doctor or
licentiate in canon law. Where a suitable person is
present in the chapter, selection must be made ac-
cordingly. The capitulary vicar exercises his vested
rights independently, like the bishop, until the re-
newed occupancy of the episcopal see and may not
by the chapter be deprived of his administration.
In general, pending the election, episcopal rights
which emanate from the " episcopal standing " or
from papal delegation continue dormant, except as
the Curia makes provision to the contrary or as the
situation demands the summoning of a bishop from
without. The principle prevails that during the in-
terim no alteration may be undertaken of a nature
prejudicial to the future bishop. In particular, the
episcopal revenues for the interim period are not to
be employed, except that the capitulary vicar's
salary may be defrayed therefrom. The vacancy
ceases with the new bishop's official occupancy.
A distinction is drawn between actual and con-
structive episcopal vacancy, as when the bishop is
hindered from undertaking his incumbent admin-
istration. In case this obstruction is only partial,
a coadjutor acts; but if it be absolute, a procedure
then ensues parallel to the case of actual episcopal
vacancy. But the situation is different where com-
munication with the bishop is still possible; in that
case his jurisdiction is not suspended so obviously,
and his appointed vicar general may officiate. After
the vicar general's death, the appointment of a new
vicar general appertains to the pope, the chapter
not being authorised to install a vicar.
£. Sehlino.
In the Anglican communion the arrangements
for the administration of a vacant see and for filling
the vacancy vary in different parts. In England
the administration of the diocese falls during a va-
cancy largely to the Chapter (q.v.; which is sup-
posed always to be the bishop's council), with cer-
tain prerogatives reserved to the metropolitan of
the province. A bishop is of course called in to
perform any distinctly episcopal function, but he
has no jurisdiction or power beyond that which is
distinctly committed to him for the occasion. The
crown nominates a successor to the vacant see, but
he must be elected by the chapter.
Where, as outside of England, the Church is not
in any direct relations with the State, the successor
is elected by representatives of the diocese, both
clerical and lay, assembled in synod or council or
convention. Such election needs confirmation by
the bishops of the national church or of the prov-
ince, and in America by representatives of other
dioceses. During a vacancy the administration of
the diocese in America belongs to the standing com-
mittee of the diocese, which corresponds in its func-
tions to the chapter as the bishop's council, and in
other national churches either to a similar repre-
sentative body or to a vicar general as may be pre-
scribed by local diocesan or provincial canons, sub-
ject to limitations like to those mentioned in the
case of England. A. C. A. Hall.
SEDGWICK, sej'wic, DANIEL: English hym-
nologist; b. at London Nov. 26, 1815; d. there Mar.
10, 1879. He was originally a shoemaker, became
a dealer in second-hand books in 1837, and fell in
with collectors, mainly of theological literature.
In 1839 he united with the Baptists. Being fond
of hymns, he bought the old books containing them,
and about 1840 began the systematic collection
and study of texts and editions, and, at the same
time, taught himself writing. He gradually ac-
quired a unique library, and a knowledge of the
subject long unrivalled. The popularity of Roundell
Palmer's Book of Praise (London, 1863) and the
care Sedgwick had bestowed in making it a model
of accuracy in texts, dates, and ascriptions of au-
thorship, established his reputation; and thence-
forth the compilers of nearly every prominent Eng-
lish hymnal availed themselves of his help. He
published Catalogue of Scarce Religious Poetry, conr
taining a Choice Collection of Original Psalms,
Hymns, and Poems (London, 1859) ; a scries entitled
English Hymn Writers; Reprinted Verbatim from the
Originals, with Biographical Sketches, including such
names in single volumes as John Ryland, William
Williams, and A. M. Toplady; and Comprehensive
Index of Names of Original Authors of Hymns (1860).
Bibliography: Julian, Hymnology, pp. 1036-37; DNB9 li.
182.
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bedulina
SEDLHITZKI, sedl-nit'ski, LEOPOLD GRAF
VON: German prince bishop of Breslau and con-
vert to Lutheraniam; b. at the castle of Geppersdorf
in Austrian Silesia, July 2S, 1787; d. at Berlin Mar.
25, 1871. Ho M educated at the University of
Breslau (1804-09), and in 1810 was ordained to the
priesthood. His intention to devote himself to the-
ological teaching was frustrated by illness, and in
1811 he accepted from t lit? prince bhhop of Breslau
the posts of assessor and secretary in the vieareitu
which administered the spiritual affairs of the dio-
cese. Even at this time he was by no means in full
accord with the course pursued by the Roman
Catholie Church. At the same time, he firmly main-
tained the external unity and the apostolic charac-
ter of that church, repardinj: I he Reformation as a
break iu the unity of the Church and as a disturb-
ing factor in its divinely appointed development.
Before long Bedlnitzki accepted an appointment in
the royal service at Breslau, where he plunge! iuio
a multitude of new tasks concerning the Church
and higher education. Discovering that the Prot-
ectant gymnasia were superior to the Roman
Cuthulie. he considered it his duty to raise the
standard of the schools of his church. He thus
found himself obliged to consider more clo.-cly the
relation of the Roman Catholic and the Protestant
churches, and accordingly began a thorough study
of Protest nnt symbolics. Nevertheless lie still re-
mained true to his church, though disapproving in-
dulgences, the growth of adoration of saints and of
]iiljiri[ii;i{;('K. Tin- conclusions thus reached could
not, be concealed, but despite his views, which now
involved doubts of the unity and catholicity of the
Roman Catholic Church, SedlniUki was unanimous-
ly elected bishop in 1835. Ho accepted with reluc-
tance, and soon had to encounter serious opposition.
Matters reached a climax in hi3 refusal to obey the
papal brief of Mar. 25, 1830, to the effect that mixed
marri.iKe.- could be Messed by the church only after
the contracting parties had promised to bring up
their children in the Roman Catholic faith. Sedl-
niUki, preferring to obey the laws of the State rather
than i liti,se of his ehurrh, offered to resign his see
on June 10, 1839. King Frederick William IV.
vainly sought to restrain him from this extreme
step, and, on the acceptance by Rome of Scdlnitzki's
resignation, appointed him in 18-10 privy councilor at
Berlin. For a short time the cot-bishop continued
to eeletirulemass on high festivals but soon became
more and more imbued with Protestant ideas,
and, on Apr. 12, 1868, he marked his complete
break with his church by receiving Protestant
Henceforth Sedlnitski sought with all earnestness
to advance the cause of Protestantism. As early as
1SC.1 he hail founded a Lutheran institution, the
Paulinum, for the education of boys, especially of
those intended for the Lutheran ministry and for
higher education, ne later founded at Berlin the
,lo It: i ii oi aim. where young Lutheran theological
students might receive appropriate training. In
his will he devoted a considerable portion for the
foundation of a similar Johanncum at Breslau, and
a like foundation was provided for Silesia in the
Scdlnitikische Vikariatafond. In addition to all
this a fund was created by him to provide theolog-
ical works for the education of needy clergy.
(DAVin ETOMAKXt.)
BTBUOaRAFBI: Commit his Selbilaiaaraiihie, .Vac* innm
I-etien and seine Papieren herautQeoeben mil AkteneCQcten.
Berlin, 1872.
SEDULITJS, se-du'li-us, CtELIDS: Christian
poet of the early fifth century. Almost nothing is
known of his life, even the name Cos I i us [orCireiliu>]
is not assured, and it is only probable that he lived
in Greece. Hia fame cornea through his poems,
especially his Carmen -paschalc, in 1.75.'i hexameters
and five books, with a prologue of eight distichn,
dedicated to a presbyter Mucedonius. The poem
deals \i it h the miracles of Christ, the first book
being an introducl ion discuss inn the mi nicies of I lie
Old Testament, and the other four being based on
the Gospels, particularly Matthew. The material
is freely handled, and in form the poem belongs to
the best of early Christian Latin literature. Sedu-
lius later rendered his work into prose, to which he
gave the title Opus pagchale. In this I lie bomlmstii'
style contrasts strongly with the concise and com-
pact diction of the poem. Sedulius left also two
hymns. The first is an elegy in fifty-five distichs,
which connects the events of the Old Testament
with those of the New in the form of antetype to
type. The structure is artificial, a hexameter on
the Old Testament being succeeded by a pent :i meter
dealing with the New Testament. The second
hymn, a call to praise of Christ, is alphabetical in
twenty-three strophes, t.lie first lines of the strophes
beginning with the letters of the alphabet in turn-
Two parts of the composition have been used as
church hymns, strophes A-G (as a Christmas hymn),
and H, I, L, N (at the feast of Epiphany).
The cento De verbi incarnationc was formerly
wrongly attributed to Sedulius. {G. KbUger.)
Bibuoohaphy: The poems were edited by F. Arevalo.
Rome, 1704 (wii.h preface of value) and Hpmducgd isi
MPL. six.; J. Looshom. Munich, 1870; and J. Huemer,
in CSEL, vol. i.. 1885. Two brief En*, traiiab. are in
D. J. Dormhoe, Early Christian Hvnru. pp. 87-68, New-
York. 1908. Consult: J. Huemer. DtSrdatii . . . mta tt
teripti* eommrnlaiia, Vieunn, 1878; C. L. Leimbsch,
Ueber den thrieUichen Dirteer Snlulixe. Goslsr. 1870;
G. Boissier. in Jnurnal dee unaiUi. Sept.. 1S8J; J. Kayier,
Btitraot iut Grerhichle und Erkionino der atttttten Kirehen-
hi/mntn, pp. 3B7-3S5, issi; s. W. DufTield, Latin Htimn
Writeri ami their Hymte. pp. 83-87, New York, 18SBi
A. Ebert. Gachichte der LiOeralar da MiltAalttri in
Abendlande, i. 373-383. T^ir-si!-. ISS'.I: M. MiUiitiui, c,.-
iihiehte der chriellKh-taleim*ehrn Faerie, pp. 303-313,
Stuttgart. ISO!: A. Baumajnrtnor, Die lateinuehe vnd
BriethitcAe Litteralur der chrielliehen VuUur, pp. 106-196,
Freiburg. 1905: Bordenliower. PniroLmie. p. 3W. En*,
trnnsl., St. Louis, 1908: DCB. iv. 588-600 (noteworthy]:
Julian, Hymnoloffy, p. 1037.
SEDULIUS SCOTUS (SEDULIUS JUNIOR) :
Irish monk, probably to be identified with Sindlml
Km Feradach, who died abbot of Kildare 828. Of
his life nothing is known, although some have iden-
tified itiiti iprijliiibly incorrectly) with the " Sedu-
h'ua, bishop of Britain of the race of the Scots,''
who was one of the signers of the decrees of a synod
held at Rome in 721 (cf. Haddan and Stubbs,
Councils, ii., part I, p. 7). This prelate was almost
certainly a Scotch diocesan, though his see (if he
possessed one) is unknown. The writings of Sedu-
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
lius, which are little more than compilations from
the Fathers, especially Origen, are as follows: Col-
lectanea in DMHM bcati Pauli epi&talas; Explanatiun-
ciila de breviariorum el capitulorum canonumque
ili lit rrntiti; Ej-p/iinntiuritf in prafationes eancti Ilier-
onymi ad evangelia; and De rt'ctvribiw Cliriationin
el coiii-enlifntibiis reyulis quibus est respublica rite
gubernanda (all ed,, moat conveniently, in MPL,
oiii. 1-351). Johannes Trithemius, who confuses
Sedulius Scotus with his more distinguished name-
sake, as well as with Bishop Sedulius. ascribes tu
him (De scriptoribus eccksiastide, cap. cxlii.), in
addition to the works already mentioned, De miracu-
tis Chri&ti; Ad Theodaaium tmpcmtnrem; In majus
volumen Pri&ciani; In secitndam cditionem Donati;
Exiiiirhiiiiriiiin in] thlil.-*; ;itiil EpiMnln ad diversos.
BieuoQiufdv: .1. Healy, Iniula nanrtoTum a dorforum, pp.
30-39. 574-376. Dublin. [800: Lsuiigiui, Eal. Hia.. i. 17.
ffi. 255; DCB, iv. SOU; DNB, li. 188-18B; Ccillicr. .-lu-
tcvri tacrfa, xii. 357-381.
SEEBERG, se'berg, OSKAR THEODOR ALFRED:
Riisso-t JiTinuii Protestant; b. at Pedua, Esthonia,
Russia, Sept. 24, 1863. He was educated at the
universities of Dorpat (1884-89), Erlangen, and
Leipsic (1891). In 1890 he was teacher of religion
at the municipal school for girls in Dorpat, and in
1S91, Lifter hia return from Germany, he resumed
this position, being also chosen assistant pastor of
St. Peter's, Dorpat. In the same year he became
privat-docent at the University of Dorpat, where
he was promoted to the nink of docent. within a few
months; in 1895 he was appointed associate pro-
fessor in" Xeiv -Test anient exegesis, ami 1897 full pro-
fessor of the same subject; in 1908 he went to Ros-
tock in the same capacity. In theology he belongs
to the liberal school, and has written Die Anbetung
des Herrn bri Paulus (Riga, 1891); Der Tad Chrizti
in seiner Bedcitt uii;} /ar •!:■■ Erln.-nniig (Leipsie, 1S95) :
Der Kakf/tismu! dcr V rchristenheU (1903); Das
Evangclium Christi (1905); Die Tavfe im Neuen
Testament (Gross-Liehterfelde. 1905); Die beiden
Wege und das Apast*ldit:r<-t (Leipsic, 1906); Die
Leiden dcr Christen (Barmen, 1906); Die Didactic
des Judentums und der Urchristsnheit (Leipsie,
190S); and CtiritU Person und Werk nock der Lehre
seiner J anger (1910).
SEEBERG, REIHHOLD: German Lutheran;
b. at Porrafer, Livonia, Apr. 5. 1859. Ho was edu-
cated at the universities of Dorpat (1878-82) and
Erlangen (1832-84; mag. theol., Dorpat, 1884).
In 1884 he became privat-docent for systematic
theology at the former university, where he was
mpr>oiiitt'i.l n-'-iwirUe professor and second university
preacher in the following year. In 1889 he was
called to Erlangen as professor of church history
ond New-Testament exegesis, hia chair being
cliancd in 1894 to that of systematic theology.
EKnoc 1898 he lias been professor of systematic the-
ology at the University of Berlin, He has written
Der Begriff der christlichen KircJle, i (Erlangen,
1885); Der Apologet Aristides (1894); Lehrhnrh der
JJogme.ngesrhichte (2 vols., Leipsie, 1S95-98, new
ed., 1907-08); Gewisscn mid Gewisscnsbild>aig (Er-
langen, 1896); Die Kirche und die sneiate Frage
(Leipsic. 1897); Bit SteUung Melanchthons in der
Geschiehle der Kirclte und der Wissensehaft (Erlan-
gen, 1S97); Die Thealogie des Duns Scotue (Leipsie,
1900); GrundrissderDogmengeschiekU(\90l; 3ded.,
1910); An der SchwcUe des zwanzig&teri Jalirhundcrts
(1901); Luthers Stellung zu den sitllichen und sozialen
Ndten seiner Zeii (1901); Die Grundwahrheiten def
christlichen Religion (1902; Eng. transl., Funda-
mental Truths of the Christian Religion, New York,
1908); Luther und Lulhertum in dcr neucsten katlio-
lischen Beleuchlung (1904); Das Abciuimahl im
Neuen Testament (Gross- Liehterfelde, 1905); Aut
Religion und Geschichte (2 vols., Leipsic. 1906-08);
Dii: kinMkhe socials Idee (1907); OJfenbarung und
Inspiration (1908; Eng. transl,, Revdation and Inr
spvation, New York, 1910); Von Christus und von
dem Christentum (Berlin, 190S); Sinnliehkeit und
S:ttlifhl-.-it (1909); Adolf Stoecker (1909); and AUe
und Neue Moral (1910).
SEEB0HH, FREDERIC: Barrister and author;
b. at Bradford, Yorkshire, 1833. He was called to
the bar (Middle Temple) in 1858. His published
works include: The Facts of the Four Gospels (Lon-
don, 1861); The Crisis of Emancipation in America;
being the Review of the History of Emancipation from
the Beginning of the American War to tlie Assassina-
tion of President Lincoln (1865); The- Oxford Re-
formers of 1498 : being a History of the Fellow-Work
of John Colel, Erasmus and Thomas More (181)7);
The Era of Hut Protestant Revolution (1874); The-
English Yil/ni/e Com m mi it i/ Examined in its Rela-
tions to the Manorial and Tribal Systems (1883);
The Tribal System in Wales: being Part of an In-
quiry into the Structure and Methods oftribnl Sm-i.-til
(ISn.'i): Travelling Impressions in, and Notes on,
Peru (1901); and Tribal Custom in Anglo-Saxon
Law (1902).
SEEHOFER, se'ho-fer, ARSACIDS: Bavarian
Reformer; h. at Munich early in the sixteenth cen-
tury; d. at Wirmenden (20 m. n.e. of Stuttgart)
1542. He was educate! at the universities of In-
golstadl arid Wittenberg, at the latter place com-
ing under the influence of Melanchthon. In the
summer of 1523 he was charged with delivering
exegelical lectures oi Mclanehthoniaii content, and.
compromising documents being found in his resi-
dence, lie was formally tried for heresy, seventeen
articles drawn from hia manuscript being deemed
unsound. After a period of imprisonment, Seehofer
recanted on Sept, 7, 1523, ond was directed to re-
tire to the monastery of Ettal. The affair caused
ureal excitement . especially through publication-
by Argula von Stauff (q.v.), Luther, and a South
German author, Martinus Iteekenhofer of Clausen;
whereupon the university resolved to demonstrate
in a public disputation the justice of its course.
Since, however, safe conduct was not granted to
the opponents of the university, the disputation,
which began on Apr. 11, 1524, and lasted several
days, was without result. In some unknown way
Seehofer escaped from his confinement, but noth-
ing is known of bis movements until 1 ."i28, when he
was in Wittenberg, where Melanchthon recom-
mended him as a teacher at Eisfeld. In 1530 he
was in Prussia, and in 1532 in Augsburg, where in-
ternal ecclesiastical strife prevented him from
accepting the deaconate offered him. In 1535 he
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
issr
again visited Augsburg, where he taught in a school.
He was then reader at the monastery of St. George
in Wurttemberg, after which he was a pastor in
various places, including Leonberg. From 1537
until his death he was pastor at Winnenden, where
he wrote his only work, Enarrationes evangdiorum
dominicalium (Augsburg, 1530). (T. Kolde.)
Bibuoorafbt: T. Kolde, ArtaeiuM Sffufer iwf Arjvkt
von Orumbach, in Btitrage zur baytrioehon Kinhtnoo-
oMchlt, vol. »., Erisngqn, 1905; tbo literature under
Miunchthon; snd Stacjt.
SEEKERS: A name used in the English revolu-
tionary period, probably not designating a distinct
religious body, but applied as a nickname to the
Independents, the two names appearing in the
same period. Robert Baillie (q.v.), author of A
Dissuasive from the Errours of the Time, . . . espe-
cially of Ike Independents (London, 1645), speaks of
the Seekers as people that are represented in " all
the aecte." Reggius (i.e., G. Horn, in De statu
ecderia Britannica, Danzig, 1647) heard that the
Seekers believed the Apostle Paul still to be living
and that he would in a short time appear. E. Pagit
affirmed that " some of them " declared the Church
to be " in the wilderness " and that they were
" seeking " it. An Anoaymi epistola (contained in
the Whitsuntide program of the University of Giifc-
tingen, 1814) speaks of the " new sect of the Seek-
ers or Inquirers, commonly called ' Seekers.' "
Whenever the " Seekers " are compared with the
Church, the Presbyterians are referred to as repre-
senting the latter, which seems to show that Seekers
and Independents were one.
The Epistola gives the following as characteristics
of the Seekers: (1) They deny the absolute author-
ity of the Scriptures, because the original manu-
scripts have been lost; moreover, the Bible is de-
clared to be unsuitable as a foundation of faith,
because few men can read it in the original lan-
guages; (2) the Church's doctrine concerning God
as a " thing most easy to understand " is ques-
tioned ; (3) the limitation of the sacraments to two
is not founded on Scripture; (4) with regard to
baptism, they doubted whether only ministers of
the Church could perform it; whether it was right
to perform it only in churches; whether the bap-
tism of children should be encouraged; whether the
customary formula was proper, preferring the form
" in the name of Christ " or "of the Lord Jesus";
(5) they criticized the celebration of the Lord's
Supper, discussing whether women should partici-
pate, whether ministers only should distribute the
bread and wine, and whether it should be adminis-
tered only in the church; (6) they attacked the
church doctrine of the sufficiency of faith, (7) the
Church's mode of investiture in office; and (8) pro-
claimed the absolute religious freedom of all men.
It is improbable that any sect advocated these
heterogeneous views and only these, though in gen-
eral they accord with the Independents' position.
The view that the Independents and Seekers are
one is supported by a sentence from a letter of
Cromwell's, of Oct. 25, 1646 (Oliver Cromtoefl's
L««ers arid Speeches, ed. T. Carlyle, 3 vols., Lon-
don, 1866) : " to be a seeker is to be of the best sect
next to a finder, and such an one shall every faith-
ful humble seeker be at the end. Happy seeker,
happy finder 1 " (F. Kattenbdbch.)
The term is properly applicable not to a sect but
to individuals who failed to find satisfaction in the
doctrines and practises of any existing denomina-
tion, though they hoped by further study of the
Scriptures or by special divine revelation to gain
new light adequate for their guidance. Roger Will-
iams (q.v.), after he had founded a church of im-
mersed believers, reached the conviction that the
ordinances had been lost in the great apostasy, and
that no one had a right to restore them without a
special revelation from God. a. n. n.
Biblioobiphi: E. Pagjtt, Beretiooraphy: or, a Description
of Hit Hcreticka and Stctaria of their loiter Timet, Lon-
don, 1645; H. Reggius (i.e., (ieorg |Horn). De etalu ecelo-
rial Brilanmr.a hodurno, Dsniia, 1647; Heliquia Box-
teriana, ed. M. Sylvester, p. 70, London, 189/.
SEELEY, SIR JOHN ROBERT: Man of letters;
b. at London Sept. 10, 1834; d. at Cambridge Jan.
13,1895. He graduated at Cambridge (B.A., 1857);
became fellow of Christ's College, 1858; a master
in City of London School, 1861; professor of Latin,
University College, London, 1863; professor of
modem history at Cambridge, 1869. He was the
author of the very celebrated Ecee Homo, a Survey
of the Life and Work of Jesus Christ (London, 1865;
latest ed., 1908), which evoked among many others
the reply of Joseph Parker, Ecee Deus (1867). Other
works of theological interest were Lectures and
Essays (1870); Natural Religion (1882). He wrote
also a number of works in political history and in
literature, including The Growth of British Policy
(1895; contains a memoir by G. W. Prothero).
Bibuookapbt: Besides the memoir by Prothero, ut sup.,
consult: DNB, U. 190-193 ; J. H. Tanner, in English Rio-
lorioai Reriea, x U8B5). 507-514; M. Todhunter. in Wed
mitufer Review, cidv (1888). 503 aqq.; H. A. L. Fisher,
in Fortnightly Review, lzvi (1896), 1S3 eqq.
SEELYE, JULIUS HAWLEY: Congregationalist;
b. at Bethel, Conn., Sept. 14, 1824; d. at Amherst,
Mass., May 12, 1895. He was graduated from Am-
herst College, 1849; from Auburn Theological
Seminary, 1852; and studied at Halle, Germany,
1852-53; became professor of moral philosophy and
metaphysics, Amherst College, 1858; member of
Congress, 1875; and was president of Amherst Col-
lege, 1877-90. He translated Albert Schwegler'a
History of Philosophy (New York, 1856); and wrote
The Way, the Truth, and the Life, Lectures to Edu-
cated Hindus (Bombay and Boston, 1873); and
Christian Missions (New York, 1875).
See Apostolic
SEGHA, sen'yO, FRANCESCO: Cardinal; b. at
Poggio Ginolfo (diocese of Marsi), Italy, Aug. 31,
1836. He was educated at the Roman Seminary
and the College of the Sapienza, after which ha was
professor of dogmatics in the College of St. Apol-
linaris, Rome, and divisional director of Oriental
affairs in the Propaganda. In 1881 he was ap-
pointed canonist of the Holy Penitentiary, as well
as canon of Santa Maria in Trastevere. He was
assistant secretary for extraordinary ecclesiastical
affairs until 1884, when he accompanied Rampolla
to Madrid as councilor of the nuncio. After his
Sepneri
Sel&h
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOQ
886
return to Italy, he became auditor of the Rota,
director of the Penitentiary, secretary for extraor-
dinary ecclesiastical affairs, and canon of St. Peter's.
In 1894 he was created cardinal deacon of Santa
Maria in Portico. He is also archivist of the Curia
and prefect of the Index, and has taken a prominent
part in the discussion concerning the validity of
Anglican orders.
SEGNERI, s6n-y6'rf, PAOLO: Italian Jesuit;
b. at Nettuno (31 m. s.s.e. of Rome) Mar. 21, 1624;
d. at Rome Dec. 6, 1694. He entered the Society of
Jesus (1637); was ordained priest, 1652; and from
then until 1665 he taught in a Jesuit school at
Pestoia. From 1665 to 1692 he spent half of each
year in retirement, and the rest in traveling as a
missionary throughout northern Italy. He became
the foremost preacher among the Jesuits in Italy,
and has been styled the " restorer of Italian elo-
quence." His sermons were modeled upon Chrysos-
tom's. When the Jesuits at Rome perceived that
Quietism (see Moltnos, Miguel de) was slowly un-
dermining Romanism, and particularly Jesuitism,
they sent him " a bundle of Quietistic books with
directions to prepare an antidote to them." So in
1680 he published at Florence a small volume with
the title, Concordia tra la fatica e la Quiete (" har-
mony between effort and Quiet "), in which without
naming Molinos, or disparaging the contempla-
tive life, he endeavored to show that the successful
prosecution of Quietism was possible only to a few.
His book raised, however, a storm of opposition
from the then powerful Quietists, and was put on
the Index. He prudently remained away from
Rome. In 1692 Pope Innocent XII. called him to
Rome as his preacher-in-ordinary, and theologian
of the penitentiary. His Opere appeared in Venice
in 4 vols., 1712, and later; also Milan, 1845-47 (best
edition). His best-known work is II Quaresimale
(thirty-four Lenten sermons, Florence, 1679; Eng.
transl. by James Ford, Sermons from the Quare-
simale of ... P. Segneri, 3 vols., London, 1857-61,
4th ed., 1869, reprinted 2 vols., New York, 1872).
Besides this, there have been translated: The De-
vout Client of Mary Instructed (London, 1724; 1857);
The Knowledge of Ourselves (1848); Father Segneri' s
Sentimenti; or, Lights in Prayer (1876) ; Panegyrics
(1877); Manna of the Soul (2 vols., 1879); Prac-
tice of Interior Recollection with God (1881).
Bibliography: Q. Maasei, Breve Ragovaglio delta Vita del
... P. Segneri, Venice, 1701; E. P. Hood, Lamps,
Pitchers, and Trumpets, vol. i., London, 1867; J. Bigelow,
Molinos the Quietist, pp. 18-24, New York, 1882; KL, xi.
70-71.
SEGOND, se'gen, JACQUES JEAN LOUIS:
Swiss Protestant theologian; b. at Plainpalais,
Geneva, Oct. 4, 1810; d. at Geneva June 18, 1885.
He studied at the universities of Geneva, Strasburg,
and Bonn; was pastor of the Geneva National
Church at Chenes-Bourgeries, 1840-41; founded a
society at Geneva for the exegetical study of the
New Testament which lasted 1836-41, and gave
free lectures in the university on Old-Testament
exegesis; lectured on Old-Testament introduction,
1862-64; and was professor of Old-Testament exe-
gesis, 1872-85. His fame rests upon his translation,
at the request of the Venerable Company of Pas-
tors of Geneva, La Sainte Bible; Ancien Testament
(2 vols., Geneva, 1874), Le Nouveau Testament
(1880); reprinted by lie University Press (Ox-
ford, 1880). His other works include Ruth (Geneva,
1834); UEccUsiaste (1835); De voce Scheol ct no-
Hone Orci apud Hebrews (1835); De la nature de
V inspiration chez Us auleurs et dans les ecrits du
Nouveau Testament (1836); TraiU 4Umentaire des
accents heoreux (1841); Soirees chritiennes (2 ser.,
1850; new ser., 1871); Gevgraphie de la terre sainte
(1851); Recits bibliques a V usage de la jeunesse
(1862); Chrestomathie biblique (1864); and Le
prophete Ernie (1866).
Bibliography: Lichtenbeiger, ERS, xi. 196-107.
SEIDEMANN, sOi'de-mOn, JOHANN KARL:
German Lutheran; b. at Dresden Apr. 10, 1807;
d. there Aug. 5, 1879. He was educated at the Uni-
versity of Leipsic (1826-28), and, after teaching in
his native city in various institutions, was called in
1834 to the pastorate of Eschdorf, not far from
Pillnitz. Here he remained until his retirement
from active life in 1871. The first noteworthy work
of Seidemann was his Eschdorf und Dittersbach
(Dresden, 1840), supplemented, twenty years later,
by his Ueberlieferungen zur Geschichte von Eschdorf
Dittersbach und Umgegend- (1860). His first book
was quickly followed by a series of monographs on
the history of the Reformation in Saxony: Thomas
M timer (Dresden, 1842) ; Die Leipziger Disputation
im Jahr 1519 (1843); Karl von MiUiz (1844); Er-
Iduterungen zur Reformationsgeschichte durch bisher
unbekannte Urkunden (1844); and Beitrdge zur
Reformationsgeschichte (2 parts, 1846-48).
After 1846 Seidemann became more and more in-
terested in the writings of Luther. In 1856 he pub-
lished at Berlin the completion of W. M. L. de
Wette's edition of Luther's letters, and three years
later he issued forty-one additional letters of the
Reformer in his Lutherbriefe (Dresden, 1859). In
1872 he edited the diary of Anton Lauterbach,
which had recently been discovered by F. Schnorr
von Carolsfeld (Dresden, 1872); and three years
later published D. Jakob Schwenkt der vermeinUiche
Antinomer, Freibergs Reformator (Leipsic, 1875).
In 1874 he discovered, in the Dresden library, Lu-
ther's earliest lectures on the Psalms — an auto-
graph— which he edited under the title of Luthers
erste und dUeste Vorlesungen uber die Psalmen aus
den Jahren 1513-16 (Dresden, 1876), of which only
the first volume appeared. When he died, he had
nearly completed the collection of material for a
critical edition of Luther's " Table-talk." He may
be considered the founder of modern research con-
cerning Luther, though he was a collector and in-
vestigator rather than a historian.
(T. Kolde.)
Bibliography: F. Schnorr von Carolsfeld, in Neues Archiv
fUr s&chsische Geschichte, i (1880), 94 sqq.; C. Krafft, in
Zeitschrift des bergischen Geschichtsvereins, xvi (1881), 257-
268; ADB, xxxiii. 627-630.
SEIR. See Edom.
SEIRIM. See Demon, Demonology.
SEISS, sais, JOSEPH AUGUSTUS: Lutheran
(General Council); b. near Graceham, Md., Mar.
18, 1823; d. at Philadelphia June 21, 1904. His
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
sSKh
parents were Moravian, but be became a student in
Pennsylvania College, Gettysburg, 1839-41, with-
out graduating; and his theological study was
mostly private. He became pastor at Martinsburg
and Shepherdstown, Va., 1843; Cumberland, Md.,
1847; Baltimore, Md., 1852; of St. John's, Phila-
delphia, 1858; and of Holy Communion, Philadel-
phia, 1874. He was one of the most eloquent preach-
ers of the country, possessing a style that was clear,
ornate, and forceful. He was one of the founders
of the General Council, and one of the committee
which made its Church Book. He edited Prophetic
Times, a, monthly, 1863-75; was joint editor of
The Lutheran, 1860-61; of The Lutheran and Mis-
sionary, 1861-73; editor of the latter, 1873-79; and
traveled in Europe and the East, 1864-65. He was
the author of Lectures on Epistles to the Hebrews
(Raltimorc, 1816); Baptist System Examined (Phila-
delphia, 1854); Digest of Christian Doctrine (1855);
Last Times (1856); Holy Types (1860); Book of
Forms (1860); Evangelical Psalmist (I860); Para-
ble of the Ten Virgins (1862); Ecclesia Lutherans
(1S67); Plain Words, sermons (1869); Lectures on
the Apocalypse (3 vols., 1870-84; 6th ed., 1900);
The Javelin, by a Lutheran (1871); Uriel, Occasional
Discourses (1874); Church Song (1875-81); Lec-
tures on the- Gospels (2 vols., 1876); A Miracle in
Stone (1877); Recreation Songs (1878) ; Thirty-three
Practical Sermons (1879); Voices from Babylon
(1879); Blossoms of Faith, Bcrmons (1880); The
flolili-n Altar, manual of private devotions (New
York, 1882); Gospel in the Stars (Philadelphia,
1882); Luther and the Reformation (1883); Lectures
on the Epistles (2 vols., 1885); Right Life (1886);
Letters of Jesus (1889); Beacon Lights (1900);
The Christ and his Church (1902); and Reeent
Sermons (1904).
SEITZ, Baits, AHTOIf : German Roman Catholic;
b. at Windsheim (30 m. s.e. of Wuraburg), Bavaria,
May 27, 1869. He was educated at the universities
of Leipsic and Munich (1887-88), and then studied
theology at Wilrzburg from 1888 to 1892, after
which he was curate at Hammclsburg. From 1S!I5
to 1897 he studied philosophy at Munich (Ph.D.,
1897), and in 1902 became privat-docent at Wurz-
burg. Since 1904 he has been professor of apolo-
getics at the (Jniversity of Munich. Among his
works are: Die Apologie des Christentums bei den
(Iriechrii i!r,i vicrlen 'on! ffuju-n Jah'hwidertsinhis-
U)ri*t:)i-!:>,vtim,iti$chrr Darsttllung (Wilrzburg, 1895);
Die WilUntfrcihcit in der Philosophic des Christian
August Crusius gegenOber dem Leiimitz-W'il'Jwh.. .-
Ecierminismus in historiscJi-psychologischer Be-
!iriinil><!>t) und systemaiischen Zusammenhang (1899);
Willensfreiheit und moderner psychologischer Deler-
minismus (Cologne, 1902); Die tteQmotvmdigh U
der Kirclie naeh der attehristlichen Literatur bis zur
Zeit des heiligen Augustinus (Freiburg, 1903) ;
Christuseeugnisse aus dem klassischen Altertum
von ungldubiger Seite (Cologne, 1906); and Das
ili-ir-ii- Hum vom Gottessohn. Eine Apologie der
tfr.*i'i,),tiftc!i Gottessohnschafl gegenvber der Kritik
der modernsten deutschen Theologie (1908).
SELAH (SELA): The former capital of Edom
(q.v.V mentioned II Kings liv. 7 and Isa. ivi. 1.
X.— 22
The name means " rock " (cf. Gk. Petra, and Judges
i. 36; Isa. xlii. 11). It is situated sixty miles north
of Elath and seventy miles south from the Dead
Sea, in the Wadi Musa, a deep cleft of the Mount-
Seir range, near the foot of Mount Hor. It is ap-
proached through a narrow defile on the east, a
mile and a half long, called the Sik (" cleft ") of
Wadi Musa. The rock of red sandstone towers to
a height of from 100 to 300 feet above the floor of
the wadi, and in places the way is so narrow that
the traveler can almost touch the sides on either
hand. Once the way was paved, and bits of the
pavement can be seen. Abruptly the traveler comes
upon the so-called Khnznet Fir'aun (" treasury of
Pharaoh "), really a temple cut from the living
rock, with a facade eighty-five feet high, beauti-
fully sculptured, and in remarkable preservation.
Two hundred yards farther along the valley, ft hieh
widens considerably at this point, is the amphi-
theater, also entirely from the rock, thirty-nine
yards in diameter, and with tliirty-three tiers of
seats, accommodating from 3,000 to 4,000 specta-
tors. Farther on there are curious tombs, some
very elaborate, other temples, chief of which is the
Klir Fir'aun ("palace of Pharaoh"), a ruined
basilica, and a triumphal arch.
Besides the Biblical passages noted above, refer-
ence to this place may perhaps be seen in the
work " rock " in II Chron. xxv. 11, 12; Jer. slix.
16-18; Ob. 3. Nothing definite is known of the
history of the place before its capture by Amaziah
(II Kings liv. 7), who renamed it Joktheel. The
Nabatnjans conquered the region c. 300 B.C., and
made Selah, under its Greek form Petra, their cap-
ital. The city rose into prominence, being upon (.he
high-road between Arabia and Syria, and so im-
portant tor the caravan trade. The Seleuciihe made
vain attempts to take it. Pompey captured the
whole region called by Greek writers Arabia Petrsca,
i.e., Arabia whose capital is Petra. In Petra, Hyr-
canus II. and bis son Herod, afterward Herod the
Great, found a hiding-place (Joseph, Ant., XIV,,
i. 4; War, I., vi., 2, zdii. 8). In the first Christian
centuries Petra was the capital of a Roman prov-
ince, and it is from this period that the ruins most
in evidence date. It became an episcopal see, and
its bishops are mentioned as late as 536 a.d. It
was destroyed by the Mohammedans probably be-
t men 0J9 and 632, was lost to knowledge till redis-
covered by the Egyptian rulers in the thirteenth
century, and then again sank completely out of no-
tice until Seetzen, in 1807, visited it, and gave the
world the wondrous tale. It is now quite often
visited by tourists and other travelers.
BiBut)OR*PHi: K. Bafldeker. Palatine and Syria, pp. 176-
183. Leipsic. etc.. 1908: J. L Burckliardt, Trnittt in
Syria and thi Holy Land, London, 1822; L. de Lsborde.
Journey through Arabia Petraa. London, 1838; E. H.
Palmer. Datrt of At Et<nlw, pp. 300 *qq„ 440 aqq.. Cam-
bridge. 1871; E. Hull, Mount Scir, .Sinai, and WtHrrn
Palatine. London. 1885; J. Bnrth, in American Journal
of Semitic Lanouana, xiii (18!HH)7>, 207-268: J. L*-
frnnce. 10 Rtvue bibliouc intrmalionair. vi USUTI. 21. «-
230. vii (1S9S), Ifin-182; T. N'olrlnkr, in 2,1, lii (18071.
1-7; M. de Vogue, in Rtvve bibliqut internationals, vi
(1897). 231-238; JBL (1S99). 132 sqq.; DB, Iv.
430-431: Kit. iv. 4344-45; end the literature under
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
SELAH, ai'la: A musical or liturgical terra which
occurj Bcventy-four times in the Bible (seventy-one
times in the Psalms, and in Hab. iii. 3, 9, 13). Its
meaning is not known, and modern scholars are
much divided over its interpretation. It has been
supposed (I) to represent the Greek psaUe, " play
on the harp," or " staccato "; (2) to be an abbre-
viation; (3) to mean " pause "; (4) to mean " for
ever" (so the Targum, Aquila, Theodotion); or
(5) to be a direction to raise the voice, equivalent
to the musical sign forte, or fortissimo.
Bibuooraphy: C. A. Brigga. in JBL. >viii (1899). 132-143,
J. Fariaot. in Revue bibliqur inlrmatianale, viii (1899),
573-5S1: Emilic U, Brigga. in American Journal of Sem-
itic Lanenag". xvi (1899-1900), 1-29: OB, iv. 431-432;
BB, iv. 4346-17; and the commentaries on the Psalms.
SELBIE, JOHN ALEXANDER: United Free
Church of Scotland; b. at Maryculter (7 m. b.w. of
Aberdeen), Kincardineshire, Feb. 4, 1856. He was
educated at the University of Aberdeen (M.A.,
1876), the University of Tubingen (1878), and Free
Church College, Aberdeen (from which he was
graduated in 1880). In 1S82 he became minister
of Birsay Free Church, Orkney, and in 1896 suc-
DWded Ida father as minister at Maryculter. In
1905 he retired from the ministry to devote himself
entirely to literary work. Since 1893 he has been
the assistant of James Hastings in the preparation
of the Dictionary of the Bible (5 vols., Edinburgh,
1898-1904), Dictionary of Christ and the Gospels
(2 vols., 1906-07), the Dictionary of Religion and
Etldcs (1908 sqq.), and Snutlier Dictionary of the
Bible (1908). He is editor of the foreign depart-
ment of The Expository Times, and has translated
E. Kbnig's Exiles' Book of Consolation (Edinburgh,
1899). In theology he is an adherent of tlic school
represented by Driver's Introduction to the Litera-
ture of the Old Testament, and is " generally in sym-
pathy with all modem liberal currents of theolog-
ical opinion."
BiBUooRAPtn; Expository Timet, Feb., 1907, contain*
sketch and portrait.
SELBIE, WILLIAM BOOTHBY: Congregation-
aliat; b. at CheskT field (22 m. n. of Derby) Dec.
24, 1862. He received his education at Manchester
Grammar School and Brasenose and Mansfield col-
leges. Oxford (M.A., Trinity Hall, Cambridge, 1904];
was lecturer in Hebrew and Old Tc-tument. .M:iii~-
field College, Oxford, 1889-90; minister of High-
gate Congregational Church, London, 1890-1902,
and of Emmanuel Congregational Church, Cam-
bridge, 1902-09; became principal of Mansfield
College, Oxford, 1909. He has written Life and
Teachings of Jesus (London, 1908); and Aspects of
Christ (New York, 1909).
SELBORNE, ROUHDELL PALMER, EARL OF:
B. at Mixhurv (55 m. n.w. of London), Oxfordshire,
Nov. 27, 1812; d. at Blackmoor, Petersfield (50 m.
s.w. of London), May 4, 1895. He was educated
at Trinity College, Oxford (B.A., 1834; M.A., 1837);
called to the bar. 1837; became a queen's counsel.
1849; member of parliament, 1847-52, 1853-57,
1861-82; solicitor-general, 1861; attorney-gen-
eral, 1863-66; and lord chancellor of England,
1872-74, 1880-85. He was elected lord rector of
the University of St. Andrew's, 1877; raised to the
peerage, 1882; and was president of the first house
of laymen of the Church of England, Westminster,
Feb., 1886. His principal significance for theology
lies in the fact that he edited Book of Praise, fnm
the Best English Hymn- Writers (London, 1863 and
often), marking one of the great advances in English
praise books (see Sedqwick, Daniel).
BuuosXjLMir: R. T. Davidson and W. Benham, Life of
Archibald Campbrll Tail, 2 vols.. London. 1891: W. Ward,
William George Wardarui Mr Oifi/rd Mnmwffll. lh- *8Wl
idem, William Genre* Ward and the Catholic Revival, ib.
1893; DNB, iliii. 160-154: Julian, Hvmnolom. p. 158B.
SELBY, THOMAS GUNS: English Wesley an, b.
at New Radford (2 m. n. of Nottingham) June
5, 1846; d. at Bromley (8 m. s.e. of London) Dec.
12, 1910. His father was a silk merchant, and ed-
ucated him first in private schools at Nottingham
and Derby, then in the Wesley an College at Rich-
mond, but he did not study for a degree. He was
missionary at Fatshun and Shin Chau Foo in Can-
ton Province, China, from 1868 till 1881, after which
time he traveled extensively in other provinces. On
his return to England in 1883 he served as Wesleyan
minister at different places. Id 1898 he retired for
literary work to Bromley. He wrote several good
books on China, The Chinaman in his own Stories
(London, 1895); Chinamen at Home (1900); As the
Chinese see vs (1901); he also wrote a life of Christ
in fThinffnri and was active on the executive board of
the Anti-Opium Society from 1883 to his death. But
it is as a preacher that he will be longest remem-
bered. He published many volumes of sermons,
Tlie Imperfect Angel, and other Sermons (1890, 4th
ed., 1894); The Lesson of a Dilemma, and other Ser-
mons (1893, 4th ed., 1899); The Holy Spirit and
Christian Privilege (1894); The Unheeding God, and
other Sermons (1st and 2d ed., 1899); The God of
the Frail (1902); The Alienated Crown (1904); A
Strenuous Gospel (1906); The Divine Craftsman, and
other Sermons (1909). He delivered the Fernley
lecture at Liverpool on The Theology of Modern
Fiction (1896); contributed to the series of Books
for Bible Students that on The Ministry of the Lord
Jesus (1896); to Clerical Life, Letters to Ministers
[1888); nnd to The Cross and the Dice-box: Sermons
and Addresses to Workingmen (Manchester. 190:!);
and published independently The God of the Patri-
archs. Studies in the Early Scriptures of the Old
Testament (1904).
SELDEH, JOHB: English jurist, statesman,
and archeologid; b. at, Salvington, West Tarring
(11 m. w. of Brighton), Sussex, Dec. 16, 1584; d.
in London Nov. 30, 1654. Selden received his edu-
cation at Chichester free school, and Hart Hall,
Oxford, but did not graduate, leaving college to
take up the study of law at Clifford Inn. In 1604
he was admitted to the Inner Temple, and waa
called to the bar in 1612. Influenced by Ben Jon-
son Camden, and especially by Robert Bruce Cot-
ton, he turned to theoretical and historic:!] jiiridic:J
investigations resulting in Analecton Angto-Britan*
nicon (1607); Jani Anglorum fades altera (1610);
England's rjnnomis (1610); and De laudibus iegum
Angiioi (1616). He first won fame with his De dis
339
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Selah
SelencidflB
Syria (1617; Eng. transl., The Fabulous Gods De-
nounced in the Bible, Philadelphia, 1881), which at-
tracted attention and was reprinted on the con-
tinent, and was long regarded as authoritative,
though later oriental studies have shown that it
relied too implicitly upon rabbinical sources, and
was of course dependent upon the earlier philology
and exegesis. This work was followed by a large
number of oriental studies, made possible by his
access to the rich collections of the Bodleian and
of Lambeth palace. His most important investiga-
tions were: De successionibus in bona de/unctorum
ad leges Ebrceorum (London, 1631, with a supple-
ment, De succe88ione in ponHficatum Ebrceorum,
Leyden, 1638); De jure naturali et gentium juxta
disciplinam Ebrceorum (London 1640); De anno
civili et calendario veteris ecclesiat seu reipublicat
Judaicce (1644); Uxor Ebraica, seu de nuptiis ed
divortiis veterum Ebraiorum (1646); De synedriis
et praifecturis juridicis veterum Ebrceorum (1650-
1655). These publications were characterized by
great learning, and in them Selden introduced to
the western world many matters of oriental culture
and history, such as the Coptic-Arabic calendar
notation.
His Historic of Tithes (1618), in which he sought
to prove that tithes had been enjoined by " eccle-
siastical and positive law/' but not by the jus dir
vinum, caused him to be brought before the court
of high commission for trial. He was compelled to
express regret for having published the book, which
was suppressed and its author forbidden to answer
his opponents.
Selden, in consequence of this act, entered poli-
tics and took a foremost part in the fight for indi-
vidual liberty, being in parliament in 1623, 1626,
and in 1628, and later, where he led the attack
against the duke of Buckingham, Charles' minis-
ter, aided in the fight for the habeas-corpus act,
and was repeatedly imprisoned. He took a prom-
inent part in the ensuing conflicts against the cler-
ical party. As a member of the Long Parliament
and the Westminister Assembly he used his influ-
ence against the catholicizing State Church. In his
Table-Talk (1689; reprint, Oxford, 1892) he took
the position that the State was sovereign, but that
Church and State should each manage its own
affairs. Selden was accused of infidelity, a charge
to which his friendship with Hobbes gave a pre-
text, but he opposed Hobbes' doctrines and be-
lieved to the end in the divine origin of the Chris-
tian religion.
In his later years he joined the Presbyterians
but opposed the excesses that ended in the death of
Charles. His name is honored for his integrity and
versatile learning. His writings, which include
many not mentioned above dealing with subjects
in law and history, suffer from obscurity, prolixity,
and an unsatisfactory method. They are distin-
guished by subtlety and fearless outspokenness.
After the king's death he retired to scholarly private
life. A large proportion of his books, manuscripts,
and archeological treasures ultimately came into
possession of the Bodleian library. Hia Wmrks were
collected by Dr. Wilkins (3 vol*, London, 1726,
with Life prefixed).
Bibliography: J. Aikin, The Lives of J. Selden and ArcK-
biehop Usher \ London, 1812; the Life by Wilkins in the
Work*, ut sup.; a biography by Singer appears in the edi-
tions of the Table Talk after 1847; A. a Wood, Athene*
Ozonienses, ed. P. Bliss, vol. iv., London, 1817; DNB,
li. 212-224.
SELEUCIDJE, sel-iu'si-di or ci-d6 ("descendants
of Seleucus"): The name given to the dynasty
founded in Syria by Seleucus, one of the generals
of Alexander, which ruled Syria either in whole or
in part and more or less continuously from about
321 to 65 B.C. The history of the dynasty neces-
sarily involves also that of the usurpers or contest-
ants who succeeded in establishing themselves for
longer or shorter times, sometimes in only a part
of the territory, during this stormy period. The
history is of interest to the student of theology for
at least three reasons: (1) because of the nearly
continuous contact with the Jews and the effects
upon their fortunes, especially in the reign of An-
tiochus Epiphanes (see below); (2) because of the
HellenUation of the region, preparing for the cul-
ture which was to be in no small part Christian;
and (3) because of the development of the city of
Antioch, which was to become a great seat of Chris-
tian learning and activities (see Antioch, School
of; Antioch, Synods of).
Seleucus L Nicator (306-281), the founder, was a
Macedonian, and one of the generals of Alexander
in his Asiatic campaigns. On the death of Alexan-
der, and at the first distribution of the provinces,
Seleucus did not at once receive a separate assign-
ment of territory, but was attached as chiliarch to
Perdiccas, the " protector of the kingdom." But
in 321 he obtained Babylonia, whence, however, he
was expelled in 316 by Antigonus, but with the
help of Ptolemy regained it in 312, thus fixing the
era of the Seleucids (Oct. 1). After the victory over
Antigonus at Ipsus in 301, Syria also came to him
as a part of his dominions and Antioch displaced
Babylon as the capital. Meanwhile, between 311
and 302 he carried his arms victoriously as far as
the Indus, and in 306 assumed the title of king.
With this success, he was too good a strategist to
attempt to hold territory so far away as the ex-
treme east, and so for a valuable consideration (500
elephants) yielded to Chandragupta (Sandracotta)
the northwestern provinces of India. In the allot-
ment after the battle of Ipsus Ptolemy had received
Ccele-Syria and Palestine, territory which Seleucus
coveted, and in a momentary panic had withdrawn.
Seleucus claimed this as forfeited, but Ptolemy again
assumed control in spite of Seleucus1 protests, and
the regions became anew the source of strife for a
century between Egypt and Syria (see Ptolemy).
In the contests which continued between those who
were striving for Alexander's empire, Seleucus made
constant gains, and at the end of his life all of Asia
Minor except the extreme northeastern portion
bordering on Armenia came into his possession;
but this was really a source of weakness rather than
of strength, as the history of the following reigns
demonstrates. Meanwhile he was constantly en-
gaged in the organization of his kingdom and in
attempts at cementing the unrelated parts. He
was assassinated by Ptolemy Ceraunos, son of
Ptolemy I., in 281. He was a good administrator,
SelanoldflB
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
840
an able statesman, generous and open as a man,
withal a patron of art, trade, and agriculture.
Antiochus L Soter (281-261), son of Seleucus,
found that instead of coming quietly into posses-
sion of his kingdom he would have to fight for it.
One of the purposes of the assassination of Seleucus
by the f reebooting Ptolemy Ceraunos was the re-
moval of the leading personage in the East and the
affording thus of an opportunity for carving a king-
dom for himself. The effect was to throw the en-
tire Greek world into a turmoil, with the various
Greek aspirants or monarchs attempting to make
capital out of the situation. Antiochus I. had been
trained both in war and in government. When his
father was killed, he was at work in his province
(Babylonia), and his hold upon the East was firm
because of the loyalty of the inhabitants to one of
their own race (his mother was an Iranian) . Ptolemy
was prevented from more than a half-hearted bid
for the kingdom by troubles at home. The real
seat of war was Asia Minor, and the situation there
was complicated by the irruption of the Gauls —
the ancestors of the Galatians to whom Paul car-
ried the Gospel and wrote his epistle (cf. W. M.
Ramsay, Church in the Roman Empire, p. 105 et
passim, New York, 1893). In spite of some vic-
tories (Antiochus is said to have won his title of
Soter by a defeat of the Gauls), Asia Minor was in
part lost to Syria, and the Seleucid possessions there
constantly dwindled under the attacks of Mace-
donians and Egyptians, the whole north of that
region was also lost to the Armenians. War with
Ptolemy Philadelphia also intervened, the theater
being the eastern coast of the Mediterranean and
southeastern Asia Minor.
Antiochus II. Theos (261-246) was the second son
of Soter, the eldest son having been charged with
conspiracy and executed. The war with Egypt con-
tinued with varying fortune until the marriage of
Antiochus with Berenice, daughter of Ptolemy
Philadelphus, when his former wife Laodice was
formally divorced and banished. History does not
give a very clear picture of this king. He is por-
trayed as sensuous and debauched, and was the ob-
ject of the flattery which produced his name Theos
(" God "). He seems to have practically deserted
Berenice for Laodice, and died at Ephesus, possi-
bly poisoned by Laodice, who feared for the suc-
cession of her son. His death brought new turmoil
to the kingdom, the two queens striving for their
offspring. Berenice proclaimed her infant son king
in Antioch, and he was slain within a few days while
she herself fell soon by an assassin. Laodice, in
Ephesus, proclaimed her son.
Seleucus H. Callinicus (246-226). The assas-
sination of Berenice and her son brought her
brother Ptolemy III. from Egypt to avenge her
death, and there resulted his famous march
through Asia (see Ptolemy), as well as conquests
in Asia Minor of Seleucid possessions there.
The queen mother of Callinicus was holding por-
tions of Asia Minor really for her younger son An-
tiochus Hierax, who rebelled against Callinicus
while the latter was recovering a part of his eastern
kingdom. Eventually Mithridates of Pontus in-
tervened in Asia Minor against Callinicus, who was
attempting to subdue his brother, and that region
was virtually lost to the Seleucidae; in the East Cal-
linicus had only partially recovered his possessions,
the kingdom of Parthia being established there,
when he was killed by a fall from his horse.
Seleucus HL (Ceraunus) Soter (226-223), son of
Callinicus, thus succeeded to a difficult position.
He attempted to recover Asia Minor, and was war-
ring there when he fell, probably a victim to con-
spirators in his own camp.
Antioch HL Magnus (223-187), younger son of
Callinicus, was in Babylon when his predecessor fell.
He was called at once into action to repel assaults
upon his realm from foes without and to put down
rebels from within, assailing the eastern portion of
his kingdom. After succeeding there, he took
advantage of the opportunity to gain the long-
contested Coele-Syria and Palestine offered by
Theodotus, governor of Ccele-Syria, when Ptolemy
Philopator had disregarded his merits and permitted
court jealousies to influence him. Antiochus at
once recovered parts of the Phenician littoral,
which was but the beginning of a series of opera-
tions which was to win Egyptian possessions in
Asia for Syria. Continued success attended him
till, at the battle of Raphia in 217, he suffered a
disastrous defeat, which, however, Ptolemy did
not follow up. Antiochus used the respite to regain
his strength, this time employing his forces in the
recovery of central Asia Minor, which he accom-
plished by 213. Before undertaking the more dis-
tant parts of the work in his plans of campaign, he
associated his son Antiochus with him in the govern-
ment, so as to leave a ruler in the capital in case of
accident. In 212 he turned to the East — to Ar-
menia, eastern Iran, Parthia, and Bactria — and
penetrated to northern India, subduing states that
had revolted, making tributary those which were
on the fringes of his empire, and binding the petty
kings, whom he left on their thrones, to his interest
either by matrimonial alliances or by indebtedness
to his magnanimity. By these exploits, in which he
manifested a moderation equalled only by his states-
manship as exemplified by his treatment of the
once hostile kings, he won the title of Magnus. In
the East he had practically reconstituted the em-
pire of Alexander. One blot stands to his discredit
in that he set the example, to be followed by several
of his successors, of pillage of temples in his seizing
of the treasure of the temple of Anaitis (Aine) at
Ecbatana. This act was impolitic, raising against
him the hatred of the worshipers, and the practise
was to cause infinite trouble to his descendants.
In 204 he returned to Syria proper, but not to rest.
With the death of Ptolemy IV. Philopator and the
accession of the infant Ptolemy V. Epiphanes in
Egypt, the time seemed ripe to realize the long-
halted ambitions of Syria for the possession of
Palestine. This he achieved, making, however, a
matrimonial alliance with Ptolemy by betrothing
to the latter his daughter Cleopatra with the reve-
nues of the conquered territory as dowry. He next
attacked Asia Minor to enlarge his holdings there
(199-198); at this moment the Egyptian-Greek
general Scopas attempted to recover Palestine for
the Ptolemies but was defeated in the decisive
841
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Seleucid*
battle at Paneias which terminated Egyptian rule
in Asia (198). The next year Antiochus carried fur-
ther his assault upon Asia Minor by sea and land,
recovering Ptolemaic territory nearly all the way
along the southern and eastern coasts. He then
challenged Rome by passing into Europe, his suc-
cesses seeming to him as a Greek to give him the
right to intervene in the constant struggle of the
Grecian states in behalf of a reunited Greek world.
This brought a protesting Roman embassy, de-
manding his retirement and the restriction of his
operations to Asia. But he assumed to be the
liberator of Greece from the Romans, despised the
Roman power, entered upon the struggle less fully
prepared than was his wont, and suffered defeat at
Thermopylae. The Romans carried the war into
Asia, and Antiochus met a crushing defeat at Mag-
nesia, after which he was compelled to give up all
the territory north of the Taurus *n™i"+-ftfaft, was
fined 15,500 talents, and a large quantity of corn.
In 188 Antiochus departed to the East, and the re-
port was that he was killed while plundering or on
his way to plunder the temple of Baal at Elymsis
(cf. Dan. xi. 19; I Mace. viii. 6).
Seleucus IV. Philopator (187-176), son of Anti-
ochus the Great, succeeded to a difficult task, that
of recovering the prestige lost by his father in the
contest with the Romans, while at the same time
he had to pay the indemnity imposed by the lat-
ter. He found an empty treasury (which his com-
paratively peaceful reign succeeded in filling) and
a consequent advisability for cessation from the
ceaseless wars in which his predecessors had en-
gaged (cf. Dan. xi. 20). It is possible, however,
that he was prevented from intervening in the wars
of the Greek world by an embassy from the Ro-
mans. He is the king mentioned in II Mace. iii. as
sending, to confiscate the money in the treasury of
the Temple at Jerusalem, his minister Heliodorus
who is reported to have entered the sanctuary and
to have been prevented by a terrible apparition
there from accomplishing his purpose. On his re-
turn, Heliodorus formed a conspiracy and murdered
Seleucus, putting on the throne the infant son of
Seleucus (intending thus to keep the power in his
own hands), passing by the elder son Demetrius (a
hostage at Rome), and disregarding Antiochus the
brother of Philopator. But the plans of Heliodorus
came to nothing when Antiochus forced his way to
the throne.
Antiochus IV. Epiphanes (175-164), son of Anti-
ochus III., grew up in Rome where he was a
hostage; he accepted Greek citizenship at Athens
and a magistracy. Interest in him for the student
of Jewish and Christian history centers in his de-
termined attack in behalf of Greek culture and re-
ligion upon Jewish nationality, religion, and Scrip-
tures, provoking the uprising which resulted in the
temporarily brilliant period of Maccabean rule (see
Hasmoneans). That he is the focus of the Book
of Daniel (q.v.) is now generally accepted, while his
picture, also from a Jewish angle of vision, is in
I and II Maccabees (for a brilliant analysis of his
character from a more than usually sympathetic
point of view consult E. R. Bevan, House of Seleu-
cus, ii. 128 sqq., London, 1902). When the stroke
of Heliodorus became known, Epiphanes left for
Syria, aided by Eumenes and Attalus of Pergamene,
and soon succeeded in seating himself on the throne,
overcoming opposition, getting rid in the usual way
of rivals, and reducing to quiescence those opposed
to him. In 173 he sent an embassy to Rome to seek
assurance of friendship, which was granted with
some reserve, though amity was assured. War with
Egypt was begun by the latter, the object being
the annexation of the Seleucid empire to Egypt.
But Antiochus made adequate preparation not only
for defense but for aggressive action, associated his
infant son with him so as to leave a ruler in case of
accident, defeated the Egyptians near Pelusium,
pushed on and seized that frontier fortress, cap-
tured Ptolemy Philometor, established Seleucid
government at Memphis with Philometor as vice-
roy, and withdrew after unsuccessfully assailing
Alexandria. But Philometor came to an agreement
with his brother to reign jointly, and Epiphanes re-
turned to Egypt to subdue it once more only to re-
ceive the Romans' curt order to withdraw (168).
Meanwhile his forces had been making a conquest
of Cyprus, whence the Romans compelled their
withdrawal.
The regions of expansion for Antiochus were thus
circumscribed by the great western power. But
the peculiar mission to which he deemed himself
called was still possible of exercise, and that was
the advancement of Hellenic religion and culture
in the regions which were acknowledged as his own.
He was especially a devotee of Zeus, of whom it is
probable that he thought himself an incarnation
(hence his own title for himself — Theos Epiphanes,
" God Manifest ")• Among the Jews, through the
favor of the Greek rulers of Egypt and Syria and
under the constant pressure of contact and the pass
to favor which a tendency to adopt Greek culture
put in the hands of apostate Jews, the drift was
almost away from their own national religion.
Onias had been overthrown as high priest by Jesus
(175), who changed his name to the Greek Jason,
and was in turn outbid for the priesthood by an-
other Jew with a Greek name, Menelaos. Greek
sports and exercises had been introduced for Jew-
ish youth, and some even were ashamed of Jewish
parentage and sought to eliminate the marks of it.
Of course the nation at large had not gone over to
Hellenism, though there was a large drift and it
might have come to that. But a report during the
king's Egyptian campaign that Jerusalem had de-
clared for Ptolemy led Antiochus to sate his ven-
geance for defeated plans upon the Jews. The fact
that the Hellenism of Menelaos had led to this was
probably fuel to the flame of his anger. He first
punished Jerusalem as a rebellious city; later he
determined upon making it a stronghold of his king-
dom as an outpost against Egypt, and to make it
safe it was to be Hellenized. The Jewish religion
was to be blotted out, the Temple was plundered
and converted into a sanctuary of Zeus Olympics,
the worship of Dionysos was introduced, the Jews
were to sacrifice to heathen deities and eat sacri-
ficed swine, while their books were to be destroyed.
These measures were enforced by frequent massa-
cres. Such measures as these with a people like the
Seleucidse
Self-Defense
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
342
Jews, always ready to be aroused into fanaticism,
cemented the party opposed to Hellenism, caused
revolt in those who were wavering in their adher-
ence to the national faith, and led by degrees from
passive to the active resistance which culminated
in the Maccabean revolt and later in deliverance
and autonomy for the nation (see Israel, History
of, I., § 11; Hasmoneans, § 1). Antiochus left
the carrying-out of this policy to Lysias, one of his
council and a general of his army, and in 166-165
started on what proved to be his last expedition to
the East. That he was impelled to this by an empty
treasury is almost certain. He had posed as a pa-
tron of Hellenism not only by the attempt to con-
vert the Jews, but by his large expenditures for
temples to Greek deities, and not less by his ex-
tension of the city of Antioch, and by the rebuild-
ing and readornment of cities in the East. Thus
he began the erection of an incomparably splendid
temple of Zeus at Athens, which was not finished
till the reign of Hadrian (130 a.d.). Indeed, his
central thought along these lines was evidently to
unify his kingdom by means of Greek culture
(I Mace. i. 41). Besides these expenditures, he had
spent large sums on Greek celebrations, and thus
left an empty treasury where he had found a full one.
The report as to his death is to the effect that he
barely escaped with his life from an attempt to loot
a temple of Anaitis, and that soon after he was
seized with some sudden malady — epilepsy or apo-
plexy— and died at the Persian town of Taba 165-
164 (II Mace. ix. 7).
Antioch V. Eupator (164-162) had been associated
with his father in the government, but during his
term Lysias was the real ruler. The first result of
the death of Epiphanes was that in Palestine the
proscription of the Jewish religion as such ceased,
probably because Lysias had seen that by such
means the people would best be reduced to quiet-
ness. In Dec., 164, the worship of Yahweh was re-
newed in the Temple. But the contest had entered
upon a new phase in which not merely religion but
nationalism was the issue. The Syrians were prac-
tically forced, by the excesses of the Jews in pun-
ishing apostates, to carry on the war; the Maccabees
sustained a severe reverse in 163 at Beth-zur, and
Jerusalem was besieged. An attempt by a certain
Philip to seize the Syrian throne compelled Lysias to
make terms with the Jews, leaving a Syrian guard
in the citadel at Jerusalem. He hastened back
to meet Philip, whom he defeated. Meanwhile
Demetrius I. had escaped from Rome, seized the
throne, and had both Eupator and Lysias beheaded.
Demetrius L Soter (162-150), son of Seleucus IV.
Philopator, attempted while still at Rome to se-
cure the consent of the senate to his return and
assumption of the throne. But the Romans pre-
ferred the weakness of a court cabal in the East
(which would give opportunity for intervention)
to control by a single hand which gave promise of
firmness. Procrastination resulted, and Demetrius
took the veiled hint of Polybius that action was
better than diplomacy. Accordingly he escaped
from Rome, relied upon the inherent loyalty of the
East to his house as against the palace camarilla
headed by Lysias, and was not disappointed. The
army seized and at a hint slew Lysias and Eupa-
tor, and Syria proper acclaimed the new king.
Rome was not pleased, however, and permitted a
certain Timarchus to assume kingship over the
Modes; but Demetrius soon disposed of Timarchus,
and continued the process of making sure his con-
trol of those regions. In Judea strife was continu-
ing between the Greek party and the nationalists,
and the former appealed to Demetrius for support;
the latter established Alcimus, the spokesman of
the Greek party, as high priest, and sent Nicanor
against the Maccabees. In the ensuing conflict
Judas gained his last great victory over Nicanor,
and followed this up by appealing to Rome. But
while the embassy was on its way Demetrius sent
Bacchides with a strong force, and he defeated and
slew Judas, established a chain of forts to hold the
Jews within bounds, including the Acra at Jerusa-
lem, which long remained a menace to the city.
Encouraged by his successes elsewhere, Demetrius
intervened in Asia Minor, but at length was disas-
trously defeated. His opponents there retorted by
putting forth Alexander Balas as a claimant to the
throne (153), asserting that he was the second son
of Antiochus. The new claimant won over the Ro-
man senate, and during the subsequent conflict
Demetrius fell and Alexander became king.
Alexander L Balas (Theopator Euergetes; 150-
145) was assisted in overthrowing Demetrius by
Ptolemy Philometor, whose daughter Cleopatra he
married. Alexander's purpose in gaining the crown
seemed from the issue merely the opportunity for
indulgence in sensual pleasure. Government was
turned over to his minister Ammonius, whose crimes
were legion and inflamed the people. Meanwhile
the Jews under Jonathan and Simon were making
capital out of the conditions and the rivalry of
kings in Syria. While Balas and Demetrius were
striving for the throne, both were bidding for the
support of the Jews, and the latter accepted each
of the concessions made by either of the parties.
So it came about that Jonathan became high priest,
the Hellenistic party in Judea became practically
extinct, the garrisons from the border fortresses
were withdrawn, though that in the Acra at Jeru-
salem still remained; while the Jews were more
closely bound together by the newly recognized
high-priestly status of the Hasmoneans. In 148-
147 Demetrius II. Nicator, the son of Demetrius
Soter, a boy of fourteen, was put forward as a
claimant to the Syrian throne, and the Philistine
cities declared for him. The Jews were, however,
faithful to Alexander, defeated the army raised in
the Philistine territory, and so protected Alexan-
der's southern approaches. Ptolemy Philometor
again intervened, this time in favor finally of De-
metrius, occupied Antioch, and, himself rejecting
the offer of the crown of Syria, conferred it upon
Demetrius (145), Alexander and Philometor both
losing their lives as a result of the later phases of
the conflict.
From this time the story of Syria is that of a
series of struggles for the throne on the part of
those who had claims more or less direct, two and
even three kinglets at a time exercising authority
over parts of the realm or retiring to gather strength
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
for a new essay at power. Demetrius II. Hicator
(146-138, 128-124) was practically maintained on
the throce by the Cretan mercenaries, of evil fame,
who had assisted to place him there, who, with
Jewish contingents, rioted in Antioch and boasted
of the slaughter of the gentiles wrought there.
Tryphoa, one of the generals of Balas, disputed the
reign of Nicator, setting up Antiochus VL Theos
Epiphanes Dionysus (145-?), son of Alexander
Bolu, in Antioch while Demetrius ruled in Seleucia.
Tin1 i>Mii.-i of tin.' Jews .seemed dangerous to Tryphon,
and he treacherously captured Jonathan the Macca-
bee and slew him, hoping thus to leave the Jews
without a leader and at. his mercy. This alienated
the Jews under the unexpected leadership of Simon,
who espoused the cause of Demetrius. About 143-
142 Tryphon had the young Antiochus assassinated
inn! himself aspired to the throne, hoping to found
a new dynasty. About 140 Demetrius determined
upon a campaign in the East to recover that region
from the Parthiuns; but he was captured by them
(138) and held a close prisoner. This seemed to
'eave Tryphon a clear field. But Antiochus VIX
Sidetes (138-128), younger son of Demetrius I.,
lad grown up in Side of Pamphylia. When his
brother was captured in Parthia, he entered Seleu-
cii as the rightful king, and in the presence of a
S^lrueiil tin; bucking of Tryphon fell away while he
vas himself captured and forced to commit suicide.
During the reign of Sidetes the genius of the Seleu-
ols shone out with a dying gleam. The gains of
th? Jews had been enormous through the bidding
of -ival claimants to the Syrian throne and their
owl seizure of opportunities. They had gained
terrtory never before in possession of Hebrews.
Siilel:s demanded indemnity for their conquests,
whicL Simon attempted to meet with commercial
I- ii'^iiniii^. In t.'il Siiift.'j sent an army which
hflHtgKl Jerusalem and put the Jews in a humbler
franc of mind, yet without raising fanatical opposi-
tion He then set out for Parthia to recover the
East and release his brother. Successful at first,
in tip end he was defeated and slain. Meanwhile,
in tli* earlier stages of the conflict the Parthian
king lad released Demetrius, and later attempted
to reapture him. The latter, having regained
Syria, itteinptcd the conquest of Egypt to restore
his moiicr-in-law Cleopatra ugainst l'tolemy Eucr-
getes. But he was checked at Pelusium, while
Syria, teulted against him as soon as he left, Alex-
ander Zibinas £129-122) being put forth as a pre-
tender Ijj Kuergi'tes; Demetrius was defeated, be-
came a fuative, and fell at Tyre. Under Cleopatra,
daughter J Ptolemy Philopator, the struggle went
on betweet the hou.se of Selcucus and Alexander.
Seleucus V.(125-124), eon of Nicator, was assassin-
ated, possidy by order of Cleopatra, while his
brother, Aitiochus VDX Grypos (125-124-113;
111-96) debited Z-abinas and ended his reign. Cleo-
patra then a. tempted to poison him but was caught
in her own levice (121?). Grypos amused himself
with feasts, uitil Antiochus DC. Cyzicenus (113-95),
his hidf-broticr, assailed him and compelled him
temporarily ti withdraw (113); but two years later
he returned aid recovered all but Ccele-Syria, which
D)rtic«oua hell. The rival tmgs died within a year
of each other, both probably by violent death*;
then the sons of Grypos (Seleucus VL, Antiochus
XI., Philip, Demetrius TJL Eucarus, and Anti-
ochus XII.) fought with the son of Cyricenus (An-
tiochus X. EuMbM). In the melee Tigranes of
Armenia captured the kingdom and held it (83-
69), but in 69 the Roman Luculius permitted An-
tiochus XIII. AaiatieuB to sit on the throne. In 66
Bibliography: As sources iHoniH should be had toCIO
Bad CIS; C. Michel, RecutU ifinocriptiont orccquei. Puis,
1900; to the histericsd works of Polybius. Appiao, Strnbo,
the younger Pliny (Hit. nolurafu). Isidore iSlathmM Par-
thikoi), the Chronieorum fieri duo of Eusebius (which oon-
side the .inlijuilisi and War of Josephus, end I and
II Maccabees. For the Rnfli^h reader a splendid work
is available iu E. K. Bevan, ffouss of StUucut, 2 vok.,
London. 1902. Of singular value for completeness and
exactness are: J. G. Droysen. Oaehichtt da HtUtnimut,
2 vols., Hamburg. 1830-43: B. Niese, OaehuMt dtr oris-
chiichtn and nmkodonitchm Slaattn nit dtr ScMacJU hn
Charenca, 3 parts, Goths, 1893-1903. Other literature
bearing on the subject is: L. Flathe, Gochithit it act-
donitru und dtr Reich* wtlcht von makodonitchm JCgnajsw
behtrttcM vurdtn. vol. il„ Leipsio. 1834; H. F. Clinton,
Fatti Htllmiri. pp. 310-360. Oxford, 1861; A. P. Stan-
ley, Hitl. of the Jtaith Church, pp. 285-390, London. 1877;
E. Babelon. ■ taiogut da immnaia Brecouei. La Soil
dt Syrit, .An*, rt it Comraagtnt, Paris, 1890; A.
Kuhn, ;■■■.'■.■. tur Oathichti dtr SdeuHdrn . . . Ite-
18*. Altkiich, 1891; F. Susemihl. Qachichtt dtr grUchr
itchen Littcmtur in dtr AlexandrintneH. 2 vols., Leipeie,
1861-92 (give* excellent sidelights); A. Holm. OHtchitcht
Oachichte, vol. to.. Berlin, 1894, Eng. tnnal.. Hi*, ol
Grace, vol. iv., London, 1898 (comprehensive); H. Watt-
rich, Jvdtn und Oritchtn vor dtr makkab&itchen Erhtbuna,
Oottingeu. 189S; J. P. Mahaffy. Greek Lift and Thouokt,
Loodou. 1896: 3. Mathews, Hist of Nta Ttttament Timtm
in PaUntiite. cbnpa. i.-vi., new ed., New York, 1910; Q.
Hoelscher. PalisiUna in dtr ptrritchtn tad htUtnittttchrn
Ztii. Berlin, 1903; P. Barry, in JBL, xxdx (1910), 120-138:
Hchflrer. . \tt. i. ISO sqq.. Eng. tranal.. I., i. lSSsqq.
For the Jewish iide use may be made of the literature on
the period indicated under Ahab. and Ibraxl, Hibtoxt or
(some exact references will be found to this literature in
C. F. Kent, Rial. ofJeaieh People, p. 387, New York, 1899);
and of the birr commentaries on Daniel and on I and II
Maccabees. Ths history of Egypt and Syria so interlaced
during this period that the literature given under Ptouust
Hill be found illuminative for the meat port.
SELF-DEFENSE: A term of jurisprudence,
politics, and ethics, requiring a different treatment
in each. In law it is an act which has the outward
form of a penal offense, but instead of being penal
it is permissible and justifiable — a defense which ie
requisite in order to ward off an illegal attack of
which then' is immediate danger. The danger may
be of loss of life, bodily injury, or injury to honor
or property. The defense may go to the length of
killing the aggressor, even without respect to the
value of the ■ od that is threatened; but excess
beyond a reasonable measure of defense involves
guilt, though not penal, in view of the alarm caused
in the one threatened. In the political field ths
question of self-defense assumes importance in de-
cidiiiR the justification of war or revolution. In a
thoughtful discussion of the question (EfAtfc, II.,
ii. 265 sqq.) Hans Lassen Martensen is inclined to-
justify revolutions of a national character, such as
the revolt of the Low Countries against Spanish
domination, as cases in which a nation is defending
its life.
Self-Denial
Belli©
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
344
From the purely ethical standpoint, personal self-
defense is not only a right but a duty, to be re-
stricted to the defense of life or female honor (R.
Rothe, Ethik, ii. § 894). If life is attacked in such
a manner that it can not be defended by flight or
by recourse to the protection of the State, and if
no purpose is served by its sacrifice except the per-
mission of a crime, then the one attacked has the
duty of opposing not violence to violence, but right
to violence. The individual is here fighting not for
himself alone, but for social rights, and for moral
principle. Martyrdom is a different case; here the
duty of bearing witness to divine truth rises above
the duty of self-preservation in the same measure
as the value of the truth of God above the life of
sense. The defense of other goods than life and the
sexual honor is morally not so universal a duty, and
the measures of self-defense should be proportion-
ate to the value of the thing threatened. The Bible
contains no prohibition of self-defense; Matt. v.
38-39 can not be adduced under the conditions
here laid down, and Ex. xxii. 2, 3 is not a general
moral precept but a regulation of the Mosaic law.
The action of Peter in the garden of Gethsemane
was from his point of view justifiable self-defense;
the special reason for Christ's rebuke of it is obvi-
ous. Ethical and juridical constructions diverge
on this matter. In all instances the moral sense
must intensify the consciousness of duty. On the
other hand, the law makes concessions in self-de-
fense which are untenable in moral judgment.
(Karl Burger-)-.)
SELF-DENIAL: A term, the exact adversative
of Selfishness (q.v.), expressing the reference of
human will and desire not to self but to the altruistic
object (Matt. x. 38-39, xvi. 24-25; Mark viii. 34-
35; Luke ix. 23-24). It represents a New-Testa-
ment idea {arneUthai; aparneUihai). Of self-denial
in the sense in which Jesus enjoined it upon his
followers the world before him was unconscious,
and outside of him has no knowledge of it. Self-
denial demands nothing less than the renuncia-
tion of the self and the deliverance of the will from
the false egoistic center, thereby virtually abolish-
ing or losing the natural life and gaining a new true
life-center, by joining the will with the divine, or
having one's life hid with Christ in God (Col. iii. 3),
not living for self but Christ (II Cor. v. 15; cf.
Gal. ii. 20). It involves the exercise of a lifetime.
Its first appearance is in repentance. When the
divine Spirit takes hold of man, he is thrown into
self-conflict. An inclination to truth and righteous-
ness in him awakens the desire or will to escape
from the carnal self. This willing is as yet weak,
but God permits the upright to conquer. Regen-
eration takes place, and self-denial becomes a daily
exercise and enters into every contested act or step
that makes for righteousness and holiness. It is
thus the inner principle of Christian discipleship.
With a daily self-abnegation and crucifying of the
flesh, the new life in Christ grows, increases in
strength, and reaches a more and more complete
character. Self-denial becomes habitual. It is con-
trary to the spirit of the Gospel to prescribe a law
to self-denial and convert it into a work of merit.
As a product of the freedom of the regenerate it
possesses ethical value, and is an important means
to the promotion of Christian unity, in the suppres-
sion of all the motives that violate brotherly love,
and the alternative advancement of the gentleness
that overcomes an erring one, the humility that
serves, and the fidelity that yields in order to win.
(Karl Burger f.)
Bibliography: H. Martensen, Christian Ethics, ii. 411,
Edinburgh, 1882; I. A. Domer, System of Christian
Ethics, pp. 378 Bqq., New York, 1887; J. Kostlin.
Christliche Ethik, pp. 74, 119, 123, 197-198, Berlin,
1899; the literature under Selfishness; and the lexicons
under opw urfat, avopvcur&u.
SELFISHNESS: A term of late origin for a
conception of great antiquity, which means, more
appropriately than " egoism," the exclusive refer-
ence of human will and desire to self in contrast
with the love and obedience by which man is obli-
gated to God by virtue of his created character
(cf. Self-Denial). This abnormal tendency may
be regarded dogmatically as the fundamental sin;
ethically, as the root of sinful development, and as
the concomitant and undercurrent of all natura.
morality. Man as a dual being, in his personality
akin with God, and identified on the one side with
the world, had the duty and privilege of maintah-
ing fellowship with God by free grateful love, and
first of consecrating himself to God, and then by
faithful service of sustaining the world in obedience
toward God and likewise sanctifying it for him. Ii
the faithful pursuit of this mission, the image £
God was to be realized in him, as the end of lis
life and development. How he departed from ids
original career set before him is a matter that per-
tains to the problem of the origin of evil. Attention
is called here only to the difference betweei the
idea that selfishness is the root of sin (J. Muller)
and its alternative, that it originated from sense
(R. Rothe). As by a false self-assertion man 30vght
his own life and, independently of God, yielded to
the temptations to be like God, he released the im-
pulses of sensuousness within (Gen. iii.). Spirtual
apostasy from God resulted in sensual inclination
toward the world. Man who, by self-exalfrtion,
seeks to force his own salvation instead of accepting
it from above, brings upon himself the puniament
of self-humiliation. He becomes a slave to carnal-
ity and appetite. The development springiig from
this perverse tendency of selfishness may assume
either of two commutable and multitudinmsly in-
tersecting directions — the passion of senstfd indul-
gence and spiritual pride. The sensuali$ pursues
happiness by seeking to conquer the torld and
finding satisfaction in its goods and jars. From
this arises the so-called " battle for ixistence,"
offered as a hypothesis for the history of human
development. The elements of truth in this are
that selfishness recognizes no social obligation.
Spiritual pride, on the other hand, feigis to despise
selfishness, and aspires to satisfaction iran assumed
spiritual perfection. Its motives arc the conceit
of knowledge and the passion to rule. The sensual
man is not without pride, setting up his theory of
self-justification; and spiritual price frequently
suffers most humiliating disasters when the
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
suppressed and despised sensuality reasserts
itself.
The coarse and common sing classify themselves
under sensuality, the more refined and spiritual
ones under pride. Self is in all instances central;
love of God is in all its forms negated and excluded,
while the morality based on egoism is atheistic.
The effort to oppose a coarse selfishness to a " ra-
tioosi self-love " which places the benefits and ad-
vantage- of -ilf uppermost but concedes also some-
thing simitar to others, may be taken as a disguise
of its real nature and a dissembling of virtue. Its
egoism is chiefly commercial. Live and let live is
its maxim. In family-life selfishness ascends even
as far as heroism or self-sacrifice. Parents deny
tbemadvn to accumulate for their offspring or
provide for their education. In the aristocracy all
ii BUStifised to the maintenance of the name. Am-
bition in knowledge, art, and statesmanship is vir-
tually self-seeking. Even piety is not inaccessible
to it. Here it appears in both forms; passion of
spiritual indulgence and self-righteousness. Not
content with simple Biblical fare, it drags worldly
n!fcft:ilion,s and modes into the religious life. Self-
righieoi;siiess is the root of Pharisaism; and how in-
eradiealily it. is embedded in the human heart is
illattnrted in Christian history and human experi-
ence. In the last account, selfishness rewards its
votaries with death. Seeking to save their lives they
shall lose them. (Karl Burger}1.)
BrBuooRAPHV: R. Rothe, Throlooiiche Ethilt, vol. i., Wit-
tenhent. I*rt7; A. Wnitki'. Crirtinn Elhia. i. 175. ii. 165,
Nrv.- York. iSTfi: J. Mililor, Lehrt ran der SUnde, ii. 3-4,
Brealau. 1839-H. En*. Irrinsl.. 2 vol-.. K.linbiniili, I.S77;
I. A. Domer, Chritllieht Glauhemlehre. ii. | 177. 2 vol...
Berlin, 1888. Eog- turns!., Edinburgh. 1880-82; idem,
Stutem of ChrisH.w fi*ir.«, „„. ;(7S>qq,, New York, 1S87;
A. H, Strong. Philaiop!.u and Religion, pp. 450-457. ib.
1888; H. L. Hi r I ■mil I Ettiik, i. 139 *qq.. Berlin. 1894.
~ ". KBatUn. ChrutUchi
., Berlin. 18U9.
., 197*
SELIGENSTADT, selig-en-stat": A small Hes-
sian town on the Rhine (15 m. e.s.e. of Frankfort),
at which Archbishop Aribo (Arno) of Mainz con-
vened, probably on Aug. 12, 1023, one of the most
irvi|mrt;int of the comparatively few German medi-
eval provincial synods. It was attended by Bishops
Burch:ird of Worms, Werner of Strasburg, Brun of
Augsburg. Eberhard of Bamberg, and Meginhard
of Wurzburg, and the abbots of Fulda, Hersfeld,
Lorsch, St. Maximin, Toley, St. Burchard in Wtlrz-
burg, Schliichtern, St. Alhun, Klingenmtlnster, and
iUeidenstadt. The deei-ions of the synod concern,
among other matters, the observance of fasts be-
fore high feasts, the ember-day fasts, the prohibi-
tion of superstitious u.saees, synodal procedure in
owes of adultery, the degrees of kinship, prohibition
of a transfer of a church without the permission of
the diocesan, and penance. There was also a pro-
hibition against, going to Rome without the con-
sent of the bishop or his vicar; and it was likewise
enacted that those charged with grave offenses
should be obliged to perform the penances enjoined
by their parish clergy before being permitted to go
to Rome to seek absolution from the pope, such a
visit being itself contingent upon the consent of
their diocesans. The two latter requirements have
by some been construed as attempts to reduce papal
prerogatives to mere honorary privileges, but as a
matter of fact they simply reaffirm usages which
already existed. (A. Hauck.)
Bui
i, 1881:
ch. Die KircAm
Marburg.
4Q.Q..; Hefele, Concilienoeachichtt, iv. 171.
SELL, EDWARD: Church of England, orien-
talist; b. at Wantage (14 m. s.w. of Oxford) Jan.
24, 1839. He finished his education at the Church
Mi->iLiii:iry College, London, 1862, and was fellow
of Madras University, 1874; was made demon in
1862, and priest, 1S67; was principal of the Harris
High School for Mohammedans, Madras. India.
1865-81; became secretary of the Church Misvum-
ary Society for the dioeescs of Madras and Travan-
core, 1881; examining chaplain to the bishop of
Madras, 1899; and canon of St. George's Cathedral,
Madras. He is one of the chief authorities on Mo-
hnmitu 'danism, and in this interest lias written The
Faith o/ Islam (London, 1880, 3d ed., 1907); The
Historical Development of the Qur'an (1897; 2d ed.,
1909); Essays on Islam (1901); Islam: -Us Rise and
Progress (1907); The Religious Orders of Islam
(1908); The Khulafa'r-Rashidun (1909); The Cult
o/ Att (1909); The Battles of Badr and Uhud (1909);
Al-Qur'an (1909); Sufliem (1910); The Druses
(1010); Ghazwat and Siriyas (1911).
SELL, KARL: German Protestant; b. at Gies-
sen Nov. 29, 1845. He studied at the universities
of Halle, Gottingen, and Giessen (1863-70; Ph.D.,
Giessen, 1869); was curate at Darmstadt (1869-
1871); pastor there (1871-82); supreme consi-torial
counselor and superintendent in the province of
Starkenburg (1882-91), and since 1891 has been
professor of church history in the University of
Bonn. He has written Das Christenttim gegeniiber
den Angriffen von Strav.su (Heilbronn. 1877); /tin
Religions- und Kirdieiiyexehichte (Darmstadt, 1880);
Alice, Grossherzogin von Hesse (188;!); Die ge-
frhk-litli'-lir Euticirkhmg dcr Kirche im neunzehnten
Jahrhundert (Giessen, 1887); Aus der Geschichte
des Chri&tenlums (Darmstadt, 1889); Philipp Me-
lanchthon und die deutsche Reformation bis I5S1
(Halle, 1897); Die Entvncklung der katholischen
Kirche im neunsthnltn Jnhrhunilert (Leipsic. 1898);
Goethes Stellung zur Religion und sum Chri«U:t:tunt,
(Freiburg, 1899); Die Religion unserer Klassiker,
Letting, Herder, Schiller, Goethe (Tubingen, 1904,
2d ed., 1910); Katholizismus und Protcstontism.ua
in Geschichte, Religion, Polilik, Kultur (Leipsic,
1908); Wilhelm von Humboldt in seinen Briefen
(1909); and Chrisfentum und Wcltgeschichir hi* zur
Reformation and seit der Reformation (2 parts, 1910).
SELLTJf, ERHST FRIEDRICH MAX: Austrian
Protestant; b. at Altschwerin (80 m. n.w. of Ber-
lin), Mecklenburg, May 26, 1867. He was educated
at the universities of Rostock, Erlangen, and Leip-
sic; taught in a gymnasium at Parchim (1891-94);
was privat-docent for Old-Testament exegesis at
Erlangen (1894-97); professor of Old-Testament
exegesis and archeology in the Evangelical theo-
logical faculty of the University of Vienna (1897-
Selnecker
SemipelaglBJCLlfzii
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
346
1908), during this period making important excava-
tions in Palestine; and since 1908 professor at Ros-
tock in Old-Testament exegesis. He has written
Beitrdgezur israeliHsch-judischen Religionsgeschichte
(2 vols., Leipsic, 1896-97); Serubbabel, ein Beiirag
zur Geschichte der messianischen Erwartung und der
Entstehung des Judentums (1898) ; Studien zur Ent-
stehungsgeschichte der jUdischen Gemeinde nach dent
babylonischen Exit (2 vols., 1900); TeU-Ta'anek.
Bericht Hber meine Ausgrabungen in Paldstina
(1904); Die alUe&tamentliche Religion im Rahmen
der anderen altorientalischen (1908); Das Rdtsel des
deuterojesajanischen Bucket (1908) ; Die israelitischr
jUdische Heilandserwartung (in Biblische Zeit- und
Streitfragen; Gross-Lichterfelde, 1909); and AUes
Testament (Leipsic, 1909).
SELNECKER, NIKOLAUS: German Lutheran
theologian, hymnist, and collaborator on the For-
mula of Concord; b. at Hersbruck (17 m. e.n.e. of
Nuremberg) Dec 5. (or 6), 1530; d. at Leipsic May
24, 1592. He early manifested marked musical
talent, but it was only after completing his course
in law at the University of Wittenberg (1550-54)
that he turned to the study of theology, mainly
under the influence of Melanchthon, whose dis-
tinctly irenic type of theology he adopted. After
lecturing for a time on philology, philosophy, and
theology, he was recommended by Melanchthon,
in 1557, as third court chaplain to Elector August
of Saxony, and in Jan., 1558, he accordingly re-
moved to Dresden. A year later he also took charge
of the training of the choir in the court chapel, and
for four years he was, in addition, tutor of the heir-
apparent, Alexander (d . 1 565) . During this Dresden
period he published exegeses of the Psalms, Wisdom
of Solomon, and I John, as well as Catalogus prcecip-
uorum conciliorum cecumenicorum et nationalium a
tempore apostolorum usque ad nostram aUatem (2
parts, Frankfort, 1571) and such dogmatic and
practical works as his Libellus brevis et utUis de cctna
Domini (Leipsic, 1561) and Pasdagogia Christiana
(Frankfort, 1565). Meanwhile Melanchthon had
died, and Selnecker came under the far from irenic
influence of his father-in-law, Daniel Greiser, thus
being transformed into a bitter polemist. The op-
ponents whom he now created seized as a pretext
his severe criticism, in one of his sermons, of the
elector's inordinate fondness for hunting, and in
1564 Selnecker left Dresden. In the following year
he accepted a call to Jena, but two years later he
and his Philippistic colleagues (see Philippists)
were expelled from the country on the accession of
Duke John William. He now turned to his former
patron, Elector August, who appointed him, in
1568, professor in Leipsic, and also pastor of the
Thomaskirche and superintendent. In 1570, se-
curing from the elector leave of absence for two
years, he accepted a call to Wolfenbuttel as court
chaplain, ecclesiastical councilor, and supreme su-
perintendentr-general. Here, however, he became
involved in most rancorous theological discord, ac-
cused by the Philippists of being an apostate to
Flacianism, and by the Gnesio-Lutherans of being
a friend of the despised Wittenberg theologians.
Escape seemed impossible, and his only solace was
in writing, this period, while he was residing at
Gandersheim, witnessing the composition of his
InstituUo religionis Christiana (Frankfort, 1572).
In the summer of 1573 he worked for a few months
at Oldenburg, where he sought to introduce a Lu-
theran church order, and was then recalled to his
Leipsic professorship, resuming his superintendency
and pastorate at the Thomaskirche in 1576.
This second Leipsic period was the most impor-
tant, theologically, in the career of Selnecker, who
found a task distinctly congenial to his irenic type
of mind in the furtherance of the Formula of Con-
cord (q.v.), even while becoming utterly estranged
from his former friend Jakob Andrea (q.v.), who
was bniskly dismissed from office by the elector.
Selnecker's own time was, however, at hand. As
long as August lived, his protege* was busily engaged
in writing, making visitations of churches and
schools, and in pastoral work, but with the accession
of Christian I. in 1586 Philippism revived, and the
second Crypto-Calvinistic controversy broke out.
In 1589, unable conscientiously to refrain from
criticizing Calvinism, Selnecker was suspended from
office, although he still resided for a time at Leipsic.
Within a few months, however, he fled, first to
Halle and then to Magdeburg, and later secured
the position of superintendent at Hildesheim. Late
in 1591, on the sudden death of Christian, Selnecker
was one of those invited to return to Leipsic and
resume office. Despite serious illness, he accepted
the call, but died almost immediately after his
arrival.
The list of Selnecker's writings includes about
170 items, but of the collected edition which he
planned, only four parts of his Latin works appeared
(Leipsic, 1584-93). His writings are, in content,
dogmatic and polemic, exegetic, historical, and de-
votional. The chief of these, apart from those al-
ready noted, are RelaHones aliquot: De consilio
scripti Libri Concordia; De persona Christi et cctna
Domini; De autoritate et sentenHa Confessionis
Augustance; De autoritate Lutheri et Philippi; De
controversis nonnuUis articulis (Leipsic, 1581) and
Historie von der Augsburgischen Konfession (1584).
A poet of some ability not only in Latin, but even
in Greek, Selnecker occupies a prominent place
among the hymnists of his period. He collected his
hymns, together with those of other writers, in his
FUnfzig Psalmen des kdniglichen Propheten David
ausgelegt (Nuremberg, 1563); Der game Psalter des
kdniglichen Propheten David ausgelegt (1565-66);
Trdstliche SpriLche und Grabschri/ten aus heiliger
Schrift (1567); Psalter Davids mil kurzen Sum-
marien und Gebetlein (1572); and Christliche PsaU
men, IAeder und Kirchengesdnge (Leipsic, 1587).
Many of his hymns mirror forth his personal experi-
ences and events in his career, but they have pre-
served their popularity in Germany to the present
day, while seven of them have been translated into
English, the largest collection of the latter being in
the Ohio Evangelical Lutheran Hymnal (Columbus,
1880). (F. W. Dibelius.)
Bibliography: F. Dibelius, in BeitrAge zur sHehtiaehen
Kirchengachichte, part 4, 1888; Buchwald, in Un»er*
Kirchenliederdichter, iv (1905); O. J. Planck, OeachichU
des prote*tanti*chen Lehttoegriffs, vol. v., 6 vols., Leipsio,
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
1781-1800; H. L. J. Heppfl. Gctthichti det drultchen Prot-
ttaritumue, vol*, iii.-iv., i vols.. Marburg, 18S3-59; K.
F. Otachel, Die Konkordienformtl nach ihrer Gadiiehte,
Lcipsic, UtSj G. Fnuik. Gctchichle det praUmlanlitcAen
Theolooit. vol. i., lb. 1S02; R. Calioiob, Kampf vnd Unltr-
ganadei MdanchihonUmutin KvTtackttn. ib. 1888; Julian,
Hynmoloeu. pp. 1038-11.
SELWYH, sel'win, GEORGE AUGUSTUS: Church
of England; b. at Church Ron-, Hampstead, Lon-
don, Apr. 5, 1809; d. at Lichfield (15 m. n.n.e. of
Birmingham) Apr. 11, 1878. He was educated at
Eton and Cambridge (B.A., 1831; M.A., 1834).
"While curate at Windsor in 1841, he was appointed
first bishop of the Anglican Church in New Zealand.
At hia farewell sermon before leaving England there
■was present John Coleridge Pntteson (q.v.), then a
youth of fourteen, later bishop of Melanesia. Be-
sides ministering to the spiritual wants of his colonial
diocese, he extended his operations to the South Sea
Islands, navigating hia own vessel, the " Southern
Cross," for this purpose. He brought youths from
Mi'kLiH'ski Id Xi.'\v Zoiilnri'i, who. after receiving in-
etruction, returned to enlighten their countrymen.
In 1861 this branch of work was entrusted to Bishop
PatteeOQ, who had assisted him from 1855. In 1854,
in England, he obtained permission to subdivide
his diocese of New Zealand and establish a general
synod of self-government. Accordingly, upon his
return four bishops were consecrated and a legal
constitution went into effect. Id 1868 be became
bishop of Lichfield.
Bibuoohapby: Mis. E. A. Curt*is. In Memoriam. A.
liktleh of the Life of ... 0. A. Setvyn. Nowcaatle, 1878;
H. W. Tucker, Memoir of the Lift and Epiecopate of George
Auouilut Sdu>i/n .... 2 vols.. London. I8TO; CI. H.
Curteis. Bithop Selwyn of New Zealand, and of Lichfield.
lb. 1889: E. A. Bulley, Georae .4Wui!m Setwya, Firet
Buhap of Nea Zealand, ib. 1900.
SELWYH, WILLIAM: Church of England; b.
in London in 1806; d. at Cambridge Apr. 24, 1875.
He was educated at St. Johns t'oilpgr. f'juiitiriilpr
{fellow, 1829; M.A., 1831; B.D., 1850; D.D.,
1864), became deacon, 1829, and priest, 1831; rector
cf Brans-tone, 1831; canon of Ely, 1833; vicar of
Melbourne, 184(i; and Lady Margaret professor at
t.'iimbri'ke. 1855. Among his works are: Principles
of C„th<dral Reform. (Cambridge, 1840); Mora
llehruicit i IS-IS-i'Ki); Tentimonia patrum in veterea
interpreted (1859); and he edited Qrigines contra
Celeum, books i.-iv (1877).
Bibliography: A sketch of the life by J. S. Wood is in Sel-
wyn's Pastoral Colloquiet on the South Down*. Ctuub ridge.
1876, mid another ia in DNB, It. 233-23*.
SEMI-ARIABS. See A
L, 3, i G.
SEMIPELAGIANISM: A synergistic view raised
in opposition to Au£ustiniitn monergism. The
oriLdn : ■ Ei- 3 scope of the term in the history of dogma
has not yet been clearly determined. From a pas-
sage in the Historic Pelagiana (Padua,
Augustine 1673) of Enrico Noris it is ff ^H
not Wholly as being created by the medieval
Authorita- scholastic theologians, but more
rive, probably Noris there traces back its
origin to the post-Tridentine elaho-
rators of the scholastic theology. Certainly it
is not found in current usage as late as the six-
teenth century. It appears isolated in the Lu-
theran Formula of Concord (Epitome, 581, 10)
and by the year 1601 it is found in the records
of the Congregatio de auxiliis in reference to an
assailed thesis of Luis Molina (q.v.); and subse-
quently it became common. From this it appears
probable that the term arose in the Mnlinist strife
between the Dominican Thomists with the Jesuits.
Its general acceptance may then have been occa-
sioned by the public notice of the Molinist strife
produced by the Jansenist controversy (see Jam-
sen, Cohnelibb, Janbenibm). Evidently the term
was to represent that doctrine of sin and grace in
which Prosper of Aquitaine (q.v.) opposed the Mas-
silians, and was later represented by Faustus of
Riez (q.v.), and in some points declared heretical
by the Synod of Orange, 529. The Synod of Car-
thage (418) had adopted among the eight canons
against the Pelagians (see Pelagids, Pelagian
Controversies) that (1) Adam became mortal only
by the fall; (2) infants must be baptised on ac-
count of original sin; (3) divine grace involves,
besides forgiveness, the power to avoid sin; (4)
sinless perfection is impossible on earth. The
entire Augustinian doctrine of grace was, however,
not approved in this. Two years later Augustine,
in formulating the Pelagian heresy, goes beyond
the judgment of the council in stating that Pela-
gians assume that the grace by which men are
justified was not given gratis but " upon merit."
Not all who approved the condemnation of Pe-
lagius were in accord throughout with Augustine.
The question whether the " grace of creation, re-
mission, and doctrine" were sufficient to attain
salvation or whether a " grace of inspiration " was
inwardly essential in addition and for every act —
the real point at issue — could be answered, as shown
in Augustine's own thinking before 396, in the anti-
Pelagian sense even where the Augustinian mode
of thinking was not wholly followed. Once Augus-
tine experienced this in the objection of a certain
(.'isriluiginian Vitidis, to whom he replied (c. 420),
rtntlhahfling grace " prevenient to human will."
Again, upon the agitation occasioned by his doc-
trine of grace before merit and uf predestination, in
apparent contradiction with the merit of good
works, among the monks of Hadrumctum, he for-
warded to them for further enlightenment the De
gratia el libera arbilrio teaching that the work of
grace does not make freedom and merit nugatory,
but is their only basis; he followed this with the
De eorreplioiir. c! •jnitin, containing the doctrines of
freedom by grace only, of perseverance, and the
fixed number of the elect.
The last-named work stirred lukewarm friends to
hostility in the monastic circles about M : 1 1 - 1 ■ i ! I r ■ -»
and Lerins, southern Gaul, including such men as
Johannes CUBiaaua and Hilary, later
Objections bishop of Aries (qq.v.). The former
in Southern held (Collalioites patrurn, xi.-xvii.)
GauL that man possessed a rudiment of good
will, which the grace of inspiration
even if prevenient served to reenforce. Man must
be saved by grace but conditioned on his consent,
and " all who perish do so contrary to the will of
God." Reports of the disaffection reached Augus-
tine in two lettere from Prosper and another from
flemlpelaffianlam
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
848
Hilary (428 or 429). With serious reverence for
the piety of the Massilians, their objections are
stated: (1) against the doctrine of predestination,
involving human incapability of freely appropria-
ting saving grace, on the ground that it is an inno-
vation against the Fathers and subversive of the
admonition and cure of souls of the Church.
Moreover (2) the divine counsel of redemption
contemplates all men; the choice of being saved
or not is in the power of free will; and predestina-
tion (of which Rom. viii. 29-30 necessarily forced
recognition) was based on the foreknown " merit
of faith and perseverance." Augustine answered
with De pradestinatione sanctorum on the " be-
ginning of faith " and De dono perseverantios on
persevering by grace alone. This was done in a
fraternal spirit for the instruction of the Massilians,
and Augustine therewith called attention to a simi-
lar former error on his part; but emphasizing, as
these writings did, the most objectionable points,
they naturally failed at conciliation. After Augus-
tine's death (Aug. 28, 430), the polemics taken up
by Prosper became more intense. The latter wrote
responsiones to the Massilians (MPL, li. 155-174),
and (li. 187-202) against an attack of Vincent of
Lerins (q.v.); and then with Hilary resorted to
Rome (432) for aid; but Celestine I. (q.v.) declined
to take an open attitude. His letter to the bishops
of southern Gaul to restrain the " presbyters "
from menacing the unity of the Church by raising
improper questions was vaguely non-committal.
Prosper wrote his De gratia dei et libero arbitrio
(li. 213-276) against the CoUaiiones of Cassianus
and removed to Rome (434) from the scene of con-
flict. The Commonitorium pro catholicce fidei anti-
qutiate (MPL, 1.), which treats Augustine with
silence, may be taken to indicate that Prosper
abandoned a hopeless cause. The Massilians re-
mained in possession of the field in southern
Gaul. There the doctrine of predestination was
regarded as a heresy about 450; the presbyter
Lucidus who taught it was recalled, 473; and two
synods (Aries and Lyons) authorized Bishop
Faustus of Riez (q.v.) to present it anew in com-
parison with the right synodal doctrine. The result
was his Libri duo de gratia, in which Pelagius and
the " error of predestination " are alike denounced,
without the conscious advancement of a special doc-
trine. More in line with Augustinian tradition were
two anonymous writings of the fifth century, possi-
bly from Gaul. Libri duo de vocatione omnium gen-
tium, sometimes ascribed to the later Leo I., at-
tempts to disguise the severity of the Augustine
position by the conception of a gratia or benignitas
generalis beside the gratia specialis; but basing the
attainment of the " special grace/' not in the hu-
man employment of gratia generalis, but purely in
the divine will, makes the latter irrelevant. The
Hypomnesticon contra Pelagianos et Calestianos,
probably of the middle of the fifth century and ap-
parently Gallic in origin, is remarkable for its recon-
struction of the Augustinian doctrine of grace. It
disavows the basing of predestination on " faith
foreknown/1 but reckons also with a resistance to
grace; the elect only are predestined, and " for those
foreknown in evil works there may be said to be
a predestined punishment." Rome seems to have
anmimftd a similar attitude, though less outspoken.
This is shown by an ancient but ungenuine ap-
pendix to the letter of Celestine I. cited above, a
catalogue of orthodox guide-points on the doc-
trine of grace whose origin is unknown, although
sometimes ascribed to the later Leo I. It is wholly
Augustinian on total incapability, prevenient grace,
and perseverance; but there is silence on irresisti-
bility and predestination. That the writings of
Faustus were included among the non-approved
works at the close of the fifth century is quite
possible.
The conflict was renewed in the sixth century
from another point of departure. When in the con-
troversy between the Scetic monks and the papal
legates at Constantinople, 519, over the formula
" one of the Trinity suffered in the flesh," a certain
North African bishop, Possessor, tarry-
The Contro- ing there, extended his support to the
versy over legates by citing for authority Faustus
Faustus; of Riez. At this the monks declared
Synod of Possessor and all those in accord with
Orange, him to be Pelagians, and the contro-
versy was opened concerning the or-
thodoxy of Faustus. The monks went to Rome
(519) to secure the support of Pope Hormisdas and
at the same time the disavowal of Faustus. The
pope withheld decision at their departure after a
stay of fourteen months, and, in reply to the mo-
tion of Possessor in 520, declared that Faustus, like
all others not included among the Fathers, was in-
competent to judge on dogmatic questions. The
pope found error in the works of Faustus, but did
not pronounce him heretical. Although Hormisdas
appealed to the letters of Augustine (ut sup.) sent
to Prosper and Hilary in behalf of the true doctrine
on grace and free will, it does not follow that he
recognized the ultra-predestinarian view as that of
the Church. From Rome the Scetic monks had is-
sued a written appeal to the African bishops living in
exile in Sardinia, to support their Christological and
anti-Pelagian views. One of them, Fulgentius of
Ruspe (q.v.), responded in a thoroughgoing Augus-
tinian manner in his Ad Petrum diaconum de incar-
natione et gratia (MPL, lxv. 451-493), the seven
books of Contra Faustum (now lost), De veritatione
prcedestinationis (603-671); and, with other bish-
ops, Epistula synodica (435-442). The importance
of this incident consists only in the revival of inter-
est at Rome for the heritage of Augustine. In south-
ern Gaul, Csesarius of Aries (q.v.), a pupil at Lerins,
and in certain respects esteeming Faustus, was, how-
ever, a representative of genuine Augustinianism,
although from his sermons apparently unconcerned
about the irresistible effect of grace. At the Synod
of Valence (528 or 529) his doctrine was assailed in
his absence. His counterstroke was a series of eight
negative and seventeen positive canons adopted by
the " authority and admonition of the apostolic
seat " by the Synod of Orange taken from Prosper's
theses of the Sentential ex Augustino. These not only
negated all Pelagianism but partly the principles
which had become dominant in southern Gaul a
century before and were probably the opinion of a
majority still. The resolutions affirmed the total
849
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bemlpelagi an Inn
moral inability of the natural man to do good, the
dependence of all moral human activity upon grace,
or infusio et inspiratio Saudi Spiritus; and the pro-
venience of grace to all merit and human choice and
volition. Irresistibility is nowhere affirmed; the
disconnection of baptism and the impartation of
grace, which may be shown repeatedly in Augus-
tine, is discarded and baptism is pronounced a
vehicle of grace; and an anathema is declared upon
those who maintain the predestination to evil, which
is the only mention of that doctrine. Boniface II.
approved these resolutions of Orange and they be-
came the official disposition of the Semipelagian
controversy for all time.
The Massilians held Pelagius to be a heretic and
accepted the decision of the Synod of Carthage
(418). They concurred in Augustine's doctrine of
grace, including the thesis that man requires the in-
spiration of grace to do good. But
The View they declined the Augustinian mon-
Defined. ergism; their synergistic view involved
the decision on man's part, with refer-
ence to eternal life, whether by virtue of his free-
dom he assented, and therefore submitted to the
operation of divine grace, or was indifferent to
grace, therefore rejecting it. The Augustinian
theses, that faith is purely an effect of grace; that
grace is irresistible; that no human act (as meritum)
is ever to be considered as a cause of the divine
operation of grace; that salvation has its basis only
in the divine election — these were unacceptable.
This view has been designated as Semipelagian on
the presupposition of the difference between Augus-
tine referring the salvation of those who are saved
to the grace of God alone, and Pelagius referring the
same to the possible well-doing of man without the
" grace of inspiration." Accordingly the synergism
of the Massilians is correctly presumed to be " half "
Pelagian, and the discovery by Augustine and
Prosper of reliquiae of Pelagianism is from their point
of view well founded. But it is improper to make
the doctrine of grace of Augustine, as a whole never
recognized by the Church, the standard with which
to compare a heresy. Semipelagian it was, for, in
common with Pelagius, its thought was anti-
Augustinian not only on points of Augustine never
approved by the Church, but also on theses whose
negation was later expressly condemned. But no
Pelagian thought condemned by the Church of that
time has ever been pointed out in it. Was Semi-
pelagianism something other than the anti-Pelagian
popular Catholicism of the time? The departures
from Augustinian doctrine not censured at Orange
should not be designated Semipelagian. From the
point of view of the Church the material concept
of Semipelagianism should be defined only by the
standard of the later official doctrine, not by Augus-
tinianism as such. As a censured heresy its distinc-
tive marks are: (1) denial of prevenient grace; (2)
refusal to recognize that " faith " was a " gift of
God"; (3) refusal to regard the natural man as
totally incapable of doing good, making the spon-
taneous cooperation of man a condition to the opera-
tion of grace; (4) presuming grace to be imparted in
consequence of " some merit." A broader definition
of the content and scope of the concept of Semi-
pelagianism devolves upon a critical consideration
of the development of the Roman Catholic Church.
The attitude of the Roman Church to Augustine is
untrue to fact. He is the doctor ecclesice, yet his
doctrine of grace has never been officially sanc-
tioned. The later development, even that which has
official sanction, has drifted away in the direction
characterized by Semipelagian thought. This un-
true attitude arises from the obscure perplexities,
which were to be left alone in the adjustment of
the Semipelagian controversy. The decision of
Orange is equivocal. Thorough Augustinianism
may add to the sentence that " all the baptized
should be able, if they will, to labor faithfully to
become perfect," that of Augustine, " if God have
compassion, we also exercise will." On the other
hand, the idea of resistance to grace is not pro-
hibited. This position appears already in the Hy-
pomnesticon, antedating Semipelagianism. Here
all the unbaptixed, even the dying infants of Chris-
tians, remain subject to the uncertainty of predes-
tination; merely the fact of their being non-elect
is the reason why grace has never sought their
rescue. But with reference to the baptized the anti-
Augustinian tendency was triumphant. For even
if the non-resistance of the elect was not taken as
the ground of their election, yet the predestination
to death of reprobates was grounded upon the fore-
seen demerit of their resistance, involving also the
conditioning of election on the failure of the fore-
seen resistance. Augustine's doctrine was thus up-
rooted; for all the baptized the decision of eternal
life rested upon free will. To such thought the re-
vival of the predestination doctrine by Gottschalk
(q.v.) seemed to be heresy. Therefore this view of
the Hypomnesticon may be termed ciyptc-Semi-
pelagianism. The Franciscan theology of the thir-
teenth century passed beyond this. With the aid
of the distinction, coming down even from the fifth
century, of gratia generalis grata data and saving
grace, and meritum de congruo, and meritum de con-
digno (see Scholasticism, II., § I), the Semipelagian
representations appeared in new garbs. These views
may be termed Neo-Semi pelagianism. The two
latter may justly be charged against the Roman
Church of the present. (F. Loofs.)
Bibliography: T. Eleutherius, Historic! controversarium de
divine* gratia auxiliis, Antwerp, 1705; C. W. F. Walch,
Historic der KeUereien, vol. v., Leipeic, 1770; J. Geffcken,
Hittoria SemipelagianUmi arUiquissima, Gdttingen, 1826;
Q. F. Wiggers, Versuch einer pragmatischen Darttellung des
Augustinismus und Pelagianismus nach ihrer gescJiicht-
liehen Bntwickelung, Hamburg, 1833; idem, in ZHT,
xxiv (1854), 3-42, xxv (1855), 268-324, xxvii (1857), 163-
263, zzix (1859), 471-501; P. Sublet, Le SemipUagian-
isme de* origin** dan* *e* rapport* avec Augustin, le p4~
lagianieme et C6gli*et Namur, 1897; F. Worter, Beitrikge
star Dogmengetehichte de* Semipelagianismu*t Paderborn,
1898; idem, in Zur Dogmengeschichte de* Semipelagiani*-
mu*, ed. Kndpfleret al., v. 2, Monster, 1899; M. Tacquin,
in Revue de* teience* phUo*ophique* et thiologiquea, i (1907),
506-508 (on the date when "Semipelagianism" arose);
Hefele, Conciliengetchickte, ii. 697 sqq., 724 sqq., Eng.
transl., iv. 123 sqq., 152 sqq., Fr. transl., ii. 2, pp. 1053
sqq., 1085 sqq. (should be consulted for supplementary
bibliography); Sehaff, Christian Church, iii. 857-865;
KL, xi. 121-126; and the literature under Augustine;
Cjbbarius; Cassian; Faustus or Risz; Fuloentjus;
Hilary or Arles; Pelagius, especially NPNF, 1 ttr.,
vol. v., the "Introductory Essay"; Predestination; and
Prosper; and especially the works under Doctrine, His-
tory or.
fTtmltln Langruaees
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
350
L Name.
II. Territory.
In Historical Times (I 1).
The Original Home (I 2).
Foreign Influence (I 3).
SEMITIC LANGUAGES.
Disappearance of Semitic
Languages (I 4).
III. Divisions.
Grouping (I 1).
Use of Those Tongues (5 2).
IV. Characteristics.
Grammar; Phonetics (I 1).
Morphology and Syntax (| 2).
Vocabulary and Style (I 3).
V. Literary Products.
VI. Relation to other Families
Languages.
of
L Name: Up to the latter part of the eighteenth
century, before Sanskrit was known to Europe, or
attention had been directed to the Central and
Eastern Asiatic tongues, or those of Africa (except
Coptic), " Oriental languages " signified only He-
brew and its sister dialects: these alone, with the
exception of Coptic, had been the object of scien-
tific study . Up to this time all study of non-
classical languages was connected with the Bible;
Biblical students accomplished all that was done in
Hebrew, Arabic, Ethiopic, and the related tongues,
for the preceding 300 years. But when the linguistic
circle began to widen, and attempts were made at
classification, the need of special names for different
linguistic groups was felt; and, for the more gen-
eral divisions, recourse was naturally had to the
genealogies in the table of nations in Gen. x. The
credit, if such it be, of having originated the name
" Semitic " (from Noah's son Sem, or Shem) for
the Hebrew group, is to be given either to Schlozer
or to Johann Gottfried Eichhorn (q.v.) — to which
of the two is doubtful. The first known use of the
term is in Schldzer's article on the Chaldeans, in
Eichhorn's Repertorium (viii. 161, 1781), and he
seems to claim the honor of its invention; but a
similar claim is made by Eichhorn for himself,
without mention of Schlozer, in his Allgemeine
Bibliothek, vi. 772 (Leipsic, 1794), and Eichhorn
appears to have been accepted as the author of the
name. In a short while, however, it was every-
where adopted, and is now the recognized name of
this group of languages. In Germany and France,
and to some extent at least in England (so Coleridge,
TaMe-Talk, 1827), the form " Semitic " was em-
ployed (after Septuagint and Latin Vulgate, and
Luther's "Sem," instead of Hebrew "Shem");
while some English and American writers prefer the
form " Shemitic," after the more accurate translit-
eration of the Hebrew. Between the two there is
little to choose, but the shorter form, now the
more common one, is preferable to the other, be-
cause it is shorter, and inasmuch as it is farther
removed from genealogical misconception. The
once popular but unscientific threefold division of
all the languages of the world into Japhetic, Shem-
itic, and Hamitic, is now abandoned by scholars.
" Shemitic " is misleading, in so far as it appears
to restrict itself to the languages spoken by the
peoples mentioned in the table of nations as de-
scendants of Shem, while it in fact includes dialects,
as the Phenician and the Philistine, which are as-
signed in the table to Ham. The form " Semitic "
(in English, but not in German and French), as
farther removed than " Shemitic " from " Shem,"
may, perhaps, be more easily treated as in itself
meaningless, and made to accept such meaning as
science may give it. On the other hand, as mean-
ingless, it is felt by some to be objectionable; and
other names, expressing a geographical, or ethnical,
or linguistic differentia of the languages in question,
have been sought, e.g., Western Asiatic, Arabian,
Syro-Arabian: but none proposed has been defi-
nite and euphonic enough to gain general approba-
tion, and it is likely that " Semitic " will retain its
place for the present. If a new name is to be adopted
some such term as " Triliteral " would be the most
appropriate, since triliterality of stems is the most
striking characteristic of this family of languages,
and is found in no other family.
IL Territory: In ancient times (1,000 B.C.) the
Semites occupied as their proper territory the
southwestern corner of Asia; their boundaries, gen-
erally stated, being — on the east, the mountain
range running south from about forty
i. In His- miles east of the Tigris River, and the
toxical Persian Gulf; on the south, the Indian
Times. Ocean; on the west, the Red Sea,
Egypt, the Mediterranean Sea, and
Cilicia; and on the north the Taurus or the Masius
Mountains. The north and east lines are uncertain,
from the absence of full data in the early Assyrian
records. At least 1,500 years before the beginning
of the Christian era, Semitic emigrants from South-
ern Arabia crossed the Strait of Bab-el-Mandeb,
and occupied the part of Africa lying just south of
Egypt, their territory being about that of the mod-
ern Abyssinia: these were the Geez (" emigrants," or
possibly " freemen"), or Semitic Ethiopians. The
main Semitic region thus lay between the tenth and
thirty-eighth degrees of north latitude and the forty-
fourth and sixtieth degrees of east longitude, with an
area of over a million square miles. Semitic colonies
established themselves early in Egypt (Phenicians
in the Delta, and perhaps the Hyksos), and on the
north coast of Africa (Carthage and other cities)
and the south coast of France (Marseilles) and Spain,
possibly (though this is uncertain) in Asia Minor
and in Greece. In modern times Syrian Semites are
found in Kurdistan, as far east as the western shore
of LakeUrumiah (lat. 37° 30' N.; long. 45° 30' E.);
but it is doubtful whether this region was Semitic
before the beginning of the Christian era. A large
part of Semitic territory was steppe or desert. Only
those portions which skirt the banks of rivers and
the shores of seas (with the exception of the city of
Mecca and possibly one or two other small cities)
were occupied by settled populations; the desert
was traversed by tribes of nomads, whose life was
largely predatory. Semitic speech is interesting,
not from the size of the territory and population it
represents, but from the controlling influence it has
exerted on history through its religious ideas.
The original seat of the Semites is unknown.
There must have been a primitive Semitic race (with
a primitive Semitic language), which existed before
the historical Semitic peoples and dialects had taken
351
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
fitamitio Languages
shape; but of this primitive race we can say no
more than that it goes back to a remote antiquity,
since of one of its daughters, the Baby-
a. The Orig- Ionian people, there are traces in the
inal Home, fourth millennium B.C. The attempt
has been made to determine the habitat
of the Semites, before they broke up into separate na-
tions, from their traditions, and from the vocabulary
of the primitive tongue made out by a comparison
of the existing dialects; but no trustworthy result
has been reached. The oldest accounts say nothing
definite. Gen. xi. 2, for example, contains the state-
ment that the whole body of the descendants of
Noah journeyed " eastward " (so mikkedhem is to
be rendered), that is, toward the Tigris-Euphrates
region; but the starting-point is not given, nor is
there here anything of a separate Semitic people.
Again, in the same chapter, the assembled human
race is said to have been scattered from the city
Babel, without, however, any indication of the
points to which the descendants of Noah's three
sons severally went. At most, a dim feeling may be
discerned here that the Semites had once lived to-
gether in the Tigris-Euphrates valley; but this
might be referred to the fact that the Hebrews be-
lieved that they themselves had come from that
region to Canaan. No other Semitic people has, so
far as is known, any ancient tradition on this point.
The evidence from the primitive Semitic vocabu-
lary is equally vague. Its terms for land, moun-
tains, rivers, seas, metals, grains, fruits, and ani-
mals, do not fix any particular spot in western Asia
as the locality where such terms must have orig-
inated. Certain similarities between the Egyptian
and Semitic languages have suggested the theory
that the Semitic-Hamitic community, out of which
came later the Semitic and Egyptian peoples, once
dwelt in Africa near the Mediterranean shore, and
split into sections, one remaining in Africa, the other
passing into Asia; but the arguments for this view
are not convincing (some scholars, it may be added,
place the home of the primitive Semitic-Hamitic
people in Arabia, q.y.). It is necessary, therefore,
to regard as not established the hypotheses which
make the mountains of Armenia, or the lower Tigris-
Euphrates valley, or the Arabian Desert, or Africa
the cradle of the Semitic race, and to leave the ques-
tion at present unsolved. The choice is between
Arabia and Africa, the preponderance of present
opinion being doubtful.
The Semitic territory was enclosed by that of
Indo-Europeans on the east and the west, and Egypt
on the south. In ancient times, however, the lan-
guage was little affected by foreign in-
3. Foreign fluence, except at one point. Accord-
Influence, ing to the view now held by most
Assyriologists, the Babylonian-Assy-
rians, conquering the non-Semitic Sumerians, who
preceded them as occupants of the Tigris-Eu-
phrates valley, in adopting the civilization of the
conquered, adopted a number of their words.
Hebrew made a few loans in early times from the
Egyptian, and at a later period, possibly from
the Indian, and then from the Persian, Greek,
and Latin; and the ecclesiastical Aramaic was
naturally greatly affected by Greek and Latin.
The loanwords are easily recognized, except those
which come from the Sumerian.
All the Semitic nationalities, except the Arabian
and the Geez (Ethiopia), died out before the second
century of the Christian era. The Babylonians and
Assyrians disappeared as a political force in the
sixth century b.c, and their language survived only
a few centuries. The Phenicians lingered in Asia till
the time of the Antonines, and their
4. Disap- language in Africa (Carthage) till
pearance toward the fifth century of the Chris-
of Semitic tian era (mentioned by Augustine and
Languages. Jerome). The Syrian Arameans lost
their independence in the eighth cen-
tury b.c, but continued to exist, and their dialect
revived in the second century a.d. as a Christian
language; and the Jewish Aramaic continued for
some centuries (up to the eleventh century a.d.) to
be the spoken and literary tongue of the Palestinian
and Babylonian Jews. The Jewish people, broken
up by the Romans in the first and second centuries
a.d., and scattered over the world, have carried
Hebrew with them as a learned, artificial tongue.
The South Arabians (Minsans, Sab&ans, and per-
haps others), once a flourishing community, lingered
till the Mohammedan conquest in the seventh cen-
tury of the Christian era, and were then absorbed
in the general Arabian mass. The North Arabians
did not appear as a nation till the seventh century
a.d., and their language is now widely spoken.
Geez proper died out about the sixth century a.d.,
remaining, however, as the ecclesiastical and learned
language; and the nationality is still in existence.
IIL Divisions: The various Semitic dialects
closely resemble one another, there being, for ex-
ample, between no two of them such dissimilarity
as exists between Greek and Latin; but the family
is divided into two well-defined groups and several
sub-groups, the difference between the two main
groups, in vocabulary and forms, being considerably
greater than that between any two
1. Grouping, members of the same group or sub-
group. The relations of the dialects
may be seen from the following table, which is de-
signed to include all Semitic forms of speech that
can lay claim to linguistic individuality, except a
few modern jargons mentioned below.
I. North Semitic.
1. Eastern.
a. Babylonian.
6. Assyrian.
2. Northern.
Aramaic.
a. East Aramaic,
a. Syriac (Dialect of
Edessa).
fl. Mandean.
y. Nabateean.
6. West Aramaic.
a. Samaritan.
S. Jewish Aramaic
(Daniel, Esra,
Tar gums, Talmud).
y. Palmyrene.
5. Egyptian Aramaic
3. Western.
a Phenician.
Old Phenician.
Late Phenician (Punic).
6. Hebrew.
c. Moabitiah and other Canaanitish
II. South Semitic.
1. Northern.
Arabic.
2. Southern.
a. Sabsean, or Himya-
ritic; MinaBan.
Mahri.
HakUi (Ehkili).
6. Gees, or Ethiopia
a. Old Gees.
0. Tigre.
y. Tigrifia.
5. Amharic
«. Harari.
Semitio Lanruaces
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
352
From the cuneiform tablets discovered in 1887 at
Tell el-Amarna (see Amakna Tablets) in Egypt,
near Thebes, it appears that c. 1400 b.c. Baby-
lonian was the official language in Canaan and the
language of intercourse between the
2. Use of kings of Babylonia and Egypt. The
Those Babylonians had before that time over-
Tongues, run and occupied Canaan and im-
pressed their culture on the land, so
that, though Egypt then held Canaan, the Egyptian
governors of the cities (among them the governor of
Jerusalem) wrote to the Egyptian royal govern-
ment in Babylonian, and Egyptian youth at court
studied Babylonian.
Of these dialects, the following are now spoken:
(1) Aramaic, by the Nestorian and Jacobite Chris-
tians in Upper Mesopotamia, near Mosul, thence
eastward to the western shore of Lake Urmi, and
northward in the Kurdish Mountains (Noldeke,
Grammatik der neusyrischen Sprache, Leipsic, 1868) ;
and by the remnant of the Mandeans in Lower Meso-
potamia (Noldeke, Manddische Grammatik, Halle,
1874). West Aramaic is now spoken only in three
small villages near Damascus. (2) Arabic is the
only Semitic dialect that has now any real life. It
is spoken in various sub-dialects — by the Bedouin of
the Arabian Desert; in Egypt, and, as ecclesiastical
language, in Turkey; in the Magreb (north coast
of Africa); in Syria; in Malta, where the vernacular
is a strange mixture, with Arabic as its basis, but
with many Italian and other words; on the coast
of Malabar (the Mapuli jargon). The Mozarabic, a
Spanish-Arabic jargon formerly spoken in the south
of Spain, became extinct in the last century. (3)
Geez: the four dialects, Tigrg, Tigrifia, Amharic, Ha-
rari, are still spoken in Abyssinia. (4) Hebrew at
a comparatively early date began to be displaced by
Aramaic, which became the common language of
intercourse in the greater part of western Asia and
so the vernacular of the Jews. The earliest notice
of the use of Aramaic by Jews is found in the Ara-
maic papyri discovered in the island of Elephantine
in the Nile opposite Assuan. Here as early as the
sixth century B.C. dwelt a Jewish community pos-
sessing a temple and carrying on a regular Jewish
worship; their commercial and other documents are
all written in Aramaic. This language gradually
took the place of Hebrew in Palestine, and main-
tained itself till some time after the Mohammedan
conquest, when the Jews gradually adopted Arabic.
In general the Jews speak the language of the people
among whom they dwell, keeping up, however, to a
greater or less extent, the knowledge of the old
tongue. Hebrew is now studied by the Jews as a
sacred language, and by a few of them, chiefly the
older orthodox bodies in Germany, Austria, and
Russia, is to some extent written and spoken. This
spoken language contains a large admixture of mod-
ern European terms. The literary Hebrew of to-
day occupies about the same position among the
Jews as Latin among us. The so-called " Yiddish "
(that is, German Jewish) is a Rhineland German
speech, with admixture of Hebrew and Slavic words,
now spoken by Jews in Russia, Austria, America,
and elsewhere in the diaspora [and printed by them
in the Jewish character].
Of languages which have been strongly affected
by Semitic tongues may be mentioned the Iranian
Huzvaresh or Pahlavi (the language of the Bunde-
hesh), which is greatly Aramaized; the Iranian
Persian, whose vocabulary is largely Arabic, and
even its syntax appears to have been somewhat
Semitized; the Indian Hindustani, which, developed
under Moslem influence, also contains a large num-
ber of Arabic words; and the Turkish, especially
the literary and learned language of Constantinople,
which in like manner, and for the same reason, has
a large infusion of Arabic.
IV. Characteristics: These may be divided into
formal (grammar), material (vocabulary), and sty-
listic (rhetoric and thought). The Semitic phonetic
system has a marked individuality. It is probable
that the original Semitic alphabet was nearly iden-
tical with that of the classical Arabic, containing
six gutturals (Alef, Ha, 9a, Qa, Ayin,
x. Grammar; Gayin), five uvulars (I£af, Ta, ?a, Sad,
Phonetics. Pad), two palatals (Kaf, Gam), two
linguo-dcntals (Ta, Dal), two labials
(Pa, Ba), six liquids (Ra, Ya, Lam, Waw, and the
nasals Mim, Nun), three sibilants (Sin, Sin, Zayin),
and perhaps six spirants (Kaf, Gam, 1?a, Dal, Pa,
Ba). No existing dialect has all these letters, but
there are traces of most of them in all. Thus, com-
parison of Assyrian and Arabic mal 3S it probable
that the former contained all these h-sounds (ha,
fra, ha), though only one of them (ha) is now found
in it. From Septuagint transliterations it appears
that Hebrew possessed Gayin, as well as Ayin; the
South Semitic group shows all the uvulars, and the
Hebrew all the spirants. It may be, however, that
the parent Semitic speech had fewer uvulars and
spirants, and that the Southern group developed
the former, and the Northern the latter. It is doubt-
ful whether Hebrew Samek and Sin represent two
different sounds. It is likely, also, that not all the
sounds above mentioned are original, i.e., some of
them may be merely modifications of earlier and
simpler sounds; but here the concern is only with
the consonantal material possessed by the primi-
tive Semitic tongue, and not with the material out
of which its alphabet may have been formed. The
Semitic alphabet is thus seen to be characterized
by fulness of guttural, uvular, and spirant con-
sonants. In the several dialects the movement has
been toward a diminution of the number of gut-
turals and uvulars, namely, by changing these into
similar letters pronounced farther forward in the
mouth. Assyrian, Galilean Jewish, Aramaic, and
Mandean threw off the most of the gutturals; mod-
ern Arabic has diminished the number of its uvulars,
and Geez the number of its uvulars and gutturals.
This is a tendency, observable in all languages, to
bring the consonants forward in the mouth and thus
facilitate their pronunciation. The vowel material
of the primitive Semitic was simple, consisting, prob-
ably, of the three vowels, a, i, u, with the corre-
sponding long a, I, u. These have been variously
modified in the different dialects. Assyrian has 6;
Aramaic, 6, 5; Hebrew, a, 8, e, 5, 6; modern Arabic,
6, 6, a (aw), 6; Geez, 6, §, 6.
Morphologically, the Semitic languages belong
to the class called inflecting, standing in this respect
853
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Semitio Languages
alongside of the Indo-European. Their most marked
peculiarity is their triliteralism; most stems con-
sist of three consonants, on which, by
2. Morphol- prefixes, affixes, infixes, and internal
ogy and vowel-changes, all derived forms are
Syntax, made. The noun has gender (mascu-
line and feminine), number and case.
The verb has gender, number and person, but prop-
erly no distinction of tense (in the sense of time),
instead of which there are two forms which denote
respectively completedness and ingressiveness of
action. The notions of reflection, intensity, causa-
tion, are expressed by derived verbal stems made
by prefixes and infixes. The Semitic syntax is
marked by great simplicity of articulation. The
different clauses of the sentence are, for the most
part, connected by the most general word " and ";
there is little or no inversion and transposition for
rhetorical effect; and there are no elaborate periods.
The structure is commonly and properly described
as monumental or lapidary. The most striking
special peculiarity of the syntax is the phonetic
abridgment of the noun (the construct state; [in
Hebrew, where one word is limited by another, not
the limiting but the limited word is changed in form
to the " construct state/' so that the Indo-European
genitive relation is in a manner reversed]) to show
that it is defined by the following word or clause.
The absence of compounds (except in proper names)
is another marked feature — an illustration of the
isolating character of the thought. The whole
conception of the sentence is detached, isolated,
and picturesque. Of these general Semitic character-
istics the Hebrew and Assyrian, which first pro-
duced literatures, show the most, and the Aramaic
and Arabic, whose literary life began late, the
least.
The Semitic word-material differs greatly accord-
ing to the periods and the circumstances of the va-
rious peoples. The pre-Christian literary remains
are very scanty. From the Israelites
3. Vocabu- there have come down only a few pro-
lary and phetical discourses, historical books,
Style. sacred hymns, and ethical works, to-
gether with several law books, no secu-
lar productions except the Song of Songs; from the
Babylonians and the Assyrians, somewhat more —
royal and commercial inscriptions, geographical, as-
tronomical, grammatical, and religious works, and
fragments of epic and other poems; from the Phe-
nicians, a few short inscriptions; and from the
others, nothing. The Hebrew vocabulary is full in
terms relating to religious feelings and acts, scanty
in philosophical and artistic terms and in names of
things pertaining to common life; the Assyrian has
more of the last, but is almost equally rich in the first.
In later times, however, the Aramaic (classical and
Jewish), and the Arabic under Greek influence, cre-
ated larger vocabularies, and developed some power
of philosophical expression. The Hebrew vocabu-
lary is now being enlarged in this direction by the
Jews. From the nature of the national culture, these
languages, though their vocabularies are sometimes
(the Arabic especially) very large, do not satisfy
the needs of western life. They multiply words for
objects and acts which we do not care to particular-
X.— 23
ize, and are deficient in terms for those which we
wish to express with precision. The above de-
scription of the vocabulary and syntax will serve
to characterize the style and thought of the Semitic
tongues. The highest artistic shape they have not,
either in prose or in poetry. They do not readily
lend themselves to philosophy proper or to art. But
in the simple expression of emotion, and the con-
densation of practical wisdom into household words,
they are not surpassed by the most highly devel-
oped Indo-European languages: in these respects
the Bible has an acknowledged preeminence.
V. Literary Products: It will be sufficient here
to mention briefly the general characteristics of the
literature of the Semitic languages. Of the different
forms of poetry the Semites have produced little
more than the lyric, as in the Old-Testament Psalms,
the Syrian hymns, and the Arabian Kasidas. The
old Babylonian inscriptions contain two cosmolog-
ical poems of great interest, and the Gilgamesh
(formerly written Izdubar) cycle of stories has an
epic tone; but this cycle has not a definite literary
unity like the Iliad, and it is uncertain how much
of all the early poetical material is derived from
a non-Semitic (that is, Sumerian) source; the
rhythmic form is in part Semitic. The Semites have
never produced a native drama. Neither the Book
of Job nor the Song of Songs is a drama; the former
is a colloquy of five men who make long argumen-
tative speeches, and the question is summed up in
a group of discourses by Yahweh; the latter is a
collection of loosely connected wedding-songs, with-
out plot or movement. The drama of the late poet
Ezekiel has been regarded as an imitation of Greek
models. The subjective character of the Semitic
poetic thought is obvious: actions or phenomena in
outward nature or in human life are generally de-
scribed not for their own sake, but as a part of the
feeling of the writer. As poetry it takes high rank.
The Hebrew lyrics are sonorous and rhythmical;
the Arabian arc ingenious and lively; the Syrian,
however, are tame. The metrical form of Hebrew
poetry (see Hebrew Language and Literature,
III.)) and to some extent of Babylonian, is parallel-
ism of members, and the rhythmic progression is
by stress of voice, not by length and number of syl-
lables— a member is defined as having two, three, or
four beats; the Arabic, however, has a well-defined
system of feet characterized by number and length
of syllables. Rime appears first in Syriac Christian
hymns, and is feebly represented in Arabic. The
historical writing of the Semites has never attained
a scientific or artistic form. It is either baldly an-
nalistic (as parts of the Old-Testament Book of
Kings, the Assyrian royal inscriptions, and the Ara-
bic histories), or, when it attempts more connected
presentation of the facts, it is subjective and prag-
matic, arranging the historical facts so as to point
a moral or support a theory. In one department,
prophetic discourse, the Semitic literature is un-
rivaled; there is nothing in any other family of lan-
guages like the prophetic oratory of the Old Tes-
tament, or the declamation of the Koran. In other
departments, as fiction and philosophy, the Semites
have never been original, but always imitators
(Thousand and One Nights, the Arabian philosophy;
Semitio Lan«ruaff6«
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
854
the Persian Arabic is, of course, not to be consid-
ered here).
VL Relation to Other Families of Languages:
So far as present knowledge goes, it is doubtful
whether the Semitic family is genetically connected
with any other in the world except the Egyptian
and Cushite groups. Various unsuccessful attempts
have been made to show a relationship between it
and the Indo-European. The case is different with
the Egyptian, between whose stock of sounds, per-
sonal pronouns, numerals, and verbal forms, and the
Semitic there is a remarkable resemblance; but the
great differences between the two families in other
respects make great caution necessary in comparing
them. There is a similar resemblance between the
structure of the Semitic verb and that of the Cush-
ite group of languages (the Galla, Saho, and others,
near Abyssinia), but nothing definite. At most, an
original Semitic-Hamitic family may be conjectured
out of which these two have grown; but in that
case their separation took place so long ago, their
paths since that time have been so different, and
the traces of kinship have been so far obliterated,
that little can be got from a comparison between
them, except in the way of reconstructing the his-
tory of the original family. One main obstacle
in the comparison of Semitic words with others is
the triliteralism of stems of the former; and it has
therefore been attempted to reduce these to bi-
literals, but hitherto with indifferent success. It
need not be denied that this problem may hereafter
be solved, and comparisons instituted between
Semitic and other families that may be of service
to all. C. H. Toy.
Bibliography: General works are: E. Littre, Comment
dans deux situations historiques lee Semites entrerent en com-
petition avee lee Aryens pour V hegemonic du mondet Paris,
1879; F. Delitssch, Wo lag das Parodies t Leipsic, 1881;
F. Hommel, Die Semiten und ihre Bedeutung filr die Kul-
turgeschichte der Menschheit, Leipsic, 1881; idem, Die
semitischen V Hiker und Sprachen, ib. 1881; F. Lenor-
mant, Lee Origines de Vhist. d'apres la Bible et lee tradi-
tions des peuples orientaux, 2 vols., Paris, 1880-82, Eng.
transl. of vol. i., Beginnings of Hist., New York, 1882;
T. Ndldeke, Sketches from Eastern History (" Some Char-
acteristics of the Semitic Race "), New York, 1892; G. A.
Barton, Sketch of Semitic Origins, New York, 1902; and
the publications of the Congress of Arts and Sciences (St.
Louis Exposition), vol. iii., Boston, 1906.
On the science of language consult: H. Stein thai,
Charakteristik der hauptsachlichsten Typen des Sprach-
baues, Berlin, 1860; F. Max Mailer, Science of Language,
New York, 1865; W. D. Whitney, Language and the Sci-
ence of Language, New York, 1873; F. W. Farrar, Fam-
ilies of Speech, London, 1870; A. Hovelacque, La Lin-
guistique, Paris, 1876; A. H. Sayce, Introduction to the
Science of Language, London, 1880; J. Byrne, Principles
of the Structure of Language, London, 1885; H. Paul,
Principles of the Hist, of Language, London, 1891.
On Semitic comparative grammar, lexicography, and
language-history consult: T. Benfey, Ueber das Verhdlt-
niss der agyptischen Sprache zum semitischen Sprachstamm,
Leipsic, 1844; E. Renan, Hist, generate et systeme com-
part des langues sSmitiques, Paris, 1863; F. Mailer, In-
dogermanisch und semitisch, Vienna, 1870; F. W. N. Phi-
lippi. Status constructus im Hebraischen, Weimar, 1871;
E. Schroder, in ZDMO, xxvii. 3 (1873); A. Koch, Der
semitische Infinitiv, Stuttgart, 1874; W. Wright, Com-
parative Grammar of the Semitic Languages, London and
New York, 1890; T. Ndldeke, in Encyclopedia Britannica,
xxi. 641-656; idem, Beitrage tur semitischen Sprachwis-
senschaft, Strasburg, 1904; idem, Neue Beitrage tur semi-
tischen Sprachwisscmchaft, ib. 1909; H. Ewald. Abhandlung
uber die geschichtliche Folge der semitischen Sprachen, G6t-
tingen, 1871; C. Abel, Sprachwissenschaftliche Abhand-
lungen, Leipsic, 1884; A. H. Huistnga, Analogy in the
Semitic Languages, Baltimore, 1891; J. Barth, Die Nomi-
nalbUdung in den semitischen Sprachen, Leipsic, 1894; idem,
Sprachwissenschaftliche Untersuchungen, ib. 1907; O. E.
Lindberg, Vergleichende Orammatik der semitischen Spra-
chen, Gothenburg, 1897 sqq.; A Glossary of Aramaic In-
scriptions: a comprehensive Collection for the Study of Com-
parative Semitic Philology, Cambridge, 1898; H. Zimmem,
Vergleichende Orammatik der semitischen Sprachen, Berlin,
1898; E. Kdnig, Hebraisch und Semitisch. Prolegomena und
Grundlinien einer Geschichte der semitischen Sprachen, Ber-
lin, 1901; idem, Hebraisches und aramaisches Worterbuch
sum Alien Testament mil EinschaUung und Analyse otter
schwererkennbarenFormen. Deutung der Eigennamen sowie
der massoretischen Randbemerkungen und einem deutsch-
hebraischen Wortregister, Leipsic, 1901-10; G. Dslxnan,
Orammatik des jQdischen paldstinischen Aramaisch, Leip-
sic, 1905; W. Gesenius, Hebraisches und aramaisches
Handworterbuch, 14th ed. by F. Buhl and H. Zimmem,
Leipsic, 1905; H. L. Strack, Orammatik des biblisch-
aramaischen, Leipsic, 1905; F. Brown, S. R. Driver, C. A.
Briggs, Hebrew and English Lexicon of the O. T„ Boston,
etc., 1908; C. Brockelmann, Grundriss der vergleichenden
Orammatik der semitischen Sprachen, part I., Berlin and
New York, 1908; idem, Semitische Sprachwissenschaft,
Leipsic, 1910; L. Belleli, An Independent Examination of
the Assuan and Elephantine Aramaic Papyri with eleven
Plates and two Appendices on sundry Items, London, 1909;
Beitrage but christlich-arabischen Literaturgeschichte,
Leipsic, 1909; M. van Berchem, Arabische Inschriften,
ib. 1909; idem, Materiaux pour un Corpus inscriptionum
Arabicarum, Paris, 1910; J. P. Alone, Short Manual (with
Vocabulary) of the Amharic Language, London, 1910;
E. H. Armbruster, Initio Amharica. An Introduction to
spoken Amharic, ib. 1910; H. Bauer, Die Tempera im
Semitischen, Leipsic, 1910; C. Besold, Verbalsuffixformen
ale Alterskriterien babytonisch-assyrischer Inschriften, Hei-
delberg, 1910; Fabre d'Olivet, La Langue Mbraique resti-
tute, et le veritable sense des mots hebreux rHabli et prouvi,
Paris, 1910; J. B. Chabot, Lea Langues et lee litteratures
arameennes, ib. 1910.
SEMLER, sem'ler or aem'ler, JOHANN SALOMO:
Pioneer in Biblical criticism; b. at Saalfeld (66 m.
s.w. of Leipsic) Dec. 18, 1725; d. at Halle Mar. 4,
1791. His father was archdeacon at Saalfeld, and
introduced the son to the circles of Pietism (q.v.) in
early youth. But young Semler, already a wide
reader and possessed of a phenomenal memory, soon
felt a profound disinclination toward all manner of
Pietism, only by degrees, however, becoming con-
scious of his fundamental objection to this move-
ment. At the University of Halle, which he visited
in 1743, he was especially drawn toward Siegmund
Jakob Baumgarten (q.v.), whose erudition ap-
pealed to him, and there took his master's degree
in 1750. In the same year he became an unsalaried
professor in the gymnasium at Coburg, where he
gave instruction in the elements of Arabic, and was
also editor of the Coburg Stoats- und Gdehrtenzeit-
ung. The year 1751 brought him the call of a pro-
fessorship in history and Latin poetry at Altdorf.
But in 1752, at the instance of Baumgarten, he was
called to Halle as professor of theology, where there
opened up for him a field of labor suitable to his
talents. After Baumgarten's death (1757), he grew
more free and spontaneous, and a few years later
he was one of the most celebrated theologians of
Germany.
Sender's critical investigation was directed first
of all to the Scriptures. What he undertook was
unheard of in German theology, yet there was no
doubt of his right to make Scripture the object of
scientific research. His Biblical investigations
355
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Semitic LancruaffM
were concerned with the transmission and the
nature of the text. He soon came to believe in
various revisions of the New-Testament text,
strove after more certain standards for fixing the
value of particular manuscripts, and discerned the
importance of patristic citations. This new at-
titude respecting the text involved the germinating
principles for a new valuation of the canon. To this
problem was devoted his Abharuttung von der frcien
Untersuchung des Kanons, nebst Antwort auf die
tubingische Vertheidigung der Apokalypsis (4 parts,
Halle, 1771-76). He came to recognize the fact
that the canon of the Old Testament, like that
of the New, underwent a historical development
and grew up by degrees, and hence may not pass
for " inspired " in the traditional sense and has not,
therefore, the " authority " heretofore ascribed to
it. This principle of the liberty of Christians to
deal with the canon, involved the further task of
gaining a criterion for gaging the value of the par-
ticular constituents of such a collection, offering as
such the test of the presence in the books of the
spirit of Christ. This led him to recognize in the
Old Testament and the New two stages of religion,
the Jewish national, and the universal religion of
Christianity, and this showed the way to a wholly
new explanation of Scripture. He established the
point that the doctrine of Jesus and the apostles
contains Jewish conceptions of only synchronous
value. The problem of scientific exegesis is to de-
termine what belongs to these " local " and " tem-
poral " elements. So early as 1760, he gave expres-
sion to these maxims, and applied the same in De
dcemoniacis, quorum in evangdiis fit mentio (Halle,
1760). Semler further developed the idea of utili-
zing Talmud and Apocrypha in exegesis.
With Semler there began a new epoch in ecclesi-
astical history. His historical labors exhibit him
both as editor (TertvUiani opera, 6 vols., Halle,
1769-76; Apparatus ad libros symbolicos ecdesia-
Lutherana, 1775), and as critic (Commentarii his-
torici de antiquo Christianorum statu, 2 vols., 1771-
1772; Versuch eines fruchtbaren Auszuges der
KirchengeschichU des N. T., 3 vols., 1773-78). His
guiding principles include constant return to the
sources, the importation of purely natural factors
in the history of the Church, employment of psy-
chology to aid in the understanding of history, and
recognition that development has taken place in
the history of the Church. This new mode of sur-
vey showed its most pronounced reaction in the
sphere of ecclesiastical dogma. One of Sender's
most important theses was his distinction between
theology and religion. By means of this distinction
he created free course for his criticism and thereby
liberated scientific research from the theological
odium, his purpose being to grapple with the Chris-
tian faith itself. Another main idea of Semler's is
that in all ages there has been a diversity of theo-
logical and religious views, and that this discrepancy
exists of right. Consequently all doctrinal schemes
are mere attempts to comprehend the truth, with
the results that the practise of appraising the dog-
ma of one's own church in distinction from that of
other ecclesiastical fellowships was no longer to be
upheld, the basis for a propaganda among adher-
ents of an alien confession vanished away, and even
the gap between Christianity and non-Christian
religions became lessened by coordination of all
into the divine cosmic plan. The task of defining
the value and effective scope of the theology recog-
nized by the Church, and the relation of this ecclesi-
astical doctrine to the asserted freedom of the in-
dividual, Semler sought to resolve by distinguishing
public religion — i.e., Christian regulations in the
way of external ordinances — from private religion,
i.e., the particular Christian's religious convictions.
Semler excited great surprise among his contem-
poraries by his attitude toward the practical life of
the Church. When the agitation over the " Wolfen-
buttel Fragments " (q.v.) reached its height, Sem-
ler undertook to controvert the " Fragmentists "
with keen polemics. Semler's attitude in various
disputes was the necessary result of the fundamental
thoughts of his theology. Yet he was no construc-
tor, nor did he clearly define for himself the conse-
quences of his own formal postulations. Indeed, he
himself often fell far short of exercising the objec-
tivity that he demanded abstractly; and his direct
interest was much more pronounced than he per-
sonally admitted. He was far more accessible to
conservative sentiments than could be expected,
especially in his labors as critic. Similarly, the very
heaviness of his style is due to his continual strug-
gling with new material and to his inability to wait
for publication until he had completely mastered
the subject-matter. His real merit lay in assisting
to pilot theology into a new phase of development
by importing into theology the historical mode of
contemplation. In its final decade, Semler's liter-
ary activity shows a change in his interests, as he
busied himself with natural sciences, alchemy, mys-
tical theosophy, and freemasonry (Unpartheiische
Sammlung zur Geschichte der Rosenkreuzer, 4 parts,
Leipsic, 1786-88). At the same time he did not
abandon theology (Letztes Glaubensbekenntnis, 1792).
Carl Mirbt.
Bibuoobapht: Semler's autobiography was published in
two parts, Halle, 1781-82. Consult further: J. O. Eich-
hora, AUgemeine BibliotheJc der biblischen lAteratur, v. 1-
201, Leipsic, 1703; Diestel, in JahrbUeher fur deutsche*
Theologie, xii (1867), 471-498; P. Gastrow, Johann Salomo
Semler in seiner Bedeutung fur die Theologie mit besonderer
Berucksichtigung seine* Streites mit G. E. Leasing, Giessen,
1905; the work by G. Karo with the same title, Berlin,
1905; H. Hoffmann, Die Theologie Semler*, Leipsic, 1905;
L. Zscharnack, Letting und Semler. Bin Beitrag tur
Entstehungsgeschicht* dee Rationalism** und der kritischen
Theologie, Giessen, 1905; F. Huber, Johann Salomo Sem-
ler, seine Bedeutung fur die Theologie, Berlin, 1906; ADB,
xxxiii. 698-704.
SEMPRINGHAM, ORDER OF. See Gilbert,
Saint, of Semfringham.
SEN, KESHAV CHANDRA: Hindu Theist;
b. at Calcutta Nov. 19, 1838; d. there Jan. 8, 1884.
As a boy he was imperious in character and self-
willed, not especially religious in spirit, but amid the
low moral condition of the times he stood out as a
pure-minded boy, shy but self-contained. As he
passed into youth he became austere in his habits, a
vegetarian, showing an antipathy toward all frivoli-
ties, and absorbed in philosophical and religious sub-
jects. It was at this time that Christian literature
began to make its deep impression on his mind.
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
356
As an outlet to his feelings he started the Goodwill
Fraternity, where those of like minds met for prayer
and the expression of a deepening religions spirit.
Devendranath Tagore (see Tagore, Devbndra-
nath), then leader of the Brahmo §omaj, attended
on one occasion a meeting of this society, and this
formed the first step in the later friendship between
the two. At this time (1858) the family guru came
to perform rites of religious initiation, precipitating
a severe mental struggle for Keshav; in the face of
the family pressure he stood out against idolatrous
rites, and his victory brought him into still closer
sympathy with Devendranath Tagore, who had been
watching his struggles.
In Apr., 1859, in the establishment of the Brahmo
School Keshav appeared in the r61e of an enthusias-
tic teacher of theism. Devendranath Tagore joined
hands with Keshav in this new enterprise. Keshav
lectured on the philosophy of theism, and Deven-
dranath on the doctrine and theology of the Brahmo
Somaj. In 1860 his first publication appeared, a
tract entitled Young Bengal. This is for You, and
was followed by twelve others, embodying the sub-
stance of his lectures before the Brahmo School. In
Aug., 1861, he began publication of The Indian
Mirror for the propagation of his ideas. In 1862
he was formally appointed a minister of the Brahmo
Somaj, and into its development he threw his whole
nature.
In Aug., 1862, the first intercaste marriage ac-
cording to Brahmo rites took place, encouraged by
Keshav, but disapproved by Devendranath. And
as such marriages increased in number, the constitu-
tional difference of opinion between the two leaders
became emphasized. Devendranath was a con-
servative and drew his inspiration more and more
from the Upanishads, while Keshav drew his from
Christian sources. Though close friends, their rad-
ically different attitude to social reform finally
created a cleavage that grew wider with every strain.
In Feb., 1864, Keshav began his first tour over
India, visiting Bombay, Poona, Calicut, and Mad-
ras. The welcome he received everywhere, and the
apparent ripeness for his theistic message suggested
the idea of a Brahmo Somaj for India.
On his returning to Calcutta both leaders became
conscious that their differences were irreconcilable.
And in 1866 Keshav and his radical followers se-
ceded from the Somaj to found the Brahmo Somaj
of India. Devendranath continued the old Cal-
cutta Brahmo Somaj under the name of the Adi
Brahmo Somaj. In the midst of these troublous
times, Keshav felt his separation from his old friend
keenly, and, driven to seek comfort somewhere,
found it for a time in retirement, spent largely in
the study of the life of Christ. The lecture he soon
after delivered on Jesus Christ Europe and Asia
created a sensation, separating him still more from
Brahmos of the older party. His explanation five
months later in a lecture on Great Men brought him
little comfort, as it opened him to charges of recan-
tation on the one side and of egotism on the other.
On Jan. 24, 1868, the foundation of the Brahmo
Mandir was laid. In Mar., 1868, he began his sec-
ond missionary journey over India, ending it at
Monghyr on the banks of the Ganges. Here Keshav
was received with the utmost enthusiasm, while
people prostrated themselves before him calling him
" Lord," " Master," and " Savior." His failure to
rebuke this brought unfortunate consequences.
On Aug. 22, 1869, the Brahmo Mandir was formally
opened with imposing ceremonies. In Sept., 1872,
he founded the Bharat Ashram, where Brahmos
lived a communistic life, which continued for seven
years but finally broke up because of internal dis-
cord and the gross misbehavior of some inmates.
From 1875 to 1878 he developed an ascetic life, cul-
tivated the Bhakti spirit characterized by singing
and violent dancing, which aroused the disgust of
many and the suspicion of others. In 1878 occurred
the " Cuch Behar marriage " of his daughter under
fourteen years of age to the Maharaja of Cuch Be-
har yet under sixteen years of age, according to
Hindu idolatrous rites. This marriage was severely
criticized as a lapse from Brahmo principles. The
confidence of many in his leadership was shaken,
and they withdrew to found the Sadharan Brahmo
Somaj. In 1881 Keshav formally announced the
name " New Dispensation " as the name of his
church, and himself as its prophet, and demanded
immunity from all criticism, since he declared that
he was guided by the direct commandment of God.
This abnormal estimation of himself as an avenue
of truth brought its unfortunate fruit in the wor-
ship of some, the disaffection of others, and discord
in the Somaj. See India, III.
Justin E. Abbott.
Bibliography: The most noted of the writings of Keshav
Chandra Sen are: The Brahmo Samaj; Lectures and
Tracts, 2 series, London, 1870; The Brahmo Samaj; Ke-
shub Chunder Sen in England, 2 vote., Calcutta, 1881; and
his Diary in England, Calcutta, 1886. For his life and
activities consult: P. C. Mosoomdar, Life and Teachings
of Chunder Sen, Calcutta, 1887; J. F. B. Tinling, An
Evangelist's Tour round India, with Account of Keshub
Chunder Sen and the Modern Hindu Reformers, London,
1870; S. D. Collet, Keshub Chunder Sen's English Visit,
ib. 1871 (contains some of his speeches); Ramachandra
Vasu, Brahmoism . . . with . . . Account of Keshub
Chunder Sen's Connection with the Movement, New York,
1884; T. E. Slater, Keshab Chandra Sen and the Brahmo
Samaj, Madras, 1884; and the literature under Brahmo
Somaj.
SENDOMIR, CONSENSUS OF: An agreement
drawn up in 1570 between the Lutherans, the Re-
formed, and the Bohemian Brethren at Sendomir, a
town in what was formerly Little Poland (125 m. s.
of Warsaw). While the state of affairs at the time
rendered some agreement between these religious
bodies desirable, it was decided that small pre-
liminary conferences should be held, as between
the Lutherans and Reformed at Vilna on Mar. 2,
1570, and between the Lutherans and Bohemian
Brethren at Posen on Feb. 13, 1570, while the Sen-
domir Synod itself was held Apr. 9-15, 1570, its
object being the organization of a Polish Protestant
Church. The nobility, desiring to oppose a solid
front to Roman Catholicism, earnestly advocated
union, and the Reformed passed lightly over doc-
trines which disturbed the more scrupulous Luther-
ans. The Bohemian Brethren took a middle ground,
thus having the balance of power between the Lu-
therans and the Reformed, the representatives of
the latter being the most numerous, and also being
357
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Sen
favored by the nobility. The nobles, indeed, tacitly
assumed that the conference was a Reformed synod,
and they had plainly come prepared to declare the
Second Helvetic Confession the national creed of
Poland. The Bohemian Brethren, while regarding
the Helvetic Confession as in agreement with their
own, saw no reason to surrender the creed of their
own communion; and the Lutherans, declining to
abandon the Augsburg Confession, and at the same
time far from ingjgt.ing that it be made the formal
creed of the synod, proposed the joint formulation
of a new and distinctly Polish confession. It was
accordingly resolved that the preparation of such
a creed should be taken up by the next synod,
scheduled to meet at Warsaw at Whitsuntide. Since,
however, some expression of the unanimity already
attained was desired, two ministers were delegated
to draw up an agreement. This was submitted to
the synod on Apr. 13, whereupon a Lutheran repre-
sentative requested the addition of a statement on
the Eucharist, as well as the adoption of an entire
article from the Saxon Confession of 1551. This
request was granted, but the Eucharistic doctrine
was so modified as to represent essentially the posi-
tion of Melanchthon, so that those Lutherans who,
in the Formula of Concord, proscribed Philippism,
rejected the Consensus of Sendomir.
The Consensus sought to provide a defense against
Roman Catholics, sectarians, and foes of the Gos-
pel, and also to obviate all strife and enmity. Each
of the sects represented might conduct the worship
and administer the sacraments of the other; each
Church concerned might retain its liturgy and
usages, except when these should interfere with
purity of doctrine; and all weighty matters of re-
ligion in Poland, Lithuania, and Samogitia were to
be considered in joint council. The proposed prep-
aration of a distinct Polish confession was never
realized, but, on May 20, 1570, a conference of Lu-
therans and Bohemian Brethren was held at Posen,
where a number of resolutions were adopted which
may be regarded as supplementing the Consensus
of Sendomir. After considerable debate, it was de-
cided that the Eucharistic teaching should be in
accord with the Consensus of Sendomir and the
Saxon Confession; each sect should retain its own
usages, and where the same place had a congrega-
tion of each, the minister of either might, in case of
necessity, represent the other; all polemics must be
avoided, and proselyting was forbidden; mutual
conferences for the furtherance of the union were to
be held when necessary; no pastor should admit to
the Lord's Supper the adherents of the other sect
without the consent of the pastor of the persons
concerned, except on the occasion of diets, general
synods, and journeys; those excommunicated in
one sect should not be admitted to the Lord's
Supper in the other, and a similar rule should
apply to the clergy in case of deposition; all rites
of the Roman Catholic Church were gradually to
be abolished; and in case it should prove impossi-
ble peaceably to correct any eventual error in
teaching or liturgy in either sect, the matter was
to be brought for final adjudication before the
general synod of Great and Little Poland.
(H. W. ERBKAMf.)
Bibuoorapht: The Consensus was first printed 1683, and
reprinted Thorn, 1502, 1506, Heidelberg, 1605, Geneva,
1612, 1654, Frankfort, 1704; in D. E. Jablonski's His-
toria consensus Sendomiriensis, Berlin, 1731; in H. A.
Niemeyer's CoUtctio confessionum, pp. 551-691, Leipsio,
1840; and in German in C. J. Nitssch, Urkundenbuch der
evangelischen Union, pp. 72 sqq.f Bonn, 1853. Consult
the pertinent literature under Poland; the work of Jab-
lonski named above; Schaff, Creeds, i. 586-588; J. G.
Waloh, Historische . . . Einleitung in die ReHgionsstrei-
tigkeiten, iii. 1043, 10 vols., Jena, 1733-30, and Nittsch,
ut sup., p. lxx.
SENECA, sen'e-ca, LUCIUS ANNjEUS: Roman
philosopher and author; b. in Corduba (Cordova)!
Spain, c. 8 B.C.; d. near Rome 65 a.d., being forced
to commit suicide. As a prodigy in versification
and rhetoric he soon rose to eminence, and entered
the senate. Exiled to Corsica at the accession of
Claudius, 41 a.d., he returned in 49 to become the
educator and counselor of young Nero. His great
talents were undoubtedly used to commend or
screen the criminal ambition of Agrippina and
the parricide committed by Nero. Seneca was
early attracted by Pythagoreanism, and, while he
became a devotee of this cult, his erudition for his
time was almost universal. In the bitter analysis
of the non-spiritual strivings of actual mankind
Seneca has outstripped all his predecessors. Stoic
pride as well as a curious aspiration after spiritual
rest, submission to fatal mechanism, as well as a
striving after personal immortality, may be observed
in his brilliant essays, among which the epistulm
morales are the last and greatest. There is in him
also an unmistakable drift and trend away from the
pantheism of his school toward a theistic concep-
tion of soul-happiness and soul-obligations. The
motto " know thyself " as applied to conscience and
motive has been more vigorously put into play by
Seneca than by any former philosophical writer of
classical antiquity (" Perchance, if you search dili-
gently, you will find within your own bosom the
vice of which you ask "; De beneficixsf VII., xxviii.
3). In the frank admission of essential moral weak-
ness coupled with the assertion of the highest ob-
ligation of moral conduct, Seneca not rarely reminds
his readers of the New Testament. Still, in his phi-
losophy of freedom he emphasizes everywhere the
right and privilege of suicide. The historian who
was most like him, Tacitus, treats him with striking
coolness and reserve. The " correspondence " of
Seneca and St. Paul (their death was close together)
is a transparent fiction. E. G. Sihler.
Bibuoorapht: Recent Eng. transls. of some of Seneca's
works are: Mora1 a: a Selection, by W. Clode, London,
1888; Minor Dialogues, by A. Stewart, ib. 1880; On Bene-
fits, by T. Lodge, ib. 1899; Tranquillity of Mind and
Providence, by W. B. Langsdorf. New York, 1900; Ten
Tragedies .... by W. Bradshaw, London, 1902, and
Tragedies, ... by F. J. Miller, Chicago, 1907; Morale,
New York. 1904; Select Essays and Satire on the Deifica-
tion of Claudius, by A. P. Ball, ib. 1908; Tragedies, in
English Verse, by F. J. Miller, London, 1908; Three Trag-
edies: Hercules Fureus, Troades, Medea, . . . by H. M.
Kingery, London and New York, 1908; QuasHones Nat-
urates, by J. Clarke, New York, 1910; Select Letters, by
W. C. Summers, ib. 1910. On Seneca's life and activi-
ties consult: E. G. Sihler, Testimonium anima, chap. 18,
New York, 1908; A. Fleury, S. Paul et Seneque, 2 vols.,
Paris, 1853; C. Aubertin, fitude critique sur les rapports
supposes entre Seneque et Paul, Paris, 1857; F. C. Baur,
Drei Abhandlungen sur Oeschichte der alten Philosophic,
pp. 377-430, Leipsic. 1876; J. B. Lightfoot, Essay on
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
od.. London, 1878; F. W. Fi
dclphia, lJitCJ; J. Krevhprr, L, Antiavt Seneca imd join
Baiehungcn turn Chritlrnlhum. Berlin. 18*7; S. Rubin.
Die Ethik Smew, Munich. 1001; R. Walti, Vie de
Stntquc. Puis, 1009; the literature under Nebo; and
the worki on the history of philosophy.
SENNACHERIB. See Assvui... VI., 3, { 12.
SEPARATE BAPTISTS. See Baptists, II., 4 (f).
SEPARATES: An American Calvinistic Meth-
odist sect, composed of Whitefield's followers, which
sprang up in 1750 under tie name of "New Lights."
They were, however, subsequently organised into
separate societies by Shubal Steame, and then took
the name "Separates." Stearne became a Baptist
jn 1751, and many of the Separates followed him into
that church; and the sect died out. "The distinc-
tive doctrine of the sect was, that believers are
guided by the immediate teachings of the Holy
Spirit, Buch supernatural indications of the divine
will being regarded by them as partaking of the na-
ture of inspiration, and above, though not contrary
to, reason." Bee Methodists, I., 2.
SEPARATISTS, THE. See Communism, II., 9.
SEPHARVATM seP'ar-ve'im (SIPPAR). See
Babylonia, IV., } 11.
SEPP, CHRISTIAAH: Dutch Mennonite theo-
logian and historian; b. at Amsterdam 1820; d. at
Wijk uan Zee {15 m. n. of Haarlem) 1890. His long-
i-st period of active labor was spent as a preacher
for his denomination at Leyden (1854-82). But
his work as a preacher was only a small part of his
activities; be edited the theological review Godge-
toTtli Hij'hwjtti t IS35-70); and was the author of a
series of historical work- wHii'li embodied the fruits
of diligent research in the history of Dutch Protes-
tant theology and biography, orthodox and sec-
tarian, including the Anabaptists. Uf these wnrks
the following may here be noticed: /'ra:w,'i/:'.<,7;.
Geschiedmia der Thmhgie in Nederland 1787-18B0
(Leyden, 1860); Johannes Stinxtra en rijn Tijii: renc
iiijtlnui li>l tit fiVwAirrfenis der Kerk en School in de
18de eeuw (Amsterdam, 1865-66); Het God-
y-ln.rd OndiTinijs in \'iyli rliiwl <jrdurendr i/e 16. en 17.
poiip (2 parts, Leyden, 1873-74); Billiotheck ran
RaUrltinthehe. Kcrkgae-hirdachrijven (18S6); Ver-
buden LeciuuT. Ben drielal Indices libromm pro-
hibUarum (1889). Many of his studies on men and
books are collected in Gfu-hudkiindii/e S'asporingen
(3 parts, 1872-75); and KerkhUioriselie Studien
(1885). S. Cbamer.
SEPP, JOHAHH HEPOMTJK: Roman Catholic
rliiLieli-hi.storian; b. at T51x (26 m. s. of Munich),
Bavaria, Aug. 7, 1816; d. at Munich June 5, 1909.
He studied at Munich; traveled in the East, 1845-
lS-lti; Ueame professor of history ;it Munich, ls-lfi;
was deposed and expelled from the city, 1847, for
bb political opinions; reinstated, 1850; retired,
1867. He had considerable influence in politics.
Among his works are: Das Lebcn Jesv Ckrisli (5
vols.. Regensburg, 1842-46; 4th ed., with Daniel
Haneberg, Munich, 1898-1902); Dog Heidenlhum
taut dessert Bedeulung f&r dot Chrittenthnm (1853);
Jerusalem -and das ticilige Land (SchalThausen,
1862-63); Thaten und Lehren Jesu mil Hirer loeii-
geschichUichen Beglaubigung (1864); Geschichte del
Apostel vom Tod Jctxt bis tur Zersidrung Jeru-
salema (1865); Kri.linche Rijormenlwurfe beginnend
mil der Revision des Bibclkanons (.Munich. l*7u.j; Dux
Hebraer Evangclium (1870); Deulschland tind der
Volikan (1872); Gdrres vnd seine Zeitgenossen
(Niirdlingen, 1877); Meerfahrt nach Tyrus zur Aus-
grabung der Kathedrale mil Barbarossas Grab (Leipsic,
1879); Krilische Beitrage. turn Lebcn Jesu und zur
neueslen Topographs, von Jerusalem (Munich, 1890) ;
Dii: Hi ii/iion der alien Deutschen wnd ihr Fortbestand
in Volkxsagen (1890); Die Geheime Offenbarung Jo-
Annm'.»(1902); andOrienf undOccioVnf; lOQKapitel
lifter der Nachtseite der Naiur Zaubcrwerk vnd Hexen-
wesen in oiler und neuer Zeit (Berlin, 1903).
SEPTrMTDS SEVERTJS, sS-vi'rtrs: Roman em-
peror 193-211; b. at Leptis (62 m. s.e. of Car-
thage), on the north coast of Africa, Apr. 11, 146;
d. at Eboracum (York), England, Feb. 4, 211. His
family was of equestrian rank, and in 172 he seems
to have been made a senator by Marcus Aureb'us.
In 190 he became consul, and in the following year
received from Commodus the command of the Ger-
man legions in Pannonia. On the murder of Per-
tinax by the troops in 193, they proclaimed Septim-
ius emperor, whereupon he hurried to Italy and took
possession of Rome without opposition. The legion-
aries of Syria, however, proclaimed l'e.-eeiiuiu-
Niger emperor and those of Britain, Albinus; and
only after bloody wars was Septimius able to make
himself master of the Roman world. With Sep-
timius Sevems begins the scries of military em-
perors and the motto of hia life was Ms dying ex-
hortation to his sons, "let ua work!" His entire-
reign was devoted to the welfare of the empire, and
he finally succumbed to overexertion in a campaign
against the Caledonians. Stern, wise, and energetie.
N'ptimius restored peace to the empire after the
misrule of Commodus and the civil ware. No em-
peror before Constantine was so important for the
development of Roman law.
It is generally assumed that Septimius was friend-
ly to the Christians until 202, when, for some un-
known reason, he became their enemy and persecu-
tor. This rests upon an incorrect interpretation of
the words of his biographer Spiirtiunua: "In bis
journey [through Palestine in 202] he established
very many laws fur the Palestinians; he forbade the
Jews to be placed under heavy punishment, but
sanctioned this in the case of Christians." This was
really no new law, but only a reemphasizing of laws
already existing, and was designed to check the
Christian propaganda rather than to Bet on foot
a general persecution. Nor was there any wide
persecution, and there are many evidences that not
only was the emperor not personally hostile to the
Christians, but he even protected them against the
populace. There were doubtless Christians in hia
own household, and in his reign the church at Rome
had almost absolute peace. On the other hand.
individual officials availed themselves of the laws to
RELIGIODS ENCYCLOPEDIA
proceed with rigor against the Christiana. Natu-
rally the emperor, with his strict conception of law,
did not hinder auch partial persecution, which took
place in Egypt and the Thebaid, as well as in pro-
consular Africa and the East. Christian martyrs
were numerous in Alexandria (cf. Clement, Strom.,
ti. 20; Eusebius, Hiat. axl., V., xxvi., VI., i. sqq.).
No less severe were the persecutions in Africa, which
seem to have begun in 197 or 198 (cf. Tertullian'a
Ad murtyres), and included the Chriatians known
in the Roman martyroiogy as the martyrs of Ma-
daura. Probably in 202 or 203 Fetid tas and Per-
petua (q.v.) suffered for thdr faith. Persecution
again raged for a short time under the proconsul
Scapula in 211, especially in Numidia and Mauri-
tania. Later accounts of a Gallic persecution,
especially at Lyons, are legendary. In general it
may thus be said that the position of the Chris-
tians under Septitniua Severus was the same as under
the Antonines; but the law of this emperor at least
shows clearly that the rescript of Trajan had failed
to execute its purpose. (A. Hauck.)
Bibliography: Sour™ an: The history of Dio Cassius.
ehups. lxniv.-lixvi., Ixm.; the work on Sevcms by Spar-
tinnm; Lspridius'a Alexander Sevenia; and Herodian,
Hiitoria, books v.-vi. Consult further: C. Fucha, Ot-
•ekicMt da Kaiaa L. Srptimiv SevtniM, Vienna. 188*;
i;il>h.m. Dtrlint and FaU. chaps, v.-vi.; G. Uhlhom. flrr
Kampf da Chritlmlhumt, pp. 28* sqq., Stuttgart, 1S7S:
B. Aube, Hit. da penttvHont de VlalUe. pp. S3 sqq.,
Paris, 1S75; 1! Schill...r. Hivhirhte dtr r-mitenrn Kaiar-
teit. i. 2, pp. 70S aqq., Qotha, 1833; J. Reville, La Kr
Ivion a Ilomt «duj la Stvera, Paris. 1885; P. Allard, Him.
da pcnlcutioni pendant ta prtmitrt mottit du i\i. riecle,
ib. 1888; K. J. Nrummn, Ho rtWastfta Stool tind die attgt-
meinr Kirthr. i. 05 sqq.. Leipsic. 1890; A. Linsenmayer.
Die Btkampfimg dtt Chritlrnlumt dure/t den rr'nnurirn
Stool, 109 aqq., 117 sqq.. Munich, 1905.
SEPTTJAGESIMA. See Church Yeah; and Lent.
SEPTUAGLflT. See Bible Versions, A, I., 1.
SEPULCHER, HOLT. See Holt Sepulcher.
SEQUENCE: A hymn or chant aung on certain
days in the mass after the gradual and before the
Gospel. The term was originally a musical one,
applied to the aeries of tones sung after (hence its
name) the last syllable of the Hallelujah Monging
to the vcrsiclc I.H'twwTi the epistle and
Origin and the Gospel, and it probably trari-hih-d
Develop- the Greek akoloulhia, the word by
meat which Byiantine writers on music
denoted the heirmoa ("melody"). For
the Hallelujah aee LrrcraaicB, III. The melodies of
the sequences, the oldest extant choir-books of
which date from the tenth century, gave rise to one
of the most important discoveries both for religious
and for secular song and poetry. Notker (q.v.), a
monk of St. Gall, was inspired to reduce these
melodies to a syst*m by a West-Prankish antipho-
uary, brought from Jumieges (near Rouen) when the
Normans devastated that monastery (apparently
in 802). In this antiphonary some verses were
modulated in accordance with the sequences, and
they possessed sufficient charm for him to imitate
them, and he succeeded in producing regular se-
quences withdouMe vehicles of equal length, though
the simple sequences without the response are the
older form. In all this acquaintance with Greek
hymnody was also undoubtedly a factor. Greek
hymns had been translated into Latin during the
reign of Charlemagne . and traces of such work have
been preserved at St. Gall. But although Sotfcot
was unquestionably the discoverer of the sequence,
the extent of his activity is entirely unknown. In
France the composition of sequences proceeded
along the lines laid down at St. Gall. Side by side
with the old ways that admitted of no alteration,
other hallelujah melodies and musical motifs gave
rise to new sequenco melodies. Rhythm became a
conscious aim, and the words were adapted to the
melody, syllable for syllable. The sequences of
Limoges differed from those of St. Gall by the final
assonance of the versicles in -a (under the influence
of the word hallelujah); rhythm within the verse
made steady progress; and finally the old verses of
most unequal length developed into rhythmical
and riming lines, from which, in the twelfth cen-
tury, Adam of St, Victor made a selection, which he
combined in strophes and thus helped to become
predominant over the rest. In the St. Gall sequences
the syllabic system is, in general, strictly followed,
and elision is rare, while the lines are of unequal
length; in Adam of St. Victor all this is changed,
and melody and text are entirely independent.
1'he spirit in which sequences were composed is
indicated by Gottsehalk of Limpurg, who declared
that he drew his words from Jerome (the Hiblci mid
his melody from Gregory (the Sacramentary).
Though in liturgical books the sequences are usu-
ally given without their authors' names, a number
of such composers are known: besides Notker and
Adam, Ekkehart I. and II., Fulbert (author of the
"Sonent rcgi nato1'), Waltramm, Bemo, Herman-
nus Contractus, Henricus Monachus (author of the
"Ave pneclara maris Stella"), Wipo
Hunts of (author of the "Viclimte paschali"),
Composers Gottsehalk of Limpurg, Innocent III.
and (author of the" Veni Sancte Spiritus"),
Sequences, and Thomas Aquinas (author of the
"Lauda Sion salvatorem"). Later
the sequence lost many of its characteristic features,
e.-.jn'i -inlly under the influence of the hymn, from
which it always differed, however, in that its melody
was continuous, even though its strophes might )>e
metrically or rhythmically equal. The text fre-
quently contained a refrain, due to the fact that the
same cadence was repeated at the close of the ver-
sicles. In the older manuscripts the melodies are
denoted by "neumes," which passed through va-
rious stages of development until they were super-
seded by the system of staff notation. The older se-
quence melodies also have distinct names, many of
which are of uncertain meaning. Here belong the
beginning of the hallelujah Psalm verse generally
sung on a particular feast, as the " Dies sanctifica-
tus" for Christmas; names of musical instruments,
Organa, Fidicutn, Symphtmia, Tuba; loan-words or
translations from the Greek, Graca, Hypodiaamiosa,
Romano,, H-uronyma; and probably allusions to
older melodies, Puella turbata, Planctux aterUit,
Bertc vetula, Vaga, etc.
The composition of sequences reached its climax
with Adam of St. Victor (q.v.). He, tike Notker,
probably adopted to some extent popular melodies
Sequence
Sergius
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
860
of the period; but after Adam new sequences were
with few exceptions, mere imitations of earlier forms
and melodies. Many of these melodies
Culmina- were such favorites that new texts
tion. were given them; and to this category
belong Notker's melodies Mater, Oc-
cidentana, and Justus ut palma major and minor,
Wipo's Easter hymn, Gottschalk's Laus tibi, Christe,
qui es, the sequence of the Virgin (Ave praclara),
the Easter sequence (Mane prima sabbati), and some
of Adam's, while the Lcetabundus exultet, by an un-
known author, proved the most popular of all. In
the oldest period the texts and, in part, the melodies
of sequences were restricted in territory, so that a
distinction may be drawn between German (St.
Gall), Upper Italian (Verona, Nonantula), French
(Limoges), and English (Winchester) sequences;
but when the riming sequence was developed,
some were used largely throughout the Roman
Church, as the Nat us ante scecula for Christmas, the
Sancti Spiritus adsit for Whitsuntide, the Clare
sanctorum for feasts of the apostles, and the Sancti
baptisUB for John the Baptist. On the other hand,
despite the approval of Nicolas I. and Innocent III.,
Rome generally, as well as many dioceses and orders,
declined officially to welcome the sequence. The
Cistercians and Carthusians rejected it altogether,
and the Cluniac monks reluctantly permitted it
only on four feasts. In France and Germany, on
the other hand, sequences were always popular,
many sequentiaries containing more than a hundred
texts. The melodies were mostly transmitted orally,
the Neumenal collections being intended only for
the choirmasters. The singing of the sequence was
restricted to the clergy and choir, the congregation
being forbidden to take part. The introduction and
the concluding passage were usually sung by the
entire choir, while the double strophes were sung
antiphonally, with musical accompaniment.
Soon after the rise of sequence composition,
vernacular sequences were written in France (the
Eulalia sequence). In Germany translations ap-
peared more tardily, the favorite here being the Ave
prceclara maris stella, as in Sebastian Brant's Ave
durchlUchle stern des meres. The se-
Decline. quence form influenced medieval Latin
poetry, encouraging it to abandon the
old forms and to create many new strophes, this in-
fluence ultimately extending to the vernacular.
With the increase in the calendar of saints the
number of sequences became enormous, some 5,000
texts with between 500 and 600 melodies. Many
of these were poetically valueless, and after several
synods had sought to reform conditions, the Council
of Trent finally succeeded. The missal of Paul V.
(1570) contains only four: Victimce paschali, Vent
Sancte Spiritus, Lauda, Sion, salvatorem, and Dies
irai, to which was later added the Stabat mater, gen-
erally ascribed to Jacopone da Todi, or to Innocent
III. (qq.v.). The Reformers were hostile to the
sequence, and in the Lutheran Church, after long
efforts, it was replaced by a congregational hymn.
In France sequences of late date were stubbornly
maintained, only to disappear ultimately when the
unity of the Roman Catholic liturgy became an
accomplished fact. The custom of singing the
Lcetabundus at the Easter dinner given by the pope
seems to have given rise to parodies of the sequence,
such as the Vinum bonum et suave, or the Victimce
novali cinke ses, while Johann Nass composed in de-
rision of Luther the Invicti Martini laudes intonant
Christiani. [In many Anglican churches the
sequence is represented by a hymn sung by the
choir between the epistle and Gospel (C. Walker,
Ritual "Reason Why," 2d ed. T. I. Ball, pp.
166-167, Milwaukee, 1908]. (J. Werner.)
Bibliography: Collections, examples, or translations of se-
quences are to be sought in: H. A. Daniel, Thesaurus
hymnologicua, vol. ii., Halle, 1843; F. J. Hone, Lateini-
ache Hymnen dea Mittelaltere, 3 vols., Freiburg, 1853-55;
R. C. Trench, Sacred Latin Poetry, London, 1864; C. E. P.
Wackernagel, Das deutache Kirchenlied, vol. ii., 5 vols.,
Leipsic, 1864-77; G. Morel, Laieiniache Hymnen dea Mit~
telalters, 2 vols., Einsiedeln, 1867 (a rich collection);
J. M. Neale, Mediawal Hymns and Sequences, 3d ed., Lon-
don, 1867; Seven Great Hymna, New York, 1867; W.
Christ and M. Paranikas, Anthologia Or oca carminum
Chriatianorum, Leipsic, 1871; D. T. Morgan, Hymna of
the Latin Church, London, 1871; C. B. Pearson, Sequences
from the Sarum Missal, ib. 1871; J. Kehrein, Lateiniache
Sequenzen dea Mittelaltere, Mainz, 1873 (most complete
collection); F. A. March, Latin Hymna, New York, 1874;
H. M. MacGill, Songa of Christian Creed and Life, London,
1876; C. Blume and G. M. Dreves, Analecta Hymnica,
vols. viii.-x.t xxxvii., xxarix., xl., xlii., xliv., Leipsic, 1886
sqq.; S. W. Duffield, Latin Hymn- Writers and their Hymna,
New York, 1889; W. H. J. Weale, Analecta liturgica,
Bruges, 1889 sqq. (supplements Kehrein, above); G. M.
Dreves, Proaarium Lemovicense, Leipsic, 1890; U. Cheva-
lier, Bxbliotheque liturgique, vols, vii., ix., Paris, 1900-01;
W. A. Merrill, Latin Hymna, Boston, 1904; C. E. W.
Brainerd, Great Hymna of the Middle Agea, New York, 1909;
C. Blume and H. Bannister, Liturgiache Proaen erater
Epoche aua den Sequenzenachulen dea Abendlandea, ina~
beaondere die dem Notkerua Bolberua zugeachriebenen, nebat
Skizxe uber den Ur sprung der Sequent, Leipsic, 1911.
Consult: F. Wolf, Ueber die Lais, Sequenzen und Lexche,
Frankfort, 1841; F. Clement, Hist, gtntrale de la musiq**e
religieuse, Paris, 1860; K. Bartsch, Die loteiniachen Se-
quenzen dea Mitteloltera, Rostock, 1868; Verzeichniaa der
Handschriften der Stiftabibliothek von St. Gotten, pp. 509-
530, Halle, 1875 (indexes the sequences) ; J. Pothier, Lea
Melodies gregoriennes, Tournay, 1881; D. S. Wrangham,
The Liturgical Poetry of Adam of St. Victor, 3 vols., Lon-
don, 1881; A. Reiners, Die Tropen-, Prosen-, und Pr&-
fationegesange dea feierlichen Hochamtea dea Mitte&oltera,
Luxemburg, 1884; L. Gautier, Hist, de la poieie liturgique,
Paris, 1886; idem, La Poisie religieuse dans lea eloftrera
dea ix.-xi. siecles, ib. 1887; M. Manitius, Geschichte der
christlich-lateiniachen Poeaie bis zur Mitte dea 8. Johrhun-
derts, Stuttgart, 1891; O. Fleischer, Neumen-Studien,
Leipsic, 1893 sqq.; W. H. Frere, The Winchester Tropes,
London, 1894; A. Dechevrens, Du rhythme dans Vhymno-
graphie latine, 1895; N. Gihr, Die Sequenzen dea rdmiachen
Meaabuchea, Freiburg, 1895; C. Blume and G. M. Dreves,
Hymnologische Beitroge, Leipsic, 1897 sqq.; P. Wagner,
Uraprung und Entxcickelung der liturgischen Gesangsfor-
men, Freiburg in Switzerland, 1901 ; idem, NormenJcunde,
ib. 1905; J. Werner, Notkers Sequenzen, Aarau, 1901; J.
Thibaut, Origins byzantine de la notation neumatique da
Vegliae latine, Paris, 1907; S. M. Jackson, The Source of
Jerusalem the Golden, Chicago, 1910; Julian, Hymnology,
pp. 1041-53, 1700-01 (lists first lines, and gives the use).
SERAPH. See Angel, I., § 4.
SERAPION, se-ra'pi-enorse-r6'pi-en: The name
of sixteen (or seventeen) persons more or less known
to early Christian history, of whom the following
may be noted.
1. Bishop of Antioch probably 190 or 191 to 211
or 212, successor of Maximinus and predecessor
of Asclepiades. He was the author of a writing to a
certain Domninus who had fallen away to Judaism;
861
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Sequenoe
Serg-iua
of another to Pontius and Carious regarding Mon-
tanism; of a treatise warning the church at Rhossus
against a Gospel of Peter see (Peter the Apostle,
III.); and of other writings to various persons
(Eusebius, Hist. eccL, V., xix., VI., xii.; Jerome, De
vir. ill., xli.; Socrates, Hist ecd., III., vii.).
2-4. Three men of the name were known in the
Alexandrian church of the third century. The first
was a martyr under Decius, celebrated Nov. 14.
The second of the name in the same persecution
sacrificed, but repented and received the sacrament
on his death-bed. The third is named by Philip of
Side among the leaders in the Alexandrian catechet-
ical school, but his identity can not be more closely
determined.
5. Bishop of Thmuis in Lower Egypt, a friend of
St. Anthony and also of Athanasius, who directed
to him four letters concerned with a form of the
Macedonian heresy. The year of his death is un-
known. At the Synod of Seleucia, 359, Ptolemjeus
took part as bishop of Thmuis. The treatise against
Manicheanism belonging to him, intruded in part
into the work of Titus of Bostra, has been edited by
Brinkmann (in SBA, 1894, pp. 47&-491). Mai
edited two letters to Bishop Eudoxius and to a monk
(reproduced in MPG, xl. 923-942) . Pitra has edited
some fragments (in A nalecta sacra, ii. pp. xl., 27-28,
iv. 214, 443-444) ; while some prayers in MS. 149 of
the monastery on Mt. Athos are attributed to him
(nos. 1, 15), and others (16, 17) are probably his
(Wobbermin in TU, xvii. 3b, 1898). An addition to
this, an appendix to the same collection in the form
of letters "On the Father and the Son," may safely
be attributed to him.
6. A monk of the Scetic desert, leader of the an-
thropomorphite monks (see Oriqenistic Contro-
versies).
7. Serapion Sindonetes, so called from the linen or
cotton clothing which he wore. He is one of the
heroes of the Historia Lausiaca, who experienced
many adventures in his journeys to Greece and
Rome. Nau sees in him the hero of the story of
Thais. Leontius of Naples reports in the life of
Johannes Eleemon that this Serapion sold his gar-
ments and his copy of the Gospels in order to be able
to give alms.
8. Bishop of Heraclea. Chrysostom of Constan-
tinople ordained to the diaconate a person named
Serapion and assigned him the duties of archdeacon.
He supported the bishop in his disciplinary meas-
ures, and by his severity widened the breach between
bishop and clergy. While Chrysostom was at Ephe-
sus, he entrusted to Serapion the administration of
the diocese; at this time Severian of Gabala was at
the capital intriguing against Chrysostom, and
Serapion had him expelled. After his return from
his first exile, Chrysostom had his supporter made
bishop of Heraclea in Thrace. In the subsequent
misfortunes of Chrysostom Serapion shared, was de-
prived of his bishopric and deported to Egypt.
(G. KrCger.)
Bibliography: All of the men named are discussed in DCB,
iv. 612-615. Consult further, on 1: Tillemont, Memoxres,
iii. 168, § 9; Kruger, History, passim; Harnack, LiUeratur,
ii. 1, pp. 211 sqq.; Bardenhewer, Patrolooie, p. 112, Eng.
transl., St. Louis, 1908; and V. de Buck in the ed. of the
Acta Sanctorum published Paris, 1883, Oct., xiii. 248-252
On 5: Bardenhewer, ut sup., pp. 234-235 (where biblio-
graphical matter is furnished confirmatory of that given
in the text. On 7: note Nau, in Hi*, de Thau, Annate*
du Mutt* Guimet, xxx (1903), 51.
SERGIUS, ser'ji-us: The name of four popes.
Sergius L: Pope 687-701. Of Syrian ancestry,
he himself was born at Palermo, and, coming to
Rome in the pontificate of Adeodatus (q.v.), was
ordained to the priesthood in 682 or 683. On the
death of Conon in 687, he became the candidate of
the municipal authorities, the militia, and a large
part of the clergy of Rome, with a view to ending
the rivalry of the archdeacon Paschalis and the
archpriest Theodore, each of whom had seized a
portion of the Lateran without being able to dis-
lodge his antagonist. When Sergius entered the
Lateran, Theodore at once renounced his claims,
but Paschalis, though compelled to do likewise,
summoned his patron, John, exarch of Ravenna, to
Rome. When the latter arrived, he recognized the
validity of the election of Sergius, though extorting
from him the hundred pounds of gold which Pas-
chalis had promised in return for the exarch's as-
sistance. Enthroned on Dec. 15, 687, Sergius sought
not only to defend the authority of the Curia in the
East, but to strengthen relations with the Anglo-
Saxon church in the West, and to secure connection
with the Anglo-Saxon missions to the continent.
Both in Britain and with Pippin (see Willibrord,
Saint) he was completely successful. He baptized
Csdwalla, king of Wessex, at Rome in 689, and a
few years later reinstated the deposed Wilfrid of
York, but the statement of the Liber poniificalis, that
he consecrated Brihtwald, eighth archbishop of
Canterbury, probably confuses the sending of the
pallium with the consecration, which, according to
Bede (Hist, ecd., v. 8), was performed by the French
Metropolitan Goduin, or Godwin. The pope's at-
titude toward the East was determined by his de-
cided rejection of the decisions of the Trullan Synod
of 692 (see Trullan Synods), and on his emphatic
refusal to subscribe to them, Justinian II. sent the
Protospathary Zacharias to bring the pontiff to
Rome. But Italy rallied to the pope's defense, and
Zacharias escaped death only by throwing himself
upon the protection of Sergius, who thus emerged
victorious, even while deepening the gulf already
existing between the Eastern and the Western
Church. The death of Sergius took place Sept. 8,
701, and he is commemorated on that day in the
Roman "Martyrology." (A. Haucx.)
Bibliography: Liber pontificalis, ed. L. Duchesne, i. 244,
Paris, 1886, ed. T. Mommscn, in MGH, Gest. pont. Rom.t
i (1898), 210 sqq.; R. Baxmann, Die Politik der Paptte,
i. 188, Elberfeld, 1868; M. Heimbucher, Die Papatwahlen
unter den Karolingern, pp. 15 sqq., Augsburg, 1889;
Hefele, Conciliengeschichte, iii. 345 sqq., Eng. transl., v.
239 sqq., Fr. transl., iii. 1, pp. 578-591; Bower, Popes,
i. 492-496; Platina, Popes, i. 168-172; DCB, iv. 618-
620; ASB, Sept., iii. 425-445; Ceillier, Auteurt eacree,
xii. 964.
Sergius II.: Pope 844—74. By birth he was a
Roman noble, and was educated at the papal court,
finally being made archpriest by Gregory IV. On
the death of this pontiff, in Jan., 844, a deacon
named John was put forward as a candidate for the
papal throne by the populace, only to succumb
THE NEW 8CHAFF-HERZ0Q
to the nominee of tie nobles, Sergius, whose inter-
vention alone saved his rival from death. His en-
thronement without the consent of the Emperor
Lollmir was, however, regarded by the latter as an
infringement of imperial prerogatives, and in the
Bummer of 844 an array, under the command of
Lothair'a son, Louis, invaded Roman territory;
but the pope received the prince with all honor,
though not avoiding a stormy interview with the
bishops and princes in Louis's train. It is clear,
nevertheless, that the pope retained his position
and successfully debarred the hostile army from
Home; but, on the other hand, the Romans were
obliged to take the oath of allegiance to the em-
peror, while Scrgius crowned Louis, king of the
Lombards and appointed Drogo of Met* papal vicar
north of the Alps. At the same time, Sergiua main-
tained an unfavorable attitude toward Ebo of Reims
(see Ebo) and Bartholomew of Narbonne, who had
been suspemloil Ijccsium' of their sympathy with Lo-
thair, though later, at the instance of the emperor,
he sided with Ebo against Hincmar of Reims (q.v.).
During this pontificate the city of Rome was sacked,
and the churches of St. Peter and St. Paul were
plundered by the Saracens in Aug., 846, the pope
dying shortly afterward, Jan. 27, 847.
(A. Hauck.)
Bihlioqrapht: Liber pontificalia, ed. L. Duchesne, ii, S6
aqq., Pons. 1894; Jaffa, Rcaeta, pp. 327-328; R. Bax-
mann. Die Polite der Papxe, i. 349, Elborfeld. 1868: A.
von Reumont, Geeehiehte dcr Sladl Rom, ii. ISO, Berlin.
1808; M. Heimbucher, Die PapitvaMen urder dm Korol-
inaern, pp. 149 sqq., Augsburg. 188B; Got*, in ZKG. iv
ns'tij'', 342 »qq.; J. Langen, GachicMe der romitehe*
KircAt, ii. 822, Bonn, 1885: I. Gregoroviua, Hiit. of Oil
City of Rome, ii. 180-183, 100, iii. 83-85. SI, London,
1894-95; Bower, Popee. ii. 215-218; Platina, Popee, i,
21K-22H; Milman, Latin Christianity, iii. 18; Hauck. KD.
ii. 512-513: and — |— 'flf Mann, Popet, ii. 232-257;
Ceillier, Aultun tacrie. Jtfl, 408.
Sergius HI.: Pope 904-911. On the death of
Theodore II., in 887, he was, although only in dea-
con's orders, the candidate of a faction of the popu-
lace for the papal throne, but, being forced to yield
to John IX. (q.v.), he took refuge with the Margrave
Ailnlljcrt in Tuscany, where he remained until the
deposition of Christophorua (q.v.) in 904, when he
returned to Rome, befog enthroned probably Jan.
29 of the same year. He rebuilt the Lateran, which
had been destroyed by an earthquake, and con-
demned the validity of all ordinations by Formoeus
(q.v.). His death occurred in May, 911.
(A. Hauck.)
BrBLiooHAPHT. Lifter poniiflcalii, ed. L. Duchc-ne, ii IM,
Paris, 1892; Jaffa. Reeeto, p. 445; J. M. Watwrich. Ro-
■manerum pontificum . . . vita, i. 32, 37, 85, SOU sqq.,
Leipaic, 1882; Mann, Popa, iv. 119-142: A. von Reu-
moot, GaehiehU der Stndt Rom, ii. 227, Berlin, 1888;
R. Baimann, Di< Politik der PapiU. ii 7ii. Hl^rf,.|,|. IStiy,
J. Langen, Gtxliirhtr il.r rfiniKrhtn hirrhr. iii. :il3. Bonn,
1892; F. Gregoroviua. Hut. of the City of Rome, iii. 217,
220, 231-248. London . 1SB5; HrWo, ConcMenandiuJdt,
iv. 671; Bower. l\-r--.: ii 30(1-307; I'latiua. Papa, i,
243-244; Milman. Latin Chriitianitti, iii. l.rj.",-!5s IVil.
tier, Auhun tacra, iii. 741-743.
Sergius IV.: Pope 1009-1012. He was a Roman
by birth, and after having been bishop of Albano,
was raised to the papal throne in July, 1009. The
>ole traces of bis brief pontificate, which was ended
by his death in June, 1012, arc a number of privileged
to monasteries. He is especially noteworthy as
the first pope to adopt a new name on election, bis
original name having been Peter. (A. Hauck.)
hMWWMm : Liber pontificalU, ed. L. Duchesne, ii. 287,
Paris. 18B2; Jane. Reaeeta, p. 504; J. M. Wattcrich,
Somanorum pontificum . . . vita, i. 89-S9. 700, Leipaic,
1882; A. von Reumont. Gaenvhtt da Stadt Rom. ii 2-'7 .
Berlin. 1808: J. Langen, Grtehiclite der r-mi*chen Kirche,
iii. 403; Maon, Popa, v. 142-154; Gregoroviua. Met. <./
At City of Rome, iv. 11-13. London. 1890; Bower. Pop«.
ii. 334-335; l'l.iiina. Popes, i. 208-287: Munum, Latin
ChriHianilu, iii. 222: Ctillk-r. Auleuri tACrU, liii. 84, 189-
190.
SERGIUS AND BACCHDS: Two Syrian mar-
tyrs of the early fourth century. According to the
Acta and Paasio (see bibliography) Scrgius and
Bacchus were two officers in the service of Emperor
Maximinus Daja of Syria (305-313), and were so
trusted by him that they were accorded his complete
confidence and high rank at the palace. But they
were denounced to the emperor by jealous enemies
as Christiana. He then ordered them to betake
themselves to the temple of Jupiter, and upon their
refusal had them dressed in women's garments and
led through the streets of the city, and afterward
sent them to Antiochus, prefect of Barbalissus (Beth
Balash). After vain attempts to detach them from
their faith, Bacchus was beaten to death with
thongs, while Sergius was compelled to put on san-
dals through the soles of which nails had been driven,
and was led to Resaph in Commagene and there
beheaded. The fame of tie martyrs spread very
early, and a church in Eastern Syria is said to have
been dedicated in their honor as soon as 354 (P. Le
Bas and W. H. Waddington, Voyage arehiotogiqut
en (Ma ct en Asie Minetire, vol. iii., no. 2124, Paris,
1847), while in 512 another was dedicated to them
and to Lcontius in 512. To one of the churches
dedicated to Scrgius Justinian's consort Theodore
presented a jeweled cross, afterward carried away
by tin. Persians and restored to Gregory of Antiocb.
by Chosroes of Persia in 593. The repute of the mar-
tyrs Spread into the West. At Rome there was an
oratorium on the north side of the Vatican basilica
{Rdmische Qvartalschrift, 1896, p. 243), and still
another memorial to both martyrs in Rome is at-
tested by the Liber pontificalia (ed. Duchesne, i. 512,
Paris, 18S6). In France and elsewhere their names
were honored, as by a cloister at Angers and a
church at Chartres (E. Le Blant, Inscription*
chriik-nnes de la GattU, i. 305, Paris, 1856). In
Christ inn art they are represented in armor with
palm branches. Their day in both the Eastern and
the Western churches is Oct. 7.
Btbuoorapht. Sources are the anonymous Acta and the.
account by Simeon Mrtaphraatis. with commentary in
ASB. Oct.. iii. 833-883. partly also in MPL.cxv. 1006
sqq.; cf. the Ada martyrvm et Ktnctarwn of P. Bedjan.
iii. 283 sqq., Paris, 1892; the Graek Paeeio in AnaUrta
BoUandiana, xiv (1895). 373 sqq.; and the " Hymn " of
Wnlafrid Ktmho in MGH, P.M. Lot. an Car., ii <IS84),
418-419. Consult further. J, Wolf. Die heiligtn Wfli-
tyrtr Seraiua una" Baechv* Kirchenpatronsn ku Krcvt&er,
Gattiugcn, 1B23; KL, %%. 192-193; DCB, iv. 818-017.
SERGIUS COHFESSOR: Mentioned by Phottus
as the author of a history of the political and eccle-
siastical events during the first eight years of the
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Emperor Michael II. Balbus (820-829), with a glance
at the "shameful" deeds of the Emperor Constan-
tino Copronymus (751-774). The history was
marked by simplicity, clearness, and beauty of
cxpii-iiinn. l.'nfurtunutcly the work is utterly lost.
The title of confessor indicates that the bearer was a
champion of images in the controversy over the
subject (see Images and Image Worship, II.), and,
as applied by Photius to this man, tends to identify
the- latter with the confessor of that name celebrated
May 13 in the Greek Church, who was exiled under
Leo III. (813-820) and seems to have died during
the reign of Theophilus (829-842). (G, Kruoek.)
BiauoQBAPHr: Xikodemiia Hagiorilee. Si/maariilit tSndi-
deka minan lou eniautou, iii. 37, Zanthe, Ia68; KL, a.
I. Mtnoloti<"
; CeUlier, Aw
SERGITJS OF CONSTAHTIHOPLE: Patriarch of
that, city 610-038. He is noteworthy as the author of
a very celebrated Greek hymn, known as the Aka-
tkistas from the fact that it was sung standing (given
in MPG, xcii. 1335-1348; and in Pitra, Analecla
taera, i. 250-2R2, Paris, 187fi). He seems to have
paid considerable attention to thu development of
the liturgy. For further information concerning him
see Monotheliteb. (G. KrOoeb.)
Bibuoqbapbt: Krumbacber. CtKhichtt. pp. 871-072; DCB,
iv. fll 7-618.
SERMON. See Homileticb.
SERPENT IN WORSHIP, MYTHOLOGY, AND SYMBOLISM.
I. In the Bible.
Name and Conception* (i 1).
Mythology (I 2>.
The Brum Serpent; " Nehuahtan,"
(I 3).
Origin sad Significance <1 *).
The Probable Solution (I 5).
II. In Worship.
m. In Mythology.
I. In the Bible: In the Old and New Testaments
ten (or eleven) words or expressions are found
which in the English Tendons are rendered by
" serpent " or some equivalent (note that kippox,
Isa. xxxiv. 15, is by some rendered
i. Names " serpent " rather than " owl," refer-
anrt Con- ence being made to the Arabic kajfaz,
ceptiona. kaffaza as favoring this meaning),
though in but few cases can identifica-
tion of the species be made. The number of terms
employed is not coextensive with the number of
species of serpents found in Palestine and the neigh-
boring regions, of which thirty-three are known.
Of these several are poisonous, including the Egyp-
tian cobra, the horned viper, and the Band viper.
In the Bible many of the notions concerning the
reptile appear which are common to most early
peoples, including some of those pertaining to
mythology. Its traits are described and its names
or epithets are applied, in prose and poetry, to tribes,
classes, individuals, and personifications. Thus
it is a subtile beast, more cunning than any other
(Gen. iii. 1); Dan (the tribe) is a (treacherous and
dangerous) serpent in the way, a (biting) adder in
the path (Gen. xlix. 17); the wicked secrete and in-
fuse a poison like that of the serpent and are not
subject to charms which prevent their doing harm
(Ps. lviii. 4); so scribes and Pharisees (Matt, xxiii.
33), Pharisees and Sadducees (Matt. iii. 7), and
Pharisees alone (Matt. xii. 34) are called serpents and
offspring of vipers; wickedness, even though
crushed, engenders a serpent as does a serpent's
egg (Isa. ttx. 5); and the effects of wine are like a
serpent's bite or the sting of an adder; the disciples
of Jesus Christ are to be so immune from harm that
they may take up or tread upon serpents without
injury to themselves (Mark xvi. 18; Luke x. 10;
cf. Acts sxviii. 3); the serpent's habit of lurking in
walls is referred to, so that be who would trespass
The Buii (| 1). Greece (| 1>.
la the Onset World II 3). Babylonia and Egypt [| 3).
Ancestor Culta and the Mysteries IV. In Symbolism.
(f 3). General (f 1).
Rome and Babylonia (f 4). Egyptian, Mithraie, and Indian
Syria and Egypt (I G). Art (( 2).
India (| 6). In Other Lands (I 3).
Other Countries (I 7). V. In Folk-Ion.
(Eccles. x. 8) or carelessly leans on the wall (Amos v.
19) is bitten; the serpent's method of locomotion is
oneof mystery and wonder (Prov. xxx. 19); it is one
of the creatures of Hebrew mythology, Leviathan
being the swift or gliding or crooked serpent (Job
xxvi. 13; Isa. xxvii. 1); and in Revelation Satan,
the devil, is a serpent (xii. 9, xx. 2), and as a dragon
or serpent he figures in apocalyptic events (xii. 14-
15). In Gen. iii. (J; embodying primitive concep-
tions) the serpent is a sentient creature endowed
with speech, contradicting the utterance of Yahweh,
and leading man to disobedience. It is conceived
as once having had a different means of locomotion,
its present method being a punishment for its part
In the fall (verse 14; interesting in this relation are
the conceptions of the winged serpent — see below
IV., { 2— and the four-footed reptile, as well as of
the dragon, which combines both features). The
hostility that has become instinctive between the
race of man and that of the serpent is also traced
to this cause, and it is noteworthy that in accord-
ance with the assumed former parity in intercourse
there appears in verse 1 no shrinking of the woman
from the serpent as it approaches to accomplish its
purpose. Similarly in verse 14 there is expressed
a quite common primitive idea that dust is the
serpent's food. The exegesis which sees Satan in
this living thing is read into the passage in the light
of a much later and more highly developed demon-
ology (cf. Rev. xii. 9, xx. 2), for the conception of
the serpent here is that of an animal only.
What little the purified Hebrew mythology has to
say of the serpent is doubtless to be explained on
the basis of common Semitic notions regarding the
animal. The mythological references in the Old
Testament are few: Job iii. 8 (R. V. and A. V.
margin) and xxvi. 13, by most commentators re-
ferred to the dragon which enfolds the sun in its
coils (a common oriental explanation of the tun's
Serpent
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
864
eclipse) ; and Isa. xxvii. 1, where the reference is
almost certainly to the animal depicted in Baby-
lonian cosmological myths. It is to be
2. Mythol- noted that the term " Leviathan "
ogy. stands for several conceptions: in
Job xli.; Ps. body. 14; and Ezek.
xxix. 3 the context points to the crocodile; Ps.
civ. 26 refers evidently to some inhabitant of the
sea (the whale, G. E. Post, in DB, iii. 102); and the
mythical dragon or perhaps the serpent of chaos
and of the deep waters, as above (see Dragon).
Of serpent-worship almost nothing appears in
the Old Testament. Reference to the one clear case
is given in II. Kings xviii. 4, where in addition to the
stereotyped formula by the Deuteronomic editor of
the book, customary as the summing
3. The up of a king's reign, there is added the
Brazen somewhat cryptic remark: " and brake
Serpent; in pieces the brazen serpent that Moses
"Nehush- had made; for unto those days the
tan." children of Israel did burn incense to
it; and he called it Nehushtan." The
marginal readings in the English versions attempt an
interpretation of " Nehushtan," while the R. V.
margin shows that the subject of the verb " called "
is in doubt — whether that subject is Hezekiah,
or whether it is impersonal, " one called " (i.e.,
" it was called "). It is recognized that the verb
may be pointed as a plural written defectively, " they
called " (so the Septuagint [codex L] kai ekalesan),
and may continue in thought the plural of the pre-
ceding clause. And this rendering in turn submits
to three interpretations which affect the sense of the
passage: Nehushtan might have been the ordinary
name applied in honor while it existed by the wor-
shipers (see below); or a name applied to it by
worshipers after it was broken and in contempt for
it; or by the authorities to wean away respect for it
and to prevent sedition or discontent. Besides this,
the name " Nehushtan " is also difficult, both as to
meaning and as to derivation. It has been taken
by many commentators into connection with the
nehosheth, " brazen," of the first part of the verse,
and this is indicated by the marginal readings in
A. V. In this case either of two interpretations would
satisfy the meaning: the term might be one of con-
tempt: " a mere bit of brass " — or it might as well
be a title of honor: " the work of brass par ex-
cellence," the " noted image made of brass."
Another derivation has been proposed which lies
quite near at hand, viz., from nahash, " serpent."
The difficulty then is to account for the termination
tan, for which a South Arabian origin is to be sought,
and the entire word is then to be explained as a loan
word from the Arabic.
The text does not state when the cult of the ob-
ject began, although the object itself is asserted to
be identical with that the origin and purpose of
which are stated in Num. xxi. 4-9. That such a
worship could have begun under the
4. Origin eye of Moses is out of the question,
and Signifi- assuming for a moment the identity
cance. of Nehushtan with the image made by
Moses. The continuance of the cult
till the time of Hezekiah is the one fact clearly
expressed. The method of dealing with the nar-
rative in the critical school is that which takes
account of the attempts customary in religious
history to accredit with a high antiquity practises
either already in use or those which it is desired to
install. It is then held as a corollary that the account
in Numbers is etiological. That is to say, it is held
that the attribution of a Mosaic origin to the brazen
serpent was to accredit the cult by those who fol-
lowed or introduced it, and that this in turn gave
rise to the (late) narrative in Numbers. Thus
Cheyne (e.g., in EB, iii. 3338) holds that Nehushtan
was one of the objects introduced into the Temple
from the East (Babylonia). This hypothesis, while
not impossible, is not susceptible of verification.
His question regarding the primitive character
ascribed to the object is pertinent, however, espe-
cially in view of the fact that the worship could not
have arisen in the time of Moses. A serpent deity
jfim appears to have had a place in the temple of
Marduk, where its function was that of a watcher
or guardian against foes (Schrader, KAT, pp. 503-
505), so that a basis exists for Cheyne's hypothesis.
But another explanation exists nearer at hand in
direct derivation from the Canaanites, even though
ultimate reference to Babylonian usage be asserted.
No longer regarded as tenable is the explanation of
William Robertson Smith (Journal of Philology,
ix. 99), who, assuming the Temple as the locus of
the cult, considers the object a totem image belong-
ing to the clan of David. To support this names in
the Davidic family are adduced which are related
to nahash, " serpent," — Na^shon (Ruth iv. 40),
and Abigail daughter of Nahash (II Sam. xvii. 25),
as well as the fact that Adonijah sacrificed at " the
stone of the serpent " (" of Zoheleth," I Kings i.
9). And no more likely is another hypothesis
(Stade's) that it may represent the mythological
serpent or dragon in heaven or perhaps an ancestor
cult. Much the more likely is the suggestion that
the worship was taken up from Canaanitic sources
(K. Marti, Geschichte der israditischen Religion, p.
101, Strasburg, 1903). Whether the cult had any
more significance than as a " remainder " taken over
from the Canaanites or even brought into Canaan
by the Hebrews is unknown. The connection with
Numbers suggests a relationship with the healing
powers ascribed to the serpent, but this is pure
hypothesis.
From the fact that in II Kings xviii. 4 it is said
that Hezekiah cut down " the Asherah " (in the
singular, cf. R. V.; the A. V. plural " groves " is
wrong), although it is known that the Asheroth
were numerous (see Asherah), it is
5. The plausibly argued by commentators that
Probable the reference is to the Asherah in the
Solution. Temple at Jerusalem, and that conse-
quently the Nehushtan was there.
But this reasoning is not conclusive, for probably
the " high places " which were " removed " were
not all in the Temple (see High Places). The ref-
erence of the object to the time of Moses may mean
no more than that it was very old, and the narra-
tive in Num. xxi. would serve as the basis for such
a report provided it or its elements were in existence
at the time. The followers of the cult would doubt-
less attempt to justify it by some such claim (cf.
365
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Serpent
the remark of Jeroboam I. when he set up the golden
calves, I Kings xii. 28). There is reason to believe
that the worship of the snake was not confined to
Jerusalem. Altogether aside from the great part
played by the serpent in the mythology of the sur-
rounding peoples and the certainty that this influ-
enced the Hebrews, there is direct evidence in a
small bronze serpent which was found at Gezer.
The question of the relationship between Num. xxi.
4 sqq., to II Kings xviii. 4 is by some regarded as
close, the former being considered as built upon
the latter. This is quite in accordance with the
mythopceic genius, and Numbers is, on the critical
hypothesis, the later. Such a passage as Deut. viii.
15 and the fact of the comparative abundance of
serpents in the Arabian desert would assist, espe-
cially in the case of the attribution of the origin of
the brazen serpent to Mosaic times. In the passage
in Numbers it is on the surface of the narrative
that merely looking on the image brought healing.
There is no suggestion that the brazen serpent is a
divine figure, nor, on the other hand, is there a hint
that it called for the exercise of faith in a peculiar
degree; the healing was accomplished for those who
looked on the image because it was the means ap-
pointed by Yahweh for that end. It became a mere
sign to serve that purpose (cf. the symbolism in
John iii. 14).
H. In Worship: From the standpoint of animis-
tic primitive religion there is little cause for wonder
in the diffused cult of the serpent, whether that
cult rise to the height of actual wor-
x. The ship or be but the lower degree of ven-
Basis. eration, totemic regard and immunity
from destruction, or mere symbolism.
The reptile's peculiar form and often its remarkable
beauty and striking marking, its mysterious and
sometimes exceedingly rapid mode of progression,
its staring gaze and power to charm (as exercised
on birds and the smaller animals), its ability ap-
parently to renew its youth and certainly its beauty
by the shedding of its skin, the insidious character
of its attack and the deadly character of its bite
as exhibited in some species — all these and other
characteristics have combined to make it one of the
most admired and most dreaded of animals, and to
give it a double repute for wisdom and power to
heal, as well as for unrelenting hostility and de-
monic hatred for the race of men (cf. Gen. iii. 15).
So that it is not remarkable that in religious sym-
bolism the serpent should figure so largely, that
nations celebrated for wisdom should make it an
accompaniment of their gods, heroes, and kings,
and that in mythology and folk-lore its role should
be so extensive. And the spell of the serpent is
not yet loosed, so that in few departments of com-
parative religion is there greater need of more care-
ful scrutiny of statements of fact and especially of
inferences current in the books on the subject. It
is usual to assume that every effigy or representa-
tion of a serpent, as also the use of it in rites, is
proof of serpent-worship in that locus or connec-
tion. Thus it is commonly held that the use of the
snake in the snake-dances of the North American
Indians involves worship. Yet it is probable that
the true explanation in this instance is the supposed
connection of the serpent in folk-lore with rain and
thus with agricultural fertility, so that the snake-
dance belongs in the realm of sympathetic magic
ritual to induce rain and consequently bountiful
harvests (see below on the connection of serpents
with springs). Similarly the sculptures, etc., of the
cobra with three, five, or seven heads, which is so
often figured shadowing with its inflated hood this
or that deity in India, no more warrant con-
clusion as to serpent-worship in that relation than
does the fact that deities are represented as seated
on a lotus prove worship of the lotus. Its function
there is merely that of an attendant upon the deity,
an enhancement of whose powers is implied by the
attendance of the deadly beast. In this connection
its presence is in line with the efforts of a crude re-
ligious art, which, under the form of four- or six-
handed beings with distorted shape and outre* ac-
companiments, seeks to express the attribution to
the gods of power and wisdom vastly superior to
those qualities as seen in human beings.
It must not be concluded from the foregoing,
however, that serpent-worship is or ever has been
a rare phenomenon. It is both a priori probable
that animistic peoples would worship an animal so
uncanny as the serpent, and demonstrable that such
worship was actual and continued beyond the ani-
mistic stage. But it is important to remember in
this connection that when the stage of anthropo-
morphic religion was reached, there would be a nat-
ural tendency to cover up the traces of animal-wor-
ship as being less noble, and so those traces would
easily become lost. Such a course would especially
be followed in the literary religions. This does not
involve the absolute extinction of the cult, how-
ever, for the worship often continued as a rural cult,
or, perhaps, sub rosa, after the more aristocratic
worship of the anthropomorphized deity had taken
its place. Much of the evidence to be cited from
Greece in all probability comes from this conserva-
tive stratum of the population.
Some of the most cogent proofs of serpent-wor-
ship in the ancient world come from the Greek area,
especially in connection with (1) the submerged
pre-Homeric religion, and (2) the later
2. In the " folk-religion " and the renascence
Greek of the mysteries (see Tribal and
World. Cultic Mysteries) in the century
preceding and following the Christian
era. The evidence is largely monumental, and is
established under circumstances which make it
evident that, e.g., Zeus superseded a deified snake,
installing himself instead as the object of worship,
and adopting its rites and sacrifices. Thus a huge
bearded snake is figured on a Hymettus marble
which was taken to Berlin in 1879, and is inscribed
" to Zeus Meilichios " (" Meilichios," here used
euphemistically, meaning " kind "). A votive tablet
is known, also figuring a bearded snake. Another
from Eteonos in Boeotia shows a serpent emerging
from a cave while a worshiper and his daughter stand
in front, the former in the act of worship. The sup-
planting by Zeus Meilichios of the snake is clearly
exhibited by a figure that is human in form, the
snake being reduced to normal size (in the former
cases it is gigantic) and located beneath the throne,
Serpent
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
366
while the sacrifice is the pig (offered to the chthonic
deities, not to those of the heavens, as was Zeus),
and the seated deity is identified with Zeus Meilich-
ios, the deity of the snake tablet just described
(Jane Ellen Harrison, Prolegomena, pp. 17-28,
Cambridge, 1908). On another tablet the huge
snake, this time not bearded, is figured with wor-
shipers, and this, too, is inscribed " to Zeus Meilich-
ios." It will be recalled that iEsculapius (Askle-
pios) is usually represented as carrying a staff on
which a snake is twined. A votive tablet found in
the Asklepieion and now in the Athens museum
shows the god standing in front of a huge serpent,
while worshipers, apparently a single family, bring
a lamb as sacrifice. Here the anthropomorphic tran-
sition is already made, but the snake still remains.
In other votive offerings the snake is present, but
greatly reduced in size. In sanctuaries in other
cities evidently belonging to a god of healing, prob-
ably jEsculapius, representations of snakes are com-
monly the votive offerings. According to Pausanias
(II., xi. 8), serpents of iEsculapius were fed at Sic-
yon, and the same author (III., xxiii. 7) reports
that at Epidaurus the statue of iEsculapius holds
its hand over a serpent and (II., xxviii. 1) a yellow
serpent is sacred to him, while the legend of Sicyon
(II., x. 3) is to the effect that he came to that city
in the form of a serpent. Epidaurus Limera was
built, according to the tradition (Pausanias, III.,
xxiii. 7), where a serpent brought from Epidaurus
disappeared in the earth (which the oracle had fore-
told as the omen by which to found the city), and
altars to the god of healing are there, while the same
story is told of the founding of Sosipolis (VI., xx.
5). The connection of the snake with iEsculapius
is indirectly confirmed by the narratives of cures
on the steles found at Epidaurus. In several cases
the beneficiaries of the healing shrine dreamed of
snakes (Mary Hamilton, Incubation, p. 22, no. 17,
p. 26, no. 38, p. 27, no. 40, London, 1906), and
snakes were often sent from Epidaurus to be the
agents of healing elsewhere (ib. pp. 30-31), as is
shown by the satirical Ploutos of Aristophanes (ib.,
p. 35). The cases of Zeus and iEsculapius make it
probable that in other instances, at least in Greek
environment (and the general law suggests the same
among other peoples), where the serpent accom-
panies the representation of the deity, worship of
the animal lies in the background.
Other examples in the Grecian world worthy of
notice are that at Hierapolis the serpent was a god
and was employed in the mysteries of Leto and
Kora. This animal figured in the Bacchic orgies,
also in the Mithraic (see below). Ser-
3. Ancestor pents were sacred to Trophonius (Pau-
Cults and sanias, IX., xxxix. 3). It will be re-
the Mys- called that the serpents which slew
teries. Laocoon retired to the temple of Pal-
las, while at Athens a huge snake was
supposed to have its den on the Acropolis in the
temple of Pallas, guardian of the city. The relation
of the snakes to the dead and the very probable as-
sociation with ancestor-worship are established by
a series of representations referred to in Harrison's
Prolegomena (ut sup., pp. 326-331, 349-354). The
dead hero is in one case shown inhabiting his tomb,
while on an altar to the hero Aristeandros snakes
were carved. This may have to be related to an-
cestor-worship also. There will occur to the reader
here the instance of iEneas sacrificing to his father's
manes (Mneid, v. 84), when a snake appeared and
the worshipers were uncertain whether this were
the " genius of the place " or an " attendant "
(famulus) of Anchises. The advanced thought of
the time transmuted the primitive reincarnation
of the dead in a snake (see on folk-lore, below) into
this more advanced form. The Ophites (q.v.) kept
a tame snake which they induced to encircle the
bread of the sacrament and worshiped as the king
of heaven (Epiphanius, Haer., xxxvii.; Tertullian,
Haer., ii., ANF, iii. 650).
At Rome the instances of well-attested serpent-
worship are few, and this accords with the less fanci-
ful, more restrained, and sharper legal turn of mind
of the Romans. The cult seems to
4. Rome have been established there in 462
and Baby- a. u. c. (291 B.C.), if one may follow
Ionia. the indications in Ovid, Metamorphoses,
xv. 5. At Lanuvium (16 m. s. of Rome)
there was a temple of Juno and a great cave, in
which was a huge snake to which worship was
offered. The animal was used as an oracle also,
maidens being taken there to prove their virginity,
which was regarded as established if the snake re-
ceived the offerings presented. Similarly, testimony
which makes for serpent-worship in Babylonia is
present. On Babylonian seals, serpent gods are
figured, the lower parts consisting of serpent coils,
with worshipers in front. Sometimes the serpent-
deity is represented introducing the devotee to the
god to whom worship is to be offered. The name of
this deity is given as Ningishzida (cf. W. H. Ward,
Seal Cylinders of Western Asia, chap, xviii., Wash-
ington, 1910). In the Marduk temple E-sagil at
Babylon an image of a horned serpent was kept
(Schrader, KAT, p. 504; cf. the references there,
e.g., to the Ninib hymn II Rawlinson, 19, no. 2) ;
for the Babylonian snake-deity ?iru cf. Schrader,
ut sup., pp. 504-505, this god being known as
" Lord of life/' Such a title is ambiguous; it is
applied in India to the cobra because of its deadly
power; it might also mean the giver or source of
life with reference to the frequent connection of the
snake with water and fertility. Diodorus Siculus
(ii. 70) affirms that in the temple of Bel (Marduk)
at Babylon there was an image of " the goddess
Rhea, ... at her knees two lions, and near her
very large serpents of silver, . . . also an image
of Juno, holding in her hand the head of a serpent."
This probably indicates the remains of adoration
of the animal.
For Phenicia and Syria Macrobius (Saturnalia
orum conviviorum libri VII., i. 9) affirms that the
Tyrians worshiped Janus under the figure of a ser-
pent with its tail in its mouth, and there is good
reason to believe that they employed
5. Syria also a serpent encircling a disc (see
and Egypt under symbolism, below). It seems
probable that the serpent was sacred
to the Phenician deity Esmun, who was in all prob-
ability a god of healing since he is identified with
iEsculapius (Baudissin, ZDMO, lix., 1905, pp. 459
867
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Serpent
sqq.) . Elagabalus is said as priest at Emesa to have
imported and worshiped serpents from Egypt of
the Agathodemon variety (Strabo, Geographike',
xvi. 756). While no country is richer than Egypt
in snake symbolism, explicit evidence of worship is
somewhat scarce. Apophis was the serpent of the
underworld, and Set or Typhon is identified with
him; Kneph is also represented as a hawk-headed
serpent; Isis and Nephthys were both identified
with the urseus goddess Uatchet, and a center of
the uneus worship in predynastic times was the
town in the Delta known as Per-Uatchet. In the
cases of Apophis and Set, if there was actual worship
it was probably of the type known as avertive, which
derives its stimulus from fear. Serpents were kept,
apparently as objects of devotion, at Thebes (He-
rodotus, ii. 74), and the cerastes has often been
found embalmed there. The asp was sacred to a
goddess Ranno, was a companion of Kneph, and
the representative of Agathad&mon (which name
may have had a euphemistic origin). ^Elian (De
animalibus, xvi. 39) tells of a large snake kept at
the JSsculapium at Alexandria, and of one kept and
fed at the temple at Metele in the Delta (Vana his-
toria, xi. 17). Montfaucon (Diarium Italicum, vol.
ii., plate 46) figures a marble, possibly from Egypt,
found at Rome on which there is the portrayal of a
worshiper before an idol the head of which consists
of a triple serpent head. The deceased human might
by the use of magic formulas become the serpent
Sata, which proclaimed " I died daily and am born
again each day " (E. A. W. Budge, Gods of the
Egyptians, ii. 377, 2 vols., London, 1904).
In India the worship of the serpent is a present
and indubitable fact, especially in the rural districts.
That this is an inheritance from the past is as little
open to question. The evidence for
6. India, past adoration is to be found not alone
in the ever present representation of
the animal in religious symbolism, which may often
be accounted for on other grounds, but also diffu-
sively in the references in the literature, as in the
Mahabharata, in which nag (serpent) stories abound
and involve the existence of the cult. In the Punjab
the animal is a tutelary household divinity to which
sacrifice is offered, and protection is assured by be-
lief in penalties which will be incurred by killing the
animal, such as subsequent barrenness of the wife
(with which may be compared the Teutonic belief
that the consequence is the death of a child). On
the upper Ganges the Agarwalas are known to others
by the name of snake-worshipers, and their chief
deity is Astika Muni, a nephew of the mythological
serpent Vasuki. In Malabar most house enclosures
have the animal's effigy on stone, the live snakes are
fed, while " snake groves " are maintained for the
performance of rites. In most villages of the Deccan
the nag is one of the village deities, and elsewhere in
the peninsula sacrifices of hair are offered in behalf
of children. Similarly, in Kashmir effigies of the
creature abound before which offerings are placed.
The worship exists largely in Sivaite connections,
and the so-called naga tribes are continuing testi-
mony to the existence of the cult.
In other parts of the world the evidence of this
worship can be substantiated, though only illustra-
tive examples will here be cited. In Africa the ad-
vance of civilisation is destroying the cult, but it is
known that in Dahomey, for instance,
7. Other the earth serpent was once a great deity
Countries, served by virgin priestesses, and on the
slave coast the cult of the snake was
all but dominant (J. B. Schlegel, Schlussel zur Ewe-
Sprachet p. xiv., Stuttgart, 1857). In Japan, out-
side of the regard for the mythical dragon, the still
current animism includes the serpent as an object
of prayer, and the gods of the water are often served
under that form (W. G. Aston, Shinto, pp. 63-64,
London, 1905). The Polynesian Ramahavaly is a
deity of healing, and his messengers are snakes (W.
Ellis, Polynesian Researches, 3d ed., London, 1854),
possibly a case parallel to that of J£sculapius in
Greece. In Sweden in the sixteenth century, snakes
were household deities held immune from harm
(Olaus Magnus, xxi. 47-48, Copenhagen, 1650), and
in Prussia the same regard long survived (C. Hart-
knoch, Alt und Neues Preussen, i. 143, 162, Frank-
fort, 1684). In America, Mexico and Peru are rich-
est in evidences of this cult, the Aztec Tezcatlipoca
being the male and his consort Cohuacohuatl the
female serpent. Quetzelcoatl was the feathered
serpent, lawgiver and civilizer (J. G. M Oiler, Ge-
schichte der americanischen Urrdigionen, pp. 62,
585, Basel 1855; and the works of Prescott), while
temples, the portals of which were built to resemble
serpents' heads, were known and impress the fact
of serpent-worship. In North America Hopi altars
are decorated with figures of snakes, and the Kicka-
poo Indians reverence the mythical rain serpent
above other deities. The so-called dracontia (tem-
ples of earth or mounds built in serpentine form) are
known in this region. The cases claimed in England
and France (Carnac in Brittany, Abury in Wiltshire
and Stanton Drew in Somersetshire, England; cf.
J. B. Deane, Worship of the Serpent, chap, viii.,
London, 1833) are by Fergusson (see bibliography)
declared to be imaginary. But in Scotland the sa-
cred character of the snakes pictured on stones is
established (John Stuart, Sculptured Stones in Scot-
land, ii., p. lxxiv., Aberdeen, 1856), and there seems
to be a dracontium in Argyllshire several hundred
feet long.
m. In Mythology: Greece presents perhaps the
richest, at any rate the best known, aggregation of
myths in which the serpent figures. The Titans in
their battles with Zeus are represented
x. Greece, as either wholly or partly serpentine,
while Boreas has tails of snakes instead
of feet (Pausanias, V., xix. 1). Typhon, a monster
partly snake-like in figure, was struck by the light-
ning of Zeus and buried beneath Mt. Etna (Pindar,
Python). According to another story (Strabo, xvi.
756) the channel of the Orontes in Syria was caused
by the writhings of the monster in his agony. The
serpentine horrors of the Gorgons, Furies, and Cer-
berus come naturally to mind; and in early times
the JSgis of Athena was a cloak with scales and a
fringe of serpents. This deity, when she won Athens
from Poseidon, made the serpent Erechthonius
guardian of the olive-tree which she planted (Pau-
sanias, I., xxiv. 7). So serpents or dragons guarded
the golden fleece and the golden apple in the garden
Serpent
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
368
of the Hesperides (ib. VI., xix. 8). Thetis trans-
formed herself into a snake to escape from Peleus
(ib. V., xviii. 5), and the existence of the winged
snake is a belief of Greece as well as of Egypt and
Arabia. The serpent Pytho guarded the oracle at
Delphi and was killed by Apollo, who assumed the
oracle (Hyginus, Fabula, cxl.; here original snake-
worship is indicated). Hercules strangled two ser-
pents sent against him by Hera, fought the Lernsean
Hydra, and was the progenitor by the serpent
Echidna of the snake-worshiping Scythians (Herod-
otus, iv. 9). Cadmus fought and killed a dragon
and sowed its teeth, and he and his wife were trans-
formed into serpents. Cecrops, first king of Attica,
and Erechtheus of Athens (Iliad, ii. 547) were half
serpents, and it is worth noting that Homer (Iliad,
xi. 38) gives to Agamemnon the insignium of a
three-headed snake.
Several cycles of myths in Babylonia contain
allusions to this animal, always hostile to gods and
men. In the Gilgamesh epic the hero loses through
a hostile serpent the herb which was to renew the
youth of the aged; the Etana myth
2. Baby- has to do with one of these animals
Ionia and which plucked the wings of the eagle
Egypt that was to carry Etana to heaven; in
the fragment of the Labbu myth a
water serpent is one of the plotters against man;
and the animal is brought into relation with the
creation myth and chaos, the monster Tiamat ap-
pearing in some of the representations to be not the
griffin-like beast but a serpent (W. H. Ward, in
Bibliotheca Sacra, xxxviii., 1891, 209-253), while
Tiamat gave birth to serpents and dragons, terrible
and irresistible until Marduk arose as the champion
of the gods. Babylonians had the conception of a
huge snake which engirdled the world, as well as of
another which lay in the depths of the sea and is
reflected in Hebrew cosmogony. The origin of the
Orontes in Syria has already received mention. In
Egypt mere reference is needed to Apophis, the
great serpent of the underworld, enemy of Horus,
Ra, and Osiris, as well as of the dead, and the per-
sonification of evil. Set was the snake which en-
dured forever and punished wicked souls in hell
(Budge, ut sup., i. 23-24, ii. 376-377). The text of
Unas (fifth dynasty) gives sets of magical formulas
by which to overcome the brood of serpents of the
underworld (Budge, ut sup., i. 23). A huge snake
thirty cubits long was believed to live in the " moun-
tain of the sunrise.' ' The myth of the winged ser-
pent was widely current in Egypt and Arabia (cf.
the conception of the feathered serpent of Mexico
and Peru). So through the myths of other peoples
runs the trail of the serpent. In India the sky snake
Vritra or Ahi keeps away the rain that would break
the drought, and is slain by the arrows of Indra;
Rudra is the destroyer of serpents; Devi assumed
this form to carry Vishnu through the deluge. The
Scandinavian myth of the Midgard serpent which
girdled the earth with its tail in its mouth comes
readily to the memory (Prose Edda, 410 sqq.). For
the Druid myth of the egg secreted by a writhing
mass of snakes see Druids. Among Mexicans the
first woman 'b husband was a great male snake (see
above under " Worship").
IV. In Symbolism: In religious art this animal
has an important place throughout the world. With
its tail in its mouth, sometimes combining the disc,
probably uniting two ways of repre-
x. General, senting eternity or endless time, it ap-
pears among the most unrelated na-
tions— in Egypt, Persia, India, China, and Mexico.
This disc is sometimes interpreted as the solar disc,
sometimes as the world-egg, and is often figured,
either winged or plain, with the serpent (or two ser-
pents) issuing from it, passing through it or around
it, or facing it. The employment of an effigy or rep-
resentation of the animal to designate a deity or
sovereign as sacred is common in both Egypt and
India, and Persius (Satire, i. 113) notes that the sign
of two serpents indicates a sanctuary. This sym-
bolism is carried out even in the New World, as
illustrated by the altars of the Guiana Indians, of
the Moquis (among whom the snake signifies light-
ning, and they incise or paint it on the wands and
kilts worn in the snake-dance), of the Natchez, and
even of the Indians who inhabited Mexico and Peru
at the time of the conquest (Prescott, Works,
passim).
No country employed the emblem more consist-
ently and abundantly than Egypt, where it ap-
pears in the head-dress or crown or about the person
elsewhere of gods and monarchs, ap-
2. Egyptian, parently only to emphasize deity and
Mithraic, kingship. Gods crowned with the disc
and Indian and urseus are Amen-Ra, Ra-Heru-
Art Khuti, Nut, and Tefnut; the urseus
appears in the crown or head-dress of
Bast, Sebeknit, Haru-Ur, Ptah-Seker, Sebek-Ra,
Isis, Horus, Ptah, Menthu, and Ba-Neb-Tajau, while
Renmut is urseus-headed. Especially abundant is
the use of the serpent in the " Book of that which
is in the Underworld " (cf. Budge, ut sup., i. 204-
262), and the eleventh hour is well worth studying
for the elaborateness of serpent symbolism and
forms. Here the solar disc and serpent from the
prow guide Ra's boat, twelve gods carry the serpent
Me^en to the East, preceded by two cobras carrying
crowns, while the four-footed serpent (cf. Gen. ill.
14; note also the dragon of China and Japan) with
wings is a prominent feature; in the sixth hour
a serpent with one snake head and four human
heads is seen, and the seven-headed snake is also
known (Budge, ut sup., i. 267, who gives on ii.
64 one of the finest reproductions of the winged
serpent). Mithraic art employs this animal exten-
sively, especially with its figure of Kronos. Thus
this symbol is represented at Modena in the folds of
a serpent (Revue archSologique, 1902, i. 1); another
found at Rome in the sixteenth century is entwined
with a serpent, the head of which passes over the
head of the statue and enters its mouth. The Mith-
raic bas-relief of Apulum, Dacia, shows on the bot-
tom border the serpent which surrounds the world
(F. Cumont, Textes et monuments, p. 309, 2 vols.,
Brussels, 1896-99). A Mithraic cameo shows on the
reverse two serpents twined about wands, a third
forming the wood of a bow, and a fourth forming
the string, and on the obverse two snakes extended.
A Mithraic leontocephalous Kronos has about him a
number of serpents, and in another found at Flor-
360
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Serpent
ence the head of the enfolding serpent rests on the
head of the Kronos. The plaques of the bull-slay-
ing Mithra show snakes in various positions (cf . F.
Cumont, Mysteries of Mithra, pp. 21, 22, 23, 39, 65,
106, 106, 108, 110, 117, 124, 139, 151, 176, 222, Chi-
cago, 1903). Cumont interprets the serpent in the
Kronos figures as typifying the tortuous course of the
sun in the ecliptic; but as Kronos typifies time, it is
better to take the presence of the serpent as merely
intensive and suggesting unending time. In India
the spectacled cobra is naturally most frequently
represented, especially as an attendant upon deities.
In this relation the animal is usually pictured with
three, five, seven, or nine heads, the hood being in-
flated, and generally shielding the head of the deity.
The god may, however, simply repose on the coils
of the animal, or may be enfolded within them; or
the serpent may form the adornment as necklace,
armlet, or girdle, or may be held in the hand. Not
merely are Brahman and Hindu gods represented
ae protected by the snake, but also the Jina (see
Jaini8m) and the Buddha (see Buddhism). In some
of the great temples almost every architectural pos-
sibility is seized for decoration with this figure, and
this holds true not only for India, but for Burma,
Java, and Ceylon, also for China and Japan, if the
dragon be taken into account, while in similar situa-
tions in Mexico and Peru the same is found.
The connection of the serpent with the tree of life,
already suggested by its presence in the garden of
the Hesperides and with the golden fleece, is illus-
trated in Babylonia, and the connection
3. In Other of this cycle with the serpent in Gen.
Lands, iii. has been too often exploited to need
more than mention here. In this region
it also appeared among the decorations of the ap-
proaches to temples and palaces (H. Gunkel, Schdp-
fung und Chaos, p. 154, Gottingen, 1895), while it is
striking that the caduceus (a staff wound with two
snakes) is carried by Ishtar (cf. W. H. Ward, Amer-
ican Antiquarian, xx., 1898, p. 215), and this same
serpent-staff appears on a vase of Gudea (H. Gress-
mann, AUorientalische Tezte und Bilder, ii. 92,
Tubingen, 1909). There come readily to mind the
caduceus of Hermes in Greece, and the staff of
iEsculapius twined with a single serpent. At Gour-
nia in Crete the modern excavations have brought
to light a goddess' image with serpents coiled about
her; one at Cnossos is in the embrace of three, while
a fourth projects its head above her tiara, and at
Palaikastro a goddess holds a threefold serpent in
her arms. It is but natural that the animal should
appear on the coins of many cities. Thus a Tyrian
coin carries a tree between two pillars or ma??eboth,
and a snake twines about the tree; another coin
bears the caduceus and also an altar, from the front
corners of which snakes emerge; still another repre-
sents the Tyrian Hercules contending with the ser-
pent; a coin of Berytus has a nude man (or god)
between two snakes which form a single coil; and
numerous coins bear designs which are but vari-
ants of these. Among cities which employed this
animal on their coins, Pella and Adramyttium are
representative.
V. In Folk-lore: No better illustration of the
right of folk-lore as a handmaiden to the study of
X.— 24
religion is furnished than in the body of common
notions which gather about the serpent. This branch
points the way to an understanding of many of the
features already exhibited in the foregoing discus-
sion of worship, mythology, and symbolism. The
qualities ascribed to this animal by the common
understanding may be grouped in five classes, viz.,
wisdom (including powers of healing), guardianship
and protection, paternity or transmigration, the
command over fertility, and hostility. These sev-
eral ideas may be contemporaneously current in
the same region; that is, it may be conceived that
the serpent is both the protector and the enemy of
man at the same time and place. Yet it must not
be forgotten that often one or the other ideas either
of benefaction or of maleficence may be dominant.
As an illustration of the wisdom of the serpent (cf .
Gen. iii.; it there is not only the most cunning of
animals, it knows the qualities of the fruit of the
tree) it serves in part to note that it was associated
with Athene, Apollo, and Hermes, in Egypt with
Kneph, in India with Siva (patron of the learned
Brahmans), with Buddha, who is said to have com-
municated his complete system only to the Nagas,
a supposed snake-like tribe, and with Vishnu, while
in Tibet one of the sacred books was popularly sup-
posed to have been derived from the Nagas. In its
capacity as a healer in Greece it was associated with
jEsculapius, in Egypt with Isis, Harpocrates, and
Serapis, with Rudra in India, and with Ramahavaly
in Polynesia. Ainus pray to it for a woman in
labor, and for help against ague. It is often re-
garded as knowing and applying the properties of
healing herbs. Pliny (xxv. 14) tells that Tyion was
fatally bitten by a serpent, that his sister Moire in-
duced a giant to kill the animal, but that its mate
brought a plant with which it touched the mouth of
the dead snake and so revived it, and that Moire*
learned the lesson and restored her brother to life
by the same means; similarly Appollodorus (Bib-
liothikS, III., iii. 1) asserts that Polyidus in the same
way gave life back to Glaucus; other examples are
noted in Pausanias, iii. 65 sqq. In India the same
belief obtains, also that in its nests it preserves
a stone which is a remedy for its own bite. In
Calabar one means of ordeal is the fang of a snake
introduced beneath the eyelid (T. J. Hutchinson,
Impressions of West Africa, London, 1858). The
part of the snake as guardian of the tree of life in
widely variant cycles has already been noted — of
this the garden of the Hesperides is but one case; in
India it is regarded also as the guardian of hidden
treasure, and Kipling makes use of this in his Jungle
Book. It is supposed to secrete in its own head a
valuable jewel, and even has one which it worships.
The belief in it as protector of the household existed
not only in Egypt (cf. E. W. Lane, Manners and
Customs of the Modern Egyptians, i. 289, London,
1836), but in India, Korea, China, and Japan, while
to kill one is unlucky. The idea of the connection
of the serpent with fertility is world-wide. Some-
times, as in India, its action is adverse, and it re-
strains the showers till killed or forced by a god to
release them. It is accredited with power over wind
and rain, and in Chile was held to have caused the
deluge. Yet in the Deccan offerings and prayers
Serpent
Servetus
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
370
for rain are made to the nag in spring and autumn;
Semites generally bring it into relation with springs.
It is at times the protector of persons of sanctity
or eminence, as when Scipio Africanus and Nero
were believed to have been watched over by a snake,
or when two are reported to have observed the first
purification of Confucius, or when one shielded the
Buddha from the sun's rays. On the other hand, it
may be regarded as malevolent, as when the Hurons
see in it the cause of disease, Australian tribes re-
gard it as bringing death into the world, and the
Puma Indians as the source of kidney and stomach
troubles in children. So St. Patrick drives it from
Ireland, Rudra is its destroyer in India, Buddha in
infancy strangles one, as does Krishna, while Her-
cules kills two. In the Troad there was a tribe
sprung from a serpent (Strabo, xiii. 1, 14), J21ian
(De animalibue, xii. 39) tells of a race in Phrygia
(Ophiogense) who were sprung from a woman and
a serpent; Alexander was credited with serpent
paternity (Plutarch, " Life of Alexander," ii.), and
the Natchez, Linni Lenape, Huron, and Menominee
Indians claim ancestry from it as one of their totems,
as do some African tribes. The reverse relation is
held as true, and after death a man's soul may in-
habit the body of a snake (for cases among the Afri-
cans consult E. B. Tylor, Primitive Culture, ii. 8,
239-242, 310, 347, London, 1903)— the case of
JSneas has already been noted. It was constantly
associated with tombs, and thence doubtless with
the underworld, with which in part may be con-
nected its repute for wisdom. In the Japanese
Nihongi a hero is made to reappear in serpent form
to take vengeance upon his murderers.
Geo. W. Gilmore.
Bibliography: On the serpent in the Bible consult: J.
Buxtorf, Exercitationes ad historian*, pp. 458-492, Basil,
1060; G. Menken, Schriften, vi. 349-411, Bremen, 1858;
P. Schols, Gotzendienst und Zauberwesen bei den alien
Hebraern, pp. 101-104, Regensburg, 1877; W. R. Smith,
Journal of Philology, ix (1880), 99-100; W. Sharpe, Hu-
manity and the Serpent of Genesis, Boston, 1886; J. P.
Val d'Eremas, The Serpent of Eden, London, 1888; W.
H. Ward, American Antiquarian, xz (1898), 162-165;
J. O. Fraser, Golden Bough, ii. 426-427, London, 1900;
V. Zapletal, Der Totemismus und die Religion Israel, pp.
68-69, Freiburg and Switzerland, 1901; DB, iii. 510-611;
EB, iii. 3387-88; JE, ix. 212-213; R. Q. Murison, in
American Journal of Semitic Language and Literature,
xxi. 115-130; and the commentaries on the passages ad-
duced in the text.
On the worship, etc., outside of Biblical mention con-
sult: J. B. Deane, The Worship of the Serpent Traced
throughout the World, London, 1833 (most later books
cite Deane, but his work is to be used with the greatest
caution); H. R. Schoolcraft, Notes on the Iroquois: An-
tiquities and general Hist, of Western New York, 1846;
W. H. Prescott, History of the Conquest of Mexico, New
York, 1843; idem. Hist, of the Conquest of Peru, ib. 1847
(both of these works are standard, and exist in almost
numberless cheap reprints); E. G. Squier, The Serpent
Symbol and the Worship of the Reciprocal Principles of
Nature in North America, New York, 1851 (of little value);
J. C. M. Boudin, Etudes anthropologiques, Paris, 1864;
J. Fergusson, Tree and Serpent Worship, London, 1869
(one of the best); W. R. Cooper, The Serpent Myths o
Ancient Egypt, London, 1873; C. Schoebel, Le Mythe de
la femme et du serpent, Paris, 1876; H. Clarke and C. S.
Wake, Serpent and Siva Worship in America, Africa, Asia,
London, 1877 (to be used with caution); H. Jennings,
The Rosicrucians, with a Chapter on Serpent-Worshippers,
new ed.. London, 1879; W. H. Ward, in Bibliotheca Sacra,
xxxviii (1881), 209-253; J. G. Bourke, The Snake Dance
of the Maquis of Arizona, New York, 1884; A. Reville,
Native Religions of Mexico and Peru, London, 1884; C. W.
King, The Gnostics and their Remains, ib. 1887; C. 8.
Wake, Serpent Worship and Other Essays, London, 1887;
idem. Serpent Worship and Totemism, ib. 1888; Ophiola-
treia: an Account of . . . Serpent Worship, privately
printed, 1889 (connects serpent-worship and phallicism) ;
C. F. Oldham, in Royal Asiatic Society's Journal, 1891, pp.
361-392, 1901, pp. 461-473 (on worship in India); F. T.
Elworthy, The Evil Eye, London, 1895: J. W. Fewkss,
Comparison ofSia and Tusayan Snake Ceremonials, Wash-
ington, 1895; J. B. Ambrosetti, El Simbolo de la SzrpienU
en la alfareria funeraria de la region calchaqui, Buenos
Aires, 1896; D. G. Brinton, Myths of the New World, Phil-
adelphia, 1896; J. W. Fewkes in Reports of the Bureau
of American Ethnology, xvi (1897), 267-312, xix (1900),
957-101 1 ; Pausanias, ed. Fraser, 6 vols.. London and New
York, 1898; A. Wilder, Serpent as a Symbol, in Metaphys-
ical Magazine, xv (1901), 1-20; E. Crawley, Mystic Rose,
pp. 192 sqq., New York, 1902; H. R. Voth, The OraOn
Summer Snake Ceremony, Chicago, 1903; S. Reinach in
Gazette des beaux-arts. III., xxxii (1904), 13-23 (on finds in
Crete); L. Frobenius, Das Zeitalter des Sonnengottes, vol.
i., Berlin, 1904; H. E. Sampson, The Message of the Sun,
and the Cult of the Cross and Serpent, London, 1904; C. F.
Oldham, The Sun and the Serpent: a Contribution to the
History of Serpent Worship, London, 1905; E. Amelineau,
Du rote des serpents dans lecroyancesreligieuses del' Itgypie,
in RHR, li (1905), 335-360, Iii (1905), 1-32; R. M. Bur-
rows, The Discoveries in Crete, pp. 137-138 et passim.
New York, 1907; J. Harrison, Prolegomena to the Study of
Greek Religion, 2d ed., London and New York, 1908 (im-
portant) ; J. Meier, in Anthropos, iii (1908), 1005-1029 (New
Pomerania); S. Reinach, Orpheus, passim, New York,
1909; C. Spiess, Die Johcln-GottheU und ihr Schlangen-
kult, Brunswick, 1910; G. A. J. Hasen, in Bijdragen tot
de taal-lan den volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indie, ttxix.
175-204; A. Kemp- Welch, The Woman-headed Serpent
in AH, in 19th Century and After, Iii. 983-991; L. Stieda,
In Globus, lxxv. 160-163; and, in general, works on travels
In various countries, as well as those on the different re-
ligions of the world.
SERVATIUS, ser-v^shi-UB, SAINT: Gallic bishop
of the fourth century. He is mentioned as one of
those present at the Synod of Sardica in 347, and
is apparently identical with one of the envoys from
Magnentius to Constantius in 350, as well as with
the Servatio, bishop of Tongres, who bravely de-
fended Athanasian orthodoxy at the Synod of
Rimini in 359. It is, on the other hand, doubtful
whether he attended a provincial synod said to have
been held at Cologne in 346. According to Gregory
of Tours (Hi&toria Francorum, ii. 5; cf . De gloria conn
fessorum, had.), a Servatius or Axvatius (the latter
the better reading) was bishop of Tongres about the
time of the Hun invasions under Attila. Learning of
the approach of the barbarians, he made pilgrimages
to Rome to avert, if possible, by prayers at the tomb
of St. Peter the destruction which threatened Ton-
gres, only to receive the divine command to return
to his doomed city. He obeyed, and removed to
Maestricht, where he died in 450, a year before
Tongres was sacked by the Huns. It would seem,
however, that the Hun invasion has here been con-
fused with some earlier barbarian inroad.
A very ancient tradition of the Church at Mae-
stricht gives May 13, 384, as the date of the death of
Servatius of Tongres, and his grave soon became a
favorite place of pilgrimage, so that in 562 his re-
mains were removed to a church erected in his honor.
In 726, after the victory of Charles Martel over
the Saracens on St. Servatius1 day, the bones of the
saint found their final resting-place, though relics
found their way to various places, as Duisburg,
Worms, and especially Quedlinburg. In medieval
871
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Serpent
Servetus
art St. Servatius is represented as overshadowed by
an eagle soaring above him, or as lying in a grave
with three wooden shoes, the traditional instruments
of his martyrdom. (O. ZocxLEHf.)
Bibliography: An early Vita i> given in the volume of
Kurth noted below, and with other material in Analecta
BoUandiana, i (1882), 85-111; similar early material is
edited in MQH, Script., vii (1846), 172 sqq. and arii (1850);
ASB, May, iii. 215 sqq. (with commentary from pp. 200
sqq.) ; and B. Krusch's ed. of Paeeionea viUaque ami Mero-
vingici in MQH, Script, rer. Merov., iii (1896), 83 (on
which cf. G. Kurth in Analecta BoUandiana, 1807, pp.
164-172). Consult further: G. Kurth, Deux biographic
inSdite* de St. Servaia, Liege, 1881; idem, NoueeUea re-
cherchea aur S. Servaia, ib. 1884; P. F. X. de Ram, No-
tice but S. Servais, premier eveque de Tongrea, 2d ed.,
Brussels, 1847; Corton, in De Katholiek, 1884; J. Branck-
en, St. Servatiue-Legende, Maastricht, 1884; A. Prost,
Saint Servaia, Paris, 1891; F. Gdrres, in ZWT, 1808, pp.
78-83; F. Wflhelm, Sand Servatiue oder trie doe erate Reie
in devtacher Zunge geimpft umrde, Munich, 1010; Tille-
mont, Memoirea, viii. 639 sqq.; Rettberg, KD, i. 204 sqq.;
Friedrich, KD, I 300 sqq.; Hauck, KD, i. 33-34, 61-62;
DCB, iv. 623.
SERVETUS, ser-vt'tus, MICHAEL
(MIGUEL SERVETO).
Early Life and Wanderings (f 1).
Physician and Classical Scholar (f 2).
Theological System (f 3).
Tried by the Inquisition (f 4).
Before the Court at Geneva (f 5).
The Execution and Opinions Regarding it (f 6).
Michael Servetus, famous as an antitrinitarian
and an opponent of Calvin, was b., probably at
Tudela (52 m. n.w. of Saragossa), Spain, Sept. 29,
1511, and was executed at Geneva Oct. 27, 1553.
Expected to become a jurist, he first studied at
Saragossa, and in 1525 was made amanuensis to the
royal chaplain, Juan de Quintans, whom he accom-
panied to Toulouse in 1528. Here he continued his
legal studies, and also became interested in the
Bible, holding private readings with some of his fel-
low students and likewise plunging
x. Early into the writings of Melanchthon and
Life and Paul of Burgos. In Feb., 1530, he at-
Wanderings.tended the coronation of Charles V. at
Bologna with Quintans, and then ac-
companied his patron, who had meanwhile become
confessor to the king, to Germany. While there is
no real basis for the story that he met Luther per-
sonally, it is not impossible that he went with But-
zer to Basel in the autumn of 1530, although the
only demonstrable fact is that he met (Ecolampadius
in October of the same year. By this time the anti-
trinitarianism of Servetus had been fully evolved,
and finally arousing the opposition even of the
kindly (Ecolampadius, he went to Strasburg, where
he was received by Capita and Butzer. When, in
1531, he printed at Hagenau his De Trinitotis errori-
bus libri septem, (Ecolampadius sought to have the
writings of Servetus officially suppressed, while
Zwingli issued an earnest warning against the tenets
of the Spanish teacher. In his Diologorum de
Trinitote libri duo, with its appendix, De fusHcia
regni Christi et de cartiate capitula quatuor (Hagenau,
1532) he now sought to obviate the unfavorable
impression of his previous work by making certain
formal concessions, though maintaining that neither
the ancient Church nor the Reformers understood
the Bible, and declaring himself unable either to
agree or to disagree entirely with either party.
Disappointed in his far-reaching schemes, Serve-
tus left Germany, and, dropping his theological pur-
suits for the nonce, devoted himself to the study of
medicine at Paris, taking the name of Villanovanus
from his father's native city of Villanueva in Aragon.
In 1534 he left Paris and lived for some years at
Lyons, where he gained partial sup-
a. Physician port by proof-reading, and then pub-
and liahed a new edition of Ptolemy (Lyons,
Classical 1535); but in 1537 he returned to
Scholar. Paris and gained distinction as a
physician, writing his Syruporum unir
versa ratio, ad Galeni censuram dUigenter expolita.
Cui post integrum de concocHone discerpUonem prah
seripta est vera purgandi methodus, cum expositions
aphorismi: concocta medicari (Paris, 1537). His
views on the juridical value of astrology, however,
as expressed in his Apologetica disceptatio de astro-
logia (Paris, 1538), drew upon him such grave
charges from the University of Paris that he
was forced to leave the capital for Charlieu, where
he practised medicine for the short time that he was
permitted to remain. He then lived peacefully at
Vienne for a number of years, and during this period
issued an entirely revamped edition of Sanctes
Pagninus' Latin translation of the Bible (see Bible
Versions, A, II., 3). During these years, moreover,
Servetus had been gradually formulating a work to
prove that primitive Christianity had been corrupted
by the early ecumenical councils. He then began
correspondence with Calvin, apparently to gain the
requisite approval for the publication of his conclu-
sions; but the impudent tone assumed by Servetus
finally angered the Genevan, who, on Feb. 13, 1546,
wrote Farel: "If he [Servetus] comes [to Geneva],
I shall never let him go out alive if my authority
has weight." Servetus now entered upon negotia-
tions with other Genevan preachers and with Viret,
fully recognising the personal peril in which he
stood; and in 1553 he secretly printed at Vienne his
Christianismi restitutio (reprint Nuremberg, 1791;
Germ, transl., 3 vols., Wiesbaden, 1892-06), a book
repeating with increased emphasis his old attacks
on the doctrine of the Trinity, which he declared
had arisen with the corruption of the Church.
The positive tenets of Servetus' Restitutio are
equally difficult to deduce and to summarize. While
rejecting the Trinity in essence, he maintained a
Trinity of revelation in his theory of the twofold
revelation of God, in the first of which the Word
was present as a divine primal light,
3. Theo- and in the second the Spirit as a divine
logical primal power. After the creation the
System. Word was prefigured in Adam, the
theophanies, etc., until it became in-
carnate in Christ; and through the exalted Christ,
now Jehovah himself, the Spirit, formerly existent
only as the world-soul, the power of life, the natural
apperception of the divine, and the Law, realizes
its fulness as the principle of regeneration and im-
mortality inherent in man. Such was the weight
laid by Servetus on these problems that his system
had room for faith only as the recognition of the
divinity of Christ. Consciousness of sin was almost
Servetus
Servia
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOQ
872
entirely lacking, and he even denied that one could
sin, strictly speaking, before one had reached the age
of twenty. His stress on intellectuality naturally
had no place for infant baptism, and for this very
reason he stressed the importance of adult baptism
as the conferring of the Spirit, the Lord's Supper as
the food of the Spirit, and good works, especially as-
ceticism, as the exercise of the Spirit. Eschato-
logically he maintained that the Christian is com-
pletely freed from the dross of earthly life by a
purifying fire.
As the physician-in-ordinary of the archbishop of
Vienne, Servetus naturally endeavored to keep his
authorship of the Restitutio secret, but Calvin
recognized the source as soon as he became aware
of the book, and at once assailed it as a most danger-
ous attempt to discredit and destroy nascent French
Protestantism. It would seem that
4. Tried by Calvin's first information was gained
the Inquisi- from a letter of a Protestant refugee
tion. named Guillaume Trie, then residing at
Geneva, to a Roman Catholic kinsman,
Antoine Arneys, at Lyons, mocking at the ancient
Church for harboring a heretic like Servetus. Ar-
neys, many allege at the indirect instance of Calvin,
denounced Servetus to the Inquisiton. At the first
trial Servetus denied all knowledge of the Restitutio,
whereupon, at the instance of the Inquisitor Ory,
Arneys wrote Trie asking for a complete copy of the
work. This was no longer accessible, but instead
Trie submitted as documents twenty-four letters of
Servetus to Calvin, the Genevan theologian mean-
while seeking to avoid any suggestion that he might
be a party to a trial before the Holy Office, deeply
regretting that his plan of suppressing Servetus
necessitated his formal cooperation, and later ex-
pressly denying that he had any part whatever in the
proceedings. On Apr. 4, 1533, Servetus was arrested
at Vienne and examined on the two days following,
when he denied that he was Servetus, claimed to
have adopted the name of that scholar that he might
measure himself with Calvin in dialectics, and of-
fered to make complete retractation. On Apr. 7
he was permitted to escape, either to guard the
archbishop and other noted friends of Servetus
against further embarrassment, or to save the In-
quisition from being made a catspaw for Calvin.
The trial, however, continued, and on June 17
Servetus was condemned to the stake, his books and
his effigy being burned in his stead.
Meanwhile Servetus, being unsuccessful in reach-
ing the Spanish line, sought to go to Italy by way of
Switzerland, his route taking him through Geneva.
Learning that his enemy was in the city, Calvin had
him arrested on Sunday, Aug. 13, and
5* Before had his secretary, Nicolas de la Fon-
the Court taine, take the legally requisite duty of
at Geneva, plaintiff, the charge being the circula-
tion of dangerous heresies, for which
the defendant, a fugitive from justice, had already
been imprisoned. Calvin drew up for De la Fontaine
thirty-eight counts against Servetus, the special
charges being antitrinitarianism and anabaptism.
On Aug. 15 Servetus was brought to trial. As
to the Trinity, he admitted that he used the
term "Person" in a different sense from his con-
temporaries; he declared himself ready to retract
his views on infant baptism; but he maintained
that Calvin was guilty of grave errors of doc-
trine. Calvin now found himself obliged to come
forward as the plaintiff, and on Aug. 17 the two op-
ponents came for the first time face to face. In the
beginning Servetus proved himself more than a
match for Calvin, but so strong were his pantheistic
expressions that the Council, feeling that the out-
come would prove a tragedy, determined to get
further information from Vienne. During the days
of waiting which ensued, Calvin wrote Farel (Aug.
20) that he hoped Servetus would be sentenced to
capital punishment, though not by a painful death;
while Servetus (Aug. 22) vainly protested to the
Council against being treated as a criminal, con-
trary to the tenets of the Apostles and the early
Church. On Aug. 24 the prosecutor-general, Claude
Rigot, presented a list of thirty charges which,
ignoring the differences between Servetus and
Calvin, and laying little stress on the Trinitarian
problems, attacked primarily the basal ideas of the
Restitutio that all Christianity which had previously
existed was corrupt, that the Reformation was un-
christian, and that all who differed from Servetus
were damned, likewise casting suspicion on the pri-
vate life of the accused. In reply the latter main-
tained that his intention was good, that he had the
highest veneration for the Scriptures, and that he
must consider his tenets to be true until they were
proved to be false. On Aug. 31 an answer was re-
ceived from Vienne with a request for the surrender
of the fugitive; but Servetus, when offered his
choice, preferred to stand trial at Geneva, especially
as Calvin was already involved in his struggle with
the Libertines. Exhausted by hearing a theological
debate between the two principals on Sept. 1, the
council determined that the remainder of the con-
troversy should be carried on in writing, and on the
following day Calvin declared that the Geneva
preachers were ready to prove thirty-eight passages
from Servetus to be either heretical, or blasphemous,
or contrary to the Word of God and the teaching
of the Church. Evidently learning of Calvin's dis-
pute with Philibert Berthelier (see Calvin, John,
§ 13), Servetus changed his tone to one of more
boldness. The council hesitated to condemn him,
and on Sept. 19 determined to send the minutes of
the proceedings to Bern, Basel, Zurich, and Schaff-
hausen, and to ask the advice of both the theolo-
gians and the councils of these four cities. At this
juncture Servetus formally charged Calvin with
deliberate suppression of Christian truth and the
like, and demanded that the Geneva theologian be
banished and his property confiscated in behalf of
the plaintiff, requests which were naturally refused.
On Oct. 19 answers were received from the four
Swiss cities unanimously condemning the doctrines
of Servetus and urging the obviation of a peril
which threatened the entire Reformed Church,
though without direct allusion to the death penalty.
The Geneva council now proceeded to final action,
and on Oct. 26 Servetus was condemned, not to a
merciful death, as Calvin and the other Genevan
ministers had wished, but to the stake. The anti-
trinitarian implored pity from Calvin, who replied
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
SSvui
that he had never been actuated by vindictiveness,
and urged him to seek the divine forgiveness and
mercy. On the following day the sen-
6. The fence was carried out, since Fuel, whom
Execution Calvin summoned to accompany the
and Opin- condemned, was unable to induce Ser-
ums Re- vetus to retract. The execution of
garding it. Michael Servetus involved Calvin in
obloquy in his own and in succeeding;
generations, an obloquy partly merited and partly
undeserved. Almost immediately after the event,
in Feb., 1554, Calvin published bis Defenaie orOto-
doxa fidei de sacra trinitale, which was followed by
Beta's De haretidt a civili magtttratu puniendit,
issued in September of the same year; while the
dissatisfaction with the execution was voiced by the
writings of Sebastianus Castellio (q.v.). On the
350th anniversary of the burning of Servetus an
"expiatory monument" was erected near the scene
of his execution. [A monument to Servetus was
erected at Annemaaae (4 m. from Geneva), on the
French border. It represents Servetus in prison
and has on it an extract from one of his prison let-
ters. Professor Odhner of the Swedenborgian Sem-
inary at Bryn Athyn, Pa., has discovered that
Servetus in a remarkable manner anticipated the
teachings of Swedenborg.]
(EUGEN LaCHENMANK.)
Bibliooupht: Sources in Calvin's Opera, ed. Bud at
si., viii. 153-872, xiv. 68 sqq.. mid nvi.; T. Ben, Cat-
vini Vita, Geneva, 1564; the " Acta " or the trial at
Vienne, ed. ■ D'Artigny, Paria, 1749; and the " Alia " of
the trial at Geneva, ed. J. H. A. Rilliet, Geneva, 1844.
Besides the literature on Calvin, much of which diacuoaee
at length the relatione of Servetus and Calvin and the
execution of Servetus, consult: F. Trechael, Michael
Street und taint Vora/ineer, Heidelberg, 1839; W. K.
Tweedie. Strvttw and Calvin, London, 1846; F. C. Baur,
Dit chritllieht Leltre von der Drdtiniaktit und Mmtck-
uwduno Gotttt, iii. 54-103, Tubingen. 1843; I. A. Dorner,
Lehre mi der Perimi Chrieti, ii. 049-600, Berlin, 1853;
E. Saisset, Mflanatt d'hittoirt, pp. 117-227, Pern, I860:
E. Brunnemann. Michael Strvtl, Berlin, 1865; A. Chau-
vet. Studt »ur It tyitimt thiologiaue it Stmt. Straabunj,
1807; H. 0. N. Tollin, Luther und Serve!, Berlin, 1875;
idem, MelanchtonundSerctt. ib. 1876; idem, Charakterbild
Michael Servett, ib. 1870; idem, Dot Lehrtj/tttm Michatl
Strvfit, 3 vols., Giitenloh. 1876-78; idem, Michatl Sere*
und Martin Sutler. Berlin. 1880; G. C. B. Punjer. De It.
Stneti doctrina, Jena. 1878; M, M. Pelayo, Hist, dt lot
Htttrodoiat EepanjoUs. ii. 240-313, Madrid, 1877; A.
Roget, Hitt. du peuple dt Geneve, vol. iv., Geneva, 1877;
H. Willie. Servetus and Calvin, London, 1S77 (the classic
work); A. von der Lintle, Michael Serve*, ten Brandofftr
dtr (IrrtSarmeerde Inquisitie, flroningen. 1891 (hoatile to
Calvin); F. Buisson. 8. CcuteUion, ea vie tt ton autre, 2
vols., Paris, 1892; J. E. Choisy, La Thtocratit a Geneve an
tempt dt Calvin, Geneva. 1901; idem, in Recue chritienne.
I; L. Monod.ii
Serve! tt Calvin, Pari
London and New Y
hit Lift .
I. Dirfe. Michel
1908; W. Osier, Michatl Servttut,
i, 1000; C. T. Odhner. Michael
I Ttachinat, Philadelphia. 1910;
Dcbaff, Christian Church,
in general the works on the church history of the period.
SERVIA : A kingdom (after 1879) situated in the
Balkan peninsula, in southeastern Europe, between
Austria-Hungary on the north and Turkey on the
south; area (estimated) 18,757 square miles; popu-
lation (1905) 2,683,025, belonging mainly to the
eastern Orthodox Church. This, according to art.
3 of the constitution of 1901, has the same
dogmas as the Eastern Ecumenical Church, but is
independent and autocephalous. The Eastern
Orthodox confession is the religion of the State,
which the king and his children must profess (J 7).
By the terms of art. 33, proselyting is forbidden as
an offense to the state religion; yet, according to the
same paragraph, complete tolerance is practised,
since it is stated that freedom of conscience shall be
unrestricted. All recognised religious societies are
legally protected, so far as their religious exercises
do not violate public order and morality. According
to } 98, all foreign religious societies may conduct
themselves according to their own tenets, with the
stipulation only that no manner of correspondence
may be carried on between the church authorities
of such religious societies and those abroad, without
permission of the minister of worship. In like man-
ner, no act of such foreign church authorities may
be published in the kingdom without the same con-
sent. It is thus not difficult for the officiating
minister of worship to construe his power against
communications between the pope and the Ser-
vian Roman Catholic clergy.
The independence and autonomy of the State
Church grew up by degrees. The first foundation
was granted by the sultan in Constantinople; when,
in 1766, he created a vladika, or superior bishop, in
Belgrade and abolished the former patriarchate of
the Servian population in Turkey, previously
located at Ipek in northern Albania. The vladika
being a Phanariot, however, was amenable to the
patriarch of the capital, and through him also to the
sultan. Yet it was a form of church rule with its
seat at Belgrade, and as such it might have asserted
itself longer, had not the bribery and oppression
of the Phanariot party proved too irritating; for
the Greek metropolitans pursuing their own in-
terests placed themselves actually in opposition to
the efforts of the Servians for independence from
Turkish despotism. In consequence, after many
acts of violence by the Servian Prince Milosh, there
resulted in 1852 the recognition of an independent
metropolitan by the patriarchate; the latter only
requiring the approval of the metropolitan by the
patriarch, who was also to be regularly remembered
in the prayers of the Church, and the recognition
of the episcopal oversight of the patriarch by the
annual contribution to him of 1,200 dinars ($234).
But with the establishment of the Servian kingdom,
all this was annulled.
The metropolitan and bishop of Belgrade now
rules the State Church independently, which has
a well-defined representative constitution; for the
degrees of its order are in its representative bodies.
The highest is the archihierarchical synod con-
ducted and represented by the metropolitan. To
this belong the other two bishops; namely, of Nish
and Schitscha (a cloister near the Ibar, though the
bishop resides at Tschatschak), also the two archi-
mandrites (abbots), and the archpriests, one for each
of the twenty-one eparchies (civil districts). It
elects the metropolitan, suhject to royal approval,
and the archimandrites (priors of the cloisters), and
is the bishops' court of justice. The intermediate
ecclesiastical court is the appellate consistory, whose
members are proposed by the metropolitan from
the total body of clergy to the minister of worship,
Seth
THE NEW 8CHAFF-HERZ0G
874
and require royal approval. The measures and
resolutions passed in the eparchies are subject to
the acceptance of their synodical convention, which
also takes cognizance of appeals. The eparchical
consistories are composed of five popes (or Greek
parish priests) and monks, under the bishop's direc-
tion. Their function is to promote religion among
the people, to care for the church property, to settle
matrimonial disputes, and to exercise discipline
over the clergy. The clergy comprises the regular
monastic clericals, from among whom the bishops
are taken, and the married priests, or popes. Many
of the latter, however, are qualified merely to assist
at mass and to dispense a few sacraments. The
bishops appoint all the priests independent of the
State, which does not contribute for their support,
but only a certain part for the bishops and the arch-
priests. The fifty-two to fifty-four cloisters have
sufficiently affluent revenues to discharge the pas-
toral duties even without state assistance. The
training of the clergy requires four years in the
gymnasium and four years in the seminary. For
the people education was made obligatory in 1882,
and there are thirty-eight intermediate schools.
The Roman Catholic Church numbers about 24,000,
mostly inhabiting the banks of the Save and the
Danube, with more than 6,000 in Belgrade. They
are under the Croatian bishop of Djakovar, who
also bears the title of bishop of Belgrade and Se-
mendria. The Evangelical congregation is incon-
spicuous and small in numbers; and has placed
itself under the superior church council of Berlin.
Wilhelm G6tz.
Bibliography: P. Coquelle, he Royaume de Serine, Paris,
1894; W. Miller, The Balkan; London and New York,
1896; N. Raiicio\ Dae kirchlich-relioi&te Leben bei den
Serben, Gdttingen, 1896; H. Vivian, 8ervia, the Poor Man'e
Paradise, London, 1897; E. Lasard and J. Hogge, La
Serbi d'aujourtThui, Brussels, 1901; M. E. Durham,
Through the Land* of the Serb, London, 1904; F. Kanits,
Dae Kdnioreich Serbien und doe 8erbenvolk, 2 vols., Leip-
sie, 1904-09; Prince and Princess Lasarovich-Hrebelian-
ovich, The Servian People; their poet Glory and their Dee-
tiny, 2 vols.. New York, 1910.
SERVIAN ORTHODOX CHURCHES IN AMER-
ICA: These churches are administering to the
spiritual needs of the Servian immigrants from
Dalmatia, Austria proper, Servia, Montenegro,
Bosnia, and Herzegovina, who ecclesiastically are
under the jurisdiction of the primate of the Servian
Church in Austria, the metropolitan of the Ortho-
dox Church of Dalmatia, the Holy Synod of Servia,
and the metropolitan of Montenegro. The earliest
immigration to the United States was that of the
seafaring Dalmatians, whom the gold fever of 1849
brought to California, and the early "Austrian"
colonies in New Orleans, Mobile, and San Francisco
were doubtless theirs. Servians at present are to be
found throughout the United States and Alaska.
The first Servian church was built in Jackson, Cal.,
1894, by the Archimandrite Sebastian Dabovitch,
who later, in 1905, established his headquarters in
Chicago as the administrator of the Servian Ortho-
dox Church in North America, under the jurisdic-
tion of the Russian archbishop of New York City.
There are, according to moderate calculations, about
80,000 Servians in the United States, their clergy
consisting of one archimandrite and nine priests,
and they have churches at Chicago and South
Chicago, 111.; MacKeesport, Wilmering, South
Pittsburg, and Steelton, Pa.; Jackson and Los
Angeles, Cal.; Kansas City, Kansas; St. Louis,
Mo.; also in Douglas, Alaska; Butte, Mont.; Bar-
berton, Ohio; and Bisbee, Aris., in care of visiting
priests, and those at Pueblo, Cal., and Buffalo, N.
Y., in charge of Russian priests.
The Supreme Council of the Servian Orthodox
Society with a membership of 6,500 has its head-
quarters in Pittsburg, and there exists also the Ser-
vian Federation "Sloga," the aim of which is to
consolidate the various Servian organisations in
this country. A. A. Stamouu.
SERVICE, JOHN: Church of Scotland; b. at
Campsie (10 m. n. of Glasgow) Feb. 26, 1833; d. at
Glasgow Mar. 15, 1884. He studied at the Univer-
sity of Glasgow irregularly from 1858 to 1862; was
engaged in editorial work, 1857-62; became minister
at Hamilton 1862 ; but resigned after ten months, on
account of ill-health, and retired to Melbourne,
Australia, 1864-66; was minister at Hobart Town,
Tasmania, 1866-70; returned home, 1870, and was
minister of the parish of Inch, Wigtownshire, 1872-
1879; and of Hyndland Church, Glasgow, 1879-84.
He wrote a novel which appeared in Good Words
under the title Novantia, and was published as Lady
Hetty (3 vols., London, 1875); Salvation Here and
Hereafter (1877), which caused a sensation in Scot-
land on account of its Broad-church views; Sermon*
(1884); and Prayers for Public Worship (1885).
BiBUoomAPHT: A biographical notice i> prefixed to the
volume of Sermons, 1884; DNB, li. 259.
SERVITES (Servi beatct Maria Virgxnis): A
Roman Catholic order devoted to the glorification
and service of the Virgin through prayer and ascet-
icism. On the feast of the ascension of the Virgin
(Aug. 15), 1233, seven leading citisens of Florence,
who had previously belonged to a society for her
praise, were filled with a desire to devote themselves
entirely to her service. The names of the seven were
Bonfiglio Monaldi, Bonagiunta Manetti, Manetto
dell' Antella, Amideo Amadei, Ricuere Lippi Uguc-
cioni, Gerardo Sostegni, and Allessio Falconieri.
With Monaldi as their head, they lived first at the
Campo Marzo near Florence, and then (about 1236)
on Monte Senario. Their habit then consisted of an
ash-gray cloak and a haircloth shirt. In 1239 the
cardinal legate Gottfried of Castiglione gave them a
milder Augustinian rule and the name of Brothers
of the Passion of Jesus. Their habit was now
changed to a white mantle, black hood and scapular,
and leathern girdle. The order was confirmed by
Alexander IV. in 1255, and was extended to France
(where the habit was a white mantle and white cloth-
ing), and to Holland and Germany (1267-85). In-
nocent V. (1276) forbade them to receive novices but
Honorius IV. (1285-87) gave them many privileges,
to which Martin V. (1424) added those of the mendi-
cant orders. Later they spread to Poland and Hun-
gary, and in 1567 were in importance the fifth men-
dicant order. In 1411 Antonio of Sienna founded
the Observantine Servites, who became extinct in
1568. In 1503 Bernardino de Ricciolini founded
the congregation of Hermit Servites, which spread
875
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Servia
Seth
in Italy and in Germany. The Servite monks possess
houses in Italy (Rome, San Marcello, Bologna,
Florence, Naples, and Palermo), in Austria (nine
monasteries in the Tyrol province and eight in the
Austro-Hungarian), England (especially London),
and the United States (two in Chicago and one in
Milwaukee).
Servite nuns, or " Black Sisters/1 were founded by
Benizi, and were especially numerous in Italy and
southern Germany; while tertiary Servite nuns
were established by Juliana Falconieri (d. 1341) at
Florence, were confirmed by Martin V. in 1420,
and were spread throughout Germany by the Arch-
duchess Anna Juliana Catharine (d. 1622). Paul V.
made these German Tertiaries a separate congrega-
tion. (O. ZoCKLERf.)
Bibliography: The most important sources are in couree
of preparation under the care of P. M. Soulier and A.
Morini, Monumenta ordinis Servorum 8. Maria* Brus-
sels, 1897 sqq. Consult further: M. Poocianti, Chronieon
verum totiue aaeri ordinis Servorum beata Maria, Florence,
1616; A. Giani, Annale» aaeri ordinis Servorum beatm
Maria, Florence, 1618, extended by A. M. Qarbi and P.
Bonfruseri, 3 parts, Paris, 1719-26; P. Florentmi, Dia-
logue de origine ordinie Servorvm, in I. Lami, Delieia
eruditorum, vol. i., Florence, 1736; P. Tonini, // Santuario
delta eanHeeima Annuneiata di Firenze, Florence, 1876;
Hist, de Vordre dee Servile* de Marie, . . . H30-1810, par
un ami dee Servitee, 2 vols., Paris, 1886; P. M. Soulier,
Vie de S. Philippe Benin, propagateur de Vordre dee Ser-
vitee, ib. 1886; idem, Life of St. Juliana Falconieri, Foun-
dreee of the . . . ReHgioue of the Third Order of Servitee,
London, 1898; B. M. Spdrr, LebenebUder aue dem Serviten-
orden, 4 vols., Innsbruck, 1891-95; Heimbucher, Orden
vnd Konoreoationen, ii. 218-231; KL, xi. 204-212.
SESSION: The lowest court in the Presbyterian
Church, composed of the pastor and elders. See
Presbyterians, X., 1, J 2 (6).
SESSUMS, DAVIS: Protestant Episcopal bishop
of Louisiana; b. at Houston, Tex., July 7, 1858.
He was educated at the University of the South,
Sewanee, Tenn. (M.A., 1878), and at the theological
department of the same institution. He was ordered
deacon and priested in 1882, and, after a few months
as curate of Grace Church, Galveston, Tex., in 1883,
was successively curate and rector of Calvary,
Memphis, Tenn. (1883-87) ; rector of Christ Church,
New Orleans (1887-91) ; and was consecrated bishop
coadjutor of Louisiana (1891); within the year,
on the death of Bishop J. N. Galleher, he suc-
ceeded to the full administration of the diocese.
SETH, SETHITES.
I. Relation of the List to Non-Israelitic Tradition.
II. Relationship of the Sethite Series to the Cainite Series.
III. The General Idea of the Sethite Line.
IV. Significance of the Individual Sethite Names.
V. Postcanonical Ideas of Seth and the Sethites.
VI. Relation of Sethites to the " Sons of God."
By Sethites are meant the ten patriarchs named in
Gen. v., namely: Adam, Seth, Enos, Cainan, Mahal-
aleel, Jared, Enoch, Methuselah, Lamech, and Noah.
L Relation of the List to Non-Israelitic Tradition:
An Indo-Germanic origin has been mistakenly sup-
posed, Noah being equated with -nysos in Dionysos
on account of Noah's relation to the vineyard (P. K.
Buttmann, Mythologus, i. 173, Berlin, 1828); also
with the Sanscrit nAvaka (nAvika, "seaman"; J.
Grill, Erzvdter der Menschheit, pp. 41 sqq., Leipsic,
1875) ; also with the Egyptian Menu, Greek Minos,
on the basis of a supposed form Manoah (S. Lef-
mann, Proceedings of the International Congress of
Orientalists, p. 3, 1903). These are untenable
hypotheses. F. Delitzsch (Babel und Bibel, p. 32,
Leipsic, 1902) relates the list with the ten antedilu-
vian Babylonian kings. But a comparison of the
names in each series (the Babylonian as given by
Eusebius, Ckronicon, ed. A. Schdne, i. 7 sqq., Berlin,
1866, from Berosus) shows practically no etymologi-
cal or graphic resemblance. But it is claimed that by
transformation and abbreviation and by translation
the earlier could give rise to the later. F. Hommel
(P8BA, 1892-93, pp. 243 sqq.; Expository Times,
1899-1900, p. 343, 1902-03, pp. 103 sqq.) reasons
that Alorus, — Babylonian Aruru, wife of Ea,
creator of man, is to be equated with Adam —
"mankind"; the third in the Babylonian series,
Amelon, Babylonian amelu, "mankind," — Enos,
"mankind," and so on. The comparison, however,
gives no real results; e.g., in the first case creator
and created are paralleled. But it is pointed out
that in each list there is a series of ten antediluvians,
the last of whom is the hero of the flood; that in
both lists the individuals are credited .with ex-
ceedingly long lives; and that some relations may
be traced by transformation or otherwise between
the individual names — as when Ammenon (the
fourth, corresponding to Cainan) is made to mean
"master workman." It may be granted that in
three or four cases the Hebrew might arise by trans-
lation, as in the case of Amelon and Enos; yet even
this does not prove priority for the Babylonian;
rather one should affirm that the Babylonian tradi-
tion supports the view that the names of the ten
kings show a Babylonndng of neutral material. The
method in which the regnal years of the Babylonian
kings are reckoned (the cycle of 3,600 years) speaks
for this supposition; the number ten is itself against
a pure Babylonian origin. Among Hebrews ten
figures frequently (cf. the tenfold occurrence of
"and God said" in Gen. i. 3-29; see for further il-
lustrations Numbers, Sacred). On the contrary,
among Babylonians the decimal system had no
fundamental position, sixty (five times twelve) be-
ing the basis of their cosmic system. F. Lenormant
(Les Origines de Vhistoire, i. 217 sqq., Paris, 1880)
would secure an Egyptian origin for Seth through
the mediation of Hittites and Hyksos. E. Meyer
(Set-Typhon, Leipsic, 1875) claims that the god Set
had a primitive and pure Egyptian origin, his name
meaning "the dark destructive night," that equali-
zing him with Baal as a sun-deity came about through
Canaanitic influence (cf . Wiedemann, in DB, extra
vol., 195), that the Hyksos identified Set with their
Baal, and consequently the Hittite Baal took the
name Set. Hommel incorrectly assumes a relation-
ship of Seth with the Egyptian Set (Die oJUorienta-
lischen Denhndler, pp. 53, 56, Berlin, 1903), stating
that " according to the restored oldest text of Gen.
v. Seth corresponds to Adapa; the Egyptians have
obscured this, making Set the brother and opponent
of Osiris." Nor can the Sethite tradition be traced
to Canaanitic-Phenician origins. Rather should one
claim that the Cainite genealogy (Gen. iv. 17-24)
so corresponds to the narrative of the Pheniciaa
cosmogony as given by Eusebius that it must be
Beth
Seton
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
876
credited with a Palestinian-Phenician basis. But
there is the statement of Philo Byblius (in Eusebius,
Prctparatio evangelica, I., x. 5 sqq.) that AiOn
(Time) had the care of trees, while the descendants
of Aidn, viz., Phos, Pur, and Phlox (Light, Fire,
and Flame), discovered fire and its uses, and their
descendants were Casius, Lebanon, and Antilebanon,
while their mother had commerce with those whom
she met. Resemblance between this statement and
Gen. iv. 17-24 is only in the general idea of giving
the beginnings of inventions; reference is closest to
the Greek myth of the discovery of fire, and the
report of the shamelessness of woman reminds
rather of Babylonian temple prostitution than of
Gen. vi. 1-4, where the part of the women is
innocent. The use by Philo Byblius of the name
Jao does not prove Hebrew origin, as J. Lagrange
supposes (Etudes sur les religions semitiques, pp.
411-412, Paris, 1905), since that name is very old.
Positive indications of Canaanitic-Phenician origin
of the patriarchs' names lacks specific foundation.
H. Relationship of the Sethite Series to the Cainite
Series: In J only the Cainite series is complete (Gen.
iv. 17-24), the Sethite is fragmentary (Gen. iv. 25-
26); the complete Sethite series comes from P.
It is noteworthy that the names of Cainites are the
same or similar to the Sethites'. Buttmann's re-
mark (Mythologus, i. 171) that the same list appears
twice with small variations in order and form has
been often echoed (e.g., EB, iv. 4411); on the other
hand, the independence of the lists is maintained
(Driver, on Genesis, p. 80, London, 1905), and
Zimmern (in Schrader, KAT, p. 542) affirms both
to be very old. Probably Israelitic tradition had
report of two lines of Adamic descendants.
m. The General Idea of the Sethite Line: While
Ewald long held that the conception of the patriarchs
among the ancestors of the Israelites was practically
that of demigods (Geschichte des Volkes Israel, i. 383,
Gottingen, 1865), R. Brown (cf. Beiveis des Glaubens,
1893, pp. 353-354) attributed to the patriarchs an
astronomical significance in relation to the zodiac;
Hommel (Expository Times, 1902-03, p. 105) re-
marks that the Chaldeans related the last seven
[Babylonian] patriarchs to the seven planets, and
the Babylonians distributed them among the ten
months of the world year; and Zimmern (Schrader,
KAT, p. 541) thinks that the Biblical ten patriarchs
were originally heroes of the months of the first
world year. But no trace is left [in the Bible] of this
deification of the Sethites. For the statement that
Seth is a divine name F. Ulmer (Die semiHschen
Eigennamen, p. 26, 1901) gives no proof. If the
mythological view-point fails, ethnography is not
more shadowed forth in the list. Lenormant (ut
sup., i. 208 sqq.) would have the oldest races divided
by these lists into the nomadic and the settled, or
the yellow and the white. But the Old Testament
makes the distinction rest upon religious-moral
grounds. Over against the impious Cainites were
the relatively better Sethites. In J are preserved in
the Sethite genealogy the relatively good descend-
ants of Adam by whom mankind is carried through
the flood. J did not intend to say that the worship
of Yahweh began with Sethites (Gen. iv. 26b). If
there were grounds for thinking that J had intended
to bring the Cainite genealogy into proportionate
connection with that of Seth, his intention failed in
that he inserted the birth of Enos. In Gen. iv. 25-26
J laid his basis in the Sethite line, from which was
to come he who, because of his relative rightness of
relations with God, should lead mankind through
the judgment to a better period of history. It was
from the religious-moral view-point in the earliest
Israelitic tradition that antediluvian man was
divided into two lines, and so interpreters have
generally understood it. If, as seems to be proved,
the Hebrew narrative of primitive times is relatively
independent, the question arises as to the meaning
of the duality of series of patriarchs. Then the fol-
lowing considerations arise. (1) The religious-ethical
superiority attributed to the Sethites is only rela-
tive. (2) From Sethites, not from Cainites, was
derived the ancestor of postdiluvian mankind; the
"comfort" (Gen. v. 29) expected from Noah was
based in part upon immunity from a cursing of the
earth on account of sin as in the case of Adam (Gen.
viii. 21-22), it can not rest wholly upon the planting of
the vineyard (as Budde thinks, UrgeschichU, pp. 306-
309) . The curse of Yahweh was not to be averted by
human action. (3) While the Masoretic text brings
only one Sethite down to the flood, the Samaritan
brings three; but the former appears to be the
original conception. (4) The Sethite genealogy of J
can not be considered entirely independent of the
Cainite. The double line in Hebrew tradition arose
not in the fact that Adam had two sons (Budde,
us sup., p. 184) but because the early tradition dis-
tinguished between two lines ethically distinct. On
this ethical distinction was based, probably, the long
period of life awarded to the antediluvians.
IV. The Significance of the Individual Sethite
Names: It seems that Seth, so far as he emerged
in Hebrew tradition, was the substitute for Abel,
who had perished in an outbreak of sinful power.
But it remains questionable whether P (as Dillmann,
in his commentary, on Gen. v. 3, and Budde, Urge-
schichte, p. 163, think) intended to make Seth Adam's
first son. The narrator's silence regarding the re-
lation of Seth to preceding children of Adam does
not involve that he presupposed in his readers igno-
rance of that relation; according to analogy in the
rest of the chapter, Seth is thought of as the first of
Adam's children. Yet it can not be said with as-
surance that the narrator presupposed his readers'
knowledge of Cain and Abel, nor does the fact that
the name Enos means "mankind" involve for Seth
restriction to the meaning "sprout." It can not be
decided whether Cainan means "creature" or
" worker in metals." Mahalaleel is "praise of God."
Jared is regarded by Friedrich Delitzsch as mean-
ing "offspring" (Wo lag das Parodies, p. 149,
Leipsic, 1881); but it may mean "servant" or "de-
scent" [i.e., to a place]. Enoch means "consecra-
tion " and then " the consecrated one." Methuselah
means "man of the javelin," and Lamech "warrior"
or "conqueror." Noah means "rest." Whether
these patriarchal names along with the assured or
probable significance included each a special con*
ception depends upon the answer to the question
whether the Hebrews attached to each the idea of a
step in human development. Such a series of mean-
377
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Seth
Seton
ings has been sought by F. BOttcher, Exegetisch-
kritische Aehrenlese zum alien Testament (Leipsic,
1849); but the series breaks down upon examina-
tion. Budde supposes that the latter half of the
series embodies such a conception; here again,
however, the facts do not afford support — thus, the
succession Jared-Enoch marks no progression either
in significance of name or of activity. Moreover,
Hebrew antiquity did not connect the beginning of
reverence of Yahweh with Mahalaleel ("praise of
God"), but with Enos. The Bible puts real sig-
nificance into the existence and name of Noah,
through whose mediation a condition of "rest" was
attained in removing the feeling of distance of
humanity from God as well as the fear of divine pun-
ishment, bringing about a new harmony; in his
planting of the vineyard is not to be seen the rescue
of the earth from the curse pronounced upon it.
V. Postcanonical Ideas of Seth and the Sethites:
Jewish writers attributed to individual Sethites
important places in religious and general develop-
ment. Seth was rapt away to heaven for forty days
and learned of the angels the basal precepts of the
moral law; he also initiated the art of writing,
named the five planets, discovered the division of
time into months, weeks, and years (note the order),
and knew of the appearance of the " star in the east."
Knowing of the coming double destruction of the
earth by fire and water, his descendants preserved
the knowledge gained through their ancestor by two
pillars of clay and of stone, the latter of which
"exists till this day in the land of Siris" (Nile)
(Josephus, Ant., I., ii. 3. Josephus seems here to
reflect Manetho as preserved by Syncellus). Jews,
Samaritans, and Gnostic Christians professed to pos-
sess writings of Seth, as did Mohammedans (cf. Fabri-
cius, Codex pseudepigraphus, i. 141-147, ii. 49-55,
Hamburg, 1722-23; and E. Kautzsch, Apokryphen
und P8eudepigraphenf ii. 538, Tubingen, 1900).
Later men knew the name of his wife, Asura (Jubi-
lees, iv. 11), Horaia according to the Sethites
(Epiphanius, Hatr., xxxix. 5), from which probably
came Norea (Irenaeus, Hotr., i. 34). Enos wrote
about religion and how to pray (Fabricius, ut sup.,
i. 157-158; Kautzsch, ut sup., i. 467, ii. 46, 73, 258).
Alexander wrote about the grave of Cainan, who
married his sister Mualelet, but before the flood
wandered away from his family (Fabricius, ut sup.,
i. 159-160). "Jared" was rendered so as to show
that in his time the "watchers" [i.e., angel guar-
dians of the nations] " came down " to earth to train
men in uprightness (Jubilees, iv. 15; cf. however
Enoch, vi. 5-6) ; or his name conveyed the informa-
tion that his sons began to transgress the com-
mands he gave and to mingle with the impure
Cainites (Book of Adam) . Methuselah, who married
his father's sister Edna (Kautzsch, ut sup., ii. 536),
founded a court of justice and a school where the law
of nature was taught. For Enoch and Noah see the
articles. Many other details are narrated in pseud-
epigraphic books.
VL Relation of Sethites to the " Sons of God,"
Gen. vi. 1-4: By "sons of God" can not be meant
Sethites. The word ha'adham (E. V., "men") in
Gen. vi. 1 has the article and must mean the whole
race; the same must then be true of the word in
verse 2 (this in spite of Strack's argument in his
commentary on Genesis, pp. 26-27, Munich, 1905,
where he reasons from Judges xix. 30 that a word
may be used in its general sense and then in its
narrower; he also argues against the general sense
in verse 1). Moreover, "sons of God" is a common
designation for angels. It is in the highest degree
probable that to the mingling of supermundane
and mundane beings would be attributed the origin
of giants (see Comparative Religion, VI., 1 § 7).
As the Sethites are not the "sons of God," so they
are also not the "children of Sheth" (Num. xxiv.
17). (E. K6nig.)
Bibliography: Of first importance are the commentaries
on Genesis (noted under Hkxateuch), in particular those
of H. Gunkel, G6ttingen, 1901; S. R. Driver, London,
1904; J. Bdhmer, Stuttgart, 1905; H. L. S track, Munich,
1905; and J. Skinner, Edinburgh and New York, 1910.
The subject is often treated in works on the history of
Israel — special attention may be called to those of H.
Guthe, Tubingen, 1904, and S. Oettli, Stuttgart, 1905.
Other works are: P. Buttmann, Mythologus, ii. 1-27,
Berlin, 1829; H. Luken, Die Traditionen des Menschen-
geschlechts, pp. 140-188, M Ouster, 1869; K. Budde, Die
biblische Urgeschichte, Giessen, 1883; A. H. Sayce, Race*
of the Old Testament, London, 1891; idem, The ' Higher
Criticism* and the Monuments, ib. 1894; idem. Patri-
archal Palestine, ib. 1895; H. E. Ryle, The Early Narra-
tives of Genesis, ib. 1892 (of high value); F. Homrnel, in
PSBA, zv (1893), 243-246; idem, Die aUisraelitische
Ueberlieferung in inschriftlicher Beleuchtung, pp. 308-
309, Munich, 1897, Eng. transl., Ancient Hebrew Tradi-
tions as Illustrated by the Monuments, London, 1897; H.
Gunkel, The Legends of Genesis, Chicago, 1901; E. Worces-
ter, The Book of Genesis in the Light of Modern Knowledge,
London, 1901; H. Zimmern, Biblische und babylonische
Urgeschichte, Leipsic, 1901, Eng. transl., The Babylonian
and the Hebrew Genesis, London, 1901; H. Greenwood,
The Book of Genesis Treated as an Authentic Record, 2
vols., ib. 1903-04; R. Kittel, Die babylonische und die
biblische Urgeschichte, Leipsic, 1903, Eng. transl., Baby-
lonian Excavations and Early Bible History, London, 1903;
J. Nickel, Genesis und Keilschriftforschung, pp. 164 sqq.,
Freiburg, 1903; T. G. Pinches, The O. T. in the Light of
the Historical Records of Assyria and Babylonia, London,
1903; A. Jeremias, Das A. T. im Lichte des alien Orients,
Leipsic, 1904; J. Meinhold, Die biblische Urgeschichte,
Bonn, 1904; J. Bohmer, Das erste Buck Mose, Stuttgart,
1905; A. R. Gordon, The Early Traditions of Genesis,
Edinburgh, 1907; Schrader, KAT, pp. 539 sqq., and
COT; Bertheau, in JahrbUcher fur deutsche Theologie,
xxiii. 657 sqq.; Klostermann, in NKZ, v. 208 sqq.; DB,
iv. 470; SB, iv. 4410-17; JE% xi. 207.
SETHIANS. See Ophites.
SETON, si'txra, ELIZABETH ANN: Roman Cath-
olic, founder of the Sisters of Charity; b. at New
York Aug. 28, 1774; d. at Emmittsburg, Md., Jan.
4, 1821. She was the daughter of Richard Bayley,
a physician, and married William Seton. After his
death, 1803, she entered the Roman Catholic Church,
Mar. 14, 1805. In order to support herself and
children, she taught school at Baltimore, 1806-08;
but, after taking the veil with her sisters-in-law,
Harriet and Cecilia Seton, on a gift of $8,000 she
founded near Emmittsburg in 1809 a congregation
of women for the care of children and orphans,
which was placed under the rules and constitution
(modified) of Vincent de Paul (q.v.) in 1811, thus
becoming a religious order, and designated as the
Sisters of Charity in the United States. In 1812
the order had increased to twenty members, with
Mother Seton as superior-general, and at her death
it numbered fifty. In 1814 the order took charge
Seven Dolors
Seven Sleepers of Bphesn*
fir
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
878
of an orphan-asylum in Philadelphia, and in 1817
of one in New York, and in the same year was
incorporated by the legislature of Maryland. At
the time of her death more than twenty communities
had charge of free schools, orphanages, boarding-
schools, and hospitals in a number of states.
Bibuographt: Her Memoir, Letter*, and Journal were ed-
ited by her grandson, W. Seton, New York, 1869. Con-
stilt further: Memoir m of Mr: Seton, Written by herself,
Eliaabethtown, N. J.f 1817; C. I. White, lAft of Mr:
Seton, 7th ed.. New York, 1856; Mme. de Barberey, Vie
de Madame Elizabeth Seton, 2 vols., Paris, 1872; Heim-
bueher, Orden und Konaregationen, iii. 636-637; KL, xi.
214-215.
SEVEN DOLORS OF THE VIRGIN MARY,
FEAST OF THE. See Mart, Motheb of Jesus
Christ, III.
SEVEN, THE SACRED NUMBER.
Among Ancient Non-Hebraic Peoples (| 1).
In the Old Testament (| 2).
In the New Testament (f 3).
In Christian Theology and Liturgies (| 4).
The number seven was regarded as sacred by
most ancient Oriental peoples and by the Greeks
and Romans. Among the Chinese the empire was
divided into seven provinces; the emperor made
offerings on seven altars to seven chief classes of
spirits, was placed in his coffin on the seventh day
after death, and was buried in the seventh month.
In India the Rig Veda knows of seven
i. Among Adityas, seven riehis as the progenitors
Ancient of the seven great Brahmanical castes,
Non-Hebraic seven divisions of the earth, seven
Peoples, rivers of Hindustan, and seven celestial
mountains. The Iranians had seven
Amshaspands and certain festivals of seven days
each, while the seven gates of Mithra were important
in Mithraism. In early Teutonic belief periods of
seven days and of seven years were known and the
early Celts had numerous sacred Heptads. The
number seven occurs constantly in the mythology of
the Greeks, while among the Romans the hills of the
city of Rome formed a heptad. Still more impor-
tant was the sanctity of the number seven among
the Assyrians and the Babylonians. At a very early
period the latter people had a hebdomadal division
of the month, they regarded the number of the
planets as seven. The designation of the seven
days of the week based on this planetary system
was apparently unknown to the early Babylonians;
nor was the view that the seventh, fourteenth,
twenty-first, and twenty-eighth days of each month
were die* nefasti so wide-spread in effect on Babylo-
nian theory and practise as the kindred Sabbath
among the Jews. That the sanctity of the number
reaches back to the oldest development of religion
and culture along the banks of the Euphrates is
shown by the seven gates of Hades in the Ishtar
legend, the seven Igigi, the frequent representation
of groups of seven deities, seven altars, and the like.
In both the Old and the New Testament the num-
ber seven is important. Labor on the seventh day
is forbidden (Ex. xx. 8-11; Deut. v. 12-15; and
see Sabbath); and the Passover and the Feast of
Tabernacles were seven-day festivals. The con-
secration of priests lasted seven days; the seventh
month was marked by the celebration of the
Feast of Tabernacles, of the day of atonement, and
Roahha-Shanah; the sabbatical year was celebrated
every seven years, and the year of
a. In the jubilee every seven times seven years.
Old Testa- The court of the tabernacle had eight
ment times seven pillars, the candlestick had
seven branches, and the sacred ell was
seven handbreadths. The number was important
in taking oaths, as the verb nishba', "to swear" (cf.
shebha', "seven"), shows, and was also a factor in
matters pertaining to satisfaction and punishment
(cf. Gen. iv. 24; Ex. vii. 25; Lev. xxvi. 18 sqq.;
Deut. xxviii. 7 sqq.; Prov. vi. 31). It also occurred
in various ceremonies of purification (Lev. xiv. 51 ;
see Defilement and Purification, Ceremonial).
In concluding covenants and in expiatory sacrifices
this number figured: as in sprinkling the sacrificial
blood seven times in sin offerings (Lev. iv. 6, 17, xvL
14 sqq.), and in sevenfold sacrifices. Seven entered
into proverbial expressions of daily life (e.g., Isa.
iv. 1, xi. 15, xxx. 26; Jer. xv. 9; Micah v. 5; Prov. vi.
16, ix. 1, xxvi. 16, 25; Psalms xii. 6; Job. v. 19).
Heptads are not uncommon in the history of the
Jewish people, as the seven sons of Japheth (Gen.
x. 2), Saul (II Sam. xxi. 9), Jehoshaphat (II Chron.
xxi. 2), Job (Job i. 2), and the mother of the Mac-
cabees (II Mace. vii.). Jacob served seven years
for each of the daughters of Laban (Gen. xxix.) and
bowed seven times to Esau (Gen. xxxiii. 4). Phar-
aoh's dream foreboded seven years of plenty and
seven years of famine (Gen. xii.); David was of-
fered his choice between seven years of famine, three
months of exile and peril, or three days of pestilence
(II Sam. xxiv. 13) ; and Solomon took seven years to
build the temple. For multiples of seven it may
be noted that the household of Jacob numbered
seventy (Gen. xlvi. 27), there were seventy elders
(Num. xi. 24), and seventy sons of Jerubbaal
(Judges viii. 30), and allusions are frequent to
periods of seventy years (Ps. xc. 10; Isa. xxiii. 15;
Jer. xxv. 11, etc.); while the phrase "seventy and
sevenfold" occurs in the Song of Lamech (Gen. iv.
24).
In the Gospels and Acts groups of seven persona
are mentioned. Christ manifested himself after his
resurrection to seven of his disciples (John xxi. 2) ;
seven brothers and their wife figure in
3. In the the quibble of the Sadducees (Mark xii.
New 20 sqq.); there were seven appointed
Testament to office in the church at Jerusalem
(Acts vi. 5) and seven sons of Sceva
(Acts xix. 14); a multiple of the number is found
in the seventy disciples of Jesus in Luke x. 1.
Reference is made to periods of seven days in Matt.
xvii. 1-2; Acts xx. 6, xxi. 4, 27, xxviii. 14; and seven
occurs in proverbial phrases in Matt. xii. 45 (Luke
xi. 26), xviii. 21 sqq. (note also the augmentative
"seventy times seven"), and Luke viii. 2 (seven
devils cast out of Mary Magdalene). Latent hep-
tads, like those of the sevenfold designation of the
spirit of God in Isa. xi. 2, the seven penitential
Psalms, and the seven petitions in Solomon's
prayer at the dedication of the Temple (I Kings viii.
29-53), occur with relative frequency in the New
Testament. To this category belong the seven
petitions of the Lord's Prayer according to Matthew
370
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Seven Dolors
Seven Sleepers of Bpheeus
(vi. 9-13), the seven parables (Matt, xiii.), and the
seven woes (Matt, xxiii). The apostolic epistles con-
tain the following noteworthy heptads: seven af-
flictions and seven gifts (Rom. viii. 35, xii. 6-8);
seven qualities of heavenly wisdom (James iii. 17);
and seven virtues proceeding from faith (II Pet. L
5-8). The Apocalypse is especially rich in heptads,
not only latent (e.g., v. 12, vi. 15, vii. 12, xix. 18,
xxi. 8), but explicit, as seven churches (ii.-iii.),
seven seals (v. 1 sqq.), seven trumpets (viii. 2 sqq.),
seven thunders (x. 3-4), seven angels (xv. 1 sqq.),
and seven vials of wrath (xvi. 1 sqq.) ; the apocalyp-
tic beast has seven heads and seven diadems (xii. 3,
xiii. 1, xvii. 7 sqq.); there are seven spirits before
the throne of God (i. 4, iii. 1, iv. 5, v. 6).
The Church Fathers dealt largely with the num-
ber seven, basing their theories largely on Judeo-
Christian and Neo-Platonic writers. Many of them
regarded seven simply as the symbol of
4. In Chris- perfection and of cosmic completion
tian Theol- (Ambrose, Augustine, Jerome, Gregory
ology and the Great, and Ghrysostom). Others
Liturgies, sought more esoteric meaning and
exegesis, as Cyprian (De exhorta-
tione martyrii, xi.), who regarded seven as com-
posed of three, to symbolise the creative Trinity,
plus four, to typify the four elements of creation;
or Gregory the Great (Moralia, xxx. 16), who, in
Philonic fashion, made the microcosm man a hep-
tad consisting of three spiritual and four corporeal
qualities. To the heptads thus evolved the Middle
Ages added, drawing especially from the latent
heptads of the Old and New Testaments, and from
the explicit heptads of the Apocalypse. The heptad
of the seven mortal sins was definitely formulated
by Gregory the Great and Isidore of Seville. Anal-
ogies were formed after the eleventh century in the
seven cardinal virtues (first definitely fixed by Hugo
of St. Victor and Peter the Lombard), the seven
gifts of the Spirit (on the basis of Isa. xi. 2), the seven
beatitudes (instead of the eight of Matt. v. 3 sqq.),
the seven words on the cross, the seven sacraments,
the seven joys and the seven dolors of the Virgin,
the seven works of bodily mercy (based on Matt. xxv.
31 sqq.), and the seven works of spiritual mercy.
Liturgies also developed heptads, especially as the
ritual of the Old Testament furnished an abundance
of precedents and motives. At an early date the
seven canonical hours were introduced on the basis
of Psalms cxix. 164, combined with Psalms lv. 17
and Dan. vi. 10; and the sevenfold orders of the
clergy are ancient. Here, too, belong the seven
salutations of the people by the priest at the mass,
the reckoning of the Sundays in Lent as seven, the
seven deacons at pontifical mass, and the like. A
number of groups of seven saints in the calendar are
medieval in origin, but some go back to an early
date, as the Seven Sleepers of Ephesus (q.v.), and
probably the twice seven "Helpers in Need" (q.v.).
Speculative philosophy long continued to operate
with the number seven, especially in the realm of
natural philosophy, borrowing much from the Tal-
mud and the Cabala (qq.v.) as late as the seven-
teenth century. Here belong the names of Agrippa
of Nettesheim, Paracelsus, V. Weigel, Jakob Bohme,
and von Helmont, as in the seven " elemental spirits "
of Paracelsus: elementary body, Archeus or Mumia
siderial man or Evestrum, animal spirit, intelligent
soul, spirit-ocean, and man of the New Olympus.
Similar juggling with heptads is not uncommon in
modern theosophical treatises with their frequent
dependence on the concepts of the Cabala.
(O. ZdCKLERf.)
Bibliography: On the ethnic use of the number note: R.
von Ihering, Evolution of the Aryan, p. 113, London, 1897;
F. von Andrian, in Mitteilungen der anthropologiechen
QeeeUechaft in Wien, xxxi (1901), pp. 226-274; W. H.
Roacher, in Philologus, 1901, pp. 260-273 (on the number
among the Greeks); idem, in the Abhandlungen of the
Saxon Academy, xxi. no. 4, and xxiv. For the Biblical
usage consult in general the commentaries on the pas-
sages, as the works on Biblical theology; also: K. C. W.
F. Bahr, Symbolik dee mosaiechen Culius, i. 119-208, Hei-
delberg, 1837; C. Auber, Hist, et theorie du symbolism*
reHoieux, i. 97-155, Paris, 1870; J. A. Martigny, Diction-
noire des antiquUee chrUiennes, pp. 503-504, Paris, 1877;
R. Samuel, Seven, the Sacred Number, London, 1887 (not
reliable); H. Gunkel, Zum reHgioneoeechiehtlichen Ver-
etandniee dee N. T.'s, GGttingen, 1903; T. K. Cheyne,
Bible Problems and the New Material for their Solution, pp.
57 sqq., London, 1904; E. Schurer, in ZNTW, 1905, pp.
1-66; DB, iii. 562-563, 565; EB, iii. 3436-37; JE, iz.
349; Vigouroux, Dictionnaire, fasc. xxviii., cols. 1677-97.
On the number in post-Christian times consult: G. M.
Dursch, Der symbolische Charakter dee chrietlichen Re-
ligion, ii. 536, Schaffhausen, 1859; R. Cruel, Oeechiehte
der deutechen Predict im Mitteialter, pp. 522 sqq., Der-
moid, 1879; C. Kiesewetter, Oeechiehte der neueren Oc-
cuUismus, ii. 16 sqq., 59 sqq., Leipsic, 1891; J. Sauer,
Symbolik dee Kirchengebaudee, pp. 61-78, Freiburg, 1902;
O. Zockler, Die Tugendlehre dee Christentums, pp. 99 sqq.,
243 sqq., Gutersloh, 1904; and the literature under Num-
bers, Sagbxd.
SEVEN SLEEPERS OF EPHESUS, ef'e-sus :
According to Gregory of Tours (De gloria mar-
tyrum, xciv.), whose account is based upon an old
Syrian version of the legend, seven Christian youths
at Ephesus, during the persecution under Decius
(250), took refuge in a cave just outside the city.
At the emperor's command the heathen sealed up the
cave. Instead, however, of perishing the youths
fell into a sleep, from which they awakened nearly
two hundred years later, when some of the stones
happened to be removed from the entrance. In
the presence of Theodosius II. and Bishop Maxknua
they reaffirmed their Christian faith and then ex-
pired, to sleep till the end of the world.
In its details the legend varies considerably.
The supposed duration of the sleep ranges from 175
to 197 years, while the date of the miracle is given
as Aug. 4, or Oct. 22, by the Greeks, and June 27, or
July 27, by the Latins. Also the names of the sleep-
ers differ in the Greek, Latin, and Ethiopic versions,
and some accounts make the number of sleepers
eight. According to occidental tradition their
names were, Maximianus, Malchus, Martinianus,
Dionysius, Johannes, Serapion, and Constantinus.
Recent attempts to trace the legend to its source
have not led to any consensus of opinion. It has
been regarded (1) as purely Christian in its origin
(Baronius, Cuypers, Stadler); (2) as developed
from a pre-Christian and heathen nucleus, modified
by the death of certain Christians in a cave during
the Decian persecution (Koch, Bernoulli) ; (3) as a
modification of the Hellenic myth of Endymion.
united with an original Syrian legend (Clermont-
Ganneau) ; (4) as pre-Christian, but purely Jewish,
in its origin (Caaeel). (O. ZocxLEnt)
Seventh-Day Adventiata
Severoe
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
880
Bxblxoorapht: The Passio septem Dormientium, ed. B.
Krusch, is in MOH, Script, rer. Merov., i (1885), 848-
853; and, with a preface, in Analeda Bollandiana, xii.
371-387, Paris, 1893; in Migne, MPL, lxxi. 1105-18;
also, with comment by Cuypers and the Acta, in ASB,
July, vi. 375-397. Consult: C. Baronius, Martyrologium
Romanum, Cologne, 1610; A. Reinbrecht, Die Legend*
von den sieben Schlafern, Gdttingen, 1880; J. Koch, Die
Siebenschlaferlegende, Leipeic, 1883; I. Guidi, Testi orien-
tali eopra i Setti Dormienti di Efeso, Rome, 1885; P. Cassel,
Harmageddon, Berlin, 1890; J. Clermont-Ganneau, in
Comptes vendue de V academic dee Sciences, 4th ser., xxvi.
564-576, Paris, 1899 (cf. Analeda Bollandiana, 1900, pp.
356-357) ; C. A. Bernouilli, Die Heiligen der Merovinger,
pp. 160-169, Tubingen, 1900; Gibbon, Decline and Fall,
ill. 412-413; DCB, ii. 136; KLt xi. 278-279; Catholic
Encyclopedia, v. 496-497.
SEVENTH-DAY ADVENTTSTS. See Adventists,
2.
SEVENTH-DAY BAPTISTS. See Baptists, II.,
4, b.
SEVENTH-DAY BAPTISTS, GERMAN. See
Communism, II., 5.
SEVERIANS. See Ophites.
SEVERIANUS, Be-vi"rf-£'nus: Bishop of Gabala
in Syria; d. after 408. He is of importance for the
history of ecclesiastical politics at Constantinople in
the time of Chrysostom. Socrates (Hist, eccl., VI.,
xi.; Eng.transl., NPNF, 2d series, ii. 145-147) re-
lates that he was led by the success of Antiochus of
Ptolemais in preaching at the capital to do the same,
and also achieved success, though he was not per-
fect in Greek; he also won the friendship of
Chrysostom. But he employed himself during the
absence of Chrysostom in intriguing against him;
Serapion, the supporter of the bishop, reported the
activity of Severianus, and Chrysostom had him
expelled from the city. The Empress Eudoxia,
however, had him recalled, and Severianus continued
his intrigues, and in further developments appears
to little advantage. Palladius blames him for the
removal of Chrysostom from Cucusus to Pityus.
Gennadius (De vir.Ul., xxi.) calls him a man learned
in the Scriptures and an excellent orator, and read a
commentary of his on Galatians and a Libellus
gratissimus de baptismate et cpiphanice soUemnitate,
possibly to be identified with a Logos eis ta theo-
phania (MPG, lxv. 15-26). Of the former there
seems to be extant only what is contained in cita-
tions in eaten® and like works. Of his homilies
there remain fifteen in Armenian translation (ed.
J. B. Aucher, 1827), two of these also are contained
in Greek in the works of Chrysostom (MPG, lvi. 553-
564), and one among the homilies of Basil the
Great (MPG, xxxi.). Another homily "On peace"
(ed. A. Papadopulos-Kerameus, in Analecta, i. 15-
26, St. Petersburg, 1891), two fragments of a homily
in Sahidic (ed. J. Leipoldt, in Aegyptische Urkunden
der kdniglichen Museen zu Berlin, Koptische Urkun-
den, i. 6, pp. 425-428, Berlin, 1904), a small frag-
ment of a writing against Novatian (in Gelasius,
De duabus naturis), and various sermons in Coptic
translation (cf. W. E. Crum, Catalogue of the Coptic
MSS. in the British Museum, London, 1905) are ex-
tant . Ascribed to him also are homilies on the brazen
serpent, on "The Seals of the Books," and one
against the Jews (among Chrysostom's works in
MPG, lvi. 499-516, briii. 531-544, bri. 793-S02).
The fragment in MPG, lxv. 27-28, De pythonibus et
maleficiis, ascribed by Mai to Severianus, is the work
of Peter Chrysologus (see Chkysologus; cf. F.
Liveriani, Spicilegium Liberianum, i. 192-193,
Florence, 1863). (G. KrCger.)
Bibliography: Besides the sources in Socrates, ut sup.,
and Sosomen, Hist, eccl., VIII., x., Eng. transl., in NPNF,
2 ser., ii. 405, consult: Fabricius-Haries, Bibliotheca
Graca, x. 507-510, Hamburg, 1807; O. Bardenhewer,
Patrologie, p. 306, Eng. transl., St. Louis, 1908; idem, in
XL, xi. 215 sqq.; DCB, iv. 625-626 (exceptionally good) ;
Ceillier, Autcurs sacris, viL 4-5, 121, 205-209, 343, x. 8.
SEVERINUS, se"ve-ri'nus: Pope 638-640. On
the death of Honorius I. (Oct. 12, 638), a mutiny
broke out in Rome, and though the Roman Seve-
rinus was chosen to succeed him, the army, filled
with greed for the new pope's alleged wealth and
aided by the populace, surrounded the Lateran.
Three days later the leader of the mutineers, the
chartularius Mauritius, helped seal the treasures
of the Church, while at his instigation the exarch of
Ravenna, Isaac, banished the leading clergy and
seized the treasury. Under these conditions Seve-
rinus could not be enthroned, especially as the im-
perial confirmation, then necessary, was lacking.
It was not until May 28, 640, that the pope was en-
throned, and on Aug. 2 of the same year he died.
He is important only as having defended the doc-
trine of two energies and two wills in Christ, thus
reversing the monothelite ekthesis and the course of
his predecessor. (A. Hauck.)
Bxblxoorapht: Liber pontificalia, ed. Mommsen in MOH,
Oest. pont. Rom., i (1898), 175-176; Jafife, Regesta, p. 227;
R. Baxmann, Die Politik der Papste, i. 170, Elberfeld,
1868; J. Langen, Qeschichte der rfimischen Kirche, i. 516,
Bonn, 1881; Bower, Popes, i. 436-437; Platina, Popes,
i. 149-150; Milman, Latin Christianity, ii. 71; DCB, ir.
628.
SEVERINUS, SAINT: One of the chief agents in
the conversion of Noricum (the modern Carinthia)
to Christianity; b. in Italy, probably early in the
fifth century; d. in Noricum Jan. 8, 482. Of his
early life nothing is known except that he resided
for a time among the monks of the East. Shortly
after the death of Attila in 453, he went to northern
Noricum, where he lived a life of rigid asceticism,
while later pupils gathered around him, so that he
was able to found monasteries at Faviame and
Passau. His influence was directed primarily to-
ward religious and ethical elevation, and not only
did he enjoy the support of the clergy, but the people
regarded him as a prophet; and at the same time,
orthodox though he was, he was highly esteemed
by the Arians and by the Germans generally.
The biography of Severinus by Eugippius (ed.
H. Sauppe, MGH, Auct. ant., i. part 2, 1877; P.
Knoell, CSEL, viii. 2, Vienna, 1886) gives the first
details of the religious conditions in Noricum since
the entry of Christianity into the land soon after
the close of the third century, except for the allu-
sions of Athanasius to Norican bishops. In the
biography the conversion of the land to Christianity
is represented as complete, though pagan sacrifices
were still occasionally offered in secret. There were
dioceses at least of Lauriacum (Lorch) and Tiburnia
(on the site of the modern Lurnfeld), and possibly
of Celeia (Cilli) and Virunum (in Zollfeld, near
381
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Seventh-Day Adventiats
Severus
Klagenfurt); while churches existed not only at
Lauriacum, but at Salzburg, Astura (near Kloster-
neuburg),Comagena (nearTulln), Cucullae (Kuchel),
Quintana (Plattling or Kunzing), Boiodurum (Boi-
tro), and Passau. The clergy were numerous,
and the bishops were chosen by the people. Monas-
teries, on the other hand, do not seem to have
existed before the coming of Severinus.
While Christianity was thus flourishing, political
conditions were in an evil way. The power of the
Huns was indeed broken, but the German tribes
were steadily pressing the Romans back — the Ale-
manni from the west, the Thuringians and Rugians
from the north, and the Goths from the east, the
latter as formidable to the other Germanic tribes
as to the Romans. Under such conditions Severinus
labored, without the prestige of ecclesiastical or
official position, solely through the power of his per-
sonality. Foreseeing that the Romans could not con-
tinue to hold the country, he begged that his body
might rest in Italian soil. Accordingly, when
Odoacer, in 488, drove the Roman power from Nori-
cum, the body of the saint was interred first at Monte
Feltri, near Naples, whence it was removed, four
years later, to the monastery of Lucullanum, near
the same city, which had been established for the
exiled monks. (A. Hauck.)
Bibliography: The principal source, the Vila by Eugip-
pius, ut sup., is also to be found, with commentary, in
ASB, Jan., i. 483-499. For MSS. and other editions cf.
Potthast, Wegweiser, pp. 1572-73. The Translate is in
MQH, Script, rer. Longob., i (1878), 452-459, and ASB,
Jan., i. 1098-1103. Consult further: J. Freiherr von
Hormayr, Wiens Geschichte und seine Denkwtirdigkeiten,
i. 56-78, Vienna, 1823; J. L. Reitmayr, Der hcilige Sev-
erin der Einsiedler, Regensburg, 1829; J. G. Waitsmann,
Lebensgeschichte dea heiligen Severin, Augsburg, 1834;
J. F. von Patruban, Lichter und SchoUen, pp. 1-15,
Vienna, 1852; R. Pallmann, Geschichte der V Olkerwander-
ung, ii. 393-413, Weimar, 1864; J. Leitner, Leben und
Wirken dea heiligen Severin, Passau, 1868; J. Jung,
R&mer und Romanen in den Donaul&ndern, Innsbruck,
1877; idem, Die romanischen Landschaften dea rOmiachen
Reich*, ib. 1881; G. Kaufmann, Deutsche Geschichte, ii.
23-27, Leipsic, 1881; A. D. Sembera, Wien der Wohn-
sitx und Sterbeort des heiligen Severin, Vienna, 1882; A.
Ebert, AUgemeine Geschichte der Literotur des AfitteUUters,
i. 452-454, Leipsic, 1889; C. A. Bernoulli, Die Heiligen
der Merovinger, pp. 47 sqq., Tubingen, 1900; Watten-
bach, DGQ, i (1904), 50 sqq.; A. Baudrillart, Saint
Severin. apdtre du Norique (468-48t), Paris, 1908; Tille-
mont, Memoires, xvi. 168-181; Friedrich, KD, i. 358-
383; Hauck, KD, i. 361 sqq.; Rettberg, KD, i. 226-245;
DCB, iv. 627-628.
SEVERUS, si-vi'rus: Bishop of Antioch; b. in
Sozopolis of Pisidia; d. at Xois, on the Sebennitic
arm of the Nile, Egypt, Feb. 8, 538. His grandfather
had been bishop in Sozopolis, and took part in the
Council of Ephesus (431) which condemned Nesto-
rius. He was sent by his mother, after his father's
death, to Alexandria for his education, where he
came into connection with a pietistic circle, the Phil-
oponoi, where he met his biographer Zacharias.
After a period of diligent study he settled at Berytus
Beirut), possibly in the autumn of 486, whither
Zacharias followed him a year later to find him
weaned away from the study of grammar and rhet-
oric and practise of law to the study of religion and
theology, in which he requested the guidance of the
newcomer. He was led to a study of the Church
Fathers, particularly of Chrysostom and Cyril, and
their influence and that of Evagrius was strongly
felt, while he acquired rapidly a reputation for
learning. As a first specimen of his rhetorical
studies applied to Christianity he issued a panegyric
of the Apostle Paul. Evagrius urged him to be bap-
tized, from which he at first shrank; moreover,
Zacharias refused to baptize him there, as he him-
self would not commune with the clerics of Berytus,
being a Monophysite. Severus, however, went to
Tripolis, where he was received into the Church,
and then returned to Berytus.
This began a new period in his life. His asceticism
was extreme, and he passed not only the evenings
but part of the nights at prayer in the church.
While Severus had declared that he would not be
made to become a monk, it needed only a spur to
bring this about, which was found in the death of
Peter the Iberian. Evagrius urged him to put him-
self under the guidance of Peter's successor, and
himself set the example. After visiting Tripolis,
Emesa, and Jerusalem to pray over the subject, he
entered the convent of St. Peter. There, however,
the asceticism was not sufficiently pronounced for
him, and he took up the hermit's life in the desert of
Eleutheropolis, where his ascetic practises drew
the attention of the abbot (Mamas?) of the mon-
astery of Romanus, who offered him a home there.
This he declined, and gave himself to solitude in a
cell at Ma j urna, whither he attracted others, for
whom he built a monastery with individual cells,
using the remainder of his patrimony. He was
made a priest by Epiphanius of Magydum, just then
abiding in Palestine. This was the time of the ap-
pearance among the Palestinian monks of Nephelius,
who had changed from being a heated opponent of
the Chalcedonian creed to become its partisan, and
was denouncing the monks of Majuma and Gaza,
who, as followers of Peter the Iberian, opposed the
findings of the synod. These were driven out, Severus
became their advocate, and with a large number (200
or 396, according to different authorities) went to
Constantinople, where he won his spurs as an eccle-
siastical politician. He had part in the events which
led to the fall of the Patriarch Macedonius, and his
attitude was that of one who seemed to favor in turn
this party and now that. He was even mentioned
for the patriarchate; but failing in that, he became
a friend of Timotheus, who was chosen. But he
yielded to the desire to renew his life in the desert,
and returned thither, and the monks at Majuma
took up undisturbed their old manner of life. While
at Constantinople he wrote a PhUalethes directed
against the "Nestorians," i.e., the Chalcedonians.
For the imperial chancellor Zacharias Rhetor he
answered a series of dogmatic questions in his
Apokriseis pros Eupraxion fandrikoularion.
The success of Severus at Constantinople had put
new thoughts into his mind; he was the hero of the
monks, whose influence upon public affairs was be-
coming ever greater. Flavian, patriarch of Antioch,
was driven out and Severus was designated his suc-
cessor, Nov. 6, 512, and on Nov. 25 he delivered his
first sermon. His inaugural he sent to the other
patriarchs; John III. of Alexandria and Timotheus
of Constantinople recognized him, Elias of Jerusalem
ignored the document. In his own diocese opposi-
Bewail
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
88*
tion arose. Julian of Bostra and Epiphanius of Tyre
set themselves against him and urged that his see
be taken away, and the Isaurian and other bishops
refused recognition. His chief writing of this period
was the three books Kata Ioannou grammatikou tou
Kaiawreias. Correspondence with the grammarian
Sergius on the doctrine of the two natures is extant
in the Syriac. Whether the "Apology for the
Philalethes," the writing against the KodikiUoi of
an Alexander, and the books " On the Two Natures "
belong to this period is uncertain. In the cor-
respondence Severus shows himself a prelate of parts,
strong, just, circumspect, clever, plain, and not
unlovable. As patriarch he remained true to ascetic
ideals. He was faithful in his episcopal visitations,
and was always ready to preach; while his sermons
are described as being appreciated like rain on thirsty
ground.
The ascent to the throne of Justin in 518 changed
the situation in the ecclesiastical sphere. He drove
out all the bishops, monks, and nuns in the diocese
of Antioch who were tainted with monophysitism.
Severus fled to Alexandria, where he is said to have
arrived Sept. 29, 518. Timothy IV. received the
refugees kindly, and for the time Severus was in re-
tirement. Still in this period falls the dogmatic con-
troversy with Julian of Halicarnassus (q.v.) ; and he
corresponded with his supporters in Syria. The
reign of Justinian and the influence of Theodora
seemed to offer opportunities of success for his
opposition to Chalcedonism, and in 535 he started
toward Constantinople, but the overthrow of An-
thimus destroyed his prospects. He was with other
Monophysites excommunicated at the synod of
536, while the edict of Aug. 6 forbade him the cap-
ital. He returned to Egypt, and took up his lonely
residence in the desert south of Alexandria. His
death gave rise to legends concerning the events
which attended it, and to his body was accredited
the power of healing all infirmities; still the hatred
of his opponents followed him and aspersed his
memory a hundred years later. (G. KrCger.)
Bibliography: Many of the works of Severus remain in-
edited in MSS. in the great libraries (cf. e.g., W. Wright,
Catalogue of the Syriac MSS. in the British Museum, gen-
eral index, pp. 1322 aqq., London, 1872). A list of wri-
tings attributed to him is found in B. de Montfaueon,
Bibliotheca Coisliniana, pp. 53-57, Paris, 1715, cf. Fab-
ricius-Harles, Bibliotheca Graca, x. 614-623, Hamburg,
1807. Fragments have been printed in Mai, Nova col'
lectio, vii., 8 sqq., 71-73, ix. 725-759, in the same author's
Classici auctores, x. 408-473, and in his SjricUegium Ro-
manum, x. 202-205, 212-220; in MPG, lxxxvi. 1, cols.
1841-49; in R. L. Bensly, Fourth Book of Maccabees and
Kindred Documents in Syriac, pp. xxvii.-xxix., 75-102,
Cambridge, 1895; and in MPG, xlvi. 627-652 (there at-
tributed to Gregory of Nyssa; cf. M. A. Kugener, in Re-
vue de V orient chrStien, iii. 1898, pp. 435-451). Letters
of his are published in the Sixth Book of the Select Letters
of Severus, . . . ed. and transl., E. W. Brooks, 2 vols.,
London, 1902-04. And extracts from a baptismal lit-
urgy are given by A. Reach, Agrapha, in TV, v. 4 (1889),
361-372.
For the life all prior editions of the two sources are ren-
dered obsolete through the ed. by M. A. Kugener of the
" Lives " by Zacharias the Scholastic and Johannes bar
Aphthoma, both in Patrologia orientalis, ed. R. Graffin
and F. Nau, vol. ii., parts 1 and 3, Paris, 1903-05. J.
Eustratios has a monograph on Severus, written in Greek,
Leipsic, 1894; the commentary on the " Church His-
tory " of Zacharias Rhetor, edited in Germ, transl. by
K. Ahrens and G. Kriiger, Leipsic, 1899, corrections to
which are furnished in Revue oriental* chrMienne, v (1900),
201 aqq., 461 aqq.; M. Petsker, Severus von Antiacne*,
Halle, 1903; B. Evetts, Hist, of the Patriarchs of the Cop-
tic Church of Alexandria, in Graffin's Patrologia orientalis*
ut sup., i. parts 2 and 4, Paris, 1904-05; DCB, ir. 637-
641 (valuable); KL, xi. 222-223; Ceillier, Auteurs sacres,
ad. 106-109 et passim; and literature on Mowofhtbttbs.
On his theology consult: J. C. L. Gieseler, Commenta-
tio qua Monophysitarum . . . opiniones Ulustrantur, 2
parts, Gdttingen, 1835-38; I. A. Dorner, Lehre von der
Person Christi, ii. 164 sqq., Berlin, 1853, Eng. transl..
Hist, of the Development of the Doctrine of the Person of
Christ, 5 vols., Edinburgh, 1861-63; F. Loofs, in TU,
iii 1-2 (1888); Harnack, Dogma, vol. iv. passim.
SEVERUS, SEPTIMIUS. See Sbptimius Seve-
rus.
SEVERUS, SULPICIUS: Ecclesiastical historian;
b. in Aquitania about 360; d. there after the year
420. He received an excellent education, devoted
himself to the law, and won fame as an advocate.
His good fortune seemed sealed when he married the
rich daughter of a consular family; but he lost his
wife early, and turned away from the world to the
ascetic life, following the example of his friend
Paulinus of Nola (q.v.), and inspired by Martin of
Tours (q.v.), with whom he lived till the latter's
death, regarding him as his spiritual father and a
God-sent prophet and apostle. Gennadius (De rir.
ifl., xix.; Eng. transl. in NPNF, 2 ser., iii. 389-390)
says that Severus became a priest, but no record
exists of his employment in priestly duties. The
same authority says also that Severus was led away
by the Pelagians, recognised his error, and imposed
upon himself the penalty of silence till death.
As scholar and author Severus took high rank in
his generation. He is a noble representative of the
formal culture which existed in South France in the
fourth and fifth centuries, for he had been a diligent
student of classical writers. Hence his " Chronicle "
has the flavor of such authors as Sallust and Tacitus,
Velleius and Curtius, while the "Dialogues," though
specifically Christian, smack of Cicero. Infelicities
are few, barbarisms and novelties do not appear;
and withal the Frankish genius shines out in stylistic
refinements and elegant turns of expression. As a
critic he surpassed his time; especially worthy of
notice is this trait in his investigation of the story of
Judith. Of the "lesser works" mentioned by Gen-
nadius there are extant only the letters to various
persons (his sister, Paulinus, and others). Of some
of these doubt has been expressed, but they may well
be genuine, since one can not expect the same quali-
ties of style in such writings as in works that are
formally literary and designed for an educated public.
Besides these, Severus has left three concededly
genuine works, in which his aim was to commend
to the educated world, especially to Aquitania, his-
torical Christianity and the Christian ascetic life.
His " Chronicles " is a working-up of Biblical material
into a historical book for reading; his "Life" of
Martin of Tours is a brilliant and edifying memoir of
that saint. The third is his " Dialogues." The first
has come down in only one manuscript of the elev-
enth century; of the second there are many manu-
scripts, the oldest of which, of the seventh century,
is a copy of a sixth-century exemplar (dated 519).
The "Chronicles" fails in interest, partly because
it is a deliberate making over, and its popularity was
383
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bewail
limited perhaps by the diffusion of the Bible itself.
But the " Life" was a book of edification and inter-
est of the first rank for its times, not because of the
atmosphere of classicism which enfolds it, rather be-
cause through that atmosphere the type of Chris-
tianity shines out which the next millennium recog-
nized as its own.
The "Chronicles," in two books, given out not
before the year 403, begins with creation and holds
to the usual reckoning of 6,000 years, yet not without
critical remark. Its purpose is to communicate com-
prehensively and briefly the history in both Testa-
ments, and the preface justifies the continuation till
the then present time. It was an attempt to clothe
the Bible in what was then modern dress. It has
been called a felicitous attempt to weld together
Biblical and classical studies and it displays a sober
and critical sense, a rejection of typology and
allegory, a free and earnest judgment of the relations
of the times treated in connection with both Church
and State, and at the same time discusses luminously
Hebrew jurisprudence which is made intelligible in
the language of Roman law. In that part which
deals with post-Biblical history the work is of special
value for its light upon Priscillianism (ii. 46-51,
cf. "Dialogues/' ill. 11-13), being a source of the
first rank; the impartiality here displayed assures
the author honorable remembrance. Of value is the
work also for the history of Arianism, and it throws
light also upon oriental history, especially where
other authorities are lacking. Thus in the history
of the fall of Jerusalem the source used by Severus
was the lost account by Tacitus, with which the ac-
count by Josephus is at variance (cf. Schurer, Ge-
schichte, i. 631-632 note, Eng. transl. I., ii. 244 sqq.
note).
Entirely different in character from the "Chron-
icles" are the "Life of St. Martin" and the "Dia-
logues, " with which may be placed three genuine
letters which are concerned with Martin. The " Life"
was written before Martin's death, but not issued till
after that occurred; the two (not three) "Dia-
logues" belong to 405 or later. The "Life" is cast
in complete accord with the contemporaneous belief
in the miraculous, though passages of historical
character are not entirely lacking. The critical
faculty of the author is laid aside, and the work is
another witness of the defenselessness of Roman
culture against the barbarism which a pious faith
and the fantasies of asceticism were bringing in.
The wits of Aquitania and the frivolous priests were
attracted not by the reconciliation of Christianity
with culture, but with the stories of the saints which
were to become in the dark ages the only reflectors
of light. Yet the biography by Severus differed
widely from those by his contemporaries in the ab-
sence of the erotic. For the conditions in Gaul in the
second half of the fourth century the work is of very
great value. The opposition between the monks
and the secular clergy is so graphically portrayed
that, with the exception of the Letters of Jerome,
no other source exists which gives so clearly the dif-
ficulties and enmities which attended the naturali-
sation of monasticism in the West. These two
related works reveal monasticism as undertaking
the Christianising of the peasants. Severus shows
the secular clergy as equally earnest in their opposi-
tion to Priscillianism and to monasticism. This
especially comes out in the "Dialogues," which,
calling the clergy Pharisees, attempts to hold up the
mirror to their offensiveness. Yet the main pur-
pose is to glorify Martin and to win Gallic Chris-
tianity for asceticism. Martin is compared with the
Egyptian monks and shown not only to equal but to
surpass them in saintliness and miraculous power.
The comparison with these monks gives occasion for
notable bits of information: regarding Christianity
in the Cyrenaica (i. 3-4) ; concerning Origen (i. 6-7)
and Jerome (i. 8, 21); about the different condi-
tions of monasticism in the East and in Gaul; con-
cerning the Gallic clergy (i. 21), and other like
matters. It seems that some one had charged Seve-
rus with lying in his life of Martin, and so new details
concerning him are related, in which the miraculous
still abounds. In the second dialogue are the parts
which deal with the Priscillianists, and the last
chapter shows Martin as the greatest Christian as-
cetic, whose deeds were to be recorded and her-
alded both in the East and in the West.
(A. Habnack.)
Bibuogbapht: The critical edition of the Opera is by C.
Halm in CSBL, Vienna, 1866. The beet earner edition
was by H. de Prato, 2 vols., Verona, 1741-54. The ed-
itio prineeps of the " Chronicle " was by Flacius, Basel,
1556, but the Vita Martini and the " Dialogues " ap-
peared in print as early as 1600. The Opera are also in
MPL, xx. 95-248. The one indispensable discussion is
by J. Bernays, Ueber die Chronik dee Sulpicius Severn*,
Berlin, 1861. Consult further: Hiet. litUraire de la
France, ii. 104 sqq., 742-743; Tillemont, Memoir ee, vol.
ii.; W. 8. Gilly, Vigilantiue and hie Times, pp. 35-63,
London, 1844; M. Herbert, (Euvres de Sulpice Severe,
Paris, 1847 (Fr. transl. with notes); C. Halm, in the
Sitzunoeberiehte of the Bavarian Academy, 1865, ii. 37-
64; J. H. Heinkens, Martin von Tours, pp. 258-274,
Breslau, 1866; J. J. Ampere, Hiet. liUeraire de la France
avant Charlemagne, i. 196 sqq., Paris, 1867; W. Gund-
lach, in NA, xi (1886), 291-309; A. Ebert, AUgemeine
Geechichte der LUeratur dee MittelaUere. i. 327-336, Leip-
sic, 1889; M. Manitius, in NA, xiv (1889), 165-170, xv
(1890), 184-186; W. S. Teuffel, Geechichte der rOmiechen
Literatur, pp. 1136-39, Leipsic, 1890; Bardenhewer,
Patrdoffie, pp. 396-397, Eng. transl., St. Louis, 1908;
Ceillier, Axdeurs eacres, viii 110-126; DCB, iv. 634-635;
KL, xi. 225-227.
SEW ALL, siu'ol, FRANK: Swedenborgian; b.
at Bath, Me., Sept. 24, 1837. He was educated at
Bowdoin College (A.B., 1858; A.M., 1862) and the
universities of Tubingen, Berlin, and the Sorbonne.
He was pastor of a church of his denomination at
Glendale, O. (1863-69); president of Urbana Uni-
versity, Urbana, O. (a Swedenborgian institution),
and also pastor of the Swedenborgian church in the
same town (1869-86). He was then pastor of the
church of his denomination in Glasgow, Scotland
(1886-89); and since 1889 has been pastor of the
New Church, Washington, D. C. He has likewise
been general pastor of the Maryland Association of
the New Jerusalem since 1893. In theology he
describes himself as "a devout believer in the theo-
logical writings of Emanuel Swedenborg as con-
taining the heavenly doctrines of the New Church
signified by the New Jerusalem in the Revelation;
. . . also a believer in the philosophical and
scientific works of Swedenborg as containing the
germs and the guiding rational principles of all the
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOQ
true science of the future." Among his writings,
those of theological interest are the following: The
Christian Hymnal (Philadelphia. 1867): The New-
CAureftlMft'a Prayer-Book and Hymnal (1867);
The Pillow of Stones; Divine Allegories in
their Spiritual Meaning (1876); The Hem of
his Garments: Spiritual Studies in the New Tes-
tament (1876); The New Metaphysics: or, The
Law of End, Cause, and Effect (London, 1888);
The K/hirs of Service: or, the Moral Law of Use
(New York, 1888); Dante and Swedenborg, with
other Essays in the New Renaissance (London, 1893) ;
Swedenborg and Modern Idealism: A Retro* /"<■! nf
Philosophy from Kant to the present Time (1902) ; The
.Pulpit and Modern Thought (Boaton, 1906); Reason
in Belief: or. Faith for tiie Age of Science (London,
1906); and Suxdenborg and the Safiientia Angelica
(1910). He has translated Swedenborg's De Anima
under the title The Soul or Rational Psychology (New
York, IW,) and edited, with introduct ion and notes,
Kant's Dreams of a Spirit Seer (London, 1899).
SEWALL, JOHH SMITH: Congregation alist; b.
at New Castle, Me., Mar. 20, 1830. He was educated
at Bowdoin College (A.B., 1850), and, afw-r being
commander's clerk in the United States Navy in
"China and Japan in 1850-54, entered Bangor Theo-
lograftl Beminary, from which he was graduated in
1858. He was pastor at Wenham, Mass. (1859-67) ;
chaplain of the Eijrhth Massachusetts Volunteers in
ISO!; professor of rhetoric and oratory in Bowdoin
■College j lsi,7-7.~i| ; and professor of sacred rhetoric
in Bangor Theological Seminary from 1875 until his
titii.-irifiit as professor emeritus in 1903. He has
written The Logbook of the Captain's Clerk (Bangor,
1905).
SEWEL, WILLEM (WILLIAM SEWELL):
Dutch Friend; b. at Amsterdam or English parent-
age, 1650; d. about 1725. He served his time as a
weaver, but acquired Greek, Latin, English, Trench,
and High Dutch. He is known as the author of
Hial'iri ran de Opkomstc, Aanwas, Fn Voorlgtmg tier
t'.'hr-inteiien, bckend by den vaom van Quakers (Am-
sterdam, 1717; Eng. Irarisl., by himself. Tin- Ilistoni
of the. Rise, Increase, and Progress of thr ChrU-tum
People Called Quakers, London, 1722; Philadelphia,
1855). One of his objects was to correct, the "mis-
representations" in Gerard f'roese's H tularin Quaker-
iana (3 books, Amsterdam, 1095-1704).
SEXAGESIMA. Sea Church Yeah; and Lent.
SEXT: The service for the "sixth hour" in the
Breviary (ipv.), recited normally at noon, to which
the invariable hymn refers. Its structure is the
same as that of Tcree and None (qq.v.). In mo-
nastic houses it precedes the community mass on
ordinary days and simple feasts, and follows it on
Sundays and higher feasts.
SEYERLEN, soi'er-len, KARL RUDOLF: Ger-
man Protestant; b. at Stuttgart Nov. 18, 1831;
d. at Jena Mar. 2S, 19(16. He was educated at the
University of Tubingen (Ph.D., 1854); was curate
at Giengen, near Geisslmpcn (1 854-55); studied for
a year in Paris; was then a teacher of religion at. the
gymnasium of Ulm (1857-59); lecturer at Tubingen
(1859-61.1; deacon at Crailsheiin (1862-69); dea-
con (1869-72). and archdeacon (1872-75) at Tubing-
en. After 1875 he was professor of homiletics and
catechetics at Jena. He was associate editor of the
ZeiUckrift fur praktische Tl\eologie (1879-91) and
wrote Entstehung und erste Schicksale der Christen-
gemeinde in Ram (Tubingen, 1874); Friedrich
Rohmers Leben und wissenschafllicher Entwicklungs-
gang nach dem Entwurfe Bluntsehlis (2 vols., Munich,
1-S92); and Bcziehungen twisehen obmdldndischem
und morgenldrtdischem Wissen mil RUcksicht auf
Salomon ibn Gebirol iLeipsic, 1900). He also
edited J. K. Bluntschli's Dcnkwurdigkeiten aus
meinem Leben (3 vols., Nordlingen, 1884) and F.
Rohmer's Wissenschaft vom Mensclten (2 vols.,
1885).
SEYMOUR, si'mor, GEORGE FRANKLIN : Prot-
estant Episcopal bishop of Springfield, III.; b. in
New York City Jan. 5, 1829; d. at Springfield, III.,
Dec. 8, 1906. He was graduated from Columbia
College (A.B., 1850) and the General Theological
Seminary (1854). He was ordered deacon in 1854
and was pries ted in 1855. From that year until
1861 he was rector of Holy Innocents, Annan dale,
N. Y. (1855-61), where he founded St. Stephen's
College, of which lie was the first warden. He was
then rector at St. Mary's, Manhattan ville, New York
City (1861-62), Christ Church, Hudson, N. Y.
(1862-63), and St. John's, Brooklyn (1863-67). In
1865 ho was appointed professor of ecclesiastical
history in the General Theological Seminary, of
which he was chosen dean in 1875 and there he
remained until 1879. In 1878 ho was consecrated
bishop of Springfield. Theologically he described
himself as "an American Catholic bishop in the One.
Holy, Catholic, and Apostolic Church of Christ.''
He was a deputy from the American Church to the
Old Catholic Congress at Vienna in 1897. He wrote
Samr f.ViHSi'rf- rnlUins why the Same of the Protestant
gpi&Goptd Church should be changed (Milwaukee.
1888); Whatis modern Romanism/ (1885); Amuse-
mentsin their Rchitkin <« liiHgion (Lima, Ind., 1890);
An Open Letter to Bishop Doane in Reference to the
t'ansn-ration of Bishop Brooks (Milwaukee, 1S92);
The Transfiguration: The Place of the Feast of the
Transfiguration (in collaboration with J. H. Egar;
New York, 1893) ; Marriage and Dirorec (Milwaukee,
1*93): The Church Idea of the Family (Springfield,
111.. 1899); and The Sncinnunt of Baptism, Related
Ordinances, and the Creed (New York, 1903).
BimJoampni: W. S. Perry. The Epiivpatt in America,
p. 257, Now York, 18B5.
SHAFTESBURY, ANTHONY ASHLEY COOPER,
SEVENTH EARL OF: English philanthropist; b.
in London Apr. 28, 1801; d. at Folkestone (60 m.
B.e. of London) Oct. 1, 1885. He was educated at
Harrow and at Christ Church, Oxford (M.A., 1832;
D.C.L., 1841); entered parliament in 1S31 and sat
as a commoner 1830-31, 1833-46, and 1847-51, in
that year taking his seat in the house of lords by
succession to hi- father. His rank, connections, and
abilities entitled him to a high place in government,
but in the interest of his philanthropic enterprises he
preferred to remain unhampered by the requirementa
385
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bewail
Shamanism
of office and of strict adherence to party politics.
His first humanitarian activity was directed to the
alleviation of the situation of lunatics, the result of
which was not only parliamentary regulation of the
care of a class badly treated but the directing of the
attention of medical men to sounder methods. He
also secured legislation limiting the hours during
which employees in mills and factories should be
kept at work, and agitation covering over ten years
was necessary to obtain the relief which finally came.
Conditions in collieries and mines also attracted his
attention, the awful conditions under which women
and even tender children worked for eighteen hours
being by him brought to the notice of parliament
with the result that legislation eliminated the worst
of the evils. The apprentices of the chimney sweeps
labored under quite similar harsh conditions, and
their situation was alleviated. The " ragged schools' '
were also benefited by his championship, and he
was chairman of the Ragged School Union for thirty-
nine years. Under the stimulus of his exposure of
lodging-house and other evils, conditions in these
institutions and in the tenement houses were made
much better. Besides the interests already men-
tioned, he was active in the counsels of the British
and Foreign Bible Society, of which he was long
president, in the London City Mission, in the Church
Missionary Society, and in the Young Men's Chris-
tian Association. He was a faithful attendant of the
Church of England, but his sympathies were with
evangelicalism wherever found.
Bibliography: E. H odder, Life and Work of the Seventh
Earl of Shaftesbury, 3 vols., London, 1886; G. H. Pike,
Shaftesbury. Hie Life and Work, ib. 1894; The Good Earl:
Career of the Seventh Lord Shaftesbury, ib. 1886; DNB,
xii. 133-137.
SHAHAN, THOMAS JOSEPH: Roman Catholic;
b. at Manchester, N. H., Sept. 11, 1857. He was
educated at Montreal College, Montreal (1872-78),
the American College, Rome (1878-82; D.D., Col-
lege of the Propaganda, Rome, 1882), the University
of Berlin (1889-91), the New Sorbonne and the In-
stitut Catholique, Paris (1891). Ordained to the
priesthood in 1882, he was chancellor and secretary
of the diocese of Hartford, Conn. (1883-38), and
since 1891 has been professor of church history and
patristics at the Catholic University of America,
Washington, D. C, also president since 1909. He
likewise lectured on the history of education in the
Catholic University Institute of Pedagogy, New
York City, in 1902-03, and since 1895 has been
editor of the Catholic University Bulletin. Besides
being one of the editors of the Catholic Encyclope-
dia, he has written The Blessed Virgin in the Cata-
combs (Baltimore, 1892) ; Giovanni Battista de Rossi
(New York, 1900); The Beginnings of Christianity
(1903); The Middle Ages (1903); and The House
of God, and other Addresses and Studies (1905).
SHAKERS. See Communism, II., 10.
SHALLUM, shallum: Fifteenth king of Israel,
successor of Zachariah whom he slew, thus ending
the dynasty of Jehu. He reigned only a month,
probably in the year 740 B.C. (though the old chron-
ology placed him in 771), when he was himself slain
by Menahem (q.v.), who seized the throne (II Kings
xv. 10-15). A reference to this unsettled period is
X.— 25
seen by several commentators in Zech. xi. 8 (cf.
J. F. McCurdy, History, Prophecy and the Monu-
ments, i. 357, New York, 1894).
SHALMANESER. See Assyria, VI., 3, §§ 3, 7, 10.
SHAMANISM, sha'mon-izm: The name for a com-
plex of practises and beliefs connected in some parts
of the world with an animistic stage of culture.
"Shaman" is of Hindu-Persian origin, and denotes
"idolater." The term is much in need of redefini-
tion, being used loosely and applied vaguely to
usages which are properly placed under other heads.
Shamanism is often defined as the "religion" of
certain tribes, mainly Mongolian or Finno-Tataric,
in northern Asia. The area thus indicated must be
extended to America, where the medicine-man of the
Indians has in great part the same functions and
beliefs and follows the same practises as the shaman
of Asia. Shamanism is not a religion; the term,
used properly, represents certain religious concom-
itants and practises, just as do the terms "magic"
and "taboo" (see Comparative Religion, VI.,
1, a, § 5, c). The shaman is a functionary who
is in part displaced by the priest and the doctor in
more advanced stages of culture. Other of his func-
tions than those included under the priestly and
the medicinal fall into desuetude with advancing
culture. In part, also, the functions of the shaman
are exercised by the fetish doctor under fetishism.
While the shaman may be described as priest and
doctor in embryo, the chief characteristic of shaman-
ism is discerned in distinguishing between shaman
and priest. The priest beseeches favor of gods (or
spirits), the shaman believes himself able to com-
mand spirits, and is not seldom spirit embodied.
The connection with animism is shown in the idea of
disease entertained by shamans, this being regarded
as the work of spirits who must be mastered.
The functions of the shaman are summed up in
the securing of good for those who retain his services
and the averting of evil from them. This includes
the direction of ceremonial, arrangement of dances
and feasts, healing of the sick, guarding from sorcery,
securing rainfall, and divining. In these various
performances ecstasy is often employed by the
shaman, and is induced either by narcotics or by
self -hypnotism. The means by which these various
functions are performed are held to be mysterious,
known only to the user, or if known to another yet
dangerous for him to employ. In the healing of the
sick there are often combined an empirical herbarium
and the supposed control of spirits. Deception of
the patient and identity of means employed charac-
terize the operations of shamans in the old world and
the new, where they frequently diagnose illness as
caused by foreign substances introduced into the
body by spirits or sorcerers, and these substances
they pretend to remove by manipulation and suc-
tion, having previously " palmed " or otherwise
concealed them about their own persons. Knowl-
edge they pretend to gain by sending forth the
"dream spirit" (one of four spirits possessed by
them) on a search for the cause of ill or means of
good. The compulsion of spirits is accomplished
by the "word of power" — incantations consisting of
unintelligible formulas and often of mere gibberish,
Bhunmfci
8hebnfc
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
in which, however, the shaman has full confidence.
As with the fetish priests, some shamans are special-
ists, confining I heir activities to particular domains,
as the healing of cattle. A lielief in sympathetic
magic (see Cosjpabative Religion, VI., 1, a, } 5)
is a normal accompaniment of shamanism.
The shaman may come to his powers cither by
prenatal endowment derived from an ancestor, by
gift from a favoring spirit, especially one seen in
the puberty watch, or from training by an experi-
enced practitioner. Upon the shaman his profes-
sion entails a crude morality, since the control of
the spirits is not easy and imposes rules of conduct
which the s hamuli must observe. These frequently
include a sort, of asceticism, anticipating that prin-
ciple in tin- religious development of a later stage of
culture. Geo. W. Gilmore.
Bibliooraj-ijt: For the weitem continent ■ thauurui of
material!) ia found in the Reports of the Bureau of Amer-
ican Elhnologo, a" annual published by the fliattlflhll
lonlitution. Washington, D. C. Consult further: G.
]i,i :].,■;!'. 1 1 ! ■ /,' ':'!.;: ■■,.■■,..-. t! I. . ■ ...'...'..': .V.itr.i i .A-r,
Leipeic. 1880; W. Radlofl. Du .Womaiwiliiiii und itin
Kutlus, ib. 188ft; PriUoiukij. Dot Schamanentum drr
Jakuten, Vienna. 18S8; T. Arhelin, Moderne VMerkunde,
Stuttgart. 1890; Antliropol<jRical InBtitulc o( Great
Britain and Ireland. Journal, xixi U'XUl; J. ^inilliiip.
Through Siberia, London, 1901; 0. J.uinholti. Unknown
Mexico. Ne» Yuri:, 1002; J. Kh.^p* hanks, My Life in
Mongolia and Siberia, London, 1903.
SHAMMA1, -!i..iin'iij."- or sham'a-oi: Jewish
rabbi of the first century B.C., contemporary and
opponent of Hillel (q.v.). He appears to have been
a ['silent ininn, a mim of somen hut. violent temper
who yet realised his shortcoming, hut also of great
modesty. His religious views were strict even
to severity. He founded a school antithetical to
that of Hillel, and the proverb arose, " Hillel looses
what Shammai binds,"
Biduoohaprt: II. Grants, Geschichti der Judder, iii. 213-
214. 250, I*i|wic. ixst; /.. Fninkpl. Hndnaetita in Misch-
i JB.s
230.
SHAHAHAH, EDMUND THOMAS: Roman
Catholic; b. in Boston, Mass., Nov. 22, 1808. He
was educated at Boston College (A.B., 1888), the
Roman Academy and Seminary and the College of
the Propaganda, Rome (S.T.D., 1893), and the
University of Louvain (1895). In 1894 he was
instructor in philosophy and theology in the Amer-
ican College. Rome; associate professor of theology
in the Ciitholie ("niversitv of America, Washington,
D. C. (1805-98). Since the latter year he has been
S) in ki'ijpeare-Cal i.l well professor of theology in the
same institution, where he has also been dean of
the faculty of theology since 1901. He was a lec-
turer before the American University Extension
Society, Philadelphia, in 1897, and lecturer in philos-
ophy at the University of Pennsylvania in 1898-99.
SHARP, GRAITVTLLE: English philanthropist;
b. at Durham Nov. 10, 1735 (old style); d. at Ful-
ham, London, July 6, 1813. Disapproving of the
government action relating to the American colonies
he roigned his position in the ordnance office, July,
31, 1776, and devoted himself to study. Before
this he became famous for his course in liefriending
and successfully defending the negro slave James
Somersett from his master, which finally led to the
momentous decision " that as soon as any slave sets
his foot upon English territory, he becomes free."
He thenceforth devoted himself to the overthrow of
slavery and the slave-trade. He conceived the idea
of a colony for the liberated slaves, 1783, which
afterward materialized in the settlement of Sierra
Leone. During the last years of his life be took a
prominent part in the founding of the British and
Foreign Bible Society and was identified with a
number of promotive societies. He was a good
linguist and a pious man. He wrote, A Representa-
tion of Ike Injustice of Private Properly in the Persons
of Men (London, 1769), followed by an Appendix
(1772); A Declaration of the People's Natural Right
to a Share in the Legislature (1774), in behalf of the
American Colonies; and his chief later work, Re-
marks on the U see of the Definitive Article in Ihe Greek
Text of the New Testament (Durham, 1798),
Bibuookapht: P. Hoare, Memoirs of OranriUe Sharp,
London. 1820; J. Nichols. Literary Anecdote* of the lath
Century, 9 vols,, ib. 1812-15; J. Stephen, Ettoys in Eeele-
rioilienl Biography, 2 vols.. 4th ed., London. 1880; D.\B.
1L 401-404.
SHARP, JAMES: Archbishop of St. Andrews;
b. in the castle of Banff (40 m. n.n.w. of Aberdeen)
May, 1018; assassinated on Magus Muir, near St.
Andrews (31 m. n.e. of Edinburgh), May 3, 1679.
He was educated at Aberdeen (M.A., lfi37); in 1643
was professor of philosophy in St. I.eonard'sCollcge,
St. Andrews; presented to the Church of Cra.il. 10-18;
was made a prisoner by Cromwell's forces and con-
fined in the Tower, 1051-52; was chosen to plead the
Presbyterian cause before the Protector, 1657; and
when George Monk marched upon London, 1660, he
was sent over to Charles II. at Breda, to secure the
royal confirmation of " the government of the Church
of Scotland, as it is settled by law, without viola-
tion," as well as of the act of the resoluti oners. The
former, of course, was understood in the Presby-
terian sense. Sharp, being of the party of reaolu-
tioners and selected for his mediating position be-
tween Charles and the Presbyterians, was charged
with duplicity and with finally betraying the latter
for his own interests. At any rate, in 1661, the Scot-
tish parliament annulled all the parliaments held
since 1633, with all their proceedings, and thus
totally abolished all the laws made in favor of the
Presbyterian Church. The "Church of Scotland"
thus became the old Episcopal Church; and Sharp,
tn Dec. 12, 1601, was in I.ondon consecrated arcrt-
bfohOpof St. Andrews. With the seal of a convert he
persecuted his former allies. Invested with the title
and style of primate, of Scotland, he re-erected the
court of high commission in 1004, which severely
punished, some even with death, those who in any
way interfered with the prelatical designs, and exe-
cuted nine persons after the king had required the
persecutions to cease. His perfidy and cruelty led
to his assassination hy a hand of Covenanters who
encountered the prelate's carriage while lying in
wait for his chief agent, Carmichael.
Bibliocrafht: Life of James Shorn. Archbishop of St.
Andreas . . . first printed in 1378, to which is added, an
Account of his Dtath. by an Eyr-Wilntss, Edinburgh.
1719; The Life of Mr. James Sharp . , , to his Instal-
ment in the Archbishoprick af St. Andrews, ib. 1719; A
True Account of the Life of . . . Jams. Sharp. London.
1723; T. Stephen, Life and Times of Archbishop Sharp,
ib. 1839; R. Keith, HUorical Catalogue of (a* Seottstk
887
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Shi _
Shebna
Bishops, new ed., Edinburgh, 1824; W. M. Hetheriocton,
Hist, of the Church of Scotland, paasim. New York, 1881;
W. Beveridge, Makers of the Scottish Church, pasum, 1008;
DNB, li. 404-407.
SHARP, JOHN: Church of England archbishop
of York; b. at Bradford (8 m. w. of Leeds) , York-
shire, Feb. 16, 1644-45; d. at Bath Feb. 2, 1714.
His father was a puritan, his mother an ardent mem-
ber of the Church of England, and from both he de-
rived corresponding elements of character. He
received his education at Christ's College, Cam-
bridge (B.A., 1663; M.A., 1667); was made deacon
and priest, 1667, and soon after became tutor in the
family of Sir Heneage Finch at Kensington House,
in 1673 being made archdeacon of Berkshire on
Finch's nomination; in 1675 he became prebendary
of Norwich and incumbent of St. Bartholomew's
Exchange, London, and in 1679 lecturer at St. Law-
rence, Jewry, in 1675 exchanging the incumbency
for the rectorship of St. Gilcs's-in-the-Fields; in
addition, in 1681 he was made dean of Norwich;
named in 1686 chaplain in ordinary to King James
II., he was provoked by attempts of Roman Catho-
lics to convert his parishioners, preached two ser-
mons which were construed as reflecting upon the
king, and his chaplaincy was not allowed until 1687;
further evidence of his independent spirit was shown
by his refusal to read the declaration of indulgence
of 1688, and by his prayers for King James before the
prince of Orange in 1689; he became dean of Canter-
bury in 1689; declined to receive any of the sees of
the Nonjurors (q.v.), but in 1691 became arch-
bishop of York. In this position he showed himself
an able and diligent administrator; he investigated
the history and rights of the see, leaving the work in
manuscript; he was active in repairing the minster
after the fire of 171 1 , dealt with his clergy kindly but
firmly, insisted upon sound and instructive preaching,
and aimed to eliminate polemics against dissenters.
Under Queen Anne he became still more influential,
acted as her almoner, and was her counselor,
showing great wisdom in this unofficial position.
He was interested in the continental dispute between
Lutherans and Calvinists, in this cause correspond-
ing with Daniel Ernst Jablonski (q.v.), and the cor-
respondence appeared in French translation and in
the appendix to the Life (see below). Archbishop
Sharp left the impression of being one of the great
men of the Church of England, independent in
opinion, straightforward in action, kindly in dis-
position, liberal in education and tastes, with nu-
mismatics as his diversion, leaving a collection of
coins and a manuscript on the coinage of England as
evidences. He left in print a large number of oc-
casional sermons, as well as Fifteen Sermons Preached
on Several Occasions (London, 1700; several edi-
tions). His Works appeared in 7 vols. (1754) and in
5 vols. (Oxford, 1829).
Bibliography His Life was written by his son Thomas,
but was not printed till 1825, when it was edited by T.
Newcome, and is founded upon the diary of the arch-
bishop. Consult further: C. J. Abbey, The English
Church and Us Bishops, 1700-1800, i. 103-105, London,
1887; J. H. Overton, The Church in England, vol. ii.,
passim, ib. 1897; W. H. Hutton, The English Church
(1696-1714), ib. 1903; A. Plummer, English Church His-
tory, from the Death of Charles I. to the Death of William
III,, Edinburgh, 1907; DNB, U. 408-411.
SHARPE, SAMUEL: Egyptologist and Biblical
translator; b. at London Mar. 8, 1799; d. there
July 28, 1881. He was a banker, 1814-61; and, up-
on retirement from business, devoted himself, with-
out university training, to Biblical study, 1861-81.
In 1821 he turned from the Established to the Uni-
tarian Church. He early became interested in
Egyptology, and published Egyptian Inscriptions
(1st and 2d series, London, 1836-56); History of
Egypt from the Earliest Times till A.D. 6/fl (1846; 6th
ed., 2 vols., 1876). To Biblical literature he con-
tributed The New Testament, a translation from J.
J. Griesbach's text, with notes (1840; 5th ed., 1862);
The Hebrew Scriptures, a revision of the authorised
version of the Old Testament (3 vols., 1865); The
Holy Bible (1881), a revision of the authorized
English translation; and History of the Hebrew Na-
tion, and Literature (1S69).
Bibuographt: P. W. Clayden, Samuel Sfiarpe, Egyptolo-
gist and Translator of the Bible, London, 1883; DNB, li.
426-427.
SHAWrjOHN BALCOM: Presbyterian; b. at
Bellport, N. Y., May 12, 1860. He received his
education at Lafayette College (B.A., 1885; M.A.,
1888) and Union Theological Seminary, New York
City (graduated 1888) ; was ordained to the ministry
1888, and was pastor of the West End Presbyterian
Church, New York City, 1888-1904; and has been
in charge of the Second Presbyterian Church in
Chicago since 1904. He has also been president of
the Presbyterian Council of the Brotherhood of
Andrew and Philip since 1895, besides serving on the
boards of various educational institutions. He has
written The Difficult Life (Chicago, 1904) ; Life that
follows Life (1907); and Vision and Service (1907;
sermons).
SHAW, WILLIAM ISAAC: Wesley an Methodist;
b. at Kingston, Canada, Apr. 6, 1841 ; was graduated
from Victoria University, Cobourg, Canada (A.B.,
1861 ; LL.B., 1864), at McGill University, Montreal
(M.A., 1880); engaged in the ministry of the Wes-
leyan Methodist Church of Canada, 1864-77; and in
1877 became professor of exegesis and church history
in the Wesleyan Theological College, Montreal, of
which he is principal. He is the author of Discussion
on Retribution (Toronto, 1884) ; Digest of the Doc-
trinal Standards of the Methodist Church (1895).
SHEBA. See Arabia, III.; and Table of the
Nations, § 6.
SHEBNA (SHEBNAH): A high official in the
palace of Hezekiah, mentioned in Isa. xxii. 15-25,
xxxvi. 3, 11, 22, xxxvii. 2; II Kings xviii. 18, 26, 37,
xix. 2, and made the object of Isaiah's severe pro-
phetic menace in the passage first mentioned. These
eleven verses all refer to Shebna, as nearly all com-
mentators agree; but though the text is free from
corruption and the language is relatively clear, the
passage is not without obscurity. While Isa. xxii.
20 sqq. refers to Eliakim, in verse 25 the prophet
probably returns to Shebna. The place to be given
Eliakim as Shebna's successor was plainly one of
high rank, and Shebna himself was •' over the house"
(verse 15; cf. Gen. xli. 40; I Kings xviii. 3 sqq.),
thus being, as it were, a major-domo. He is marked
Shebna
Shekinah
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
388
as an upstart by the triple "here" in verse 16, as
well as by the omission of his father's name; and in
the account of the siege of Jerusalem by Sennacherib
in 701 B.C. (Isa. xxxvi. 3, 11, 22, xxxvii. 2; II Kings
xviii. 18, 26, 37, xix. 2) he appears in the subordinate
position of an official scribe or mere minister, while
Eliakim occupies the rank of the highest state of-
ficial. There is no reason for surprise that the very
Shebna whom the prophet had threatened with
dismissal and death in exile (Isa. xxii. 17-19) should
accompany his superior, Eliakim, to treat with the
Assyrian envoys at Hezekiah's command, and should
even request the intercession of Isaiah (Isa. xxxvii.
2; II Kings xix. 2); and as it is improbable that
there were two high officials during the reign of
Hezekiah both of whom bore the name of Shebna,
this same man is doubtless to be understood
throughout. While it is evident from such passages
as Jer. xviii. 7 sqq. that Isaiah's menacing words,
which did not in the least constitute a formal proph-
ecy, did not require a literal fulfilment, there is no
doubt that they were essentially realised in Shebna' s
degradation and his replacement by Eliakim.
Since, in Isa. xxii. 20-21, Eliakim is described as a
servant of the Lord, and as destined to be "a father
to the inhabitants of Jerusalem, and to the house of
Judah," it would appear, by implication, that
Shebna was lacking in the fear of God and guilty of
gross oppression, thus abusing his official position;
and even were this the fault of his favorites, the evil
influence of his band of parasites would necessarily
end on his downfall. An erroneous exegesis assumes
that Isaiah accuses Eliakim of nepotism and
threatens his overthrow at the very moment of his
rise to power; but, rightly understood, the phrase
"in that day," in verses 20, 25, implies the simul-
taneous nature of Eliakim's elevation and Shebna's
fall. In describing the prestige which Shebna was
to confer upon his family, Isaiah compares him to
a "nail in a sure place* ' (verses 23-24), likening the
subordinate members of his house to various earthen
vessels, which would be shattered if the nail should
break. It has been maintained by B. L. Duhm (Das
Buck Jesaia fiber setzt und erkldrt, Gottingen, 1892,
ad loc.) that only Isa. xxii. 15-18 are genuine, the
remainder of the passage in question being added
later, 19-23 by a friend of Eliakim, and 24-25 by one
of his enemies; but the truth is that the whole pas-
sage is a genuine prophecy of Isaiah, who branded
the powerful functionary at the head of the reigning
house as its disgrace (verse 18), probably on the
occasion of viewing the magnificent tomb which
Shebna had built for himself.
A. Kamphausen.
Bibliography: The full discussion of the subject is by A.
Kamphausen in Zeilschrifi far Pastoral Theologie, xxiv.
557-573, 631-^40, Eng. transl. in AJT, 1P01, pp. 43-74;
£. Kftnig, in NKZ, 1902, pp. 621-031.
SHEDD, JQPN HASKELL: Missionary to
Persia; b. at Mt. Gilead, Ohio, July 9, 1833; d. at
Urumia, Persia, Apr. 12, 1895. He was the son of
the Rev. Henry Shedd, one of the pioneer home mis-
sionaries in Ohio; was graduated from Marietta
College (1856) and from Andover Theological Semi-
nary (1859), was ordained Aug. 3, 1859, and sailed
the same month on his way to Persia as a mis-
sionary of the American Board in the Nestorian Mis-
sion. He served as a missionary from 1859 to 1870
under the American Board and from 1878 to 1895
under the Presbyterian Board, to which in 1870 the
work for the Nestorians was transferred. From
1872 to 1878 he was a professor in Biddle University,
Charlotte, N. C. Urumia, Persia, where he died, was
his home during the whole of his missionary work.
Dr. Shedd's missionary work deserves special
record along four lines. On his arrival on the field
as a young missionary of unusual energy and ability
he was restive at the limitation of the work to the
Nestorians and he sought hard to have it extended
to the Armenian and Moslem population of the field.
Only the sudden break-down of another missionary
prevented his opening a new station at Van, Turkey.
These efforts, though not successful at the time,
were among the influences that prepared for the
later wide extension of the work, which has made the
mission to the Nestorians a mission to Persia and
given it a wider scope than yet belongs to any other
of the missions to the oriental churches. Although
his own work was confined mainly to the Nestor-
ians, he always planned and worked with the
larger field in view. A second line was the effort to
evangelise the mountain Nestorian tribes. No more
difficult missionary field exists than the mountain
region bounded by lines connecting Urumia, Van,
Jezireh, and Mosul. Dr. Shedd was a worthy suc-
cessor of Dr. Asahel Grant and the Rev. S. A. Rhea
in this work. Between 1860 and 1870 he made no
less than eighteen journeys through this wild and
dangerous region, preaching, organizing, and plan-
ning. It would be unjust to say that these efforts
resulted in failure, but the success was small. An-
other line of work in which Dr. Shedd's memory
and influence will be lasting was the training of
native workers. He always conceived of this as the
primary purpose of missionary educational work,
and largely for this reason he gave himself with
energy from 1878 till his death to the work of Urumia
College. The love and respect of his pupils for him
were great and abiding. But the chief service he
rendered the cause of missions was in the organiza-
tion of the native Syrian Evangelical Church. In
his plans and principles in this work he was ahead of
his time. When a young missionary he criticized
severely the policy of the mission in not placing
responsibility on the natives. While averse to any
violent break with the old Nestorian Church and
never giving up hope of its revival, he thoroughly
believed in an organized Evangelical body; and the
organization of the Evangelical church provides for
its complete ecclesiastical autonomy with an adapted
Presbyterian government. It also provides for
organized cooperation of the native church and the
foreign missionaries in the work of all settled preach-
ers and all village schools. This is carried on by
executive boards of the native church, which con-
trol the work concurrently with the mission.
W. A. Shedd.
SHEDD, WILLIAM 6REEN0U6H THAYER:
Presbyterian; b. at Acton, Mass., June 21, 1820;
d. at New York Nov. 17, 1894. He was graduated
from the University of Vermont, 1839; and from
389
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Shebna
Shekinah
Andover Theological Seminary, 1843; became Con-
gregational pastor at Brandon, Vt., 1844; professor
of English literature, University of Vermont, 1845;
of sacred rhetoric in Auburn (Presbyterian) Theo-
logical Seminary, 1852; of church history in An-
dover (Congregational) Theological Seminary, 1853;
associate pastor of the Brick (Presbyterian) Church,
New York City, 1862 ; professor of Biblical literature
in Union Theological Seminary, New York, 1863-74 ;
and of systematic theology, 1874-90, where he was
known for the rigid logic and close compactness of
his system, embodied in his Dogmatic Theology
(vols, i.-ii., Worcester, 1889; vol. iii., New York,
1894). He translated from the German of Francis
Theremin, Eloquence a Virtue (New York, 1850),
and H. E. F. Guericke's Manual of Church History
(2 vols., Andover, 1860-70); and wrote A History of
Christian Doctrine (2 vols., New York, 1865) ; Homir
lelics and Pastoral Theology (1867); Sermons to the
Natural Man (1871); Theological Essays (1877);
Commentary on Romans (1879); Sermons to the
Spiritual Man (1884); The Doctrine of Endless
Punishment (1886); and Orthodoxy and Hetero-
doxy (New York, 1893).
Bibliography: J. De Witt, in Preebj/terian and Reformed
Review, vi (1895), 295-322.
SHEEHAN, PATRICK AUGUSTINE: Irish
Roman Catholic; b. at Mallow (17 m. n.n.w. of
Cork), County Cork, Mar. 17, 1852. He was edu-
cated at St. Colman's College, Fermoy, and at May-
nooth College, and after being ordained in 1875 and
being for two years attached to the mission in Exe-
ter, was successively curate in Mallow (1877-81,
1889-95) and Queenstown (1881-89). Since 1895
he has been parish priest of Doneraile, and also
canon of Cloyne since 1903. He is the author of
Under the Cedars and the Stars (London, 1903) and
its companion volume, Parerga (1908); Maria
Corona, Chapters on the Mother of God and her Saints
(2d ed., Dublin, 1902); and Early Essays and Ad-
dresses (London, 1906) ; also of several novels deal-
ing with religious themes, among them The Triumph
of Failure (London, 1899), My new Curate (1900),
and Luke Delmege (1902).
SHEEP. See Pastoral Life, Hbbrew.
SHEEPSHANKS, JOHN: Church of England
retired bishop; b. in London Feb. 23, 1834. He was
educated at Christ's College, Cambridge (B.A., 1856,
in the 2d class of the theological tripos), and was
ordered deacon 1857 and ordained priest in the fol-
lowing year. He was curate of Leeds (1857-59);
rector of New Westminster, B. C, and chaplain to the
bishop of Columbia (1859-67); vicar of Bilton,
Yorkshire (1868-73); vicar of St. Margaret Anfield,
Walton-on-the Hill, Liverpool (1873-93). In 1893
he was consecrated bishop of Norwich. He resigned
his see in 1909. While in British Columbia, he did
much missionary work among the Indians, particu-
larly at Cariboo, and is also noteworthy as being the
only English clergyman who has ever preached in
the Mormon Tabernacle in Salt Lake City. He has
traveled extensively in Siberia and Tibet, and at
Urga saw the adoration of the Llama of Mongolia.
He has writted Confirmation and Unction of the Sick
(London, 1889); Eucharist and Confession (1902);
My Life in Mongolia and Siberia (1903); and The
Pastor in his Parish (1908).
Bibliography: D. W. Duthie, A Bishop in the Rough,
London, 1909 (relates hie experiences in British Columbia).
SHEKINAH, she-koi'na (Talmudic Hebr., "abiding
[of the divine presence] ") : A post-Biblical term to
express the relation of Yahweh to the world, and
especially to Israel. The concept, based on the Old
Testament, arose among the Palestinian and Baby-
lonian Jews, who stressed the immanent activity of
God, as opposed to the Alexandrine doctrine of a
supramundane and extramundane deity. In the
Targums the expressions "shekinah of Yahweh,"
"glory of Yahweh," and "word of Yahweh" are
synonymous, and "shekinah," "glory," and "word"
come to be designations of Yahweh himself. The
shekinah itself is generally regarded as "resting" or
" dwelling," so that the Targum of Onkelos interprets
"God shall dwell in the tents of Shem" (Gen. ix. 27)
as " God shall make his shekinah to dwell in the tents
of Shem" (cf. the Targum on Ex. xxv. 8, xxix. 45;
Num. v. 3, xi. 20, xiv. 14, xvi. 3, xxxv. 34; Deut. i.
42, xxxii. 10; Ps. xvi. 8, xliv. 10, lxxiv. 2; Hag.
i. 8); but it is also said "to depart" (as in the Tar-
gum on Ex. xxxiii. 3, 5; Job xxxiv. 29; Ps. xxii. 25,
xxvii. 91, xxxix. 47), "to pass by" (Ex. xxxiv. 6),
"to walk" (Deut. xxiii. 14), and "to be" or "not
to be" (Ex. xvii. 7; Num. xiv. 42; Deut. iv. 39).
In all these passages "shekinah" stands for "Yah-
weh," but in other places it represents "name"
(Deut. xii. 5, 11, 21), "face" (Num. vi. 25; Deut.
xxxi. 17-18), and " hand" (Ex. xvii. 16). It is clear,
moreover, that Onkelos did not regard the shekinah
as an independent entity between Yahweh and Israel
but as a name for Yahweh himself (cf . his Targum
on Ex. xxxiii. 14-16, xxxiv. 9).
Talmudic and Midrashic literature gives far more
material on the activity of the shekinah than does
the Targum, though in all the concept of the shekinah
is the same. From the day of the erection of the
tabernacle, the shekinah dwelt within, this concept
of its descending and abiding doubtless being de-
rived from the Babylonian idea of a divinity en-
throned in the adytum, thus taking up its abode
there for adoration, but returning, if angered, to the
sky, a trait also assigned to the shekinah. After
the conquest of Canaan the shekinah moved wher-
ever the tabernacle went, finally abiding in the
temple built by David and Solomon, in which it
rested at the east end. At the exile it went, ac-
cording to some, with the deported Jews, but ac-
cording to others, returned to heaven; at all events,
like the ark of the covenant, the Urim and Thummim,
etc., it was not in the second temple. Nevertheless,
its immanent activity in the world did not cease,
so that such scholars as Ishmael ben Elisha (first
century) and Hoshaiah Rabbah (early third century)
could say that "the shekinah is in every place."
While the interrelation of the shekinah and man-
kind is represented in manifold ways, it may be
said, in general, that the impious make the shekinah
withdraw from earth, but the pious secure its re-
turn. Prayer, piety, worship, study of the law,
perfect administration of justice, practise of virtue,
and blameless joyousness bring the shekinah near,
but it flees from sorrow, idleness, laughter, frivolity.
THE NEW SCHAFF-HEBZOG
jesting, pride, and things of no account. On the
other hand, it abides with the sick and with those
happily wedded. The shekinah, which is symbolized
by the lighting of the perpetual tamp, is regarded
sa possessed of wings, so that " Moses was, from his
l.irth, under the wings of the shekinah." This would
!ipp;i.ri'iilly imply a figure somewhat like that of
■trie cherubim and genii, and a face and radiance a;
also ascribed to the shekinah.
Later Midrasliic literature makes the shekinah I
independent entity standing I >et ween God and ti
world, so that the shekinah can even be said to "go
to the presence of God," a view frequently ex-
pressed in Cabalistic literature, as well as by Mai-
monides and his school. The view of Maimonides,
however, that the shekinah, like the "glory" and
the "word," was a fiery created being which com-
municatee the divine activity to the world, was
combated by Nahmanidea. Among the pseudo-
Miv-sisihr! of the Jews, Shabbethai Zebi declared him-
self to be the incarnate shekinah. In the New
Testament the shekinah is not mentioned, although
Christ may be identified with it in Matt, xviii. 20.
(August WOusche.)
Bibliooiu.pht: A. Y. GfrOrer, Garhichle da Urchruien-
(Aumt. i. 272-352. Stuttgart. ]K)S; J. Langsn. Juden-
thum in Paiaiiina hit Zeil ChriMi. pp. 201 >qq., Freiburg,
1806; S. Mnybauin. Anttirnpomorptiien und A nthropopa-
thien. Breslau. 1870: C. C. W. F. Bihr. Symbolik da
moiaitehsn Caltu*. i. 471 Bqq., Heidelberg. 1874: F.
Weber. JUditche Theologit, Leipsie. 1897; G. Dolnmn.
Die Wortt Jau, vol, i„ Leipiic, 1898; W. Boumet. Re-
ligion da J udrnthumx im neidcitamenltirhen Zeitolter. pp.
309 sqq.. 340, Berlin. 1903; A. B. Dsvilnoa, Old Tata-
merd Prophecy, pp. 148. 220, Edinburgh, 1903; DB, *r.
487-189; JE, xi. 258-280.
SHELDON, CHARLES MONROE: Congrega-
tionalism b. at WellBvitle, N. Y., Feb. 26, 1857. He
Mas graduated from Brown University (A. II.. 1SS3)
and Andover Theological Seminary (1886). He was
pastor of the (.onjjrrEHtii.mal Church at Waterbury,
Vt. (1886-89); and since 1889 has been pastor of
the Central Congregational Church, Topeka, Kan.
He states that practically hia whole theological
position centers about the attempt to put into
practise the creed of Christ. He has written Richard
Bruce: or, The Life thai now is (Boston, 1892);
Salmi Hardy's Seven Days (1893); The Twentieth
Door (1893); The Crucifixion of Philip Strong
(Chicago, 1894); John King's Question Class (1894);
His Brother's Keeper: or < 'liriMimi Startrrdship (Bos-
ton, 1895); In His, Steps (('hit-ago, IS'Jfi); Malcolm
A'ir(-ilWl7); tend a Hand (\SM); The Redemption
of Freetown (1898): The Miracle at Markham (1898);
One of the Two (1898); For Christ and the Church
(1899); Edword Hhd-r (\sm); Bom to Serve (1900);
The Reformer (1902); The Heart of the World (1905);
and Paul Douglas, Journalist (1909).
SHELDOH, GILBERT: Church of England arch-
bishop of Canterbury; b. at Ashbourn (13 in. n.w. of
Darby] July 19. 1898; d at Lambeth Nov. 9, 1677;
He studied at Trinity College, Oxford (B.A., 1617;
M.A., 1620; fellow of All Souls', 1622; B.D., 1628
D.D., 1634); was ordained in 1622, almost immedi-
ately N-eoming domestic chaplain to Thomas, Lord
Covenlry; was made prebendary of Gfouwftter,
1632; vicar of Hackney, 1633; rector of Oddington,
Oxford, and of Ickford, Buckingham, 1636; rector
of Newington, Oxford, 1639, having been meanwhile
warden of AH Souls' College since 1026, of which he
was in 1634 and 1040 pro-vicechancellor. He was a
Htrong an ti- Puritan, and was ejected from his war-
den-hip by the Parliamentary visitors in 1648, being
imprisoned for resisting the attempt to take bis
lodgings, but recovered the office in 1659. During
the exile of Charles II., Sheldon was constant in his
efforts in favor of Charles, and on the Restoration
was naturally in high favor. In 1660 he was made
bishop of London, and the Savoy Conference (q.v.)
was held at his lodging; in 1663 he became arch-
bishop of Canterbury. Although he was elected
ch;mi.'i'[lor of Oxford University in 1667, be was not
installed, and resigned 1669. He built and endowed
the SheMonian theater at Oxford. His career as
bishop was one of great fidelity to duty. Most
marked were his benefactions, both to the poor and
in behalf of public interests, as in the case of hia
subscription to the rebuilding of St. Paul's after the
fire of London. His total benefactions were said to
have exceeded £72,000 — an enormous sum for those
times. He was devoted to the antiquities of the uni-
versity, and in particular was a patron of the his-
torian of Oxford, Anthony & Wood. The only
published work left hy him is a sermon before
the king June 20, 1660, though a considerable body
of manuscripts is extant.
Bibuoorapht: A. it Wood. Athena Oumienta. ed. P. Bus.
vol. iv.. London, 1820: M, Burrow*. Worlhia of All Souit\
London, 1874; G. C. Bmdrick. Memorial* of Merlon Col-
lege. Oxford. 1S85: W. H. Button, Tor English Church
UBte-l7W. PP 197-198 ot piaaim. London. 1903; A.
Plummer. English Church Hittcry tW4B~IT0ti. pp. 04,
70-71, Edinburgh. 1907; DNB, Ht 24-20.
SHELDON, HENRY CLAY: Methodist Episco-
palian; b. at Martinsburg, N. Y., Mar. 12, 1S45.
He was graduated from Yale (A.B., 1867), and the
Theological School of Boston University (1S71).
After studying at Leipsie in 1874-75, ho was pro-
fessor of historical theology in Boston University
until 1895, when he was transferred to his present
position of professor of systematic theology. In
theology lie inclines toward evangelical Arminian-
ism, as opposed both to strict Calvinism and to
liberal ism. He has written History of Christian Doc-
trine (2 vole., New York, 1886); History of the
Christian Church (5 vols., 1894); System of Christian
Doctrine (1903); Unbelief in the Nineteenth Century
(1907); Sacerdotalism in the Nineteenth Century
(1909); and JVem Testament Theology (1911).
SHEM, SHEMITES. Sec Table o
e Natiovb.
SHEMAIAH, Bhe-mA'ya orshem"a-<ii'Q: A name
of frequent occurrence in the Old Testament. The
most important men who ban it were:
1. A prophet of the time of Rehohonm (I Kings
xii. 21-21). who forbade that king to enter upon a
war with the ten tribes who had established the
northern kingdom. Tin- pa.-sacy belongs to a late
stratum of the Books of Kings, and the parallel
(II Citron, xi.-xii.) adds midrashic material con-
cerning Shemaiah in which the prophet regards the
attack of Shishak as a consequence of the sins of
Judah. To this prophet is attributed a history of
the reign of Rehoboam {II Chron. xii. Id), upon
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
flhsklaah
VEE35E
which presumably the Chronicler draw. The state-
ment is not improbable, and the author of the Books
of Kings notes the existence of such books as mate-
rials from which he drew; the possibility of the
existence and activity of such a person in the time
of Rehoboam is granted, and much of the material
dealing nith the end of the period of the Judges and
with the beginning of the kingdom goes back to this
3. An opponent of Jeremiah living among the
exiles, who sent a letter to Zephaniah the priest at
Jerusalem blaming Jeremiah for advising the exiles
to prepare for a considerable stay in Babylonia
(Jer. xxix. 24 sqej.). Jeremiah declared Shemaiah
to be a lying prophet and predicted his punishment
and the destruction of his house.
3. Aii opponent of Nehemiab (Neh. vi. 10 sqq.),
also a prophet and an associate of Sanballat (q.v.).
Ho attempted to lead Nehemiah into a cowardly
course so as to discredit him with the people.
(R. Kittel.)
SHEOL. See Hades.
SHEPARD, THOMAS: Puritan; b. at Towceeter
(59 m. n.w. of London), Northampton. Eng., Nov.
5, 1604; d. at Cambridge, Mass., Aug. 25, 1649. He
graduated at Emmanuel College, Oxford (B.A., 1623;
M.A., 1627); was lecturer at Earl's Coin, 1627-30;
was silenced for non-conformity by Laud, Dec. 16,
1(130; In 'ciime lecturer at Towcester; was employed
as chaplain and tutor in the family of Sir Richard
Dariy, Buttercrambe, Yorkshire, for a year; was
pastor at Heddon, Northumberland, another year,
but was again silenced, 1633 ; and sailed for America,
lire . 1(134, but was compelled by a storm to put
back. He had to hide himself lest he should be
taken, but finally, July, 1635, got away, and landed
at Huston, on Oct. 3, and iweame minister at Cam-
bridge, Feb., 1636, till hisdeath. He took an active
part in founding Harvard College and secured ita
location at Cambridge, and was prominent in the
synod at Cambridge which ended the Antinomian
controversy. In learning, piety, spiritual insight,
and practical force he takes a first rank among Puri-
tan divines; especially exemplified in his treatise.
The Parable of the Ten Virgins Opened and Applied
(1659; reprinted Aberdeen, 1838 and 1853, with
biographical preface by J. Foote). In all he is
said to have written 382 books and pamphlets,
among which were New England* Lamentation for
(lh! England* Present Errours and Dieisioixs (1645);
Certain Select Ca»es Resolved (1648); TheClearSun-
shine of the Gospel Breaking Forth upon the Indian*
in Nan England (1646; reprinted, New York, 1865);
and Theses Sabbatica; (1649). A collective edition
of his works, with memoir by J. A. Albro (originally
published Boston, 1847, reproduced in Lives of the
Chief Father* of New England, vol. iv., Boston,
1870), was published (3 vols., Boston, 1853). Hie
A'ihJ)'xi<qT<tphy uiis published in Alexander Young's
Chronicles of lite First Planters of Mastachusctts Bay
(Boston, 1846).
BlnLiooRAPnt: Beside* the .4 utobiooraphij and thp memoir
by Albro. ut sup., consult: A. Whyla. TAomo* Shepard:
Pilgrim Father and Founder of Harvard. Hit Spiritual
Bxperienct and ErperimaUat Preaching. Edinburgh. ISM;
Cotton Mntfaer, Magnolia, \. 380 waa., Hartford. 1S55;
W. Ii Spraaue. Annals of the American Pvlpil. i, 59-68,
New York. I860: W. Walker. Cretds and Platform* of
Cangrrgalionolum, ib. I8BJ; idem. Ten New England
Ltadtrt. ib. 1001; A. E, Dunning. CangreganonalitU in
America, ib. 1894: DUB. lii. BO-SI.
SHEPHERD OF HERMAS. See Hehmas.
SHEPHERDS. See Pastoral Life, Hcbbbw,
III.
SHERATON, JAMES PATERS0H: Canadian
Anglican; b. at St. John, N. B., Nov. 29, 1841; d.
in Toronto Jan. 24, 1906. He was educated at the
University of New Brunswick (A.B., 1S62), and re-
ceived his theological training at the University of
King? College, Windsor, N. 8., and privately with
the bishop of Frcdericton. He wae ordered deacon
in 1864 and ordained priest in the following year.
After being a missionary at Weld/ord, Shedinc, and
Petereville, N. B., successively (1865-73), he was
rector of St. James', Pictou, N. S. (1874-77). From
1877 till his death he was principal and professor of
Biblical and systematic theology in Wyclifle Col-
lege, Toronto, and after 1889 honorary canon of St.
Alban's Cathedral, Toronto.
SHERLOCK, RICHARD: Church of England;
b. at Chiton, a township on the peninsula of Wirral
(a.w. of Liverpool), Cheshire, Nov. 11, 1612; d. at
Winwick (17 m. e. of Liverpool), Iancaahire, June 20,
1689. He was educated at Magdalen Hall, Oxford,
and Trinity College, Dublin (M.A., 1G33). Until
1641 he was minister of small parishes in Ireland;
and proceeded to Oxford where he was chaplain
of the garrison and of New College, 1644-48. He
was expelled thence, 1648, and ejected from the
curacy of Cassington, 1652, owing to his stanch
Anglican loyalism; became private chaplain, 1652-
1662; and. with the Restoration, rector of Winwick,
1662-89. In controversy with the Friends he pub-
ished The Quakers Wilde Questions Objected against
the Ministers of tlie Gospel and many Sacred Gifts
and Office* of Religion, with Brief Answer* thereto.
Together with a Discourse of the Holy Spirit, his
Impressions and Workings on the Souls of Men (Lon-
don, 1854). His main work was Mercuriu* Chris-
tianas; the Practical Christian, a Treatise Explaining
the Duty of Self-Eiamination (1673 and often; the
6th ed., including a biography by his nephew,
Thomas Wilson. 1713; 7th ed., 2 vols., Oxford,
1841-H).
talAMBU**!! Commit, hatides thi? life by Wilson, ut «up.:
T. D. Wtiilakcr. HittoTy aj Rirhmondshire. 2 vols,. Lon-
don. 1823: J. H. Overton, The Church it Engtand. 2 vols.,
ib. 1BB7; DNB, lii. 92-03.
SHERLOCK, THOMAS: Church of England,
son of William Sherlock; b. at Loudon in 1678; d.
there July 18, 1761. He was educated at Cambridge
(B.A., 1697; M.A.,1701); wasmaster of the Temple,
1704-53; became prebendary of St. Paul's, 1713;
was master of St. Catherine's Hall, 1714-19; be-
came dean of Chichester, 1715; canon of Norwich,
1719; bishop of Bangor. 1727; of Salisbury, 1734;
and of London, 1748. The I'se and Intent of Proph-
ecy (Ixmdon, 1725) was a compendium of six ser-
mons against the Deists; hi* most famous work was
The Tryal of ike Witnesses of the Resurrection of
Jesus (1729, and often). Besides this may be noted
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOQ
his Discourses Preached at Temple Church (1 vola.,
1754-97; 6th ed., 5 vols., 1772-73).
Bibliografht: S. NicoUi. A Sermon Preached . . . on the
Death of Dr. T. Sherlock, London. 1782; U. & Waylwid.
A Biographical Stud, of Biehop Sherlock, Derby. 1823;
L. Stephen. Hit. of English Thought in the 18th Century,
passim, 1 vola., Now York, 1881 (very full and worth ctm-
mlliOK); J. H. Overton. The Church in filmland. 2 vol*,,
London. 1B97: J. H. Overton and F. Helton. The Ena-
lith Church 11714-1800). ib. 1900; DNB, Lii. B3-BS.
SHERLOCK, WILLIAM: Church of England;
li. at South Mark, London, about. 1641 ; d. at Hamp-
*teadT Iiomion, June 19, 1707. He was educated at
Peterbouse, Cambridge (B.A., 1060; M.A., 1663);
became rector of St. George's, Botolph Lane, Lon-
don, 1669, where he gained fame ai a preacher and
attracted attention by his oppo-iliiin to the Puritans
and their theology. In 16S1 he beCVM prebendary
at St. Paul's; was lecturer at St. Dunstan's-in-the-
West; became master of tlie Temple in 1085; dean
of St. Paul's, 1691; and rector of Therfield, Hertford-
shire, 1098. Contending under James II. for the
doctrine of the divine right and passive obedience,
Case of Resistance (London, 1681), he at first re-
fused the oath at the Revolution, but desisted from
Jii>ii-jiij-mg. 1690. His moat popular work was A
Practical Discourse, concerning Death (1689; 28th ed.,
1767). With A Vindication of the Doctrine of the
Holy and Ever-blessed Trinity (1690), he plunged
into the Socinian controversy of the time. His
porition, that in the three persons of the Trinity
there Ml what may he called "a mutual self-
cons ciousness. a consciousness common to the
three," and that therefore the three are essentially
and numerically one, brought upon him the irony
and invective of Robert South (q.v.), and the
charge of tri theism from the Socinians. Among his
numerous other publications, practical and contro-
versial, the most Frequently republished are, A Dis-
course, concerning it Future Juii-ini'iil (1692), and A
Discourse concerning the Dirinc Proridence (1694),
The Hriti.ih Museum Catalogue devotes over eight
pages to his works and the edition* of them, and to
tin- replies, satires, and controversial pamplili't> tliev
evoked.
BlBIJOOBAPTirr R. Wnllr™. Antiirinitaria* Biography. I.
214-215. London, 14511; J. Hunt. Religious Thought in
England. 3 vola., ib. 1870-73: J. H. Overton, The Church
in Knglnni. 2 vols., ib. 18.97; W. H. Hutlon. The Eng-
lish Church tlBiS-!7U). ib, 1003: J. H. Overton and
F. Ttclton. The English Church (17U-IS0Q), ib, I908;
DNB. lii. 95-S7.
SHERWOOD, JAMES MAHtUHG: Presbyterian;
b. at Fishkill, N. V., Sept. 29, 1814; d. at Brooklyn,
N. V., Oct. 22, 1890. He was educated mainly by
private tutors; was pastor at New Windsor, N. Y.,
1835-40; Mendon, N. Y., I84CW5; Bloomfield, N.
J., 1862-58; editor of National Preacher, 1846-19;
Biblical Itcfmitory, 1847-51; Eclectic Magazine,
1864-71 ; founder and editor of Hours at Home.
186.5-69; editor Prcubytervin Reiirw, 1863-71;
Prrsbyt'-rian Quartrlyand Princeton Rsriew, 1872-
1878; Homiietic Review, from Sept.. 1883; also of
the M i".fiottary Rrrieie. He was extensively en-
gaged as a reader of manuscripts for publishing
bouses, and critically noticed for the preas several
thousand volumes, chiefly in the reviews of the
country. He was the author of Plea for the Old
Populations (New York, 1868); The Lamb in the
Midst of the Throne (1883); editor of Memoirs, and
two volumes of Sermons of Ichabod Spencer (IS55);
David Brainerd's Memoirs, with notes and estima-
tion of Ub life and character (1884).
SHIELDS, CHARLES WOODRUFF: Educator
and author; b, at Now Albany, Ind., Apr. 4, 1825;
d. at Newport, R. I., Apr. 26, 1904. He was gradu-
ated from the College of New Jersey. 1844; and from
Prince-ton Theological Seminary, 1847; became paa-
tor at Hempstead, Long Island, 1849; of Second
Church. Philadelphia, 1850; professor of harmony
of science and revealed religion in the College of New
Jersey, 1866; and, in addition, professor of modern
history, 1871, which professorship he soon resigned.
His appointment to the professorship of the har-
mony of science and religion, the first of its kind,
was occasioned by the publication of Philosophia
Ultima (see below), in which he expounded an
academic scheme of irenical studies for the recon-
ciliation of religion and science. In his lectures and
writings he stood for the restoration of theology, as
a science of religion, to its true philosophical position
in a university system of culture, as dnftfBguWMd
from the clerical or sectarian system of education,
and the placing of philosophy as an umpire between
science and religion as embracing without invading
their distinct provinces. This view was set forth in
Religion and Science in their Relation to Philosophy
(New York, 1875). The final philosophy, or science
of sciences to come, is to be reached inductively
from the collective intelligence of men working
through successive generations, Philosophia Ultima
(Philadelphia, 1861; rev. and enlarged ed., vol. i„
Bitioritm and Critical Introduction on the Final
Philosophy as Issuing from the Harmony of Science
and Religion; vol. ii., History of the Sciences and the
Logic of the Sciences: vol. iii., Scientific Problems of
lirliijii.in and the Christian Evidences of the Physical
and Psychical Sciences, New York, 1905). Aa a
Presbyterian he was an earnest advocate of the
restoration of the Presbyterian prayer-book of
1661 for optional use by ministers and congrega-
tions, and published The Book of Common Prayer as
Ana'ii'l'-il '"/ the I'r- .'I'l/t.-riuii Dinncs \ I'liihiiiclphia,
ISlil ', with an appendix entil led Lilnrgin Eipuryata
(1861). His irenicism also contemplated a church
unity on a liturgical basis, looking toward an ul-
timate organic reunion of Presbyterianism, Con-
eregationulism. ami Episcopal ianism in what he
termed the American Protestant Catholic Church.
His writings on this theme created intense interest:
Essays on Christian Unity (1885): The Historic E pia-
copate (New York. 1894) ; The United Church of the
Unit,,! States (189".); and Church Unity (1896). la
1898 he took orders in the Protestant Episcopal
Church.
SHINAR. See Babylonia, I.
SHIMTO. See Japan, II., 1.
SHIPLEY, ORBY: Roman Catholic; b. at
Twyford House (9 m. n.e. of Southampton) July
I, 1832. He received his education at Jesus
College, Cambridge (B.A., 1854; M.A., 1857);
entered the ministry of the Church of England, in
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
which he remained until 1878, when he was received
into the Unman Catholic. Church. He has been a
prolific literary worker, being especially interested in
di'voucn'ml literature and in religious; poetry. Thus
he has edited Luis of i iranada's Counsels on Holiness
of Life (London, 1862); J. B. E. Avrillon's Euchar-
istic M '< dilution* for a Month (1862) and Avrillon on
the Holy Spirit (1866); D. Bourdaloue's Spiritual
Exercises (1868); A. do Guevara's Mysteries of
Movni Calvary (18G8); A. Stafford's Life of the
Blessed Virgin (I860); Ignatius of Loyola's Spiri-
tual Exercises (1870); and T. Carre's Sweet Thoughts
of Jesus and Mary (1S89). Of liturgical works he
has edited, anion;; other.-", Eiicluiristie Litanies, from
Ancient Sources (I860), Tha Daily Sacrifice. (1861),
and The Divine Liturgy (lN)'i), combining these in
one (1S(.;S): Tlit Liturgies of 1549 and 166S (1S6S);
and The IlUual of the Altar (1870). In religious poeU
iy he has edited Lyra Eucharistica (1803); Lyra
Messianira (1804); Lyra Mystico. (1865); Annus
Sanclus (1S84); and Carmina Mariana (2 vols.,
1893-1902). In the way of collections of essays he
las put forth The Church and the World (3 vols.,
lfleft-08)i Tracts for the Day (1867); A Glossary of
E<;-:,~i:i*tiail Terms (1872); Ecclesiastical Reform
(1S73); Studies in Modem Problems (1874); and
Truthjulness and Ritualism (1879-80). Independ-
ently he has published Sir. Sliart Sermons on Sin
(1867); four Cardinal Virtues (1871); Secular
Judgment:; in Spiritual Matters (1871); A Theory
about Sin in Relation to Some Fact* of Daily Life
(1875); and Principles of the. Faith (1879).
SHIPP, ALBERT MICAJAH: Methodist Epis-
copal (South); b. in Stokes County, N. C, Jan. 15,
1819; d. at his home in Marlboro County, S. C, near
Cheraw, June 27, 1887. He was graduated from
the University of North Carolina, 1840; entered the
ministry, 1S41; l>eeanie president of Greenhorouph
Female College, N. C, 1847; professor of history and
.French in the University of North Carolina. 1849;
president of W'offord College, Spartanburg Court-
House, S, C, 1839; profe.-sor of exegetical and
Hililir-ii! ( Neology in Vandcrbill Cniver.-ity, Nashville,
Tenn.. 1874; and dean of the theological faculty, and
vice-chancellor of the university, 1882, He origi-
nated the policy of ISiblical chairs for teaching (.lie
Bible to the whole body of students in all Methodist
in.-( ttutiOM of learning, and was one of the first
advocates of Biblical institutes for the education
of preachers for the Methodist Episcopal Church
(South). He wrote Tl\e History of Methodism in
South Carolina (Nashville, 1882).
SHISHAK. See Egypt, I. 3, { 3; Jeroboam;
and Hehoboam.
, SHORE, THOMAS TEIGHMODTH: Church of
England; b, at Dublin Dec. 28, 1841. He was
educated at Trinity College, Dublin {B.A., 1861),
and wan ordered dfiienn in ISIi.'i a in I ordained pries,!
in 1866. He was curate of St. Jude's, Chelsea (1865-
1867), St. Paul's, Kensington (1S67-69), and St.
Peter's, Vere Street, London (1868-70), and in-
cumbent of St, Mildred's, I*e (1870-73), and of
Berkeley Chapel, Mayfair, I^ndon (1873 -W) -
Since 1901 he has been canon of Worcester Cathedral.
He was honorary chaplain to the Queen in 1878-81
and chaplain in ordinary in 1881-1901, and since
10J1 he has been chaplain in ordinary to the king.
Ha was religious instructor to the three daughters
of King Edward VII. In theology he is a Broad
churchman of the type of Maurice (whoso curate he
was at St. Peter's) and Kingsley. He has written
Some Difficulties of Belief (London, 1S77); The Life
of the World to Come (IS7S) ; St George for England
(1S82); Worcester Cathedral (1899); and Auricular
Confession and tlie Church of England (l-Stlli, l.csidc-s
preparing the volume on I Corinthians for Bishop
Klli.-utt's Cnmmentani (18S3) and on Prayer for the
series of Helps to Belief (1SS6), of which he is the
SHOWBREAD. .See Temple.
SHTJCKFORD, SAMUEL: Church of England;
b. at Norwich about 1694; d. at London July 14,
1754. He was educated at Cains College, (aniliridge
(B.A., 1716; M.A., 1720); was curate of Shelton,
Norfolk, 1722—16; prebendary of Canterbury, from
1738; and rector of Allhaliows, Lombard Street,
London. He was the author of the famous work,
The Sacred and Profane History of the World Con-
nected from the Creation of the World la the Dissolu-
tion of the Assyrian Empire at the Death of Sardana-
palus, audio the Declcnsum of the Kingdoms of J uduh
and Israel under the Reignt of Ahaz and Pekah (2
vols., 1727; rev. ed. by J. T. Wheeler, 2 vols., Lon-
don, 1S58). This was intended to supplement Hum-
phrey Frideaux's Connection, but was finished only
to the death of Joshua.
Bibuoqbapht: DVB, lii. 168, whore references ire eiven
SHCEY, shO'i, WILLIAM JOHH: United Breth-
ren in Christ; b. at Miamisburg, O., Feb. 9, 1827.
He was educated at the academy, Springfield, O.;
was pastor at Lewisburg, O., 1849-51. Cincinnati,
1851-59; Dayton, 0„ 1860-62; presiding elder,
1862-84; and a member of the publishing house at
Dayton, O., 1864-97, retiring in the last-named year.
In 1855 he was engaged in the planting of a mission
near Freetown, Sierra Leone, on the West Coast of
SHUSHAIt: The Biblical name for the place
now known as Sus or Shush in southwest Persia,
anciently the Capita] of Elam, east of Babylonia.
The Scptungint form of the name is Sousa, agreeing
with the ordinary name Susa, Klamitic Shushun,
Assyr. Shushan. The Greeks called the country of
which it is the capital Susiana, and in the time of
Herodotus (Rawlinson's Herodotue, i. 679, New
York, 1875) it was called Kissia. Descendants, ap-
parently of the inhabitants of Shushan, who had
been transported to Samaria by the Assyrian king,
are Spoken of as Susanchites (Eira iv. 19). The
citv is said to have been situated either on the river
Chens (Dan. viii. 2; cf. Pliny vi. 27) or the Choaspes
or Kherka (Herodotus, v. 49). Disputes about the
location with reference to these rivers Mould prob-
ably be solved were the canal system of the early
period well known. The Ciioaspvs forked twenty
miles above Susa, but connecting canals probably
Shnshan
Sibel
THE NEW SCHAFF-HEKZOG
894
ran so as to make reconcilable the variant accounts
of its location. The ruins which mark the site are
located in 49° 48' east longitude and 32° 10' north
latitude.
Mention of the city possibly appears as early as
c. 2400 B.C. under the name Sas, Sisa, or Susun
(probably meaning " the old " city, which suggests
that it was already a place of considerable antiq-
uity). In 2275 (if the report of Asshurbanipal be
accepted) its king Kudur-nanftundi invaded Baby-
lon and carried away from Erech a statue of the
goddess Nana (Ishtar; see Babylonia, VI., 1, § 1).
In the period of their era of conquests the Assyrians
repeatedly invaded Elam, and about 640 Asshur-
banipal captured the city, recovered the image
which (as he says) was carried away 1,635 years
earlier, removed an immense treasure, and trans-
planted some of the people to Samaria. Under the
Persian rule it became the winter residence, per-
haps the chief capital, of the Achsemenides (cf.
Xenophon, Cyropadia, VIII., vi. 22; Herodotus,
iii. 30, 65, 70). The plot of the book of Esther is
laid there in this period, and the story implies the
presence of large numbers of Jews. Alexander took
the city in 330, and is said to have found gold and
silver amounting in value to sixty million dollars,
together with great treasures in art, including the
Praxitelean bronze statues of Harmodius and Aris-
togiton, liberators of Athens. Under the Seleucidae
(q.v.) the city lost importance, which it regained to
some extent during the later reigns of the Arsacids
down to 226 a.d. Then it declined, and was taken
by the Mohammedans in 640. It practically disap-
peared from history after this and was heard of only
at intervals.
The era of exploration was opened by W. K.
Loftus in 1852, when trenches were dug, trilingual
inscriptions of Artaxerxes Mnemon found at the
base of certain columns bearing the names of three
kings named Artaxerxes, and of Darius, as well as
the divine names Ahuramazda, Anaitis, and Mithra.
Marcel Dieulafoy in 1885 was enabled to reopen
excavations there through the aid of a French physi-
cian at the Persian court and under the protection
of the French government. This series of explora-
tion resulted in the uncovering of part of the palace
and other structures, and in settling the topograph-
ical details of the city. Other results were the re-
covery of features of art and architecture of great
beauty and uniqueness, including the pillars with
capitals of bulls' heads, three great porticoes and
the hall of columns, the frieze of lions, and that of
archers now in the Louvre. The still later explora-
tion under J. de Morgan resulted (1901-02) in the
discovery of the now famous Code of Hammurabi
(see Hammurabi and his Code).
Bibliography: W. K. Loftus, Travels and Researches in
Chaldea and Susiana, pp. 343 sqq., London and New York,
1857; F. Delitrach, Wo lag das Paradiesf Leipsic, 1881;
Mme. Jane Dieulafoy, La Perse, la Chaldie, et le Susiane,
Paris, 1887; M. Dieulafoy, V Art antique de la Perse, Paris,
1889; idem, L'Acropole de la Suse, ib. 1890; J. F. Mc-
Curdy, History, Prophecy and the Monuments, i. 126-126,
ii. 371-372. 385. New York, 1896; J. de Morgan. Delega-
tion en Perse, vol. ii., Paris, 1901; B. T. Evetts, New
Liaht on the Bible and the Holy Land, chap, ix., New
York, n. d.; and Rawlinson's Herodotus (consult the
Index).
SIAM AND LAOS: The kingdom of Siam includes
an irregular stretch of territory in southeastern Asia,
bounded by British Burma on the west, the French
colonies of Cambodia, Anam, and Tonking on the
northeast, and extending through more than half of
the Malay peninsula to the south. The area is esti-
mated at about 195,000 square miles, and the gen-
eral physical features of the country include a rough
upland in the north and two river valleys between
high mountain ranges extending toward the south.
The rainfall is abundant, and in their lower por-
tions the rivers traverse immense alluvial plains
which are to a considerable degree overflowed during
a portion of the year, resulting in great fertility of
the soil. The streams are only measurably navigable
inasmuch as they are frequently broken by rapids.
The climate is tropical, though less torrid than that
of South India, and the year is divided into two
seasons of about equal length, the rainy season ex-
tending from May to October, and the dry season
covering the rest of the year.
The population is estimated at about 6,686,846,
and belongs chiefly to the Shan race, about 1,000,000
being Chinese, Burmese, and others. The Shan pop-
ulation again is divided between the Siamese, oc-
cupying the southern portion of the kingdom, and
the Laos, who are found in the north or hill country.
The Siamese are the more polished and agreeable in
manners, the Laos the more uncultured, but more
sturdy and virile. The government is an absolute
monarchy, although under the late king, Ghula-
longkorn, it became noted for its liberality and
sympathy with aggressive modern improvements.
Like other Asiatic countries, Siam has suffered from
the aggression of European powers. The western
coast was surrendered to the Burmese and subse-
quently to England. The French colonies on the
east encroached gradually upon the territory of the
Mekong river until it became a question whether
the kingdom would continue intact. At present the
entire kingdom is practically divided up between
England and France, in so-called spheres of in-
fluence, England holding the general control of the
northern Malay peninsula of the territory bordering
on Burma, while France claims a corresponding in-
fluence along the whole valley of the Mekong.
There are few cities of importance, Bankok, the
capital, being practically the only one widely known.
The dominant religion, especially in the southern
section, is Buddhism, and it is claimed to be the pur-
est form of that faith except perhaps that in Ceylon.
In no other country is it so completely identified
with the life of the people. There is scarcely a
family but is represented by at least one member
in the priesthood, and not only its ceremonies but
the social life and pleasures are under the control or
auspices of the temples, while monasteries and
pagodas with their vast number of priests are in evi-
dence on every hand. In a measurable degree
throughout Siam proper, and especially in the hill
country to the north, demon worship is prevalent, a
form of the Shamanism which is found throughout
Asia and Africa. While brutal, especially in its ter-
rifying power and in its relation to disease, it is not
as fatal to vigor of life and thought as the Buddhism
of the southern portion, and is more easily overcome
395
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Shushan
Slbel
by Christian influences, particularly as they ap-
proach it through the medium of medical aid.
The first missionary effort in Siam was in 1828,
when Dr. Karl Friedrich August Gutzlaff (d. 1851) of
the Netherlands Missionary Society visited Bankok
with the special purpose of seeking an entrance to
China. Through his representations, David Abeel of
the American Board came to that city in 1830, but
the first effective work was done by Dr. Daniel
Beach Bradley, Rev. Jesse Caswell of the American
Board, and Rev. William Dean of the American
Baptist Missionary Union. Dean's work, chiefly
among the Chinese, Dr. Bradley's medical work, and
particularly the influence of Mr. Caswell, who was
appointed by the king as tutor of his son, the late
king of Siam, laid the foundation of the successful
labors of succeeding years when the Presbyterian
Board in 1848 entered the country and the American
Board withdrew, preferring to put its strength into
other fields. The early work was not productive of
specific results, and it was not until 1859 that the
first convert was baptized. Three years later a new
station was opened to the south at Petchaburee,
and shortly after a tour of exploration into the Laos
states resulted in the establishment, in 1867, of
mission work at Chieng Mai on the river MePing,
about 500 miles north of Bankok. From the be-
ginning this work gave promise of great success, and
numerous stations have been established. Medical
work was begun in 1875, and three years later a
boarding-school for girls was opened, and one for
boys in 1888. As the work among the distinctively
Siamese Laos tribes has progressed, there has come
to be a feeling that through them the Shan tribes to
the east and north might probably be reached.
Under French law no missionary effort can be car-
ried on in the province of Tonking, but the members
of the Laos churches, as they cross the border for
business, are constantly coming into relations with
the people and are carrying the Gospel in much
the same way as the Christians did in the first cen-
tury. Of late years the work in Siam proper has
taken a new start and has met with greater success.
A considerable amount of shore work is done by
means of a vessel that touches at the different ports
on the extended coast line, and from these points
into the interior the influences are rapidly spreading.
One peculiarity of the mission work in this king-
dom is that it is entirely under the care of one or-
ganization, the Board of Foreign Missions of the
Presbyterian Church in the United States of Amer-
ica. There is thus not only a unity which is lacking
in other fields, but a freedom from intervention and
disintegrating influences. The statistics of the work
for the year 1908-09 are as follows: Siam: Stations,
7; missionaries, 37 (10 ordained, 6 medical, 1 lay,
14 married women, 6 single women) ; native helpers,
41 (1 ordained preacher) ; churches, 9; communi-
cants, 580; schools, 8; pupils, 660; in Sunday-
schools, 805; contributions, $24,225. Laos: stations,
5; missionaries, 47 (16 ordained, 7 medical, 20 mar-
ried women, 4 single women); native helpers, 92
(5 ordained preachers); churches, 18; communi-
cants, 3,494; schools, 27; pupils, 781; in Sunday-
schools, 2,843; contributions (incomplete), $11,369.
Total: stations, 12; missionaries, 84; native helpers,
133; churches, 27; communicants, 4,074; schools,
35; pupils, 1,441; in Sunday-schools, 3,648; con-
tributions, $35,594. Edwin M. Buss.
Modern exploration shows that the Shan race has
spread in China in the province of Yunnan north-
ward as far as 25° north latitude, westward as far as
the Selwin River, and as far eastward as the prov-
ince of Kwantung. So that over an area of 400,000
square miles the predominant element of the pop-
ulation is Laos. This involves the fact that on a
most conservative estimate five millions of Laos are
living in southern China, and raises the total of the
race to about twelve millions using the Laos lan-
guage. This fact is of importance for the diffusion
of Christian literature in that tongue.
Bibliography: E. Young, The Kingdom of the Yellow Robe:
Sketches of the domestic and religious Rites of the Siamese,
London, 1808; P. A. Thompson, Lotus Land; Account of
the Country and the People of Southern Siam, ib. 1008;
C. GuUlaff, Ausfuhrlicher Bericht von seinem dreijahrigen
AufenthaU in Siam, Elberfeld, 1838; J. B. Pallegoix,
Description du royaume Thai ou Siam, 2 vols., Paris, 1854;
Sir John Bowring, Kingdom and People of Siam, 2 vols.,
London, 1857; Mrs. F. R. Feudge, Eastern Side; or, mis-
sionary Life in Siam, Philadelphia, 1871; B. Taylor,
Siam, New York, 1881; Siam and Laos as Seen by our
American Missionaries, Philadelphia, 1884; A. R. Col-
quhoun, Among the Shans, London, 1885; Miss M. L. Cort,
Siam, New York, 1886; H. W. Smith, Five Years in Siam,
1891-96, 2 vols., ib. 1808; J. G. D. Campbell, Siam in
the tOth Century, London, 1002; Lillian J. Curtis, Laos of
North Siam, Philadelphia, 1003; A. Wright and O. T.
Breakspear, Twentieth Century Impressions of Siam. Its
History, People, Commerce, Industries and Resources,
London, 1000; J. H. Freeman, An Oriental Land of the
Free; or Life and Mission Work among the Laos of Siam,
Burma, China, and Indo China, Philadelphia, 1010; P. A.
Thompson, Siam; an Account of the Country and the Pea
pie, Boston, 1011.
SIBBES, sibz (SIBBS, SIBS), RICHARD: Puri-
tan; b. at Tostock (33 m. e. of Cambridge), Suffolk,
1577; d. at Gray's Inn, London, July 5, 1635. He
was successively student and fellow of St. John's
College, and lecturer of Trinity Church, Cambridge
(B.A., 1599; M.A., 1602; B.D., 1610); preacher of
Gray's Inn, London, 1617-26; master of Catharine
Hall, Cambridge, from 1626; and perpetual curate
of Holy Trinity, Cambridge, from 1633. His best-
known works are, The Bruised Reede and Smoaking
Flax (London, 1630), to which Richard Baxter owed
his conversion; The Soul's Conflict (1635); The Re-
turning Backslider (1639); and A Learned Com-
mentary upon the First Chapter of the Second Epistle
of St. Paul to the Corinthians, ed. Thomas Manton
(1655). His literary activity was, however, much
more extensive than this, thirty-three titles of books
and sermons being known. His Complete Works
were published with memoir by A. B. Grosart (6
vols., 1862-63).
Bibliography: Besides the principal memoir by Grosart,
the reader may consult the Life by £. Middleton, in 0th
ed. of The Bruised Reede, London, 1808; that in a new
ed. of Sibbes'a Divine Meditations, Newport. 1700 (ed.
G. Burder); and one by 8. Clarke in The Soules Conflict,
Glasgow, 1768. Also: T. Fuller, Hist, of the Worthies of
England, ed. J. Fuller, 4 parts, London, 1662; Samuel
Clark, Lives of Thirty-two English Divines, 3d ed., ib. 1670;
B. Brooke. Lives of the Puritans, ii. 416 sqq., ib. 1813;
DNB, lii. 182-184.
SIBEL, sai/bell KASPAR: Dutch Reformed;
b. at Unterbarmen (a part of Barmen, 26 m. n. of
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
Cologne) June 9, 1590; d. at Deventer, Holland,
Jan. 1, 1658. He was educated at Herborn, Siegen,
and Lcyden, and, after preaching to various congre-
gations, was called, in 1609, to be minister of the
churches of Randerath and Geilenkirchen in the
principality of Julich, the oversight of the church at
Linnich soon being added to his duties. Sibel met
with extraordinary success at Randerath, where he
labored exposed to considerable personal peril from
the attempts of Roman Catholics to regain their
position. He wag a delegate to the Reformed con-
vention at Daren (Aug. 17, 1610) to organise the
first general synod of the lower Rhine (see Re-
formed [Dutch] Church); and later was deputised
to attend the other synods. He accepted in 1611 a
call to Julich, where, in addition to his regular
duties, he hod to minister to the Protestants in the
surrounding district, while during an outbreak of the
plague he proved himself a true pastor in the face
of death. In 1617, on his return from a journey to
Holland, he accepted a call to Deventer, especially
as he realized that the strife then raging in Jillich-
Cleve-Berg was but the prelude to the long civil war
which was to devastate Germany. At Deventer he
found himself in his element, and his influence
quickly spread beyond the limits of the city. He
took part in the preparations for the Synod of Dort,
to which he was a deputy; and at his instance the
estates of Overyssel approved the canons of Dort
and rejected the five Arminian articles. Still more
important was his activity as a member of the
committee for the new Dutch translation of the
Bible proposed by the Synod of Dort. As one of
the revisers, he was chosen vice-secretary of the
board of revision, which sat for eleven months in
Leyden, and for three years he essentially furthered
the work. He was active also in providing capable
teachers for the school in Deventer, but at the
same time maintained close relations with his na-
tive country, inducing the states general to threaten
reprisals against any interference with Protestant
services in Julich-Berg, and otherwise aiding his
coreligionists.
In 1647 a stroke of apoplexy forced Sibel to retire
from active life. As a preacher he enjoyed high
reputation, being known as the Chrysostom of his
locality, and his sermons up to 1644 were collected
under the title of Caspari Sihelii oprra theologian (5
parts, Amsterdam, 1644). In homiletics, while he
paid due regard to form and arrangement, he was
especially concerned with the subject matter. He
was also much given to exposition of a passage in
a sermon series. Among his other works, special
mention may be made of his Medilationet eate-
chetiat (4 parts, Amsterdam, 1646-50) and of his
autobiographical Hialorica nanatio de rwneulo
lotiux vita el percgrinationia muz, of which two manu-
script volumes are preserved in the Deventer library
(the part before 1609 ed. L. Scheibe, in Feshchrift
tur Feier des drcihuTideTfj&krigm Betlehent der . . .
loieinUchen Schule zu Etberfdd, Elberfeld, 1893).
(Eduard Simons.)
BiblIOOKAPKT; Besides the autobiographical Hiitorica
rarratu, utnip.. consult ADB, vol. niiv.: Zetitchrifi drt
Brrg QneMehUctreini, vol. xxviii (by W Hurl™, on El-
btrftbUr Kirzhm) and alio vol. iv (by Bouterwdc, on Du
Btformutitm in WupptrUtal).
SIBYL, SIBYLLIMJ BOOKS.
The Creek Sibyl. CI 1).
List* of Sibyl. [1 3).
Jewish -Christian Sibylline Writings (| I),
Vm of Older Material «
Introduction to Book ii
Books i.-ii. (| 7).
Books iv., v., viii. (| P
Books vL, vu.. xi.-xii
Other Collections (| 1
(IB).
Among the productions of late Jewish and early
Christian literature the Sibylline Oracles have
special interest because of their manifold relations
with the Roman-Greek system of oracles. The sibyls
of Greek and Roman antiquity were prophetesses
who, now here, now there, uttered their
i. Tha denunciatory predictions, of which
Greek what remains, however, is but the
Sibyls. dying echoes of the former activity.
There were possibly in Greece in the
eighth and seventh centuries b.c. Cassandra-like
figures uttering from city to city their dread proph-
ecies to the terror of men; the home of this art seems
to have been Asia Minor, the earliest reports im-
plying Erythrea and Samoa as the centers. Later
reports know of a Delphian sibyl, a sister of Apollo
named Artemis. In Rome the sibyl came only at the
end of the regal period from the Greek colonies
of southern Italy. The oriental sibyls become known
first after Alexander, mainly in Asia Minor, where
East and West met and women's part in religion was
prominent. But all knowledge of these characters
is dim and vague; they appear as prophetesses, not
as personalities, and gave their name to a large
pseudonymous literature in the apocalyptic period
of Jewish development.
The earliest writer to give the names of a series of
sibyls is Heraclides Ponticus (cited by Clement of
Alexandria, Strom., I.,xxi., ANF, ii. 325), who speaks
of a Phrygian-Delphian sibyl Artemis
a. Lists and a Heraclean called Herophile.
of Sibyls, Later the list of sibyls grows, and they
are known at Delphi, Erythrea, Sardis,
and Curate, while Clement of Alexandria (ut sup.)
speaks of an Egyptian and a Roman sibyl; Suidas
knows of nine; Varro notes ten: a Persian, a
Libyan, a Delphian, a Cimmerian (in Italy), the
Erythrean, the Samian, the Cumtean (Amalthea),
the Hellespontian, the Phrygian, and the Tiburtine
named Albunea. To this Varronian catalogue there
are a number of witnesses, e.g., I*ctantius (fnsri-
tute», I., vi., ANF, vii. 15-16; worth consulting) and
Isidore of Seville (in his Origintun . . . libri, VIII.,
viii.), as well as a series or later authorities- Some
of the lists contain variations, however, notably that
by an anonymous writer who composed an introduc-
tion to the collection of the Jewish-Christian Sibyl-
line Books (i.-viii.) and that in a series of excerpts
of the fifth century known as the "Tubingen
Theosophy." The report of Pausanias regarding
the sibyls (X., xii.) has especial interest, represent-
ing an attempt to reduce the number of these proph-
etesses to four, vis., the Libyan, Herophile (to
whom he refers all reports regarding the Greek
sibyls), the Cunuean whom he names Demo, and
the Hebrew -Baby Ionian-Egyptian whom he names
897
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
81bel
Sibyl
Sabbe. But of all those mentioned in these lists,
most of whom are hardly anything more than
literary fictions, the oldest and best attested is the
Erythrean, for whose existence Varro cites the testi-
mony of the chronographer Apollodorus. The
grotto of the sibyl mentioned by Pausanias was re-
discovered in 1891, in which an inscription dealing
with the sibyl tells of her wonderful birth, of her
delivery of oracles immediately thereafter, and of
her age as already 930 years. Eusebius in his
Chronicle places her appearance in the ninth olym-
piad; an, old tradition is known which places her
origin in the eighth pre-Christian century. Next to
her the sibyl of Samos is best attested, according to
Varro, by Eratosthenes, who found mention of her
in the Samian annals, while Eusebius places her in
the first year of the seventeenth olympiad (711 B.C.).
According to early testimony the Cumsean sibyl was,
so to speak, a branch of the Erythrean; and this
is supported by the name given in the Varro-Lac-
tan tius list (ut sup.)- Belief in the Cumsean sibyl at
Rome goes back to the end of the kingly period,
when her oracles had importance for the State.
After the destruction of the collection of oracles by
the burning of the temple of Jupiter in 83 B.C., a
new collection was sought, particularly from Ery-
threa. The author of the Pseudo-Justinian Cohor-
tatio (chap, xxxvii.) has left an interesting descrip-
tion of the grotto of the Cumsean sibyl, who was
identified with the river and oracle deity Carmenta.
Another sibyl had her sanctuary near the Tiber
on the Anio, and under her proper name of Albunea
was called the Tiburtine sibyl. Concerning the
Babylonian sibyl Pausanias reports (X., xii.) that
there was a " Hebrew" sibyl named Sabbe, daughter
of Berosus and Erymanthe. The Cohortatio (x.)
identifies her with the Cumsean prophetess. Moses
of Chorene (q.v. ; in Histories Armeniacct, i. 5) speaks
of a more highly credited Berosian sibyl; the Ver-
ronian catalogue mentions a Persian prophetess of
whom Nicanor, Alexander's biographer, speaks;
later reports seem to regard these as the same, and
the original source of Varro probably rightly
brought together the three — Babylonian, Persian,
and the Hebrew, the last the daughter of Noah —
and the process of shortening the list went on in the
anonymous introduction to the Sibylline Books
already named and in the "Tubingen Theosophy."
The age of the foundation of these reports is not sure,
but they may go back to Alexander Polyhistor
(early in the first century B.C.). The so-called
Babylonian sibyl in these notices is no other than
the assumed Hebrew sibyl; but this does not ac-
count for her name, Sambethe or Sabbe, nor for the
report that she was the daughter of Berosus, nor
for her designation as Babylonian. An inscription
(in CIG, 3509) seems to refer to an oracle-sanctuary
of the Chaldean Sambethe. If a Chaldean (Baby-
lonian) Sambethe-sanctuary is proved, the tradition
of such a sibyl seems to have history behind it;
such a prophetess would naturally be Hellenistic
and would write in Greek, and would not unnaturally
be connected with Berosus the historian.
This was the ground in which grew the crop of
Jewish sibylline poetry. In Egypt began the great
Jewish diaspora mission; there the Jews appro-
priated Greek culture, philosophy, and the forms
of Greek literature, and sought through them to
recommend Jewish culture to the Greeks. Jewish
chronographers attempted to show a
3. Jewish- greater antiquity for their race; Jews
Christian first sought and then fabricated tcsti-
Sibylline mony of Greeks to prove the latter in-
Writings. debted to Moses for the best of their
wisdom, and used the sibylline litera-
ture as a means, putting in the sibyl's mouth utter-
ances regarding the Jewish people, the Jewish deity,
the conversion of the gentiles, and the coming golden
age. And the Christians imitated them, but with
less success. The Church Fathers accepted these
writings at their face value (so Justin, Athenagoras,
Theophilus, Clement of Alexandria, Lactantius,
and Augustine). With the downfall of heathendom,
these were less used, but were still employed till late
in the Middle Ages. The most of this literature was
collected by diligent hands and has survived, and
into it a sort of unity has been worked. Two or
three groups of collections stand out, presenting
types of text. One group (designated as *) con-
sists of books i.-viii. 485; a second (?) has viii.
and i.-vii.; a third (0) has vi., vii. 1, viii. 218-428
numbered ix., iv. numbered x., and then xi.-xiv.,
the whole a continuation of the existing collection of
eight books. The date of these collections is prob-
ably between the beginning of the fourth and the
middle of the fifth century. Of printed editions the
older ones may be mentioned — Xystus Betuleius
(1545), S. Castalio (1555), Opsopoeus (1599), Gal-
lseus (1689), Gallandi (Bibliotheca veterum patrum,
vol. i., Venice, 1788), and Friedlieb (Leipsic, 1852).
Of abiding value is the great edition of C. Alexandre
(Oracida sibyllina, 2 vols., Paris, 1841-56); A.
Rzach's Oracida sibyllina (Vienna, 1891) uses the
manuscripts for a modern reconstruction of the text;
but much better is J. Geffcken's edition (Leipsic,
1902).
Of all these writings the oldest, most important,
and richest in contents is iii. 97-829, falling into three
divisions, 97-294, 295-488, 489-795 (796-829 being
merely concluding remarks) . The first deals with the
building of the tower of Babel, the wars of the sons
of Saturn and the Titans, a brief review of world
history, prediction of the Solomonic
4. Book iii realm till the emergence of the Romans,
and the seventh king of Egypt, and a
noteworthy description of Israel from Moses till
the return from exile. The second part is a series of
oracles on the nations: Babylon, Egypt, Ethiopia,
Libya, the West, a number of cities, Macedonia,
Asia, Phrygia, Ilium (and a polemic against Homer) ;
then a cento of mingled predictions. The third
contains a preaching of repentance to the Greeks
humiliated by the Romans, the story of the coming
fortunes of the Jews, judgment to come on the outer
world, the Messianic kingdom and the vain war
against it, preaching of repentance again, and a pic-
ture of the future blessedness. Three times the
seventh kingdom (king) of Egypt appears (192-193,
314-318, 608-615), construed as referring to Ptolemy
VII. Physcon, and doubt is expressed whether this
is to be dated 170-164 or 145-117; many date the
book c. 140 B.C. But account must be taken of the
Sibyl
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
808
possibility of the inclusion of earlier pieces, the
correct apprehension of which makes possible an-
other dating, dependent upon a different interpreta-
tion of certain intruded parts. But at any rate,
this part must have arisen in the Maccabean period,
for the condition described is that of the independent
Jewish state while the preaching is directed against
the Romans who have subjected Hellenism. Yet
a late part of the Maccabean time is indicated, since
470 sqq. points to Sulla and his Asian campaign, and
350 sqq. deals with the war against Mithridates c.
88 b.c, quoting an oracle on the affair. Since the
author uses these documents, he must have written
after 88 B.C., probably in the time of Queen Alexan-
dra. He worked, as did the apocalyptical writers,
only in part with his own material, for the most part
taking over existing matter. Probably his own
composition is to be found in in. 211-294, which
describes the Jewish people, of which 271-272
especially fits the Jewish diaspora of Alexandra's
period. This part is, however, closely related to
the passage 520-795, which accordingly also may be
regarded as the Jewish writer's own. Whether the
sermon to the Greeks belongs here is doubtful, as it
fits equally well with the times of Sulla and of the
Mithridatic war, the one indication of a later date
being its advanced eschatology. Probably to the
same author are to be ascribed lines 102-166, 194-
210, 295-336, 489-519— all of them introductions to
longer sections, — and with some probability the
entire conclusion; also in general 156-166, 196-294,
489-795 except 608-615.
There are also older pieces from the time of
Ptolemy VII. worked into the composition of the
whole— so 167-195, 314-318, 608-615. This writer
has also taken into his work a series of heathen
oracles, a process which he deemed suitable to im-
press the non-Jewish world. There is express testi-
mony from heathen sources (Varro,
5. Use of Bocchus, and Pausanias) to a tradition
Older that the Erythrean (Delphian) sibyl
Material, foretold the fall of Ilium and charged
Homer with lies and plagiarism of her
verses (cf. in. 414-432 of the present collection); the
preceding oracle concerning Phrygia makes the im-
pression of being derived from a heathen source, as
does 381-387, there being testimony that the Persian
(Chaldean) sibyl spoke concerning Alexander; simi-
larly the oracle against Rome (350 sqq.) is not in the
style of the present writer, but is heathen and of great
political interest; so the early sibylline characteris-
tics shine out of lines 337-349, 433-438. In these
passages oracles of various heathen sources seem to
have been collected and arranged in artistic fashion.
Such a borrowing appears in the early part of this
book — 105-154 is unmistakably gentile; inLactan-
tius (Institutes, I., xiv. 2) there is a parallel to the
Euhemeristic turn of thought in the conflict between
the Kronides and Titans. But this passage is in close
connection with that concerning the tower of Babel,
and the speaker as sibyl identifies herself with the
older sibyl (in. 809 sqq.) ; it would be expected al-
most that this speaker would use earlier prophecies;
and Alexander Polyhistor (Eusebius, Chronicon, I.,
xxiii.), Josephus {Ant., I., iv. 3), and Abydenus
(Eusebius, Chronicon, I., xxxiii.-xxxiv.) cite an
oracle in heathen form on this subject. The original
sibyl may have derived the story from Hebrew
tradition or from folklore. This book then seems to
come from the time of Queen Alexandra, and uses
older fragments of Jewish origin, and of heathen
origin from the Erythrean and other Greek oracles.
The lines 211-294 and 520-795 are valuable for the
religious situation at the end of the Maccabean
period.
In iii. 1-95 two hands are apparent, 46-62 and
63-92 showing distinct differences. The first be-
longs in the period of the first triumvirate, according
to the usual dating; but in 46-50 a Christian seems
to speak. With 46-62 may possible be placed 1-45,
a Christian editing of c. 70 a.d. The
6. Intro- passage 63-92 is more difficult to date,
duction to but may belong to c. 25 B.C., since Se-
Book iii. baste is to be the source of Antichrist.
But it might refer to Simon Magus, and
so be as late as the second half of the first century.
The mention of the widow has been especially pus-
sling, since it can no longer be taken to mean Cleo-
patra. The first and second books must be taken in-
to account in fixing the date; they were the first to
assume a unity and then to form two books; this
appears in the manuscripts of *, which call books i.
and ii. "the first logos" of which book iii. was " the
second." Books i.-ii. are outlined in i. 1-323, and
were to set forth the fortune of the world in ten
families, of which only seven appear, the last three
being removed in the working over. This part,
generally recognized as of Jewish origin, was sep-
arated into two parts by an editor of expressly Chris-
tian character. But the dates of these separate
editings are not easy to determine; estimates vary
from the beginning of the Christian era till the third
Christian century, the later dating being based
upon the doubtful datum of the existence of the
masculine caesura. Other indications adduced are
equally elusive. The ruin predicted in the third book
at the beginning agrees with the origin of the basal
writing of books i.-ii. Book i. handles the theme
which in all probability was treated in the part
broken off when iii. was added — viz., creation and
the flood; in i. there are echoes of the Babylonian
version of the flood (lines 230-260), showing that the
report of the flood from book i. was once at least in
book iii., and, like iii. 96-154, depended upon the
Babylonian Sambethe. The manuscripts indicate
1,034 lines for book iii., of which only 829 (895) are
extant, an indication which shows the extent of the
piece broken off from the beginning of book iii.
It is probable that iii. 46-62 and 63-92 were
introduced subsequent to the compilation of the rest
of the book; if then 46-92 belongs to the period c.
70 a.d., the destruction of the beginning of book iii.
and the rise of the basis of books i.-ii. are prior to
that date. The section ii. 167-176 is a
7. Books part of the Christian redaction, in
L-iL which the theme is the return of the
twelve tribes from the East to take
vengeance upon the " Assyrian prince." This theme
is a favorite in the late Jewish apocalyptic writings,
as in IV Esdras, the Syriac Baruch, and other
writings dating from the end of the first Christian
century into the third century. In this third-century
890
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Sibyl
apologetic the prediction of the Antichrist Beliar is
prominent. The "Assyrian prince" who persecuted
the Jews can scarcely be any other than Odenatus,
king of Palmyra, against whom the predictions of
book xiii. are directed, who also in the Apocalypse
of Elias appears as the chief Antichrist opposed to
Judaism. This places the redaction of books i.-ii.
in the second half of the third century. But iii. 63-
92 is related to ii. 167 sqq., and the editor of book
ii. and writer of iii. 63 sqq. must have been the same
person or have belonged to the same environment;
the widow of iii. 77-78 must be Zenobia of Palmyra,
who reigned after Odenatus. To this same environ-
ment belongs book viii., which is a conglomerate of
pieces of varied character. Lines 1-216 are early,
before the death of Marcus Aurelius, the last part
much edited, however; 217-250 is an acrostic (on
the Greek Iesous Chreistos theou huios soter stauros),
and is followed by a Christological section 251-323,
and this by a medley, the whole style of which recalls
the editor of books i.-ii., whole series of lines being
repeated from the one in the other, especially as
dealing with the destruction of the world by fire, the
purification by the same means, etc. If the editors
of these parts are not the same, their methods and
the time in which they worked were close together.
Possibly this editor wrote viii. 169-177. The
editor of books i.-ii., the author of iii. 63-92, and
the compiler of book viii. in its present form are
(is) to be placed in the time of Odenatus and Zenobia
or immediately after Zenobia's death..
A second group of connected pieces is composed
of books iv., v., and the oldest part of book viii., and
in situation this group builds around book iv., which
is Jewish. The fact that temple and sacrificial of-
ferings are past (lines 27-28) is explained by the
fact that after the fall of the Temple
8. Books the Jews soon lost the idea of sacrifice.
iv., v., viii. In consequence of the fall of Jerusalem,
the writer hates Rome and Italy, and
must have written soon after 79 a.d., and looks for
the return of Nero for revenge on Rome, thus giving
the earliest testimony for the Nero saga. In 49-114
the compiler has used an older and probably Greek
oracle — 97-98 is attested by Strabo. The ten
families (ut sup.) reappear here, and this section
may be pre-Christian. Toward the end the burning
of the world reappears, with the resurrection of
the dead. Book v. is difficult, though critics agree
that the basis is Jewish, while there is question as
to its origin from one hand. The section 1-51, a
tedious and uninteresting enumeration of the
Roman emperors till Hadrian, by its character
demands a different authorship from the rest. Three
sections, 137-178, 214-285, 361-446, seem to be
closely related to each other, and present three
themes — the returning Nero, threats against Rome,
and the New Jerusalem. A fourth section is found
in 93-110, the subject of which is also Nero and his
return. These all seem to have arisen out of prac-
tically the same situation, and the author's anger
against Rome is roused by his experience in the
destruction of the Temple, while he looks for a New
Jerusalem with its new Temple. The varying char-
acter of the picture of Nero, now human now ghostly,
may come from the changing moods of the author,
who was influenced also by the heathen oracles which
he has embodied; he lived within a generation after
the fall of Jerusalem. Out of a similar situation (or
the same) arose Rev. xvii.-xviii., xxi. In the rest of
book v. are sayings which betray the Egyptian type.
Especially characteristic is the section 484-510,
which undoubtedly points to the Jewish temple in
Leontopolis (see Leontopolis) ; the conception in
this part, that a great temple is in the future to be
built in Egypt, is intelligible when it is remembered
that the Leontopolis temple stood until 73 a.d.
An Egyptian Jew expected its reconstruction, and
its destruction in the last period before the great
judgment. Whether the remaining pieces, to be
characterized broadly as Egyptian, are by the
author of the Nero pieces is not to be decided cate-
gorically; he may have been the first to incorporate
them in a work, and he may have imitated the older
portions. The book looks like the work of one re-
dactor, begun in the reign of Marcus Aurelius, with
interpolations by a Christian. In this same connec-
tion belongs viii. 1-216, dealing with the returning
Nero, the author of which was a Christian who wrote
near the end of Marcus Aurelius' reign and took into
his work a number of older sayings, though the form
has in some cases been considerably changed.
Books vi. and vii. belong together. Both are by
Christian authors, but their type is apocryphal or
heretical. Book vi. is anti-Jewish, is written in
praise of the Son of God, is adoptionistic, and
stresses the baptism of Jesus. Its date is doubtful,
but it may have been known to the editor of books
i.-ii. The author of book vii. was
9. Books probably born a Jew, wrote in imita-
vl, viL, xL- tion of earlier sibylline writers, and
xiv. where he is independent is quite in-
teresting (e.g., 64-95, 118-162). His
Christology is heretical in color, but he adheres to
the logos type of Christology; he may have been a
Jewish-Christian Gnostic, and possibly wrote c. 150
a.d. Books xi.-xiv. have a certain unity. Bookxi.
is the oldest, Jewish in origin, and has been regarded
as edited in the third Christian century, though that
seems too late as his work would have little meaning
for that time. He pictures the age of Cleopatra and
the end of the Egyptian kingdom, but his prophecies
are worthless; more likely he belongs to Augustan
times. Book xii., picturing in quiet narrative the
Roman emperors from Augustus to Alexander
Severus, can not have emanated from a Christian,
but must be by a Jew, loyal to the empire, not
orthodox, but cosmopolitan, living after Alexander
Severus. As an oriental regarding the empire, he is
often interesting in his views. But lines 28-34 must
have been adapted by a Christian who dealt with
the birth of Christ. Book xiii., starting in where xii.
leaves off, is exceedingly interesting. It carries on
the story from Alexander Severus to Gallienus. Pos-
sibly recognizable forms are Gordian I., and III.,
Philip the Arabian and his son, Gallius, jEmilius
iEniilianus, Aurelian, and Gallienus. Odenatus is the
savior who is born of the sun, and is the lion who
slays the Persian shepherd and the Roman usurpers.
It has been suspected that the interpolator of book
xii. is the editor of xiii. ; in that case he worked over
xi.-xii. with his own collection. In this time origi-
Sibyl
Sidonin*
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
400
nated the Hebrew and probably the basis of the
Coptic Elijah apocalypse, while it was also the period
of the editor of books i., ii., and viii. of Commodian's
Carmen apologeticum, and the apocalyptic sayings
of Lactantius (ut sup.)* The Christian sibyllist
makes a hero of Odenatus, the Jewish Apocalyptist
makes him an antimessiah. Book xiv. is by an igno-
rant man who essays to give a sketch of Roman
imperial history but is hopelessly confused; pos-
sibly he wrote in the awful times which swept over
Egypt [sic] after the time of the death of Odenatus
and Zenobia, and he was hardly a Jew. His work
is a polemic against evil, rapacious, and godless
kings. The "holy nation" of line 360 refers not to
the Jews but to Christians.
Theophilus of Antioch (Ad Autolycum, ii. 36;
Eng. transl. in ANF, ii. 109) gives two citations
from a beginning of the sibylline books which exalt
the true God and chide idolatry. The general view
is that Theophilus has quoted from the early intro-
duction to book iii., but Geffcken (ut
xo. Other sup.) sees in the fragments an elabora-
Collections. tion of the present introduction to iii.,
and would derive them from an an-
thology from verses devoted to an apologetic pur-
pose, supporting this by the facts that in the follow-
ing chapter Theophilus is dependent upon such a
work and that Clement of Alexandria cites some
verses of this fragment (Strom., V., xiv.), derived
from an anthology (Elter, De gtwmologiorum
Qraecorum historia atque origine, Bonn, 1894-95;
university program). There are facts against this
conclusion, however, such as the one that Lactan-
tius must have regarded these verses as belonging to
the proem of book iii. And, in spite of Geffcken's
claim that they are of Christian origin, there is
nothing which goes against a Jewish derivation,
though not from the author of book iii. Under the
name of the Tiburtine sibyl is a confused mass of
sayings from the Middle Ages which has been again
and again subjected to the process of editing. The
development of this body of material has been
worked out well by E. Sackur (Sibyllinische Text und
Forschungen, Halle, 1898), the source of the Tibur-
tine sibyl being traced to a nucleus dating soon
after the death of Constantius I. (361 a.d.). But
a further history is suggested by R. Basset (T^es
Apocryphes Uhiopiens, vol. x., LaSagesse de Sibylle,
Paris, 1899), who makes it evident that the material
which he publishes and the Tiburtine sibyl go back
to a common source, dealing with nine ages of the
world. The Arabic-Ethiopian sibyl is known also in
a redaction of the period of Harun al-Rashid.
The basal document may go back to the end of the
third century, the period when metrical sibylline
oracles passed over into prose. Even in the Middle
Ages the sibyl remained a popular figure, cf. the
opening lines of the poem Dies tree, dies ilia, solvet
sceclum in faviUa, teste David cum Sibylla, On
Byzantine and medieval sibylline literature cf.
F. Karapere, Die deutsche Katseridee in Prophetic
und Sage, Munich, 1896. (W. Bousset.)
Bibliography. The principal texts are noted in $ 3 above.
Add. P. Heiti 8 ed.. after a MS. of St. Gall, Strasburg,
1003, with Einleitung by W. L. Schreiber; and the Eng.
transl. in blank verse by M. S. Terry, New York, 1890.
Foi questions of introduction and exegesis consult:
Bleek, in Theologieche ZeUschrift, i (1810), 120-246. ii
(1820), 172-230; Q. Besanoon, De Femploi que les peree
de Viglise ont fait dee oracle* sibylline, Paris, 1851; A. Hil-
genfeld. Die judiecKe Apokalyptik in ihrer geschichtlichen
Entwiddung, pp. 51-00, Jena, 1857; H. Ewald. Abhand-
lung Qber Entetehung . . . der sibyUiniechen Backer, Got-
tingen, 1858; J. Langen, Dae Judenthum in PalAetina
eur Zeit Christi, pp. 100-174, Freiburg, 1866; B. Badt,
De oracvlie Sibyllinis, Breslau, 1860; idem, Ursprung, In-
halt, und Text dee vierten Bitches der sibyUiniechen Orakel,
ib. 1878; H. Dechent, Ueber doe erste, eweite und elfte
Buck der sibyUiniechen Weissagungen, Frankfort, 1873;
M. Vernes, Hist, dee ideee messianiques, pp. 43 sqq.. Paris,
1874; J. Drummond, Jewish Messiah, pp. 14 sqq., Lon-
don, 1877; A. C. Bang, Voluspa und die sibyUiniechen
Orakel, Vienna, 1880; A. Bouche-Leclerc, Hist, de la di-
vination dans rantiquiU, ii. 100-214, Paris, 1880; V. H.
Stanton, The Jewish and the Christian Messiah, Edin-
burgh. 1886; T. Zahn. in TKW, 1886, pp. 32-15, 77-87;
K. Buresch, Klaros, Leipsic, 1880; H. Diels, SibyUini-
sche Blatter, Berlin, 1800; S. A. Hirech, in JQR, ii (1800),
406-120; W. J. Deane, Pseudepigrapha, 276 sqq., Edin-
burgh, 1801; J. E. H. Thompson, Books which Influenced
our Lord and hie Apostles, pp. 167-160, ib. 1801; E. Fehr,
Studia in oracula SibyUina, Upsala, 1803; M. Friedlander,
in REJ, xxix (1804), 183-106; idem, QeechichU der /fi-
dischen Apologetik, pp. 31-54, Zurich, 1003; W. Bousset,
Der Antichrist, pp. 50-63 et passim, G6ttingen. 1805;
idem, in ZNTW, 1002, pp. 23 sqq.; E. Rohde. Psyche.
pp. 62-60, 2d ed., Freiburg, 1808; E. Kautssch. Die
Apokryphen und Pseudepigraphen, ii. 177 sqq., Tubingen,
1000 (Germ, transl. with introduction and notes); O.
Zockler. Die Apokryphen des A. Ts., pp. 477-484, Mu-
nich, 1001; J. Geffcken, Komposition und Enstehunge-
seit des Oracula SibyUina, Leipsic, 1002; idem, in TV,
viii. 1 (1003); E. Oldenburger, De oraculorum Sxbyllino-
rutn elocutione, Rostock, 1003; E. Hennecke, Handbuch
der neutestanuntlichen Apokryphen, pp. 330-350, Tubing-
en, 1004; M. Monteiro, "As David and the Sibyls say"
a Sketch of the Sibyls and the Sibylline Oracles, London,
1005; A. Rsach, Analekta eur Kritik und Exegese der
sibyUiniechen Orakel, Vienna, 1007; J. Schleiper, Die
Erzahlung der Sibylle. Bine Apocryphische, nach den
karschunischen, arabischen und athiopischen Handechriften
tu London, ib. 1008; SchOrer, QeechichU, iii. 421-450,
Eng. transl., II., iii. 271-201 (excellent list of literature
at end of German text) ; Hamack, Litteratur, L 861-863*
ii. 581-580; DB, i. 743, iii. 227, extra vol., pp. 66-68;
EB, i. 245-250; JE, xi. 310-323.
SICARII, si-kG'ri-oi or si-ca'ri-f (Lat. "Assas-
sins"): The term applied to Jewish zealots before
and during the Jewish war, whose aim was to drive
the Romans from the country. The name comes
from sica, "a small dagger," which they concealed
under their cloaks, using it during assemblies or
pilgrimages to kill their enemies, including Jews who
were friendly to the Romans (Josephus, Ant., XX.,
viii. 10; War, II., xiii. 3). The most prominent of
their victims was the high priest Jonathan, said to
have been slain at the instigation of Felix the
governor of Judea.
Bibliography: Schurer, Geschichte, i. 574 sqq., 584, Eng.
transl., 178 sqq., 180.
SICKENBERGER, sik'en-berH"-er, JOSEPH:
German Roman Catholic; b. at Kempten (81 m.
s.w. of Munich) Mar. 19, 1872. He was educated at
the University of Munich (D.D., 1900) and also
studied in Italy, Vienna, and Paris. In 1902 he
became privat-docent at Munich, where he was ap-
pointed associate professor of patrology and Chris-
tian archeology in the following year. In 1905 he
was called to Wurzburg as full professor of the same
subject, and since 1906 has been professor of New-
Testament exegesis and theology at Breslau. He
has written Titus von Bostra, Studien zu dessen
401
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Sibyl
Sidoniua
LukaahomUien (Leipsic, 1901); DU Lukaskatene des
Niketas von Herakleia (1902); and has edited Frag-
mente und Homilien des Cyrill van Alexandrien turn
Ltikasevangelium, in TU, 1909; besides being New-
Testament editor of the Biblische Zeiischrift.
SICKINGEN, FRANZ VON: Knight of the
German Empire, and protector of the Reformers; b.
in the castle of Ebernburg, near Kreuznach (21 m.
s.w. of Mainz), May 1, 1481 ; d. in the castle of Land-
stuhl, near Zweibrucken (60 m. s.w. of Heidelberg),
May 7, 1523. He was a picturesque representative of
the "robber knights" who recognized no superior
but their monarch, and enjoyed no occupation so
much as that of private warfare. These knights had
serious grievances in the early part of the sixteenth
century. Growth of commerce and wealth in the
cities had been accompanied by agricultural depres-
sion, and the knights found their estates becoming
valueless and their incomes reduced to almost noth-
ing. They were free to renounce the station and
prestige of the order of knighthood and as common
civilians and soldiers to enter the service of the
emperor; the alternative was wholesale brigandage.
Sickingen chose the alternative. Desirous of serv-
ing the emperor as with independent authority,
this order was opposed to any approximation to
orderly government, and considered the territorial
princes its sworn enemies. The reforms of the
national government, which through the Reichs-
kammergericht (supreme court of the empire) for-
bade private warfare and installed Roman law
in the place of the old feudal customs, endangered
this calling, and in 1522 the general discontent
broke out, under the leadership of Sickingen, into
open repudiation of the actions and authority of the
Reichskammergericht.
In Sickingen the revolters recognized an expe-
rienced and energetic leader. He had in 1516 made a
raid upon the city of Worms, and for five years,
in the face of a decree of banishment issued against
him, had harassed and ravaged the country around
the city; he had been in the service of Francis I.
of France in 1516, and in 1517 had entered that of
the German Empire; he had carried on operations
against the imperial city of Metz, and against Land-
grave Philip of Hesse; and with Ulrich von Hutten
(q.v.) he had thrown himself into the cause of
Charles V. of Spain. He had proffered aid to Reuch-
lin in his controversy, and with Hutten had frankly
declared his approval of Luther, to whom he pledged
his assistance. Butzer (q.v.) lived in his castle, the
Ebernburg, where (Ecolampadius (q.v.) served as
chaplain from Apr. to Nov., 1522, and Johann
Schwebel (q.v.) was another Reformer who found
refuge with him.
Hutten and Sickingen regarded as urgent and
necessary a restriction upon and partitioning of
church property (see Secularization), and they
counted on the help of part of the aristocracy, who
eyed with growing disfavor the increase of wealth and
the display of it in the cloisters and abbeys. Sickin-
gen, favored by Luther, and directly incited against
the unregenerate priests, declared hostilities against
the pope and the lords of the church. The attack,
combining secular and religious interests, was di-
X.— 20
rected against the ecclesiastical princes and restricted
to them; for it was their worldly possessions that
aroused the Lutheran divines, their jurisdiction that
offended the cities, and their territorial powers that
opposed knightly liberties. Sickingen, with his at-
tempt to overthrow the constitution of the empire,
as a champion of the poorer people, a Gospel pioneer,
and a leader of the "Fraternal League" organized
at Landau Aug. 13, 1522, for the protection of the
nobility, opened the first war of religion to be de-
clared on German soil. Doubtless thoughts of per-
sonal advancement served to inspire him in this
cause, for he was moved by an inordinate ambition
that embraced the electorate of Treves.
On Aug. 27, 1522, Sickingen issued a declaration
of war against Richard von Greiffenklau zu Voll-
raths, archbishop of Treves, who, as one of Luther's
most powerful enemies and an enemy of the Gospel,
received the first fury of the attack. After receiving
consecration in the principality of Schaumburg,
Sickingen appeared before Treves Sept. 8. When
ordered by the imperial council to withdraw, he
replied that he was as much a servant of the emperor
as the council, and that he was moving against the
archbishop in the conviction that the emperor would
sanction the punishment of this priest. He intended
to better the action of the council by establishing a
regular system of law, and to win for himself a peace-
ful life as ruler of Treves. But the archbishop re-
pulsed his assaults with such success that on Sept. 14
the siege was raised. On Oct. 10 he and his associ-
ates were laid under the ban of the empire for viola-
ting the peace of the country. With absolute indif-
ference he broke into the Palatinate and plundered
the town of Kaiserlautern. He had friends in the
imperial council and in the Palatinate, and troops
were levied for him in the Sundgau, Alsace, Breisgau,
and Bavaria. But the princes of Treves, Hesse, and
the Palatinate had in September of 1522 pledged
themselves to destroy the "robber knights/' and on
Apr. 29, 1523, they besieged his stronghold of Land-
stahl. He still looked for strong reenforcements
from Germany and France, and for a simultaneous
uprising in the dominions of the three princes, but
he was fatally disappointed. His friends were re-
strained by the superior power of the princes and
the Swabian League; he was mortally wounded on
the third day of the siege, and on May 6 the garrison
capitulated. D. Percy Gilmore.
Bibliography: H. Ulmann, Fran* von Sickingen, Leipsic,
1872; F. P. Bremer, Franz von Sickingen' » Fehde gegen
Trier, Strasburg, 1885; P. M. Rade. Hutten und Sickingen,
Barmen, 1887; J. Janaaen, HieL of the German People, iiL
276-308, St. Louis, 1900; J. Kostlin, Martin Luther, Ber-
lin, 1903; Cambridge Modern Hietory, ii. 41, 43, 154 aqq.,
New York, 1904.
SIDON. See Phbnicia, Phenicians, I., § 5.
SIDONIUS, si-dd'ni-us, APOLLINARIS, CAIUS
SOLLIUS MODESTUS: Gallic Roman poet, bishop
of Clermont, and saint; b. at Lyons Nov. 5 of some
year between 430 and 433; buried at Clermont Aug.
21, 479 (482 or 484). He came of a noble family, his
grandfather having held high office and being the
first Christian in the family ; his father also was " pre-
fect in the pretorium of the Gauls/7 He received his
education in the yet flourishing schools of grammar
Sidonius
Sieffert
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
402
and rhetoric of his native region, devoting his at-
tention to the acquisition of facility and perfection
in writing prose and poetry in Latin.
Early He had in view fame as a writer and in
Life. the service of the State, and among his
instructors were Claudianus Mamer-
tus (q.v.) and other noted teachers. His marriage
with Papianilla, daughter of Avitus, one of the
prominent men of Auvergne, made him at home in
what was to be a sort of fatherland to him; his wife
brought to him possessions and a happy family life
which fitted him for the rdle of a poet of home life
and home blessings. But his ambition, fostered by
the combination of wealth and culture, rendered
him not content to lead the life of an obscure
countryman. The raising of Avitus to imperial dig-
nity influenced the muse of Sidonius in the direction
of the panegyric. Sidonius accompanied his father-
in-law to Rome and issued there his poem of praise
(in which the Christian note is altogether absent),
which was regarded as so remarkable that it secured
for the author a place, marked by a bronze statue,
among the celebrated authors thus honored in the
Trajan basilica. But the reign of Avitus was short,
Ricimer bringing about his overthrow after seven-
teen months. After the fall of Lyons, Sidonius
turned his poetry to the praise of the victor in a
composition which has historic value for its por-
trayal of the Franks (lines 238-254). The period of
retirement which succeeded left traces in the epis-
tles of Sidonius, and these are valuable in that they
give pictures of the culture of the time (Epist., ii.
2) as well as of historic events. During the reign of
Theodoric II., Sidonius seems to have lived in
retirement; and under Anthemius (467-472) he
went to Rome at the command of the emperor in
order to represent the people of Auvergne. There
he came into close contact with the two most prom-
inent senators, and followed their counsel to dedi-
cate to the new emperor a new panegyric. This is
the latest of his dated carmina, which resulted in an
appointment as prefect of senate and city; it is of
historical value for its description of the Huns, its
mention of Geiserich, and the description of the sit-
uation of the East Goths about 467. An epistle of
Sidonius of about 470 (v. 13) has historical worth
also because of its dealing with the Governor Sero-
natus; and near this in point of time is the remark-
able letter (ii. 1) which narrates the choice presented
him of becoming a bishop or losing his Roman
rights — as a matter of fact the nobility saved their
rights through the hierarchy.
Soon after, Sidonius became bishop of Clermont,
which belonged to the archdiocese of Bourges. As
bishop Sidonius gave up the writing of
Sidonius secular poetry, but in the exercise of
as Bishop, his office he was drawn into the political
arena. His brother-in-law Ecdicius
was the refuge of the Roman party, while Clermont,
the last firm stronghold of the Romans in Aqui-
tania, threatened to fall before the Goths. Sidonius
appealed for help near and far, and among the ap-
peals is a letter (vii. 6) against Eurich. The ecclesi-
astical situation was lamentable; nine sees were va-
cant, and even the memory of ecclesiastical discipline
had ceased. With the strife of Burgundians and
Goths the land seemed about to be torn apart; all
efforts were to be directed to the end that Eurich
permit bishops to be consecrated in order that the
people of Gaul might be held in the faith. The
cause for the sad condition was attributed by Sido-
nius to the heads of the diocese of Aries, and
Bishop Grsecus heard bitter reproaches. Still the
condition was not so bad as it seemed to Sidonius;
Clermont was not destroyed, and the Gothic court
was not so hostile to culture. In Toulouse the most
influential man after the king was Leo of Narbonne,
the teacher of oratory to Marcus Aurelius. Into
this period falls the most celebrated of all the letters
of Sidonius (viii. 9) ; it contains a poem, doubtless
intended for the king's ear, describing the world-
power of the ruler of the Visigoths, and this may
well be called Sidonius' fourth panegyric. Sidonius,
who had left his see, was able after some time to re-
turn and exercise his office.
As a writer Mommsen (Reden, p. 139, Berlin, 1905)
estimated Sidonius as far above any other of his
times; yet, in spite of the sententious, satirical, and
graceful passages which are found, his poetry has
less esthetic value than that of Auso-
His nius. Still, his significance from a liter-
Writings, ary-historical standpoint is high. In
matter of form, he bridges the transi-
tion to the medieval poetry by frequency in em-
ployment of rime, alliteration, and like artistic
devices; his poetry shows also what was the fashion
in his time; he serves to illustrate, as well, what
forms the classical myths took during the downfall
of the old order of things in Gaul. For church his-
tory the letters are more valuable than the carmina.
Sidonius was not original, but he could well set forth
the situation of things in language that was fitting
and expressive. The nine books of letters are edited
in groups. The first, written for the most part about
469 in Rome, begins with a dedication to Constan-
tius, a cleric of Lyons, to whom a life of Bishop
Germanus of Auxerre (q.v.) is ascribed. The letters
of book ii. appear to have been issued about the
middle of 472, though they are probably of earlier
date, since they do not reflect the clerical situation,
and the thought is not Christian. These two books
(twenty-five letters) were the first edited. The next
group, books iii.-vii. (seventy letters), reveals a dif-
ferent situation. It begins with the statement that
the writer has unworthily been chosen bishop of
Clermont. A section of this group (vi. 1-vii. 11)
contains letters directed to bishops. Later, at the
wish of friends, Sidonius gathered the remains of his
correspondence for an eighth book, and not long
after added a ninth, " after the pattern of Pliny."
Chronology is not observed in the arrangement, al-
though a certain general sequence is preserved.
The letters, 147 in number, have great historical
value for the reason that they exhibit as does no
other document the style of the Latin school of
rhetoric just before its downfall; from this point of
view each separate letter is worthf ul, even though
its substance is of little value. Among the persons
addressed are the African Domnulus, two Spanish
rhetoricians, a Frank who was named " Count
Arbogastes of the Treveri," who received also a
letter from Bishop Auspicius of Toul (himself a cor-
403
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Sidonius
Sieffert
respondent of Sidonius), and Firminus of Aries, the
friend of Caesarius (q.v.). About a third of the let-
ters are addressed to ecclesiastics! thirty-six of them
to bishops, and the sees of thirty-one of these are
known. Perpetuus of Tours, a city which was still
Roman, was a correspondent of Sidonius; there are
letters to the bishops of Sens, Auxerre, Orleans, and
to Lupus of Treves. Though passing by the bishop
of Aries, Sidonius was in frequent correspondence
with the suffragans of that see, the bishops of
Orange, Yaison, and Marseilles; as a native of
Lyons, he had a patriotic interest in it. There are
letters to the suffragans at Autun and Langres, to
the metropolitan of Aix and his suffragan at Riez,
to Reims, Toul, and Geneva. His letters set the
style for the circle of rhetoricians and the school of
which he was a part, as is seen by the letters and
writings of Ruricius, and of Alcimus Avitus and
Ennodius (qq.v.); in a later period the interest in
him arose anew, such men as Flodoard, Sigbert of
Gembloux, Vincent of Beauvais, Peter the Vener-
able, Peter of Poitiers, and John of Salisbury
(qq.v.) reading and admiring him. He was not
without influence upon Petrarch.
So far as the poems of Sidonius go, they might
all have been written by one not a Christian; on
the other hand, heathen mythology is for him but
a means of adornment, monotheistic thoughts ap-
pear in noble form, and he set more
His Sig- store by prayer than by the aid of the
nificance. physician. However, the Christian
writings do not seem to be of sufficient-
ly high value to him, possibly because of his en-
forced service to the external organization of the
Church. He had a sort of contempt for the lower
classes who " spoke bad Latin/' though he always
displayed a kindliness of disposition toward them.
As a preacher and saver of souls his repute was not
high. His knowledge of the Scriptures, and his dog-
matics were alike weak; he spoke, for instance, of
the Holy Ghost becoming flesh in Christ. He had
little knowledge of and as little interest in the dog-
matic controversies of his times. He was urged to
apply his pen to the writing of history, but wisely
estimated his powers and declined. His service to
the better part of the nobility of Gaul is summed up
in his advice to the effect that since the Roman
state was breaking up, it were better for them to
save their nobility in the hierarchy and to carry over
their Roman heritage to church offices. And yet he
himself failed in large measure to achieve the end
he thus set before them, not realizing the oppor-
tunity to fill the rhetoric of the schools with a
Christian spirit. (F. Arnold.)
Bibuoorapht: Late editions of the works of Sidonius are:
that of J. F. Qregoire and F. Z. Collombet, 3 vols., Paris*
1836; in MPL, lviii. 443-748, with the notes of Sinnondi;
E. Barret, Paris, 1879, with valuable introduction and
dissertations, though typographical errors are numerous;
ed. C. Luetjohann in MGH, Auct. ant., viii (1887), 1-
264; ed. P. Mohr, Leipsic, 1895; cf. E. Geisler, Loci sim-
iles auctorum Sidonio anteriorum, Berlin, 1887. There is
a Fr. transl. by E. Barret, Paris, 1888.
Sources for a life are Gennadius. De vir. ill., xcii.; Greg-
ory of Tours, Hist. Francorum, ii. 21 sqq. Consult: P.
Allard. Saint Sidoine Apollinaire, Paris, 1909; M. Fertig,
Sidonius und seine Zeit, 3 vols., WQrsburg and Passau,
1845-48 (with valuable essays, and includes some trans-
lations); G. Kaufmann, Die Werke des . . . Sidonius als
sin Quelle /Or die GeschichU aeiner Zeit, G6ttingen, 1864;
idem, in Neues schweiterisches Museum, pp. 1-28, Basel,
1865; idem, in GO A, 1868, pp. 1001-1021; idem, in His-
torisches Taschenbuch, 1869, pp. 30-40; L. A. Chaix,
S. Sidoine Apollinaire et son aiecle, 2 vols., Clermont, 1866
(the fullest and most detailed account); F. Osanan, Hist,
of Civilisation in the 6th Century, London, 1868; F. Dahn,
Kdnige der Germanen, v. 82-101, Wursburg, 1870; P.
Mohr, In Apollinaris Sidonii epistulas et earmina observa-
Hones crUica, Sondershausen, 1877; idem, Zu Sidonius
earmina, Laubach, 1881; M. Budinger, Apollinaris Si-
donius als Politiker, Vienna, 1881; T. Hodgkin, Italy and
her Invaders, book iii., vol. ii., 4 vols., Oxford, 1880-85;
L. Sandret, in Revue des questions historiques, xxrii (1882),
210-224; A. Esmein, Sur quelques lettres de Sidoine Apol-
linaire, Paris, 1885; T. Mommsen, De vita Sidonii, in
MQH, Auct. ant., viii (1887), pp. zliv.-liii.; idem, in
SB A, 1885. pp. 215-223; L. Duval- Araould, fitudes
a* hist, du droit romain . . . tTapres lea lettres . . . de Si-
doine Apollinaire, Paris, 1888; M. M Oiler, De Apollinaris
Sidonii latinitate, Halle. 1888; A. Ebert, Allgemeine Go-
schichte der Litteratur des Mittelalters, i. 419-448, Leipsic,
1889; W. Smith, Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biog-
raphy, iii. 817-819, London, 1890; W. S. Teuffel. Ge-
schichU der r&mischen Litteratur, pp. 1194-1200, Leipsic,
1890; M. Manitius, GeschichU der christlichen lateinischen
Poesie, pp. 218-225, Stuttgart, 1891; E. Bracmann,
Sidoniana et Boethiana, Utrecht, 1904; Wattenbach,
DGQ, i (1894), 97-98; R. Holland, Studia Sidoniana,
Leipsic. 1905; Tillemont, Memoires, xvi. 195-284; Gib-
bon, Decline and Fall, chap, xxxvi (important) ; Hauck,
KD, i. 79 sqq., 83 sqq.; DCB, iv. 649-661 (detailed and
thorough, but follows Chaix, ut sup.); ASB, Aug., iv.
597-624.
SIDONIUS, MICHAEL: Bishop of Merseburg.
See Helding, Michael.
SIEFFERT, sf'fert, FRIEDRICH ANTON EMIL:
German Reformed; b. at Konigsberg, Prussia, Dec.
24, 1843. He was. educated at the universities of
Konigsberg, Halle, and Berlin (lie. theol., Konigs-
berg, 1867), and, after being privat-docent at the
university of his native city (1867-71), was inspector
of the theological seminary at Bonn (1871-73); as-
sociate professor at the university of the same city
(1873-78); professor of Reformed theology at Er-
langen (J878-89); and since 1889 professor of sys-
tematic theology and New-Testament exegesis in
the Protestant theological faculty of the University
of Bonn. He has written NannuUa ad apocrypha
libri Henochi originem perHnenHa (Konigsberg,
1867) ; Ueber den socialen Gegensatz im Neuen Tes-
tament (Erlangen, 1888); Die neuesten theologischen
For8chungen uber Busse und Glaube (Berlin, 1896);
Das Recht im Neuen Testament (Gottingen, 1900);
Offenbarung und heilige Schrift (Langensalza, 1905) ;
Die Heidenbekehrung im Alien Testament und im
Judentum (1908); and Johann Calvins religidse
Entwicklung und sittliche Grundrichiung (Leipsic,
1909) ; besides preparing the sixth, seventh, eighth,
and ninth editions of H. A. W. Meyer's commentary
on Galatians (Gottingen, 1880-99).
SIEFFERT, FRIEDRICH LUDWIG: German
theologian and Biblical scholar; b. at Elbing (32
m. s.w. of Konigsberg) Feb. 1, 1803; d. at Bonn
Dec. 2, 1877. He prepared for the university at the
Gymnasium of Elbing; entered in 1821 the Univer-
sity of Konigsberg, where he studied under Herbart,
and also under August Hahn, with whom he collabo-
rated in issuing Chrestomathia syriaca (Leipsic, 1825),
taking there his doctorate. He then went to Berlin
for the study of theology, particularly under Nean-
Sieffert
Sigebert
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
404
der. In the summer of 1825 he interrupted his so-
journ at Berlin for a journey to Vienna to examine
a manuscript in the Vienna library containing the
commentary of Theodore, bishop of Mopsuestia, on
the Minor Prophets. He returned to Berlin, where
he was graduated licentiate in theology in 1826;
and then went to Konigsberg, where he became
privat-docent at the university in 1827, having
published in that year Theodorus Mopsuestiensis
Veteris Testament! sobrie interpretandi vindex, the
fruit of his research in Vienna; he was appointed
extraordinary professor in 1828. Soon afterward
appeared his treatise Ueber den Ursprung des ersten
kanonischen Evangdiums (1832), a work of high im-
portance, showing that the first Gospel is a Greek
recasting of the original composition by Matthew
the apostle in Aramaic. It evoked a number of
works in the domain of Gospel criticism, mostly ap-
proving his position. In due season, however,
Sieffert took a pronounced stand against radical
criticism, as in his De librorum sacrorum auctoritate
canonica (1836), the publication of which attended
his promotion to a regular professorship, in 1834.
Meanwhile, he had also prosecuted his studies re-
specting Theodore of Mopsuestia (q.v.), and pre-
pared a larger work on his life and writings. In the
year 1837, there suddenly developed a disease of the
eyes, which ultimately led to nearly total blindness.
This moved him to the thought of combining his
academic activity with some practical avocation,
less taxing to the eyes. Accordingly, in 1839, he
accepted a court preacher's office for the German
Reformed congregation of the castle church; in
1841 he took office as assessor, in 1842 as councilor,
in the consistory of the province of Prussia. Thence-
forth, indeed, and for many years, he administered
these three offices, in all evincing the same con-
scientiousness. But the increasing malady finally
obliged him to relinquish one after the other of his
official positions. Later, in the evening of his
life, he ventured one more composition, dictating
and publishing Die apologetische Fundamentirung
der christlichen Glaubenswissenschaft (Gutersloh,
1871), in which he insisted on the central fact of
the entire and personal phenomenon of Christ.
In 1873, when released from all his official
charges, he removed to Bonn, where he died.
F. Sieffert.
Bibliography F. Sieffert, F. L. Sieffert, Eine Skxzte aeine*
Lebens, Konigsberg, 1880.
SIEGFRIED, sig'frid, KARL ADOLF: German
Lutheran; b. at Magdeburg Jan. 22, 1830; d. at
Jena Jan. 9, 1903. He was educated at the univer-
sities of Halle (1849-51, 1851-52; Ph.D., 1859) and
Bonn (1851), and taught in the Gymnasium zum
Kloster Unserer lieben Frauen in Magdeburg (1856-
1858), where he was likewise a member of the semi-
nary for theological candidates, as well as in the
gymnasium at Guben (1858-60) and the Dom-
gymnasium of his native city (1860-65). From
1865 to 1875 he was professor and second pastor at
the royal school at Pforta, and in the latter year
published at Jena his Philo von Alexandria ah Aus-
leger des Alien Testaments, which, valuable to the
theologian, the philosopher, and the classical stu-
dent alike, led to his call to Jena as professor of Old- I
Testament theology, a position which he filled from
1875 until his death. He overtaxed his strength,
however, and from 1878 to 1880 was necessarily re-
lieved of his duties, while in 1901 the final failure of
his health compelled him to cease lecturing. The
first large work which Siegfried issued after his ap-
pointment at Jena was the Lehrbuch der neuhebra-
ischen Sprache und Literatur (in collaboration with
H. L. S track; Carlsruhe, 1884), and he then col-
laborated with B. Stade in preparing a Hebrdisches
Wdrterbuch zum Alien Testament (Leipsic, 1893).
His remaining publications of major importance
were devoted to the Old Testament: the critical
text of Job for SBOT (Baltimore 1893) ; the trans-
lation of Ezekiel for E. Kautzsch's new German
translation of the Bible (Freiburg, 1894); and of
the Wisdom of Solomon for the same scholar's
Apokryphen und Pseudepigraphen des Alien Testa-
ments (1900); and commentaries on Ecclesiastes,
the Song of Solomon, Ezra, Nehemiah, and Esther
for W. G. H. Nowack's Handkommentar zum Allen
Testament (Gottingen, 1898-1901). He likewise
collaborated with H. Gelzer in editing Eusebii
canonum epitome ex Dionysii Tdmaharensis chronico
petita (Leipsic, 1884), and also issued a translation
from the Syriac, entitled Buch der Erkenntnis der
Wahrheit, by his deceased friend C. Kayser (Stras-
burg, 1893). Besides all this, Siegfried wrote a large
number of magazine articles on the Old Testament,
Hebrew grammar and lexicography, exegesis, Philo
and Hellenism, and Judaism and Jewish literature,
as well as on more miscellaneous topics, in addition
to many articles in various works of reference. He
was, moreover, a peculiarly able reviewer, and for
nineteen years (1871-89) recorded the literature
on the Old Testament and problems of Oriental
philology appertaining to it for the Theologischer
Jahresbericht. While in no sense a partizan, he was
practically an adherent of the historico-critical
school of Reuss, Graf, Kayser, and Wellhausen.
He was appointed an ecclesiastical councilor in 1885
and privy ecclesiastical councilor in 1892.
(B. BANTSCHf.)
Bibliography: B. B&ntoch, in ZWT, xlvi (1903), 580-689.
SIENA, SYNOD OF (1423-24): On June 22,
1423, the Synod of Pavia (q.v.) resolved upon re-
moval to Siena, where on July 21 of the same year
it was opened under the same presiding officers as
at Pavia. The decrees of the second session, pub-
lished Nov. 8, 1423, repeated the condemnation of
Wyclif, Huss (qq.v.), and Peter of Luna, and dis-
cussed union with the Greeks and the extinction of
heresies. After that the question of the reformation
of the Church was opened, and the French proposed
that, in accordance with the Council of Constance,
cardinals should be chosen from all parts of Chris-
tendom and that they should number eighteen, or
twenty-four at the most, nomination to be national,
while the pope was to have only the right of con-
firmation. These propositions met with violent op-
position from the papal legates. Divisions arose,
and it was seen that nothing could be accomplished
there, so the whole reform was left to a new synod,
and Basel was decided upon as the seat of the next
synod. On Mar. 7, 1124, the papal legates left
405
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Sieffert
Sigebert
Siena, and the council was dissolved against the
protests of the French participants.
(Paul Tschackert.)
Bibliography: The best source is John of Ragusa, InMvm
et prosecutio Basilieneis Concilii, in Monumenta conciliorwn
generalium taculi XV., i. 12 sqq., Vienna, 1867. Con-
sult further: Mansi, Concilia, vol. xxviii.; Hefele, Con-
cUiengeschichte, vii. 392-409; the chronicle of Francesco
di Tommasso, in Muratori, Scriptorea, vol. xx.; Pastor,
Popes, i. 238-239; Creighton. Papacy, ii. 146-160; Mil-
man, Latin Christianity, vii. 636; KL, xL 290 sqq.; and
the literature under Martin V.
SIEVEKING, AMALIE WILHELMOTE: Ger-
man Protestant philanthropist and founder of the
Hamburg Weiblicher Verein fur Armcn- und Krank-
enpflege; b. at Hamburg July 25, 1794; d. there
Apr. 1, 1859. Orphaned at the age of fifteen, she
lived with Fraulein Dimpfel, the daughter-in-law of
the poet Klopstock, and there, in instructing the
nieces of her patroness, she began a career as a
teacher which continued, with only brief interrup-
tions, until her death. Here, too, her rationalistic
and skeptical attitude toward Christianity began to
be modified, until later, after the death of a brother,
and under the influence of the works of Thomas a
Kempis and A. H. Francke, she attained to a deep
and abiding faith in the Bible and in prayer. After
a brief residence with a widowed aunt in Neumuh-
len, Amalie Sieveking was requested, in 1811, by a
widowed relative of her mother's, Frau Brunne-
mann, to assist her in taking care of a sick son, and
though the latter soon died, the home thus gained
was kept until the death of Frau Brunnemann in
1839. Meanwhile she always had a class of young
girls, and likewise taught in a free private school for
poor girls. During this time her efforts to clear up
for herself certain passages of the Bible seem to have
led her to compose her Betrachiungen uber einzelne
Stellen der heiligen Schrift, which, in the hope that it
might help others in that period of the revival of
religious life, she published anonymously at Ham-
burg in 1823. About this same time, moreover, she
formed the plan of establishing a Lutheran order of
deaconesses (q.v.), but since she did not feel herself
divinely called to do this in person, the realization
of the concept was left for Theodor Fliedner (q.v.).
Nevertheless, she discussed the entire matter with
C. F. A. Hartmann (librarian and professor of his-
tory at Hamburg) and with J. Goesner (q.v.), the
latter confirming her in her attitude of prudent hesi-
tation. In 1827 she published at Hamburg (again
anonymously) her Beschdftigungen mil der heiligen
Schrift, and her circle of noteworthy acquaintances
increased, while her girls1 classes still continued
with great success.
When, in 1831, cholera broke out in Hamburg,
Amalie Sieveking deemed that the time had come
to carry out her plan, and since none answered her
call to unite with her in Christian care of the sick,
she volunteered her own services, which were ac-
cepted when the first woman to fall a victim to the
plague was brought to the hospital erected for such
cases. Regarded at first as a mere enthusiast, her
judgment and devotion soon won such recognition
that she was appointed inspectress of all the nurses.
Even after the completion of her work at the hos-
pital, she realized that conditions were not yet
favorable for her order of deaconesses, but in its
stead she gradually formed the somewhat similar
idea of founding a " Women's Society for the Care
of the Poor and Sick.1' This she established early
in 1832, the movement spreading from Hamburg to
many other German cities. At the initial confer-
ence (May 23) she delivered an address (reprinted
in Berichi Uber die Leistungen des weiblichen Vereins
fur Armen- und Krankenpflege, x. 56-68), in which
she emphasized the necessity of devoted Christian
faith and love in the care of the sick and indigent.
The sick should be visited personally, and the poor
should be given work, if possible, rather than
money, while every effort should be made in behalf
of religious training and life. All the details of the
undertaking, which was mainly dependent on vol-
untary subscription, were most carefully regulated,
these including not only the visiting of the poor and
sick, but also the distribution of food, assignment
of work in various trades, care of the raw materials,
sale of the finished products, and the administra-
tion of the poorhouses and the childrens' hospital
later founded by the society. While the members
of the society, who rapidly increased in number,
were naturally exposed to occasional gross decep-
tion by their wards, and though they were frequently
charged with fostering hypocrisy, yet, on the whole,
the movement must be characterized as most ad-
mirably adapted to its purpose, and as affording
spiritual and physical aid in countless cases where a
single individual would not have been able to render
assistance. Toward the end of her life, besides hav-
ing edited the annual Berichi Uber die Leistungen
des weiblichen Vereins fur Armen- und Krankenpflege
(26 vols., Hamburg, 1833-58), she wrote Unter-
haltungen Uber einzelne AbschniUe der heiligen Schrift
(Leipsic, 1855), while a compilation from her wri-
tings was translated into English anonymously under
the title The Principles of Charitable Work — Love,
Truth, and Order — as set forth in the Writings of
A. W. Sieveking (London, 1863).
(Carl Bertheau.)
Bibliography: DenkwCrdigkeiien au» dem Leben von Amalie
Sieveking, Hamburg, 1860, Eng. transl., ed. G. Winkworth,
Life of A. W. Sieveking, London, 1863; J. H. Hook, Bilder
aue der OeechicfUe der hamburgiechen Kirehe »eit der Re-
formation, pp. 363 sqq., Hamburg, 1900; ADB, zxxiv.
217 sqq.
SIGEBERT OF GEMBLOUX: A versatile and
productive writer of the early Middle Ages, especially
noteworthy as historian; b. probably in the neigh-
borhood of Gembloux (10 m. n.w. of Namur, Bel-
gium) about 1035; d. at Gembloux Nov. 5, 1112.
He was educated in the abbey of Gembloux, be-
came a monk there, and spent his mature life as
teacher, first in the school of the abbey of St. Vin-
cent at Metz, then (from c. 1070) at Gembloux. As
teacher he was highly esteemed, and in general he
is to be commended as a good example of the capable
and learned Benedictine monk of the older time,
filled with genuine piety but disinclined to all ascetic
excesses, an earnest seeker after truth, a highly lov-
able and attractive personality. His best-known
book is a world chronicle, Decennalis liber, continu-
ing Jerome's translation of Eusebius' chronicle,
covering the period 381-1111. Sigebert was nearly
Slfebert
SiEler
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
406
seventy when he began the work and he wrote it
with reference to the similar chronicle of Marianus
Scotus. Like the latter he makes the year of the in-
carnation the basis of his chronological system. The
book can hardly be called history, being a bare list
of events, among which naturally in the later time
notices of the German empire and Sigebert's Bel-
gian home predominate. The accounts of the years
from 1105 to 1111 are the most extended and were
probably expanded after the first completion of the
chronicle. An introduction, explaining the pur-
pose, use, and system of the book, is lost with the
exception of some lines. Sigebert's chronicle was
often revised and continued and became the source
of very many later historical works. The best [al-
most ideal] edition is by L. C. Bethmann in MGH,
Script., vi (1844), 300-374, but the treatment of the
sources here is wholly inadequate. After the chron-
icle Sigebert wrote a book on writers and their
works supplementing the De vir. HI. of Jerome and
Gennadius (ed. J A. Fabricius, Bibliotheca ecclesi-
astica, pp. 93-116, Hamburg, 1718), which is his
second important work for the present time. Sige-
bert took the side of the secular rulers in the contest
with the popes which filled the greater part of his
life. To a letter addressed by Gregory VII. to Bishop
Hermann of Metz in 1081, seeking to prove that
popes have the right to excommunicate kings, he
wrote an answer which is apparently lost, although
Bethmann (cf. MGH, Lib. de lite, i. 454-460, 1890)
and A. Gauchie (La Querelle des investitures dans les
dioceses de Liege et de Cambrai, i. pp. 66-99, Lou-
vain, 1890) claim to have discovered it. A defense
of masses said by married priests, however, is ex-
tant, written against Gregory VII. (ed. E. Sackur,
MGH, Lib. de lite, ii. 436-418, 1892); and also a
very able and sharp reply for the diocese of Liege
to Paschal II., who in 1103 urged Count Robert II.
of Flanders to punish the clergy and people of
Liege for their adherence to the Emperor Henry IV.
and to make war on the emperor (ed. E. Sackur,
MGH, Lib. de lite, ii. 449-464, 1892). Sigebert's
other writings were lives or eulogies of personages
connected in tradition or history with Metz and
Gembloux. Some are in verse, of which one espe-
cially, a long Passio sanctorum Thebeorum, written
when Sigebert was forty-four years of age, attests
real poetic gifts. Many of his writings are reprinted
from earlier editions in MPL, clx.; cf. also lxxxvii.
303-314, and E. Dummler in Abhandlungen der Ber-
liner Akademie, pp. 1-125, 1893.
(O. Holder-Egger.)
Bibliography: For an extensive bibliography of editions
consult Potthast, Wegweiser, pp. 1016-18, and cf. Wat-
tenbach, DGQ, ii (1894). 155-162. Almost the only
sources for the life and writings of Sigebert are a chapter
of the Gesta abbatum Gemblacenaium by Godescalc and
the last chapter of Sigebert's Scriptores ecclesiastic! , in
which he gives a list of his writings, probably in sub-
stantially chronological order. Godescalc was a pupil of
Sigebert and his work is a continuation of an earlier one
by the latter. Consult further: S. Hirsch, De vita et
scriptis Sigeberti monachi Gemblacensis, Berlin, 1841; the
prolegomena of Bethmann in MGH, Script, vi (1844),
268-299; H. E. Bonnell, Die A nf tinge des karolingischen
Houses, Berlin, 1866; L. Demaison, Etude critique sur la
vie de S. Sigebert . . . par Sigebert de Gembloux, in Tra-
vaux de Vacadhnie national e de Reims, briv (1880); Huyg-
hens, Sur la valeur de la chronique historique de Sigebert
de Mons, Ghent, 1889; A. Cauchie, La Querelle dee u.,.„,
turee done . . . Liege et Cambrai, 2 parts, Louvain, 1890.'
SIGISMUND, sl'gis-munt", JOHAHN: Elector of
Brandenburg 1608-19; b. at Halle Nov. 8 (18),
1572; d. at Brandenburg Dec. 23, 1619. During
the sixteenth century there were various changes
in the religious situation at Brandenburg, depending
upon the attitude of the ruling elector. Joachim I.
(1499-1535) was a strict Roman Catholic; under
Joachim II. the Reformation of Luther entered the
country. The period of Johann Georg (1571-98)
was the time of undisputed sway of strict Lutheran-
ism, but his son Joachim Friedrich was inclined
toward the Calvinistic doctrine. Johann Sigismund,
the son of Joachim Friedrich, was educated as a
strict Lutheran, according to the directions of his
grandfather, by Simon Gedicke, at that time court
preacher in Halle; but in 1588 his father sent him,
together with his brother, Johann Georg, to the
University of Strasburg, where both princes were
favorably impressed by Calvinism. In 1605 he was
in Heidelberg, where he became a close friend of
Count Palatine Friedrich IV., and his wife, the
daughter of William of Orange. His personal inter-
course with Reformed princes and theologians led
him to become a decided opponent of the Formula
of Concord. For some time he tried to keep his
change of convictions secret, but in 1613, on Ascen-
sion Day, a Reformed church service was held in
the court chapel on the occasion of a visit of Land-
grave Maurice, to the great vexation of the Lutheran
clergy. On another occasion Martin Fussel, super-
intendent of Zerbst, administered the Lord's Supper
after the Reformed rite. Simon Gedicke, provost
of the cathedral, protested against the infringe-
ment of the parochial rights of Brandenburg and
published a treatise, Von den Ceremonien bei dem
heiligen Abendmahl (1613), against the Calvinists,
especially against Salomo Finck, a court preacher
newly called from Kdnigsberg, who showed himself
a decided Calvinist. A committee of the estates re-
quested Christoph Pelargus, general superintendent
of the Mark and professor of theology in Frankfort-
on-the-Oder, to proceed officially against the court
preacher; his refusal made him also a suspect of
Calvinism. Before the elector was now placed the
alternative either to take measures against Finck
and Pelargus or to make his statement of adherence
to the Reformed* faith. He chose the latter, and on
Dec. 18, 1613, announced to the clergy that he did
not claim control over the consciences of his subjects,
and similarly no one might dictate in the matter to
him. He forbade untimely outbreaks from the pul-
pit, and permitted communion in the Reformed
manner. He justified himself by appealing to the
amended Augsburg Confession (Augustana variata)
which, he said, was admitted in the Saxon kingdom.
In an edict of Feb. 24, 1614, he again forbade in-
vective from the pulpit and proclaimed as a basis of
doctrine for all preachers " the doctrine of the divine
Word according to the four chief symbols (including
the Chalcedonian), the amended Augsburg Con-
fession, and the Apology." On Feb. 21, 1614, there
was designed a complete plan for subjecting the
whole country to the Reformed faith. Strict Lu-
therans like Gedicke and Willich, archdeacon of St.
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
81*«be
Sl&lsr
Peter, were forced to flee, and the elector called
Abraham Scultetus (q.v.) to cany out the new plan.
At his advice there was published on May 10 a" Con-
fession of the Reformed Churches of Germany,"
the preface of which tried to show that even after
the Reformation there were still left many Roman-
isiic errors in the new faith, and (hat it was neces-
sary to reform the church of Brandenburg anew in
order to equate it with other Evangelical churches.
This confession was a reprint of one first published
at Heidelberg in 1562. In the same year the elector
issued his own confession of faith, Confessio Sigis-
mundi. It 13 not a. complete confession, but touches
merely the points of controversy. The elector again
acknowledges the chief symbols and the emended
Aug-liurc; Confession as the basis of doctrine while
he condemns all other writings " conceived by men,"
meaning principally the Formula of Concord. He
rejects the doctrine of ubiquity and the Lutheran
doctrine of the Communiadio Idiomatum (q.v.); in
hapt ism he rejects the ceremony of exorcism; in the
Lord's Supper bread and wine are visible symbols of
Invisible trace. The bread must be real unleavened
bread, ami the breaking of the bread must be pre-
served according to the example of Christ. He
adopts the doctrine of election. The Ctmftwio Sigia-
mundi became authoritative among the Reformed
in the eastern parts of Brandenburg-Prussia. Al-
though the elector declared his intention not to in-
terfere with the faith of his people, he continued the
" reformation " of his country, by constituting a
church council which was to take care of the inter-
ests of the Reformed faith. On Oct. 3 a disputa-
tion between Reformed and Lutherans was to take
place, but the latter were ho timid in the assertion of
their rights that the elector himself broke off the
colloquy and obliged every one present to observe
the edict of Feb. 24. The hope of the clergy rested
now upon the interference of the estates. In 1615
the eslales seriously complained that preachers of
doubtful standing were forced upon them, demanded
the appointment of Lutherans in the schools and at
the university, refused to acknowledge Pelargus as
genera! superintendent, and asked the elector for
the renewal and confirmation of his former pledges
for the protection of Lutheranism. After they had
made their demands a fourth time, the elector found
it advisable to yield and declared now that " every-
body in his country who desired, might adhere to
the doctrine of Luther and the unchanged Augsburg
Confession, also to the Hook of Concord." Never-
theless, the propaganda in behalf of the Reformed
confession was continued. The church council con-
tinued its activity; the state university and college
were supplied with Reformed teachers; Reformed
prenchers presided over Lutheran congregations, and
Pelargus in his love of peace ordained also Reformed
clergymen. But after 1616 the opposition against
the renovations became so strong and general both
among the clergy and laity, that in 1618 the church
eouneil had to be dissolved, and thus the " work of
the Reformation " in the Mnrk of Brandenburg
came to an end. The Lutheran Church was pre-
served, the elector standing almost alone with his
change of confession. His w-ife together with her
daughters adhered faithfully to the Lutheran creed.
His change of confession involved the elector in Uif-
Ik'utties with the duchy of Prussia, of which he was
feudal lord. The Prussian estates uttered the re-
proach that by adopting the Reformed confession
Sigismund had violated the fundamental laws of the
duchy. His theologians, Pelargus and J. Bcrgius,
refused to accept an invitation to the Synod of Dort
(1618), and its decisions acquired no authority in
Brandenburg. The events in Brandenburg occa-
sioned the issue of s great mass of polemical litera-
ture. Between 1G13 and 161*1 there appeared 231
treatises, among the contributors, on the Lutheran
side, being Leonhurd Hutter, Hoe von HoSnegg
(qq.v.), and Fried He h Baldwin ; the treatises advo-
cating the Reformed faith were mostly anonymous.
(G. Kawerau.)
BlBUOQKAPBT: L. Keller, Di* Grgrnrclarmatian in Weit-
faltn und am Nitttrrrhnn. iii. 210 etiq.. LelMIS, Is'.iS:
A. Chroudt. in Fortehunaen tar brandenburgiKhen un4
jnuuucAtn Q+eUtid*, a (18971. 13 sqq.; J. C. Bw-
munda . , . inlrodueta reformat'* rtliQwnU, Frankfort.
1713; D. H. Hering. HinloriK-he NachricHI nan drm mint
Anfang der evannfligrh-refurmirrtrn Kircke in Brandm-
bura und Prcumrn. Hnlle. 177*; idem. ittitragt iut Gt-
tchirhte der rvangtH&h-reformierlfn Kirr.hr in dm preut-
aiach-brandenburgitchm Ulndtrn, Bradt&u, 1784; W.
Matter, in DtvtKhe ZtiUrJirift ff.r rhruTtithe Wutentchaft.
; Was
Die milriachtn
6; F. Dittrich,
imnA-uiidf Erm-
Poul Gerhard!, Bet
Slandr untrr Jtlhunn Si<ji*inunil. II
fn Zriuchrifl far die gisrtWUi di
land: xiii [WOOJ, 72 «qn.; ADB. xiv. 1(19 sqq.. cf. xxv.
328 sqq. For the Confrstia SiaUmundi consult: K.
Mutter. Dit Brkmntniinchriftm drr rrformirrten Kirrht,
pp. tvi. eqq... 836 aqq.. I*ipsi(. 1903, of. <X Seser. Zvr
Confniia Sigitmundi. Berlin, 1KS9.
SIHLER, el'ler, EDWARD WILHELM ALEXAN-
DER: Lutheran (Missouri Synod i; b. at Berustadt,
Silesia SJm.f. of Breslati). Nov, 12,1801; d. at Fort
Wayne, Ind., Oct. 27, 1885. From the gymnasium
at SchweidniU he entered the army, was a lieutenant
of the line in 1819, in 1823 a student of the military
academy in Berlin (with Von Moltke and Von Roon),
but in 1826 left the service and became a student
under Schleiermacher in Berlin (Ph.D., Jena, 1829).
In 1830 he became an instructor in the famous
Blochmann's Institute in Dresden, in 1838 a private
tutor on the Livonian island ot Oesel, and in 1840
the same at Riga. About 1835 he was converted
and in 1843 came to the United States to labor
among the Germans, who were then so destitute of
religious teachers. His first charge was in Pomeroy,
O., his second and only other charge at Fort Wayne
from 1845 till his death. He was one of the organ-
isers of the movement started in his study in 1846
out of which came the powerful Missouri Synod (see
Lvthehakb, III., 5, } 1). He was its first vice-
president and the first president of the middle
district of his synod. He organized the Practical
Seminary at Fort Wayne in 1845, and in it taught
exegesis and dogmatics till 1861. He was a promi-
nent preacher among the Germans of the Middle
West and also an organizer of churches, fie wrote in
German several books, including an aiitebin^; ipliy
(down to 1843, St. Louis, Mo., 18711) and many
articles.
SD3LER, ERHEST GOTTLIEB: Lutheran lay-
man and classical scholar; b. at Fort Wayne,
Sikhs
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
408
Ind., Jan. 2, 1S53. He was educated at Concordia
College, Fort Wayne (A.B., 1869), Concordia Lu-
theran Divinity School, St. Louis (from which he
was graduated in 1872), the universities of Berlin
and Leipsic (1872-75), and Johns Hopkins (Ph.D.,
1878). He was a classical instructor in New York
City (1879-91); professor of classics at Concordia
College, Milwaukee (1891-92); and since 1892 has
been professor of Latin in New York University.
In theology he " holds to the historical position of
recorded Christianity, is a conservative in the full
acceptance of Gospels and Epistles," and " believes
that the spiritual failure of classical civilization is a
profound argument for Christianity." He is the
author of a number of editions of classics and of
Testimonium Animcs: or, Greek and Roman before
Jesus Christ (New York, 1908), a series of essays
and sketches dealing with the spiritual elements in
classical civilization; and Annals of Ccesar; critical
Biography, with a Survey of the Sources (1910).
SIKHS, stks, SIKHISM.
I. History of the Sikhs.
Background and Sources (| 1).
Life of the Founder ({ 2).
The Other Gurus (§ 3).
History from 1708 (ft 4).
II. The Religion.
The Granth (ft 1).
Belief and Practise (ft 2).
Sikh is the name accepted by a people in India
found almost exclusively in the Punjab, who are
bound together not by tribal affiliations but by a
religious bond. The term, meaning " disciple," is
the correlative of guru, " teacher," a common noun
appropriated as the title of the founder of the re-
ligion and transmitted to the nine men who suc-
ceeded him as religious heads of the faith. The fact
that " Sikh " came to have a semi-national signifi-
cance is not an essential of the system, but merely
a consequence of the political conditions at the
breaking up of the Mohammedan power in north-
west India during the eighteenth century.
I. History of the Sikhs: While the religion was
founded and developed by a series of ten teachers
who were called Gurus, the beginnings of their
faith are traced by themselves to a man named
Kabir, who, as so often in India, was
i. Back- regarded as an incarnation of deity.
ground and His birth date is variously given as
Sources. 1398 and about 1500. He is said to
have been miraculously conceived and
born in or near Benares, to have grown up a relig-
ious reformer, and to have composed hymns which
are received among the sacred writings of the Sikhs.
His revolt was against all distinctions of caste and
religion, against the Puranas and Shastras of Hin-
duism, and, necessarily, against the assumptions of
the Brahmans, and no less against the bigotry
fostered by the Koran. A number of sects, it is
claimed, sprang from his teachings, the last of whom
were the Sikhs. All these sects exemplify the tend-
ency of Indian teaching to combine elevated ideals
and noble reforms with gross superstition and fool-
ish observances. The sources of knowledge of the
Sikh religion and its founders and leaders are the
following. The principal work and the sacred book
of the Sikhs is the Adi Granth or Granth Sahib {see
below), a work in an obscure dialect of the Panjabi
called Gurmukhi, which includes compositions by
the Gurus and also by Bhagats (Indian saints) who
preceded the Gurus. Hymns are found also in
Prakrit, Hindi, Marathi, Multani, and a number of
local dialects. For the lives of the. Gurus there is a
series of works embodying accounts of their lives,
teachings, and miracles, in various languages, prin-
cipally Panjabi and Hindi, claiming to be by ad-
herents of the faith who were in especially close
relations with one or another of the Gurus. One
manuscript of the earliest of these lives dealing
with Guru Nanak bears the date of 1588, and was
therefore written during the lifetime of a certain
Bhai Budha, a venerable Sikh, who is admitted to
have been a young contemporary and disciple of
Nanak and to have lived to a great age, actually
linking by his life the leadership of the first six
Gurus. This would be of importance were it not for
the fact that the life under discussion, and all later
works of the kind, abound in the legendary, and
have been besides extensively corrupted by the ad-
mixture of characteristic Hindu material which
vitiates them for critical use. Two of the most ex-
tensive of these works, the Nanak Parkash, deal-
ing with the life and teachings of Nanak, was writ-
ten in 1823, and by the same author the Suraj
Parkashf in 6 volumes, was written between that
year and 1843. A great number of schismatic (for
Sikmsm had its schisms) and what may be called
apocryphal works exist, all of which teem with the
miraculous, while they are sparing of data which
submit to verification.
The Gurus were ten in number, each of the nine
last of whom became leader on the death (or retire-
ment) of his predecessor. Their names and dates are
as follows: Nanak (1469-1538), Angad (1504-52),
Amar Das (1479-1574), Ram Das
2. Life (1534^81), Arjan (1563-1606), Har
of the Gobind (1595-1645), Har Rai (1630-
Founder. 1661), Har Krishan (1656-64), Teg Ba-
hadur (1622-75), and Gobind Rai or
Gobind Singh (1666-1708). The important names
here are Nanak, Ram Das, Arjan, Har Gobind, Teg
Bahadur, and Gobind Singh. The narrative, in
brief, of the life of Nanak will give the flavor of all
of these Indian lives. He was born in Apr.-May,
1469, at or near Talwandi (a small town 30 m. s.w.
of Lahore), and died at Kartarpur (62 m. e. of La-
hore) in 1538. His father was an accountant and
agriculturist, consequently Nanak came not of
priestly but of lay lineage. This fact is significant
both for the character of the religion and for the
tongue in which the literature is cast — the vernacu-
lar and not the Sanskrit. His home was away from
the centers of Mohammedan influence and fanati-
cism, and this accounts for the impetus the religion
secured before encountering opposition. Accord-
ing to reports, the astrologer who was called in at
his birth foretold his greatness — some records affirm
the presence of the gods; at the age of five he be-
gan to meditate on heavenly themes; when at the
age* of seven he went to school, the master wrote
for him the alphabet, and he immediately composed
an acrostic on the alphabet and speedily excelled
409
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Sikhs
Lb master in knowledge; this experience was re-
peated when he went to study Persian at the age
of seven; while a youth engaged in herding cattle,
as he meditated the cattle trespassed on a grain-
field to the wrath of the owner, yet on examina-
tion it was found that not a single shoot had been
trampled; once while he was sleeping under a tree,
the shadow remained fixed and protected him from
the sun, and at another time a cobra spread its hood
and shaded him (cf. Serpent in Worship* etc.,
IV., § 2). Apart from such tales, what may be
gathered of his life is that he early reached con-
clusions condemning the religious customs, both
Hindu and Mohammedan, current about him, em-
ployed himself in composing verses in the vernacu-
lar embodying instruction on man's duty to God
and man and expressive of revolt against the teach-
ings and practises of the two dominant religions.
He refused as a youth to put on the sacred thread
and so declare himself a Hindu, confounding in
argument the Brahman who was to perform the
ceremony.
Nanak was married at fourteen, but could not
be induced to take up an occupation, gaining
the reputation of a madman. At length he took
service under the governor of Sultanpur, spent the
nights praising the Creator, and gave all but a pit-
tance of his wages to fakirs. Having retired into
the wilderness, he was gone three days, during
which he thought he had a vision of the Supreme,
drank nectar in the presence, and was pronounced
the true Guru. On his return he uttered a cryptic
sentence condemning Hindus and Mohammedans,
then took up the life of a wanderer and religious
teacher, and began to make disciples. like Socrates,
he found the themes for his teachings in the daily
life about him, a question, a chance saying, or an
experience giving him the text for a discourse in
verse. Manifesting a supreme disregard for rank
or dignity, he rebuked or taught with equal ardor,
severity, or gentleness, as the case seemed to him
to require, all who met him or listened to him, ad-
dressing as on terms of equality ascetics, fakirs,
thugs, Brahmans, nobles, princes, and kings, all of
whom are said to have acknowledged the divine
source of his teachings. He overcame the tempta-
tion of the devil who sought to buy him with the
riches of the earth from the accomplishment of his
teaching mission. He is said to have traversed
Middle and South India and to have visited Mecca
and Medina. During his life the organization of
the Sikh church had begun by the founding of socie-
ties, and the Guru's hymns were committed to mem-
ory as sacred scriptures. At the end of his life he
inaugurated the practise followed by the other
Gurus (except the tenth) and appointed his succes-
sor, in this case Angad. Just before his death Mo-
hammedans and Hindus contested for the honor
of disposing of his remains, but in the morning the
corpse had disappeared — his supreme miracle. The
methods of Nanak were often exceedingly apt and
convincing. Thus to a man who had acquired great
wealth and ostentatiously displayed it he gave a
needle with the injunction to retain it carefully
until it should be required of him in the next world.
The man took it with the injunction to his wife,
who declared the Guru mad and told him to return
it to the giver. The latter then asked, if so small
a thing as a needle could not be taken into the next
world, how so great wealth could accompany the
rich. On being asked how to take it there he re-
plied: " Give some of thy wealth in God's name,
feed the poor, and thy wealth shall accompany thee"
(Macaiiliffe, i. 130).
The name of the second Guru, Angad, embodies
the theory respecting the person of the Guru. His
name was Lahina, but this was changed to a word
which included the word for " body,"
3. The the idea being that the Guru for the
Other time being was the embodiment of the
Gurus. first Guru, and that indeed all the Gurus
were not ten but one, the spirit of the
first descending to the second. A consequence of
this is that the compositions of the Gurus all carry
the pen name Nanak. Angad abandoned the wan-
dering mode of life, settled at a place called Khadur,
whither the Sikhs came for instruction and to bring
their free-will offerings. His leadership was marked
by the first Sikh schism, a part of the followers of
Nanak choosing Sri Chand, oldest son of Nanak, as
Guru, and this sect received the name of Udasis
(" solitaries "). The period of the third Guru, Amar
Das, was marked by a second attempt at schism,
since Datu, the son of Angad, tried to set himelf up
in opposition, but was not recognized by the Sikhs.
Amar Das inaugurated the custom for the Sikhs of
visiting the Guru three times a year for instruction
in religion. It was he who began the work of build-
ing the sacred tank or pool. His period is marked
also by formal complaints to the Mohammedan
emperor against the faith, but Akbar dismissed these
and showed favor to the Guru. He formulated the
rules of the religion and created a sort of regulation
of life. By the fourth Guru, Ram Das, the work of
dissemination of the religion was undertaken by
the despatch of missionaries, part of whose work
was the collection of offerings for the completion of
the sacred tank. The importance of this structure
is great, since it gave the Sikhs a center and a home,
the environs of the pool being built up and becom-
ing the sacred city Amritsar, now the goal of the
Sikh pilgrimage. The compositions of this Guru and
of his predecessor were quite numerous. The fifth
Guru, Arjan, youngest son of Ram Das, completed
the erection of the tank and also the building of a
temple in the middle of it, also beginning the erec-
tion of the city of Kartarpur. His oldest brother
attempted to seize the leadership and created a sec-
ond schism, giving rise to the Mina sect. This fact
emphasized a growing tendency to diversity of faith
and practise and the rise of rival scriptures. Ac-
cordingly he conceived and carried through the col-
lection of the body of scriptures called the Adi
(" first ") Granth (see below), which was completed
in 1604 (or within about fifty years of the death
of the first Guru) and deposited it in the newly built
temple. The importance of this for the Sikhs can
not be overestimated, guaranteeing as it did the
perpetuity of the sect. His period is marked by in-
creased stress from the Mohammedans. Already
under the previous Guru there had been armed con-
flict, which in Arjan's time became serious; there
Sikhs
Slloam Inscription
THE NEW 8CHAFP-HERZOG
410
was now demand made that hymns in the Granth
hostile to Mohammedanism be destroyed. Arjan
was taken prisoner by the emperor and tortured to
death ostensibly for refusal to become a Mohamme-
dan, possibly, however, for giving aid to a revolting
son of the emperor. Har Gobind, the sixth Guru,
was the son of Arjan. Probably because of the in-
creasing pressure of Moslem opposition, he instituted
a standing army for the Sikhs, and militarism be-
comes more pronounced from this time on. Hos-
tilities were frequent, the Guru was himself impris-
oned, but the Sikhs were welded together by their
trials. The next two Gurus were insignificant. The
ninth, Teg Bahadur, youngest son of Har Gobind,
took up again the practise of travel, but the mili-
tary establishment was maintained. He is repre-
sented as going to the court at Delhi practically as
a sacrifice for his people, where he was beheaded.
The tenth Guru, Gobind Rai, afterward Gobind
Singh, was the son of Teg Bahadur. He was en-
gaged in conflict with the hill rajahs for almost his
whole guruship, and fighting with Mohammedans
was also practically constant. His significance for
the religion is great. He abolished for the Sikh
conformity to the Hindu customs of cutting the
hair and shaving the head, instituted fivefold bap-
tism with water stirred with a sword after which
each Sikh took the name Singh (" lion "), forbade
intermarriage of Sikhs with Mohammedans, con-
firmed tithes as the substitute for free-will offerings,
completed the Granth and made it better suited to
the changed conditions, and finally refused to ap-
point a successor, directing Sikhs to obey the Granth
as " the visible body of the Guru." This left relig-
ious direction in the hands of the official " reader of
the Granth."
After the death of Gobind Singh in 1708, the his-
tory of the Sikhs is obscure till 1800. It is known
that they were persecuted, and that a price of from
five to twenty-five rupees was for a
4. History time offered by the Mohammedan
from 1708. ruler of the Punjab for each Sikh head.
But as Mohammedan power declined
in the region during the eighteenth century, there
was organization of minor Sikh confederacies in the
Punjab under elected leaders. Ranjit Singh (b.
1780, governor of Lahore 1800, d. 1839) conceived
the plan of utilizing Sikh military fanaticism and
religious zeal to create a kingdom with Lahore as the
capital, and extended the realm to the Sutlej, then
the border of British rule. During his life the rela-
tions between the British and the Sikhs was friend-
ly. After his death the Sikhs crossed the frontier
into British territory, and the dominion of the latter
was gravely threatened. The Sikhs fought with
their wonted bravery and were beaten back only
after inflicting great losses and winning the respect
of their foes. The second Sikh war in 1848 resulted
in the same way, and the British then took over the
administration of the Punjab. The Sikhs entered
in numbers the British army in India, in which they
still constitute a large and most loyal element. They
proved their worth and loyalty first in the Indian
Mutiny of 1857. Their numbers, as given by the
census of 1901, are 2,195,339, all but 64,352 in the
Punjab, and of these two-thirds are in the United
Provinces and Kashmir. Religiously they fall into
two great divisions and many sects. The divisions
are the Sahijdharis and the Singhs, the former re-
jecting the baptism of Gobind Singh. Besides the
schismatic Udasis and Minas referred to above, there
are the Handalis, named after a convert of Amar
Das, but not arising till about 1640. Their descend-
ants, a small community, have their headquarters
at Jandiala in the Punjab, where they are known as
Niranjanie. As a religious sect the Sikhs are being
absorbed by the dominant Hinduism, have lost al-
most entirely the language of their sacred book, and
are in many respects forgetting the distinguishing
practises which under their Gurus marked them as
apart from the Hindus.
H. The Religion: The religious tenets of the
Sikhs are exhibited in the Adi Granth (or Granth
Sahib), consisting of the poetic utterances of the
Gurus and of some Indian saints whose sayings the
Gurus approved. According to com-
1. The mon conceptions, the Gurus were in-
Granth. carnations of deity, and, consequently,
the book is inspired. In its present
arrangement the Granth serves the purpose of a
bible and a liturgy. It is in six parts: (1) an intro-
duction by Nanak; (2) extracts from two of the
" rags " (see below) used in devotions at eventide;
(3) a devotional chapter composed of extracts from
one of the rags; (4) a chapter of extracts from
three of the rags used as a prayer before retiring;
(5) the Granth proper, of compositions in meter
arranged under thirty-one rags (musical measures to
which the hymns were sung or chanted — the result
is much like a hymn-book with the hymns arranged
under the different meters, short, long, common,
etc.); (6) a concluding portion by various authors,
including Indian saints and fakirs. The extent is
indicated by the fact that Trumpp's translation and
notes (see bibliography) make a small quarto of 715
pages. The language of the Granth is obscure both
as a dialect and because of the educational limita-
tions of the Gurus. It was intended for the under-
standing of the common people, and was therefore
in the vernacular; on this account the Brahmans
remonstrated with the Gurus for putting in the com-
mon speech what the former contended should not
be imparted to the populace, such knowledge being
too high for them. But the Gurus were aiming at
the very evil of retaining the knowledge of religion
within the command of a few, and desired therefore
not only that their own people should have this
knowledge in their own language (not the Sanskrit),
but that other nations should learn of it, and so
hoped for the translation of their works into many
languages. Of its contents varying estimates exist;
the literature of the East rarely appeals to the mind
of the West, and it is hardly strange that a book
which so abounds in figures, which reflects a life
and ordinary conceptions so different from those of
the western world, and which is more or less repe-
titious should not appeal to those who have not
breathed the inspiration of the East. Sir Lefel
Griffin (formerly secretary of the Punjab govern-
ment) remarks truly that it is scarcely possible to
turn a single page without being struck with the
beauty and originality of the figures and with the
411
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Sikhs
Siloam Inscription
enlightened devotion of its language (in H. A. Giles
and others, Great Religions of the World, New York,
1901). This book, like other sacred books, had its
period of persecution at the hands of enemies of the
religion. While the founder of the religion and
writer of a considerable part of the Granth dis-
claimed special sanctity, he asserted his authority
in matters of faith and practise.
Sikh theology is naturally based on established
and current Hindu conceptions. Thus the reason
for the existence of the Sikh religion is that which
explains the avatars of Vishnu — when
2. Belief the world needs it, God vouchsafes a
and new revelation. The new worship is
Practise, based on the old Hindu idea of the
efficacy of repeating devotionally the
name of God. God is one, but in the Hindu-pan-
theistic sense. He alone is real, all the world is un-
real. He is formless, yet diffused throughout crea-
tion. God and his worshiper are in some sense one;
yet the Hindu distinction between paramatman
(supreme soul) and jivatman (individual soul) is
maintained, the latter being an emanation of the
former. Attempts have been made to show the in-
fluence of Christianity upon Sikh concepts and
teachings. Many of the ideas are very similar and
may possibly be of Christian origin; yet it must be
said that all can be paralleled from pre-Christian
Hindu or Buddhistic sources. How similar these
ideas are to Christian teaching may be shown
by a few examples. Nanak resisted the tempta-
tion of the devil who offered him the wealth
of the world to abandon his mission (cf . Matt,
iv. 8-10). He used to complain because when he
was silent the Brahmans called him an idiot, and
when he talked they said he chattered (cf. Matt,
xi. 18-19). Among the figures he used was the dis-
parity between the size of the seed of the Indian
fig-tree and the tree itself (cf. Matt. xiii. 31-32).
The incident of the needle related above (I., § 2)
reminds of Matt. xix. 21. Angad made the purity
and simplicity of children the quality of believers
which endeared them to the Creator. However,
the thoroughly Hindu foundation is unmistakable.
The doctrines of reincarnation and of karma are
held in their entirety; constantly in the teachings
of the Gurus inequality of fortune to desert is ex-
plained as the result of deeds done in a former in-
carnation. Belief in Nirvana is a tenet of the faith,
and the word is used in the twofold sense familiar
to students of Buddhism — absorption into the Ab-
solute with resultant loss of personality, and a sense
cognate with that of " paradise." The sacred num-
ber is that of the Hindus — five, and true Sikhs are
distinguished by reception of fivefold baptism and
by the wearing of five articles — long hair, comb,
sword, short drawers, and steel bracelet. The essen-
tials of Sikh practise are abstention from Hindu
pilgrimages, from idolatry and from offerings to
idols, from wine and tobacco; women are not to be
secluded nor is infanticide to be practised; the de-
nunciation of suttee (concremation of a widow) is
emphatic; observance of the caste system with its
load of defilements and purifications is prohibited;
and the duty of earning one's living is enforced.
Stress is laid upon the virtues of truth, honesty,
loyalty to the Guru and the religion, gratitude, char-
ity to members of the faith, evenhanded justice,
filial duty, humility, patience, distrust of self, free-
dom from superstition, and the recompensing of
good for evil. Most of the Granth is taken up with
metrical homilies upon these subjects and on the
duty of avoiding the corresponding vices. The Sikh
is to rise before day, to bathe, repeat part of the
scriptures, and meditate on the divine name. He
is to bear in mind that true sacrifice consists in be-
ing charitable to those who repeat God's name and
practise humility. His ordinary acts are to become
acts of devotion, and he is to pray for the extension
of the religion. Geo. W. Gilmobe.
Bibliography: As a source incomparably the best work is
M. A. Macauliffe, The Sikh Religion; its Ourua, sacred
Writing* and Authors, 6 vols., Oxford, 1908 (this trans-
lates the Granth, placing the separate compositions after
the aocounts of the Gurus to whom they are credited.
In the lives of the Gurus the author has used the native
sources, and the flavor of the originals is preserved; un-
fortunately, the matter is rather poorly arranged. The
point of view is sympathetic to the religion). Next best k
Adi Granth, tranal. by E. Trumpp, London, 1877 (the transL
is inferior in its English — the translator was a German
— and is said to be inadequate from the point of view of
fidelity to the original; its value is that it translates con-
secutively; the introduction is extensive and has value).
For the history of the Sikhs consult: J. D. Cunningham,
A Hi*, of the Sikh* from the Origin of the Nation to the
Battle* oftheSutiej, London, 1849; L. Griffin, The Rajah*
of the Punjab, ib. 1873; idem, Ranjit Singh, ib. 1892; E.
Trumpp, Nanak der Stifter der Sikh Religion, Munich,
1876. On the religion consult: H. H. Wilson, Religious
Sect* of the Hindu*, Calcutta, 1846; Sakhi Namah. Sab-
he* Book, or the Description of Oooroo Oobind Singh** Re-
ligion and Doctrine*, tran*l. . . . by Sirdar Attar Singh,
Benares, 1873; A. Barth, Religion* of India, pp. 242 sqq.,
London, 1881; E. Trumpp, Die Religion der Sikh* nach
der QueUen, Leipsic, 1881; F. Pincott, in Religiou* Sy*~
tern* of the World, London and New York, 1893; A. 8.
Geden, Studie* in Eastern Religion*, London, 1900 (ex-
cellent); P. D. Chantepie de la Saussaye, Rdigionsge-
schichte, ii. 165-157, Tubingen, 1905. Some magairine liter-
ature is indicated in Richardson, Encyclopaedia, p. 1013.
SILOAM INSCRIPTION: An inscription found in
the conduit in Jerusalem leading from the Virgin's
Fount (or Virgin's Spring or Fountain of Steps) to
the Pool of Siloam (see Jerusalem, II.). The in-
scription was incised in the right-hand wall of the
conduit as one enters from the pool, and about nine-
teen feet from the entrance. It occupied the lower
part of an artificial niche so hewed as to form a rect-
angular cartouche, and the upper part of this niche
was left vacant. The inscription was discovered in
the summer of 1880 by two boys. Dr. Schick, a
German architect then resident in Jerusalem, having
heard of the find, examined it, and had the water
lowered in order to make a copy of the inscription.
His efforts were not very successful, owing in part
to his lack of skill as an archeologist, and in part
to the fact that there was a deposit of lime over
the place, and further because of confusion made by
chance marks or cracks in the rock. Dr. A. H.
Sayce of Oxford made the next copy in Feb., 1881,
which was more nearly correct. In April of the
same year a correct copy was secured by Dr. Her-
mann Guthe, who removed the lime deposits by
chemical means, made a cast from which squeezes
were taken, and in this way removed all doubts as
to the actual contents of the inscription.
Siloam Inscription
Silvester
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
412
This inscription is in six lines, written in the early
script very closely resembling that of the Moabite
Stone (q.v.) and of the current Phenician inscrip-
tions. The first line is mutilated at the end, and a
small break intrudes in lines two to four. The lan-
guage is idiomatic Hebrew, the text is unpointed,
and the orthography is, in the technical sense, " de-
fective " in that the letters Waw and Yod, used as
vowels, are often omitted where in later Hebrew
they are written to aid in the pronunciation. An
attempt was made to steal the inscription, and in
the process it was broken; the fragments are now
in the museum at Constantinople. The casts,
squeezes, and the original in full light combine to
make possible a nearly complete translation of the
oldest Israelitish inscription known of any consider-
able length. Its date is by most scholars put not
later than the reign of Hezekiah (714-686?), and
it is placed in connection with II Kings xx. 20, where
it is stated that Hezekiah " made a pool, and a con-
duit," and with II Chron. xxxii. 30, R. V., " Heze-
kiah stopped the upper spring of the waters of Gihon,
and brought them straight down on the west side
of the city of David." The following is the trans-
lation of Dr. S. R. Driver (Notes on the Hebrew Text
of . . . Samuel, p. xvi., Oxford, 1890).
1. [Behold] the piercing through! And this was
the manner of the piercing through. Whilst yet
[the miners were lifting up]
2. the pick each towards his fellow, and whilst
yet there were three cubits to be [cut through, there
was heard] the voice of each call-
3. ing to his fellow, for there was a fissure (?) in
the rock on the right hand . . . And on the day
of the
4. piercing through, the miners (lit. hewers) smote
each so as to meet his fellow, pick against pick; and
there flowed
5. the water from the source to the pool, 1200
cubits; and one hun-
6. dred cubits was the height of the rock over the
head of the miners. Geo. W. Gilmore.
Bibliography: H. Guthe, in ZDMO, 1882, pp. 725-750
(the original publication by this scholar), and in ZDPV,
xiii (1890), 203-204, 286-288; C. R. Conder, in PEF,
Quarterly Statement, 1882, pp. 122 sqq.; P. Berger, in
Journal des deoats, Apr. 16, 1882; Records of the Past, new
series, i. 168-175, London, 1889; W. F. Birch, in PEF,
Quarterly Statement, 1890, pp. 208-210; S. R. Driver, ut
sup., pp. xiv.-xvi., xxxii., xxxv.; C. Clermont-Ganneau,
Les Totnbeaux de David et des rots de Juda et le tunnel-
aquedoc de Siloe, Paris, 1897; E. J. Pilcher, in PSBA,
xix (1897), 165-182, xx (1898), 213-222, and PEF. Quar-
terly Statement, 1898, pp. 56-60; M. Lidzbareki, Hand-
buck der nordsemitischen Epigraphik, Weimar, 1898; A.
Socin, Die Siloah Inschrift, Freiburg. 1899; T. H. Weir,
Short Hist, of the Text of the O. T., London, 1899; G. A.
Cooke, Text-Book of North-Semitic Inscriptions, ib. 1903;
DB, iv. 515-516; JE, xi. 339-341.
SILVERIUS, sil-vl'ri-us: Pope 53G-537. The pon-
tificate of Silverius, who was the son of Pope
Hormisdas, fell during the period of the struggle
between the Goths and the eastern Empire and of
the discussion as to the value of the Chalcedonian
decrees. According to the Liber pontificalis, he owed
his elevation to the favor, won by money, of Theo-
datus, the Gothic king, and there was no formal
election, his enthronement taking place June 8, 536.
The speedy success of Belisarius in Italy made diffi-
cult the position of Silverius as the protege* of the
Gothic king. By agreement Belisarius occupied
Rome Dec. 9, 536; but the agreement was short-
lived, for Silverius incurred the hostility of Empress
Theodora by siding with the deposed Patriarch An-
thimus. The pope soon renewed his relations with
the Goths, and he was charged with purposing to
admit them to Rome; this seems not improbable, in
spite of the denial of his biographer, for from the
Goths Silverius had most to expect. In Mar., 537,
Belisarius deposed Silverius and banished him as
a monk to Patara in Lycia. His successor was
Vigilius, whose subserviency in dogmatic matters
secured the favor of Theodora. The case against
Silverius was reopened, and he was brought back
to Italy, only to be banished to the island of Ponza
in the Tyrrhenian Sea, where he died at a date
unknown. (A. Hauck.)
Bibliography: Liber pontificalis, ed. Mommaen in MOH,
GesU pont. Rom., i (1898), 144; Jaffa, Regents i. 115;
Prooopius, De bello Oothico, i. 25, printed in Muratori,
Scriptores, i. 1, pp. 247-369; J. Langen, Oeschichte der
rdmischen Kirche, ii. 341 sqq., Bonn, 1885; F. Gregoro-
vius. Hist, of the City of Rome, i. 300, 305-398, London,
1804; Bower, Popes, i. 344-347; Milman, Latin Chris-
tianity, i. 461; Hefele, Conciliengeschichte, ii. 571, Fr.
transl., ii. 2, p. 873.
SILVESTER: The name of two popes and two
antipopes.
Silvester I.: Pope 314-335. The important
events falling during the pontificate of this pope
were the conversion of Constantine [and the alleged
" donation " of that emperor] and the beginning of
the Arian and the Donatistic controversies, though
in neither of them had he direct participation.
Eusebius (Vita Constantini, III., vii.) reports that
he was represented at the Council of Nicsea and also
at the Synod of Aries, the latter of which sent its
canons to him. The period of his pontificate is
given by the Catalogue Liberianus.
(A. Hauck.)
Bibliography: Liber pontificalis, ed. Mommaen in MOH,
Oest. pont. Rom., i (1898), 47; Jaffe, Regesta, L 28-29;
R. A. Lipaiufl, Chronologic der r&mischen BischCfe, p. 259,
Kiel, 1889; Bower, Popes, L 45-54; Milman, Latin
Christianity, i. 94-95.
Silvester IL (Gerbert) : Pope 999-1003. Gerbert
was possibly a native of Aurillac in Auvergne,
and his birth-year probably falls between 940 and
950; his education he received at the monastery of
Aurillac, remaining in connection with the Abbot
Gerald and his successor Raymond, and there mani-
festing his talent. Later he went to Spain and
studied mathematics, astronomy, and music under
Bishop Hatto of Vich in Catalonia, with whom in
970 he went to Rome, where his accomplishments
led John XIII. to recommend him to Otto the Great.
From Rome (c. 972) he went to Reims to receive
instruction in dialectics from a celebrated archdea-
con of that place, where he came into relations with
Archbishop Adalbero, a man of great eminence in
political as well as in ecclesiastical life. The arch-
bishop stimulated Gerbert to teach as well as to
learn; this he did, dealing with the " Introduction "
of Porphyry, the " Categories " of Aristotle, and
with writings of Cicero and Boethius. His pupils
read the poets, and received training in the conduct
of discussions. The course led up to the study of
413
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Siloam Inscription
Silvester
arithmetic, music, astronomy, and geometry, and
the teacher became celebrated in France, Germany,
and Italy. Some time during this period he held
from Otto II. the abbey of Bobbio near Pa via, not
later than the beginning of 983. As such he had a
high position and took part in politics. Yet his
position as abbot was rendered unpleasant by the
possessions of the abbey, which made many his
enemies. At the death of Otto II., he left the abbey,
seeming to see decadence in Church and State, and
went to Reims, intending to take up again his be-
loved studies. He again began to teach, having
assembled a rich library; but he desired ecclesias-
tical activity, and became secretary of Adalbero
and so participator in political affairs. The arch-
bishop was engaged heartily in the service of pro-
tecting and safeguarding the interests of Otto III.,
in which he was ably assisted by Gerbert. Adalbero
was interested also in France; and in the elevation
of Hugh Capet to the throne, after the death of
Louis V., the influence of the archbishop and of
Gerbert was seen. After the death of Adalbero,
Gerbert naturally expected to be chosen to the see
of Reims, but was passed over in favor of Arnulf ,
who soon became a partisan of the Lothringians,
which led to the accusation of treason being lodged
against Arnulf and his trial before a synod, where
the question was raised concerning the jurisdiction
of a synod over a bishop. Eventually Arnulf re-
signed his see and Gerbert was elected in his place.
After this event, Gerbert became pronouncedly
anti-papal, turning against the pope the saying
" man must obey God rather than man," and de-
claring that if the pope sinned against a brother
and did not listen to the Church, he is to be regarded
as a heathen and a publican. Gerbert did not abide
by his principles, however. In 991 John XV. sent
as his representative to France and Germany Abbot
Leo of St. Boniface in Rome, that he might investi-
gate the affairs of the see of Reims. At a synod
called by Leo, June 2, 995, only four German bish-
ops were present, and the French bishops held aloof.
The apology delivered here by Gerbert marks the
beginning of his backward tendency, and attempted
to show that part of the trouble arose through
Rome's delay in answering. Gerbert was prohibited
from exercising the duties of his office until decision
was made. At a new synod of July 1, 995, Gerbert
was sure of French support and therefore was bolder;
but no decision was reached, and Gerbert thought
things favorable to himself and went to Rome to
carry out his plan of defense. Meanwhile John had
died and Gregory V. had taken his place, and was
engrossed with the idea of reform of the Church.
The prospect was therefore not altogether favorable
to Gerbert, and in France his support had grown
lukewarm. But Gerbert was in close relations with
Otto III., who admired his learning and valued his
services and was admired and praised by Gerbert
for his character and power.
The favor of Otto was used with the pope in
Herbert's interests, and the latter was made arch-
bishop of Ravenna, 998, where he appeared as the
furtherer of Gregory's plans for reform, taking part
in synods concerned with that business. The death
of Gregory in Feb., 999, led to the elevation of Ger-
bert to the papal chair as Silvester II., through the
favor of Otto. Gerbert turned his back upon his
past, recognized Arnulf as archbishop of Reims,
assisted the emperor in carrying out his plans for
reconstituting his kingdom, plans which were essen-
tially anti-German. Yet pope and emperor were
not entirely at one, Rome was committed to neither,
and the death of Otto, Jan. 23, 1002, broke the
prospects of realization of Silvester's plans and his
further hopes of greatness. The next year the latter
also died.
Silvester's writings included the subjects of dia-
lectics, mathematics, and theology. His De corpore
et sanguine Domini inquires whether the Eucharist
and the historical body of Christ are identical.
Silvester's reputation was principally for great learn-
ing, which was so great that he was accounted a
sorcerer. He was not creative, however. He was
an idealist in politics, and this gave an air of insin-
cerity to his attempts, while self-seeking is not to
be eliminated from the motives which ruled his ac-
tion. As a consequence his pontificate is memorable
for nothing of achievement in Church or State.
(A. Hauck.)
Bibliography: The Opera were edited by J. B. Masson,
Paris, 1611; by A. Duchesne, in Historic Francorum
scriptores, ii. 789-844, 5 vols., Paris, 1636-49, whence
they went into MPL, cxxxix. 201-268; the (Euvres with
life, by A. OUeris, Clermont, 1867; the " Letters,'* with
introduction, by J. Havet, Paris, 1889 (best); earlier ed.
in Bouquet, RecueU, vols, ix.-x.; the Opera mathematica
by N. Bubnov, Berlin, 1899. Bibliographies are to be
found in: U. Chevalier, Repertoire dee sources hietorique*
du moyen age, Paris, 1877; F. Cerroti, Bibliografia di
Roma, Rome, 1893; and Potthast, Wegweiser, pp. 601-
602.
The primary source for a life are his " letters " — note
eds. above in Opera and (Euvree. Consult. Mann, Popes,
v. 1-120 (with a critical list of literature); C. F. Hock,
Gerbert oder Papet Sylvester II., Vienna, 1837 (best); M. M.
Budinger, Ueber Oerberts wissenschafUiche und politische
SteUung, Marburg, 1861; C. Prantl, OeschichU der Logik
im Abendlande, ii. 63-67, Leipsic, 1866; F. Lausser, Ger-
bert, etude historique star le x. siecle, Aurillac, 1866 (uses
fresh material); E. de Barthelemy, Gerbert, ttude sur sa
vie H see ouvrages, Paris, 1868; C. Queant, Gerbert, ou
Sylvestre II. et le siecle de fer, Paris, 1868; A. von Reu-
mont, Geschichte der Stadt Rom, vol. ii., Berlin, 1868; R.
Baxmann, Politik der Papste, vol. ii., Elberfeld, 1869;
M. Sepet, in Revue des questions historiques, vii (1869),
440-623, viii (1870), 122-169; H. Reuter, Geschichte der
relioiosen Aufklaruna im Mittelalter, i. 78-84. Berlin,
1875; K. Werner, Gerbert von Aurillac. Die Kirche und
Wissenschaft seiner Zeit, Vienna, 1879; H. Weissenborn,
Gerbert, Beitrag sur Kenntniss der Mathematik des Mittel-
alters, Berlin, 1888; K. Schulthess, Papst Sylvester II,
als Lehrer und Staatsmann, Hamburg, 1891; idem, Die
Sagen uber Silvester II., ib. 1893; R. Allen, in English
Historical Review, vii (1892), 625-668 (a prise essay);
T. K. Schlockwerder, Untersuchungen zur Chronologic der
Briefe Gerberts, Halle, 1893; F. Gregorovius, Hist, of the
City of Rome, iii. 466 sqq., London, 1895; F. J. Picavet,
Gerbert, un pope phUosophe, Paris, 1897; J. Lair, Etudes
critiques, i. 94 sqq., Paris, 1899; C. P., Les Papee
francais. Tours, 1901 ; E. Duchesne, Le Domostroi du pope
SUvestre, Paris, 1904; Histoire litUraire de la France,
vi. 559-614; Ceillier, Auteurs sacres, ii. 901-911; Schaff,
Christian Church, iv. 777-782; Hefele, ConcMengeschichte*
vol. iv.; Bower, Popes, iii. 331-333; Milman, Latin
Christianity, iii. 202 sqq.
Silvester in.: Antipope 1044-46. See Bmnv
dict IX.
Silvester IV.: Antipope 1102. See Paschal IL
BilTia Agnitana,
Simeon Setaphrasta*
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
414
SILVIA AQUITANA: The name under which is
known a pilgrim of the fourth century to the Holy
Land, who has left a record of her travels. The
trend toward pilgrimages became almost a craze in
the fourth century, against which, e.g., Gregory of
Nyssa protested (MPG, xlvi. 101G-24), though
Jerome favored it (Epist., xlvi., Eng. transl., in
NPNF, 2 ser., vi. 60-65). A sort of guide-book
made on a journey c. 333 a.d. exists in the Itiner-
arium Burdigalense (" The Bordeaux Pilgrim ")>
but it is not a journal of travel like that which exists
in the Peregrinatio S. Silvia, discovered in 1884 by
G. F. Gamurrini at Arezzo in Tuscany and consisting
of a letter describing her experiences written to the
nuns of a cloister at her native place. The manu-
script is not complete, lacks both beginning and
end, and also a part from the middle of the narra-
tive. Fortunately, the omissions are practically
supplied by Peter the Deacon, who used the narra-
tive, as did Bede. The date may be set between
379-387, with 394 as the latest date possible; in
that year the bones of the Apostle Thomas were
translated to the chief church at Edessa, which the
pilgrim distinguished from the Martyrium which
she visited. Recently, however, Meister (see bib-
liography) has proposed 533-540 as the date of the
pilgrimage, and many have accepted his argu-
ments. Gamurrini sought to identify the pilgrim
with the traveler named by Palladius in the " Lau-
siac History/' but Fe'rotin (see bibliography) has
with greater probability suggested the Spanish nun
Eucheria, and at any rate " St. Silvia of Aquitania "
is " a purely mythical personage/1 That the pil-
grim was a person of consequence appears from the
attentions which were showered upon her by clerics,
monks, and bishops, and even by the military, es-
corts being furnished at times. She traveled in com-
fort and with a considerable retinue.
Peter the Deacon states that she made Jerusalem
her headquarters, visited Bethlehem, Hebron, and
the other cities celebrated in patriarchal history;
covered all Palestine in her travels — Tabor, Carmel,
Nazareth, Nain, Tiberias, Capernaum; then went
to Egypt and back to Jerusalem, and then to Sinai
and other sites in the Mosaic history, where the ex-
tant manuscript takes up the story. At Sinai she
was shown the sacred sites, the thorn-bush and the
like, went to Paran and Clysma, Rameses in Goshen,
Tanis, and then to Jerusalem by way of Pelusium;
then visited Nebo and the grave of Job in the Hauran
by way of Aenon; next to Antioch, Hierapolis,
Edessa, and Harran, her farthest point east. Her
return led via Constantinople through Asia Minor,
and in Seleucia she read the Acts of Thecla, while in
Chalcedon she visited the grave of St. Euphemia.
The narrative is interesting, faithful, and sincere.
Her notice of the worship of the Jerusalem commu-
nity is important, being the only one covering that
period ; she attended such services as those of Christ-
mas, Easter, Ascension Day, and Pentecost, and
describes baptism and the instruction leading to it.
Far behind this in worth are such books as Euche-
rius' De situ Hierosolymitance urbis (a compilation
from oral and written sources), the Breviarius de
Hierosolyma of the sixth century, Bede's De loci*
Sanctis, and the work of Peter the Deacon (q.v.).
Of independent worth is Theodosius' De situ terra
sanctce (middle of the sixth century); the reports of
the Gallic bishop Arculphus rest upon an Itinerarium
of c. 580 and one of Ad am nan. (G. KrCger.)
Bibliography: The editio prinoeps, by G. F. Gamurrini,
the discoverer of the document, was issued at Rome, 1887,
2d ed.. 1888, with the account of Peter the deacon and
other matter, Italian transl., Milan, 1890. The best ed.
is that of P. Geyer, in CSEL, tttjt. , Vienna, 1898.
Other texts are those of J. Pomialowsky, St. Petersburg.
1889; J. H. Bernard, for Palestine Pilgrims Text Society,
with Eng. transl., introduction and notes, London, 1896;
E. A. Beohtel, Chicago, 1902; and a fragment by E. von
DobschQts, in TU, 1899, pp. 167 sqq. Consult: L. De-
lisle, in Bxbliotheque de FecoU dee chartes, xlvii (1877), 342-
346; T. Mommsen, in SB A, 1887, pp. 357-364; E. Wolff-
lin, in Archiv fur lateinische Lexicographic tend Gram-
matik, iv (1887), 259-277; C. Weyman, in TQS, lxx (1888).
38-^50; L. de Saint-Aignan, Le Peterinage de S. Syivie-
... en 386, Orleans, 1889; E. Ebert, AUgemeine G*~
schichte der Literati* dee Mittelaltere, i. 345-347, Leipaie.
1889; Q. KrOger, in Preussische Jahrbucher, lxvi (1890),
491-605; P. Geyer, Kritisehe Bemerkungen *u S. SUvim
. . . peregrinatio, Augsburg, 1890; F. Cabrol, £tude *ur
la Peregrinatio Silvia. Lee £glise» de Jerusalem, la dis-
cipline et la liturgie au iv. siede, Paris, 1895; J. von der
Vliet, in TSK, xiv (1896), 1-29; M. Ferotin, Le Veritable
Auteur de la Peregrinatio Sylvia, Paris, 1903; A. Bludau.
in Der Katholik, lxxxiv. 2 (1904), 61-74, 81-98; J. Ang-
lade, De latinitate libeUi qui inscriptus est Peregrinatio
.... Paris, 1905; C. Meister, in Rheinisches Museum,
briv (1909), 337-392.
SIMEON, sim'e-en: Second bishop of Jerusalem
and cousin of Jesus; d. c. 107. His father was
Cleophas or Clopas (see Alphjeus), who, according
to Hegesippus (Eusebius, Hist, ecd., III., xi. 2),
was a brother of Joseph. His mother may have
been the Mary mentioned in John xix. 25, who is
designated as the wife of Cleophas. Owing to his
family connections, Simeon was chosen successor of
James the Just in the leadership of the Jerusalem
congregation. He is said to have held his office a
long time, and to have attained an age of 120 years.
As successor of James, Simeon was the head not only
of the congregation of Jerusalem but of all other
congregations in Palestine. Since the congregation
of Jerusalem left the city before the catastrophe of
the year 70 and went to Pella, the seat of the activ-
ity of Simeon must have been there. Tradition also
says that under Emperor Trajan and Governor At-
ticus he was denounced by the Jews as a Davidite
and Christian, a pretender to the crown. At the
order of Atticus he was for many days tortured and
finally crucified. (H. Acheus.)
Bibliography: The sources are Eusebius, BJiet ecd., HI.,
xi., xxii., xxxii., xxxv., IV., xxii. 4, Eng. transl. in NPNF,
vol. i., passim: and the same author's " Chronicle " for
the year 107. Consult further: Tillemont, Mimoires,
ii. 186 sqq.; J. B. Lightfoot, Apostolic Father*, part II.,
i. 15. 21-22. 39, 58, 60. 66, ii. 443-449. London. 1885;
E. Ldning, Gemeindcverfassung dee UrchrietentufHS, pp.
107-114, Halle, 1888; A. C. McGiffert, Apostolic Age,
pp. 564-565, New York. 1897; T. Zahn, Forschungen xur
Geschichte des neutestamentlichen Kanons, vi. 282 sqq..
Leipaie, 1900; R. Knopf, Nachapostolisches Zcitalter, pp.
1 sqq., Tubingen, 1905; Harnack, Litteratur, i. 223 sqq.;
DCB, iv. 677-678; KL, xi. 307-308.
SIMEON METAPHRASTES, met-a-fras'tti: By-
zantine hagiographer; flourished probably in the
second half of the tenth century. Of his life scarcely
a detail is known; even the younger Psellos' en-
comium and office for Simeon's day, Nov. 28 [now
combined with St. Theoktiste's day, Nov. 9] (Af PG,
415
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Silvia Aauitana
Simeon Metaphrastes
cxiv. 183-208), gives little information. It would
seem, however, that Simeon was born at Constanti-
nople, where he studied philosophy and rhetoric and
attained high rank, although the only
Life, Date, office which he is expressly said to have
and filled was that of logothete. The one
Writings, concrete statement of Psellos, that
Simeon took part in a naval expedi-
tion, is, however, incorrect. This error is due to the
misunderstanding of a passage in Simeon's revision
of Niketas Magister's life of St. Theoktiste, which
really states that Niketas, not Simeon, served on
the expedition of Himerios against Crete in 002. To
the information thus gained Markos Eugenikos (d.
1443) adds that Simeon held a disputation with a
Persian (Mohammedan?), and that, toward the end
of his life, he became a monk and was buried in the
Church of the Mother of God at Hodigi. Beginning
with the time of Psellos (eleventh century), manu-
scripts of Simeon Metaphrastes are numerous, and
he is mentioned with great frequency. A monastic
record of 1196 ascribes to Simeon the authorship of
a life of St. Paul of Mount Latros (d. Dec. 15, 956).
It would seem, however, that this life was written
soon after the reign of Nikephoros Phokas, or, still
more probably, about 991; and it may well be
doubted whether it really belongs to Simeon, espe-
cially as it is lacking in his collection and is assigned
to him by only a single document. At the same
time, it must be remembered that Simeon may have
written encomiums which he did not include in his
hagiography. It is clear, moreover, that the orig-
inal collection includes the festal sermon of Em-
peror Constantine on the translation of the Edessa
picture of Christ, delivered Aug. 16, 944, and incor-
porated by Simeon almost without change, thus
definitely placing the compilation in the second half
of the tenth century. Again, in the life of St. Sam-
son, evidently written by Simeon, a miracle is re-
corded as happening to the Protospathary Bardas,
the close friend of Romanos II., though the event
in question may perhaps better be referred to the
reign of Romanos1 son, Basil (976-1025), while the
life contains other allusions to the reign of John
Tzimiskes (969-976). The theory of many scholars
that the Logothete Simeon Magister to whom is
ascribed a Chronicon (ed. CSHB, xxxi. 1838) is to
be identified with Simeon Metaphrastes would prove
that the author was a close associate of Romanos I.
(920-944), although he wrote in the reign of Nike-
phoros Phokas (963-969); but the problem of the
authorship of the chronicle is too unsettled to per-
mit its use in determining the date of Simeon Meta-
phrastes. To the Logothete Simeon Magister is
also ascribed a collection of canons (ed. MPG, cxiv.
235-292), which form the basis of the commentary
of Alexios Aristenos (about 1130); and it is not im-
possible that this canonist was identical with the
Logothete Simeon Magister who, according to the
Practica of Eustathios Romanos (lxiv. 1), was an
elderly member of the imperial court of justice about
1000, and even with the patrician and first secretary
Simeon, who prepared two novella of Nikephoros
Phokas in 964 and 967. The Arab historian Yahya
ibn Said of Antioch, who continued the annals of
Eutychius to 1026, sets the activity of " Simon, sec-
retary and logothete who has written the accounts
of the saints and their festivals," in the early part
of the reign of Basil II. (976-1025), a statement
borne out by the express declaration of Markos
Eugenikos that Simeon's official career was during
the reigns of Phokas, John (Tzimiskes), and Basil
II. Nine letters are also ascribed to Simeon (MPG,
cxiv. 227-236), and some others are preserved in
manuscript, but none of these contain any data
establishing their authorship. He is likewise the
putative author of some prayers (MPG, cxiv. 219-
224), iambics on the Eucharist (ib.)f verses on Christ
and the apostles (unedited), a series of " moral al-
phabets " (MPG, cxiv. 131-136; penitential prayers
in alphabetical form), twenty-four " Ethical Dis-
courses " excerpted from the writings of Basil the
Great (MPG, xxxii. 1115-1382), 150 chapters on
the fifty orations of Macarius the Egyptian (ib.,
xxxiv. 841-965; see Macarius, 1), and possibly
three necrological poems (ed. L. Sternbach, in Eos,
v. 7-21). Only a thorough stylistic study, com-
bined with the establishment of the manuscript
transmission, can determine which of these writings
belong to Simeon Metaphrastes, whose name was
used to give prestige to many works by other hands,
not only for edifying literature in general, begin-
ning with the thirteenth century, but also for an
anonymous account of the building of St. Sophia
(ed. T. Preger, Scriptores originum Constantinopoli-
tanarum, i. 74-108, Leipsic, 1901). Older scholars
ascribed to him a commentary on Luke on the basis
of citations in the Catena of Niketas, although these
passages are really quoted from his lives of the saints,
as well as a work De moribus ecclesice (N. C. Papa-
dopoli, Pramotationes mystagogica, Padua, 1697, p.
398), of which nothing more is known.
Simeon Metaphrastes owes his fame to his collec-
tion of the legends of the saints, which has won him
the deep admiration not only of his own communion,
but also of many Roman Catholic theologians. The
extent, significance, and value of the work have all
been matters of much debate, the
His Hagi- cause being the concentration on in-
ography. dividual texts rather than on the col-
lection as a whole. It had already been
observed by Leo AUatius (in his De Symeonum scrip-
tie diatriba, Paris, 1664) that a certain complex of
lives recurred in many manuscripts, while the trans-
mission of the remaining lives was extremely dis-
crepant. Working along this line, H. Delehaye and
A. Ehrhard have carried the problem much nearer
solution, the latter scholar determining the genuine
lives in the hagiography of Simeon to be 149. These
lives are preserved with remarkable uniformity in
the various manuscripts, while the rest present the
widest divergencies. The most of the genuine lives
still need critical editing, and the Greek text of
twenty-four is extant as yet only in manuscript.
Nevertheless, the material already accessible is suf-
ficient for a correct estimate of Simeon's mode of
work, although complete knowledge would involve
acquaintance with all his predecessors. This alone
would serve to determine the independence of Sim-
eon in the choice of his texts, which in calendrical
order diverge sharply from other menologies and are
surprisingly close to the Constantinople Synaxarion.
Simeon Metaphraatea
Sixnler
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
416
It is certain that Simeon created no new legends;
he was, as the epithet given him implies, a meta-
phrast, reproducing the old legends in the style de-
manded by the literary taste of his time, and at the
same time occasionally making alterations in the
matter and connecting traditions which originally
were distinct. The legends which he incorporated
in his collection, and for the credibility of which he
was in no way responsible, were themselves later
revampings of the original acts of martyrs; and
many offenses against good taste must be ascribed
to his sources and to the requirements of his age
rather than to Simeon himself, who was evidently
a man of culture, taste, and talent. It should be
noted, at the same time, that he did not stand en-
tirely alone. A number of his contemporaries were
working in the same spirit; men like Nikephoros
Chumnos followed his example in the style of the
thirteenth century, and in the fourteenth Konstan-
tinos Akropolites gained the title of " the new
Metaphrastes." In comparison with these imita-
tors Simeon distinctly gains, and he was, so far as
a tenth-century Byzantine could be, natural and
simple in diction. (E. von DobschCtz.)
Bibliography: The collected works are in MPO, cxiv.-
cxvi. Cf. also AncUecta Bollandiana, viii. 308-316, and
Delehaye, in Griffin and Nau's Patroloffia orientalis, ii.
4, pp. 546-557, Paris, 1907. Consult: L. Allatius, De
Symeonum Scriptis diotriba, Paris, 1664; C. Oudin, Com-
tnentariua de acriptoribus ecclesia antiquis, ii. 1300-83,
Frankfort, 1722; Fabricius-Harles, Bibliotheca Grceca,
viii. 29, x. 180-345, xi. 295-334, Hamburg, 1802-08;
£. £. Kunik, in P. King's Forschungen in der Olteren Oe-
schichte Russlands, ii. 785-807, St. Petersburg, 1848;
A. Rambaud, V Empire grec au x. siicle, pp. 92-104, Paris,
1870; F. Hirsch, Bytantinische Studien, pp. 52 sqq., 303-
355, Leipsic, 1876; R. Nicolai, Oeschichte der griechischen
Literatur, iii. 70, 100, 104, 107-109, Magdeburg, 1878;
H. Delehaye, in Revue dee questions historiques, x (1893),
49-85; Analecta Bollandiana, xvi (1897), 312-329, xvii
(1898), 448-452; C. de Boor, in Bytantinische ZeiUchrift,
vi (1897), 233-284, x (1901), 70-90; A. Ehrhard. in
Festschrift turn clfhundertjdhrigen Jubilaum dee deutschen
Campo Santo in Rom, pp. 46-82, Rome, 1897; N. Konda-
toff, in ZWT, xlvi (1903), 434 sqq.; Krumbacher, Oe-
schichte, pp. 178 sqq., 200 sqq., 358 sqq., 718-719, et
passim.
SIMEON THE NEW THEOLOGIAN: Mystic of
the Eastern Church; b. in the village of Galate in
Paphlagonia c. 965; d. in a monastery not far from
Chrysopolis, near Chalcedon in Bithynia, Asia
Minor, between 1032 and 1041. He was sent to
Constantinople for his education, but showed no
interest in the rhetorical and philosophical studies
which were to fit him for the service of the State for
which he was intended, nor in the life at court which
he tasted as a page. Simeon the Studite (q.v.) had
already confirmed his desire for a religious life, and
became his spiritual guide after he entered the
monastery of Studion, where his mystical bent de-
veloped. Being expelled for maintaining an exclu-
sive friendship with his teacher, a thing forbidden
by the rules, he went to the monastery of Mamas,
near by, of which he became the head and received
priesthood. He raised the monastery out of its
demoralized condition and established his fame as
theologian by his extensive literary activity. Dur-
ing this period Simeon does not seem to have been
molested because of his individual views. It was
only after he had laid down his office (c. 1017), in
order to live in retirement, that he was involved in
a conflict with the highest spiritual authority.
Stephanos, the syncellus of the patriarch, a canon-
ist of fame and an acute dogmatician, attacked
Simeon because he had permitted his namesake
Simeon the Studite to be adored after his death in
the monastery of Mamas. The syncellus demanded
the abolition of this worship; since Simeon persist-
ently refused to give up the worship of his spiritual
father, he was banished from Constantinople by a
synodical decree to the neighborhood of Chrysopolis.
The adherents of Simeon compelled the patriarch
to rehabilitate him formally, but he remained in
exile and built a new monastery, where he died.
The theology of Simeon connects itself with a
development of practical mysticism which may be
traced to the end of the fourth century. Its charac-
teristic element was the belief that in certain spe-
cially elevated moments there was possible a vision
of the divinity as a supernatural light. Simeon was
guided and taught by his confessor to consider the
vision of the Hght as the aim of religious struggle.
There is nothing novel in the religious experience
around which the thoughts of Simeon moved, but
the power with which he invested his experiences
earned for him the title " new theologian." The
vision of the light which was granted to him, Simeon
understood as a revelation of God through which he
was assured of grace and had personal intercourse
with God. These experiences became for him the
key for the interpretation of the New Testament,
which he read with other eyes since he himself had
come in contact with the realities of which the
Scriptures testify. As the greatness of the Christian
ideal in the New Testament became plainer to him,
the more clearly he seemed to see that personal re-
lation with divinity is the indispensable condition
for an earnest Christian life, since only from a per-
sonally experienced grace flows the power for a life
in the spirit. Simeon recognized that it is grace
alone that elevates and renews man; no Greek has
repeated so often and so emphatically the Pauline
antithesis — from grace, not from works. Such prin-
ciples involved a polemic against the spirit of his
church; this inevitably raised opposition to him,
but the opposition could not prevent the formation
of a school around him or the penetration of his
principles into monasticism. The Hesychasts (q.v.)
stood entirely upon his shoulders. In the line of
Greek mysticism that from Clement and Origen, by
way of Gregory of Nyssa and Dionysius the Areo-
pagite, finally leads to the Hesychasts, Simeon rep-
resents the culminating point. (K. Holl.)
Bibliography: The " Works " are in MPO, cxx., and an
edition in modern Greek by Dionysios Zagoraios ap-
peared Venice, 1790. A Vita by Simeon's pupil Nioetas
Stethatos is still in manuscript, but its publication by
L. Petit is soon to be expected. Consult: K. Holl. B*-
thusiasmus und Bussgewalt. Eine Studie tu Symeon dem
neuen Theologen, Leipsic, 1898; Krumbacher, OeschichU,
pp. 152-154; Fabricius-Harles, Bibliotheca QreecOy xL
302 sqq., Hamburg. 1808; KL, xi. 1070.
SIMEON THE STUDITE: Monk in the monas-
tery of Studion at Constantinople, and teacher of
Simeon the New Theologian (q.v.); flourished
about 975. Exact knowledge of his life is lacking,
what is known coming from Nicetas Stethatos, a
417
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Simeon Xetaphraates
Simler
monk of the same monastery in the middle of the
eleventh century. According to Nicetas Simeon
wrote Biblon holin Opheleias ousan pneumatikes
agrammatos on (MPQ, clii. 266 sqq.), perhaps the
same as " Thirty-two Ascetic Sermons " attributed
to " Simeon the Monastic."
Bibliography: Leo Allatiua, De Symeonwn scripHs, Paris,
1664; Krumbacher, Qeschichte, pp. 140,_162-1M.
SIMEON STYLITES. See Stylitks.
SIMEON OF THESSALONICA: Archbishop of
that city in the early fifteenth century; d. prob-
ably in the latter part of 1428. Of his life almost
nothing is known, except that he had become arch-
bishop of Thessalonica before 1423, when the city
was purchased from the Despot Andronikos Palai-
ologos by the Venetians, to whom Simeon remained
loyal, despite the efforts of Murad II. to induce the
Greeks to surrender Thessalonica to the Turks. As
a theological writer Simeon exercised a wide influ-
ence, being used, and even copied, by many later
authors. His works were first edited by Dositheos
of Jerusalem (q.v.; J assy, 1683), and were then re-
printed in MPO, civ., which also gives the pagina-
tion of Dositheos. One of the chief mystagogic
theologians of the later Greek Church, he lays far
less stress on doctrine than on participation in the
divine mysteries, which alone give salvation; and
as a polemist his critique of the Bogomiles and his
defense of the Hesychasts have the value of orig-
inal sources. His chief work was the dialogue
" Against all Heresies, and on the One Faith of our
Lord and God and Savior Jesus Christ, the Holy
Rites, and all Mysteries of the Church." The first
part, which is much the briefer, is doctrinal, its
special themes being the Trinity and Christology,
but it also includes polemics against the Jews, Bogo-
miles, and Mohammedans, and declares that, while
it is impossible to convert all men, the Christian
should ever be ready to profess his faith. The sec-
ond part of the dialogue, a mystagogic introduction
to the liturgy, begins with the doctrine of baptism
and chrism; while the Eucharist affords an oppor-
tunity for a most minute discussion of the entire
ritual connected with it, the vestments, the sanc-
tuary, etc. Ordination and the various orders of
the clergy are then discussed, as well as confession,
marriage, and extreme unction, with an appendix
on prayer, the daily services, the hymns, the Tris-
hagion (q.v.), and the benedictions.
The dialogue just analyzed (ed. Dositheos, pp.
1-270) is followed by a number of briefer writings.
First among these is the treatise " On the Holy
Temple " (pp. 271-291), mystagogic like the dia-
logue. This is followed by three expositions of the
Nicene Creed: the " Synoptic Interpretation " (pp.
292-312); the " Most Necessary Exposition " (pp.
313-319; repeated almost word for word in the
Chronicon, iv. 22, of Georgios Phrantzea, who may
indeed have been, as he claimed to be, the author
of the treatise, rather than Simeon); and the " Di-
rect Interpretation " (pp. 319-322; incorporated
in the first reply of the Patriarch Jeremias II., q.v.,
to the Wittenberg theologians, and likewise of du-
bious authorship). Unlike these last two treatises,
there is no reason to doubt the authenticity of the
X.— 27
n
Answers to the Bishop " (pp. 323-370), the prel-
ate in question perhaps being the Metropolitan
Gabriel of Pentapolis. This contains information
on liturgy and such problems as the origin of evil,
life after death, and the angels. The last treatise in
the edition of Dositheos imparts the theory of the
priesthood to a monk intending to become a priest,
a strong tendency toward symbolism being a marked
characteristic of the treatise. A number of works
as yet unedited are also ascribed to Simeon of Thes-
salonica, among them a treatise on the exit of the
soul from the body and on " The Similar Triodia of
Passion Week " (both preserved in manuscript at
Jerusalem), as well as a number of letters contained
in an Athos manuscript. (Philipp Meyer.)
Bibliography: Leo AJlatius, De Symeonwn scripHs, pp.
185-194, Paris, 1664; C. Oudin, Commentarius de scrip-
toribus ecclesim, iii. 2242 sqq., Leipsic, 1722; M. Le Quien,
Orient Christianas, ii. 58-69, ib. 1740; W. Cave, Scrip-
torum ecclesiasticorum hist, literaria, ii., appendix, pp. 113—
114, Oxford, 1743; Fabriciua-Haiies, Bibliotheca Qraca,
xi. 328-334, Hamburg, 1808; Erech and Gruber, Ency
klop&die, I., lxxxvi. 87 sqq.; Krumbacher, Oeschichte,
pp. 112-113; KL, xi. 1073-74.
SIMEON, CHARLES: Church of England; b.
at Reading Sept. 24, 1759; d. there Nov. 13, 1836.
He was educated at King's College, Cambridge,
became fellow in 1782, and in 1783 incumbent of
Holy Trinity Church in the same city. He may be
considered the founder of the Low-church party.
His " evangelical " preaching at first encountered
opposition; but eventually he made many converts,
and exerted a wide influence. He became interested
in missions, and Henry Martyn's work is traceable
to him in part. He established a society for pur-
chasing advowsons, and thereby was able to put his
sympathizers at strategic points. He published a
translation of Claude's Essay on ti*e Composition of
a Sermon (London, 1801), to which he added notes
and a hundred sermon-skeletons, and subsequently
published such outlines (2,536 in number) upon the
entire Bible (Hora Homileticce, 17 vols., London,
1819-28; new ed., with addition of remaining works,
21 vols., 1840); Memorial Sketches of Rev. David
Brown, with a Selection of his Sermons Preached at
Calcutta (1831); and a large number of occasional
sermons.
Bibliography: W. Cams, Memoir* of the Life of Charles
Simeon . . . with a Selection from his Writings and Cor-
respondence, London, 1847; F. Close, Brief Sketch of the
Character and Last Days of C. Simeon, ib. 1836; J. Will-
iamson, Brief Memoir of the Rev. C. Simeon, ib. 1848;
H. C. Q. Moule, Charles Simeon, ib. 1895.
SIMLER, JOSIAS: Swiss Protestant; b. at Cap-
pel (15 m. 8. of Zurich) Nov. 6, 1530; d. at Zurich
July 2, 1576. He was educated at Basel and Stras-
burg, and, after completing his studies at Zurich in
1549, was for a few years a teacher and a ministerial
supply. In 1552, however, he was made professor
of New-Testament exegesis at Zurich, being also
minister of the village of Zollikon, near Zurich, until
1557, and deacon of St. Peter's, Zurich, from 1557
to 1560. At Zurich he came into contact with such
refugees from the Roman Catholic reaction under
Queen Mary of England as John Jewel (q.v.) and
John Parkhurst (later bishop of Norwich). In 1560
Simler succeeded Theodor Bibliander (q.v.), and,
Simler
Simon Vagus
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
418
retiring entirely from ministerial work, divided the
lectures on theology with Peter Martyr (q.v.), at
whose death, in 1562, he took charge of the entire
New-Testament department, which he controlled
until he died.
Simler was a most prolific author. He began by
translating into Latin a number of the works of
Bullinger and other Protestant theologians, and by
editing a portion of Peter Martyr's writings, although
his projected edition of the collected works of the
latter was never realized. He was himself deeply
interested in problems of dogmatic theology, par-
ticularly in view of the attacks of Italian antitrini-
tarians upon Reformed tenets. First assailing the
teaching of Francesco Stancaro (q.v.), that Christ
was a mediator only in virtue of his human nature,
in his Responsio ad maledictum Francisci Siancari
Mantuani librum adversus Tigurina ecclesia minis-
tros de Trinitate et mediatore nostro Jesu Christo
(Zurich, 1563), he likewise wrote, in defense of or-
thodox Christology, his De cetemo Dei JUio Domino
et Servatore nosiro Jesu Ckristo et de Spiritu Sancto,
adversus veteres et novos antUrinitariost id est Arianos,
Tritheistas, Samosatenianos et Pneumatomachos libri
quatuor (Zurich, 1568) ; Assertio orthodoxce doctrines
de duabus naturis Christi opposite blasphemiis et
sophismatibus Simonis BudnaH (1575); Scripta vet-
erum Laiina de una persona et duabus naturis Christi
adversus Nestorium, Eutychen et Acephalos dim
edita (1571); De vera Christi secundum humanam
naturam in his terris prassentia orthodoxa expositio
(1574); and the anonymous Ministrorum ecclesice
TigurincB ad confutationem Jacobi Andrea apologia
(1575). His Commentarii in Exodum were pub-
lished posthumously in 1584; and he was the author
of Oratio de vita et obitu . . . Petri Martyris Ver-
mUii (Zurich, 1563; Eng. transl. in A. Marten's
version of the " Common Places " of Peter Martyr,
London, 1583) and De ortu, vita et obitu . . . Hein-
rici BuUingeri (1575). Besides the works already
enumerated, Simler wrote on astronomy, the his-
tory of literature, geography, and history, the latter
category including his De republica Helvetiorum
(Zurich, 1576), which went through repeated edi-
tions until the middle of the eighteenth century,
and was translated into German, French, and Dutch.
His manuscript historical material, collected by his
grandson, is preserved in the municipal library of
Zurich. (G. Meter von Knonau.)
Bibuoorapht: J. G. Stuki, Vita Joeux Simleri, Zurich,
1577; W. A. B. Coolidge, Josiae Simler et lea origin** de
VAlpiniame juaqu'en 1600, Grenoble, 1904; G. Meyer
von Knonau, in Johrbuch dee Schweizer Alpenklub, -mii
217-236; ADB, xxariv. 355-358.
SIMON, soi'men (SIMEON), BEN YOHAI:
Rabbi of the second Christian century, to whom
the authorship of the Zohar (see Cabala, § 17) is
attributed. He was a favorite pupil of Akiba (q.v.),
and was of the party opposed to the Romans. Tra-
dition reports that he was compelled to remain in
hiding in a cave for twelve years, until the death of
the emperor (Hadrian), the cause being an out-
spoken condemnation of the Romans and their laws.
An event which is better placed late in his life was
his mission to Rome to obtain for his coreligionists
greater freedom in worship and teaching, and in this
mission he succeeded. During his hermit life is
placed the composition of the Zohar, the basis of
the tradition probably being that he combined a
certain mysticism in his teaching. Yet his teaching,
prevailingly halachic in type, was rationalistic in
so far as he sought always the underlying reason
for a Biblical injunction.
Bibliography: L. Lewin, Rabbi Simon ben Jochai, Frank-
fort, 1893; JE, ari. 350-363 (gives further literature,
mostly in Hebrew).
SIMON THE MACCABEE. See Hasmoneans,
§2.
SIMON MAGUS.
In the Book of Acts (J 1).
In the Apocrypha and Justin Martyr (J 2).
His System According to Later Heresiologists (| 3).
Untenable Theories Concerning Simon Magus (J 4).
A Sorcerer Syncretised with the Sun (J 5).
The Twofold Simonian System (J 6).
One of the most difficult and interesting prob-
lems of apostolic and post-apostolic history is pre-
sented by Simon Magus, a Samaritan, who is de-
scribed at once as a Christian, a Jew, and a pagan,
a magician and a sorcerer, a Christian religious
philosopher and an archheretic, a pseudo-apostle
and a pseudo-Messiah, the founder of a religion and
an incarnation of God. The earliest source con-
cerning him is Acts viii. 5-24, where he appears as
a sorcerer who had " bewitched the people of Sa-
maria, giving out that himself was
i. In the some great one," yet becoming an ad-
Book of herent of the Apostle Philip and mar-
Acts, veling at " the miracles and signs
which were done " (verses 5-13). In
verses 14-19, on the other hand, he seeks from Peter
and John, not (as one would expect in the case of a
sorcerer) the power of working miracles like Philip's,
but the gift of conferring the Holy Ghost by the
laying on of hands, only to have his request re-
fused because of the unworthy motives which had
prompted it. It is held by some critics that this
entire account was based by a redactor of Acts on
some " Acts of Peter," this redactor substituting
Philip for Peter in verses 5, 6, 12, 13, adding allu-
sions to John in verses 18b, 19a, 24, interpolating
verse 10, and adding verses 14-18a and 19b. It
should also be noted, in this connection, that neither
the extant Acts of Peter nor the Church Fathers
mention Philip and John in their accounts of Simon
Magus.
The record of Acts is continued by the various
recensions of the apocryphal Acts of Peter and kin-
dred literature (cf. Clement of Alexandria, Strom.,
vii. 17; Hippolytus, Pkilosophumenaf vi. 20; Euse-
bius, Hist, eccl., ii. 14-15; Arnobius, Adv. gentes,
ii. 12; Philostorgius, Hcer., xxix.; Epiphanius,
Haw., xxi. 4; etc.), all of which deal with the con-
flict between Simon Peter and Simon
2. In the Magus. The scene is Samaria in the
Apocrypha Acta VerceUenses only, the other sources
and Justin substituting Judea (or Jerusalem and
Martyr. Csesarea) and, most frequently, Rome.
The time is the reign of Nero or (in the
Acta VerceUenses) Claudius, but the only new trait
ascribed to the characters is the pseudo-Messiah-
ship of Simon Magus, which is shown, for instance.
419
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Sixnler
8imon Maynf
in his attempted ascension (frustrated by the prayer
of Peter) and in the epithet: "He that hath
stood." An entirely different picture is given by
the heresiologists of the early Church. The frag-
ments of Justin Martyr's lost work on heresies state
that Simon Magus was born in the Samaritan village
of Gitta, and went to Rome in the reign of Claudius.
There he is described as honored by a statue on an
island in the Tiber, this statue bearing the inscrip-
tion Simoni sancto deo (" To Simon, the holy god ").
This latter statement seems, however, to be due to
confusion with a statue actually set up on the
island in question in honor of the Sabine deity Semo
Sancus, with an inscription including the words
Semoni Sanco deo. At the same time, the tradition
of Simon '8 residence at Rome in the reign of Clau-
dius was evidently wide-spread, and Justin also
states that nearly all the Samaritans honored Simon
Magus " as the first god, above all power, authority,
and might," and as accompanied by a certain ex-
courtezan Helena, designated " the first under-
standing from himself " (Apol., i. 26; Trypho, cxx.).
A valuable supplement to this information is
given by a Roman heresiology written before 175
and incorporated by Irenseus in his Hcer.t i. 23, also
being used, in all probability, by Celsus, Tertullian,
Hippolytus, and the pseudo-Tertullian.
3. His Sys- Here Simon Magus appears in an essen-
tem Accord- tially Gnostic garb, being, on the one
ing to Later hand, the " highest God " (or " Fa-
Heresiolo- ther "), and, on the other, " the most
gists. sublime power of God "; while Helena
(here brought into connection with
Tyre) is represented as " the first conception of his
[Simon's] mind," " the mother of all," " wisdom,"
" the Holy Spirit," etc. Emanating from the Fa-
ther, she descended to the realms beneath, where,
in conformity to his will, she created the angelic
powers which, without knowing the Father, created
the world and man. Unwilling to be considered
creatures, the angels imprisoned her in a female
body, and she is the lost sheep for whose salvation
the Father (Simon) appeared, to rescue both her
and mankind from the slavery of the cosmic angelic
powers. To deceive these powers, he was mani-
fested to mankind as man, as the Father to the
Samaritans and the Son to the Jews, suffering do-
cetic passion. To this Irenseus erroneously adds
that Simon was supposed to have appeared as the
Holy Ghost to the gentiles; and both he and Epi-
phanius give a number of further details which,
while not impossible, can not definitely be ascribed
to the system. An entirely different presentation
of Simon's teaching is implied by Clement and
Origen, and is further developed in the PhUoso-
phumena (vi. 7-18, x. 12; ANF, v. 74-81, 143).
Here Helena (" Mind ") is unknown, and Simon is
given his self-designation — " He that hath stood1';
but Clement adds practically no new material, and
Origen little beyond the statement that Simon re-
garded idojatry as a matter of no concern (Contra
Celsum, vi. 11). A similar ignorance of Helena and
a like emphasis on Simon as " He that hath stood "
are shown by the PhUosophumena. Here the center
of all being is " boundless power," which is both
supramundane (inconceivable holy Silence) and ul-
tramundane (the " Father," " He that hath stood,
that standeth, and is to stand," an androgynous
power with neither beginning nor end, and essen-
tially unitary). While remaining distinct as a
seventh power, the Father causes to emanate three
syzygies of cosmic powers, which in their spiritual
aspect are " Mind," " Intelligence, " Voice,"
" Name," " Ratiocination," and " Reflection," and
in their physical aspect are " Heaven," " Earth,"
" Sun," " Moon," " Air," and " Water." The Fa-
ther is, moreover, " He that hath stood " in rela-
tion to premundane existence; " He that standeth "
in relation to present being; and " He that shall
stand " in relation to the final consummation. Man
is simply the realization of " boundless power," the
ultimate end of the cosmic process in which the god-
head attains self-consciousness. All this material
is recapitulated, with some additional data, by the
pseudo-Clementine Homilies and Recognitions.
Simon Magus is here described as a necromancer
driven by Peter from Caesarea to Antioch, and
finally to Rome, everywhere shown to be an im-
postor, though declaring himself to be Christ, and
overcome by divine miracles. Helena again ap-
pears, this time as " Wisdom," " the All-Mother,"
and " Lady," sending forth two angels (who seize
power over her), one to create the world, and the
other to give the Law. The pseudo-Clementine
sources also add that Simon Magus was the son of
Antonius and Rachel, that he was educated in
Greek learning at Alexandria, and that, after being
received among the thirty disciples of John the Bap-
tist, he became head of the sect after the death of
his teacher. He is likewise described, though with-
out plausibility, as the representative of Samaritan
worship on Mount Gerizim who expounded the Law
allegoricaUy and denied the resurrection of the dead,
as the representative of pagan philosophy (espe-
cially of astrological fatalism), and even as the
defender of Marcion's antithesis of the good and
righteous God.
In some passages in these writings Simon Magus
wears the mask of Paul, and attacks are made on
Pauline teachings under the guise of polemics in
favor of the Petrine theology against the tenets of
Simon Magus. There is, however, no
4. Unten- basis for the theory that the picture of
able Theo- Simon Magus in the Clementine litera-
ries Con- ture is deliberately designed to be a
cerning caricature of Paul inspired by the
Simon hatred of the Judaizing school, or for
Magus, seeing in the struggle between Peter
and Simon the victory of Petrine over
Pauline Christianity. All the traits of Simon in
this literature reveal him as only a magician or
pseudo-Messiah, later given not merely Pauline, but
also pagan and Marcionistic, characteristics; so that
both in the apocryphal Acts and in the pseudo-
Clementine literature Simon Magus was primarily
not a pseudo-Paul, but a pseudo-Christ, and there-
fore the antithesis of Peter. Equally improbable is
the hypothesis which identifies Simon Magus with
the beast of Rev. xiii. 11-17, although it is not im-
possible that the Beliar which the Sibylline Books,
iii. 63 sqq.y describe as destined to come " from the
Sebastenes" (Samaritans) represented Simon. It
Simon
Simon
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
420
has likewise been maintained that Simon Magus is
to be identified with the heresiarch Simon of Gitta,
who should, on this hypothesis, be dated in the early
part of the second century, but for this theory there
is not the slightest ground, especially in view of the
testimony of Acts, Clement of Alexandria, and Jus-
tin. It is, on the other hand, not improbable that
Simon Magus is to be identified with a Jewish ma-
gician named Simon who acted as a go-between for
the procurator Felix of Judea. This Simon is de-
scribed by Josephus (Ant., XX., vii. 2) as a Cypriot,
but this statement probably rests upon a confusion of
the Cyprian capital, Cittium (Hebr. KitUm), with the
obscure Samaritan village of Gitta (Hebr. Gittim).
All evidence goes to prove that Simon was what
his epithet Magus implies — a sorcerer. This was the
motive for his association with the apostles in Sa-
maria, but while it would seem that he pretended to
be, in the pagan sense, a god in human form (cf.
Justin, Apol., i. 26), there is no indication that either
Acts or Justin regarded him as a
5. A Sorcer- pseudo-Messiah; and even the apoc-
er Syncre- ryphal Acts and the pseudo-Clementine
tized with literature characterize him as a false
the Sun. Christ merely on the ground that he
was the first-born of Satan (cf. Igna-
tius, Epist. ad Trallenses, longer version, xi.). It is
true that the heresiologists describe him as the su-
preme God and even as the Redeemer, but a careful
study of the sources, particularly of the extant
fragments of his " Great Announcement " (pre-
served by Hippolytus, PhUosophumena, vi. 6 sqq.),
shows that Simon himself made no claim to Mes-
siahship, this being attributed to him by his disci-
ples. With this falls the theory that Simon Magus
was the founder of a universal religion intended to
rival Christianity; and he was not even the founder
of a sect in the sense that such heresiarchs as Mar-
cion were. The very fact that Simon himself be-
came the subject of Gnostic speculation shows that
he was not the founder of Gnosticism, nor do the
earlier sources so represent him; it was only his
followers who made this claim for him. Historically,
then, Simon was but a sorcerer who asserted that
he was a god. This assertion, aided by the high
fame which he enjoyed throughout Samaria (cf.
Acts viii.), reached its culmination in his identifica-
tion with the Semitic sun-god Shamash, whose cult
was united with that of the moon-goddess Astarte.
This is confirmed by Simon's companion, Helena,
who is unknown to Acts, the apocryphal Acts, the
Alexandrine heresiologists, or the " Great Announce-
ment," but whose name (" Moon "), combined with
the immoral past ascribed her and her Tyrian home,
obviously points to the Tyrian moon-goddess with
her licentious rites. How long this cult of Simon
Magus, which had evidently arisen long before the
time of Justin, persisted in Samaria and other re-
gions is unknown, but in the days of Origen the
" Simonians " were exceedingly few in number in
Palestine and the neighboring countries (Contra
Celsum, i. 57), and by the time of Epiphanius (Haer.,
xxii. 2) they had become extinct. On the other
hand, they had spread widely in the West before
200, and there long maintained themselves (cf . Hip-
polytus, Philosophumena, vi. 15). They seem to
have developed a sect essentially occult and libertine
in character, worshiping Simon (cf. Irenseus, Hear.,
I., xxiii. 4), and finally giving rise to two systems,
that of the " Great Announcement " and that de-
scribed by the heresiologists who based their wri-
tings upon Justin.
The authenticity of the " Great Announcement "
has been assailed both because of its similarity to
other Gnostic systems recorded by Hippolytus and
on account of its divergence from
6. The Simon's teachings as described by other
Twofold heresiologists. Neither of these argu-
Simonian ments, however, is sufficient to prove
System, the document spurious, especially in
view of the confirmation of Hippolytus
by other heresiologists; and the true explanation
of the divergencies between the PhUosophumena
and Justin lies in the fact that there were two
Simonian systems, one influenced by Alexandria and
the other by Syria. The former influence is espe-
cially evident in the doctrine of the Godhead as
" He that hath stood," which finds a close parallel-
ism in the Philonian system, and is also perceptible
in the purely allegorical method of Biblical exegesis
adopted by the " Great Announcement " (cf. also
the account in the pseudo-Clementine Homilies, ii.
22 sqq.). It is uncertain whether the " Great An-
nouncement " was written in Alexandria, but at all
events its citation of non-Samaritan prophets and
of Proverbs shows that it was composed neither by
Simon nor by any of his Samaritan followers. The
account given by Justin and those who drew upon
him, on the other hand, indicates that the second
Simonian system was evolved in Syria, its elements
being a syncretism of Babylonian mythology and
Hellenistic allegory (for the latter cf . Irenaius, Hear.,
I., xxiii. 4; Epiphanius, Hear., xxi.). Both the
Alexandrine and the Syrian form of Simonian ism
are unique in the history of Gnosticism in that they
make a historic personage the supreme God, and,
although destitute of any real Christian spirit, both
show Christian influence, the Alexandrian " Great
Announcement " using written Gospels and the
Petrine and Pauline epistles, and the Syrian system
comparing Helena with the lost sheep of Matt,
xviii. 12 and Luke xv. 6. (Hans Wattz.)
In St. Peter's in Rome in the west division of the
left aisle is an oil painting on slate by Francesco
Vanni, " The punishment of Simon Magus," repre-
senting Simon Magus's fall from the skies at the
prayer of St. Peter.
Bibliography: As an indirect source may be taken into
account the excerpts from the Apophasi* in Hippolytus,
Hot., VI., vii.-xviii (Eng. transl. in ANF, v. 76-«l), on
which cf. H. Stahelin, in TU, vi (1891). The most of the
sources are named in the text, but the principal ones may
be summarised here for convenience: Acts viii. 5-24;
Justin Martyr, / Apol., xxvi., Ivi., and Trypho, cxx., both
in ANF, vol. i.; Hegesippus, in Eusebius, Hut. eccl.,
IV., xxii. 5, in NPNF, 2 ser., vol. i.; Irenseus, Haer., I.,
xxiii. 1-4, in A NF, vol. i. ; Clement of Alexandria, Strom.,
II., xi. 52, VII., xvii. 107-108, in ANF, vol. ii.; Origen.
Contr. Celsum, i. 57, vi. 11, in ANF, vol. iv.; the Clem-
entina; Eusebius, Hist, eccl., II., i. 12-15, in NPNF, 2
ser., vol. i.; Gregory Naxiansen, Oratio, xxiii. 16. xliv.
Consult: F. C. Baur, in Tubinqer Zeitschrift fur Theotooie,
1831, pp. 114-136: idem, Paulus, pp. 85 sqq.. 218 sqq..
Tubingen, 1845; H. Simson, in ZHT, xi (1841), 15-79;
A. Sehliemann, Die CUmcntinen, Hamburg, 1844; A. H2-
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Simon ICagus
gen/dd, Dit dementi niechen Recognitionen and Bomilitn,
pp. 317 aqq., Jbqs, IBIS; idem, in ZWT. xi (1888), 357-
390, xlvii (100*). 545-507, ilii (1000), 08-133; J. Urimm,
Dit Samaritcr, pp. 125-175, Munich, 1S54; E. Zeller,
Apoeteactchichlt, pp. 15S boo... Stuttgart, 1854. ling,
troual., Content* and Origin of the Acta of the Apoetlee. i.
250 aqq.. London. 1873] G. Volkmitr, in Tuoinger thea-
lagiiehe JahrbOcher, 1858: R. A. Lipaiua, Quellen der
rlimitcken Petntuagc. pp. i:HG, Kiel, 1872; idem, Die
apokryphen ApoiteinttchicMe, ii. 1, pp. 28-09 et passim,
llniaiikirk, iwil; J. Dulituch. iii 77! A'. xJvii (1874):
lliiiiTlin. L'ApMre Paul et Simon It Magicien. Nancy,
1878; T. Zahn. Cyprian VMi Antiochien und die deuUehe
FoutUage, Erlangen, 1882; C. Bigg, in Studio Biblico.
ii (ISUil). 157-lBJ: V. Spina. /Jit iipoKeliiescAicAfe, iAra
Quellen. pp. 145 soq.. Hallo. 1301; C. Clemen, Chrtmoloeie
der pauliniichrn Stiff*, Hnlle, 1803; M. Knrakel, Jo-
tephut und Lueat, pp. 178-100. Leipsic. 1SS4; A. C.
M.'.iliWl. Auottolie A0e, pp. 99-100. New York. 1897:
J. Kreytiibillil, Dae Keangdium der Wahrhcit, i. 174-205,
ii. 100 a.m.. Bi'riin. I'JUJ-O,',; P. Liic:ii]i>, in .Vinrra llul-
laino di archeologia crietiana, vi (1900); J. F. A. Hort.
ftolet Introductoru la l>" si:;,!-, of the Virmenline Recogni-
tione, London. 1001 : R. Liwhlcnluin. Dit Ofienbarung in
OiMUMW PP. 5 «iq.. 58-57. Gflttingan. 1001; H. U.
\l:iyl>,«.rn. De Clement- Roman, parts i.-ii.. Cironiiigen,
1002-04; H. Wsiti. in ZSTW, v (1004). 121-U3; idem,
ill J"'', "M. 4 (19011, 170 su/i.. 2U2 sqq,, itpUsim; Hu^
nark. Litteratvr, i. 153 aqq., ii. 2. pp. 5(8-540; Scbaff,
CAridraii Church, i. 257-258; Neander. Chrielian Church.
vols. i-ii. paasim: and, in general, hiatoriea of Iho apostolic
age: DB, iv. :".20-f.27; fi«, iv. -1530-60: JB. si. :<7I-:<73;
DCS, iv. 681-{NX: tlitliiernture under Clmuktina; and
(.jNuHinhM ami the principal commentaries on the Acta
SIMON (SIMEOH) STOCK, SAINT: Carmelite
and general of the order; b. in Kent, England, c.
1165; d. at Bordeaux, France, May 16, 1265. Tra-
il it ion riiiik,-.- him take up the hermit's life at the ape
of twelve, entering the Carmelite order in 1201, and
studying n.f tenvard at Oxford; he became vicar-
genera! fur the West, 1215, was in Palestine in 1237,
went to England in 1214, and became general in
1245. His chief claim to fame is as propagator of
the Scapular (q.v.).
BiauouHAPm: ABB, May, in. 053-854, 702. vii. 790; the
Lrben by A. Monbrun, Kegenaburg. 1888; DNB, lii. 255:
SIMON OF TODRNAI, tflr"ne': Teacher at the
Horbonne about 1200. Of his life scarcely a detail
is known, but if he may be identified with the Show
recommended to the archbishop of Reima by Stephen
of Tournai {MPL, cexi. 353), he would seem to have
been bom nt Tournai {48 m. s. by w. of Ghent).
According to Matthew Paris (Chron. majora, on the
year 1.1)1), who claimed to have his account from
an eye-witness, Simon in one lecture alleged many
abjeetloM to the doctrine of the Trinity, only to
refute them in the following lecture. The applause
which (his won him filled him with such vanitv that
he bl:i'ip1if'Tin.)u:-ly congratulated the Savior on the
nid that his dialectic skill had given the Christian
can*, though insuperable objections might have
Lhvs'i brought iic-iiri!=1 Christianity liail (lie lecturer
really l>een opposing it. Thereupon, Matthew re-
cords Simon lost both speech and memory, and took
two years to relearn the alphabet. A younger con-
temporary, the Dominican Thomas Caul ipratamis
Id. 12(i3), makes Simon declare Moses, Jesus, and
Mohammed to be three impostors (Bonum tiniivr-
aote dt apibm, ii. 48; cf. Impostohibus, de Tribvb},
and then suffer loss of speech and memory; but
Henry of Ghent (q.v.) merely states that Simon,
being too ardent an Aristotelian, was regarded by
many as a heretic (De scripf. ted., xxiv.). The en-
tire account is explained by some as a legendary
accretion, inspired by orthodox dread of the theo-
logical consequences of dialectic philosophy, about
some catastrophe which befell Simon in the midst
of a distinguished academic career.
(Fehdi.yand Comts.)
BiHuoaBAPHT: BiMoire KUMfa de la France, ivi. 304;
B, Huureuu. Hiet. dt l<i philoaaphie echaiaetietue, ii, 1, pp.
58 eqq., Paria, 1880; H. Denine. Chartvianim Unieerei-
laiit Parieieneit, i. 45, 71, ib. 1800; Netmder. Chrietian
Church, iv. 418; KL. xi. 320-321.
SIMON ZELOTES, ze-la'Ui: One of the twelve
apostles. He is mentioned in all the New-Testa-
ment lists (Matt. x. 4; Mark iii. IS; Luke vi. 15;
Acts i. 13). But with Luke alone, he bears the sur-
name Zelotes; whereas in Matthew and Mark, as
correctly read, he is termed the Camianite, a desig-
nation which appears to be derived from a corre-
sponding local name. The correct explanation of
the term " Zelotes " is supplied by Luke, with his
tWDlhrtton " Zealot," ™ man of ardor." The origin
of this surname might rest in Simon's personal
characteristics or in his individual labors rather
than' on the basis of some supposed connection
with the revolutionary Galilean faction of Zealots
(q.v.).
Identification of Simon Zelotes with the Simon
who is named among the brethren of Jesus (Malt,
xiii. 55; Mark vi. 3), together with the cognate as-
sumption that the latter was a brother of James the
son of Alphsciis, is quite unfounded (see Jasies, I., 3),
as are the reports of a later activity of the apostle
in Egypt and in Britain (Nieejihorus Callistus, II.,
xl.), or in Persia and Babylonia (Abdias, Hi*t., VI.,
BrauoosAFHT; Bonidca the commentaries oo the passagea
noted in the text, and the articles in the Bible dictionaries,
consult: A. Edcnheim. Life and Timet of J nut the Met-
tiah, i, 251. 522, ii, 803, New York. 1898; T. 2nhn, For-
eehungen lur GeeehiehU del neultttamentliehen Kanone, vi.
293. 321, 381. Leipaio, 1900.
SIMON, DAVID W0RTH3NGT0N : English Con-
grei^uion.'dist; b. at Hazel Grove (8 m. s.e. of Man-
chester), Cheshire, Apr, 28, 1830; d. at Dresden
Jan. 17, 1909. He was educated at Ljincastershirc
Independent College, Manchester (1SIS-5-1), and the
universities of Halle and Heidelberg flS.i-I-55, 1857-
1858), and at Tubingen (Ph.D., 1863), residing for
a time at Darmstadt. After holding ( Viii^regu l tuna!
pastorates at Itoyston, Herts (1856), and Rus-
holme, Manchester (1858), and after the completion
of his studies in Germany, he was Berlin agent of
the British and Foreign Bible Society (1863-69);
principal and professor of general theology and phi-
losophy at Spring Hill College, Birmingham (now
Mansfield College, Oxford), until 1884; principal
and professor of systematic theology and church
history in the Theological Hall of the Scottish Con-
gregational Church, Edinburgh (1884-93); and
became in 1893 principal of the Yorkshire United
Independent College, Bradford, Yorkshire. He
translated E. W. Hengstenberg's " Commentary on
Ecclesiastes " (in collaboration with W. L. Alexan-
Simons
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
der; Edinburgh, 1860); I. A. Doroer's History of
the Development of the Doctrine of the Person of
Ovist (5 vols., 1861-63); H. Cramer's BMico-Theo-
logical Lexicon of New Testament Greek (in collabo-
ration with W. Urwiek; 1872); and L. Stahlin's
Kant, LoUe, Ritscht (1889); and wrote The Bible
on Outgrowth of Theocratic Life (Edinburgh, 1886);
The Redemption of Man (1886); Reconciliation by
Incarnation (1898); Some Bible Problems (London,
1898); and The Making of a Preacher (1907).
SIMON, JOHH SMITH: Wesleyan Methodist;
b, in Glasgow June 25, 1843. He was educated at
Elizabeth College, Guernsey, and Victoria College,
Jersey, and, after being a lawyer's assistant for four
years, entered the Wesleyan ministry in 1863. He
has served on many of the most important commit-
tees of his denomination, and in 1895 became one
of the members of its Legal Conference. He was a
delegate to the Methodist Ecumenical conferences
of 1891 (Washington) and 1901 (London), and in
1907 was president of the Wesleyan conference.
Since 1901 be has been governor of the Wesleyan
Methodist Theological College at Didsbury, and ia
the author of Manual of Instruction and Advice for
Class Leaders (London, 1892); Summary of Method-
ist Law and Discipline (1897); and The Revival of
Religion in England in Die Eighteenth Century (1907).
SIMON, RICHARD: French Roman Catholic
and the real founder of Biblical criticism; b. at
Dieppe (33 m. n. of Rouen) May 13, 1638; d. there
Apr. II, 1712. In 1658 he became a novice of the
Or:itori:tn.-, and, after withdrawing, returned in
1662 on receiving permission to continue his studies
during his novitiate. He was ordained to the priest-
hood in Sept., 1870, but on May 21, 1078, was ex-
pelled from the Oratorians because of the publica-
tion of his Histoire critique du Field Testament
(Paris, 1678, and often; Eng. transl. by R. Hamp-
den, Critical History of the Old Testament, 4 parts,
London, 1682). He then retired to the parish of
Boileville in Normandy, which he bid received in
16715, uriil later lived at Dieppe, Rouen, and Paris.
Before his expulsion from the Oratorhms he was for
a time professor of philosophy at Juilly, though he
found a more congenial task in cataloguing the
orient id manuscripts of the library ami in Biblical,
rLL i it j i ti i r- Li I , unci p;ilri-ne snidii--.. li;.i kinalis! ic in
trniiwriimf.'iil, and quarrelsome in disposition, the
fresh knowledge which he acquired involved him in
cnunih-ss controversies, the most famous l>einj; that
which centered about the Hiitoirc critique just men-
tioned. This work, after seven year- of preparation,
had been passed by the censor and was in print,
with the exception of the title and the dedication
to the king, when the preface and table of contents
fell into the hands of Bossuet. The heading of the
fifth chapter, " Moses can not be the author of nil
the books attributed to him," was enough to cause
Bossuet to interfere, and on June 19, 1G78, the
copies of the work, with a few exceptions, were
destroyed. From one of those which escaped Daniel
Elzevir prepared an incorrect edition (Amsterdam,
lfiSO), and in 1685 Simon himself published another
edition at Rotterdam with a preface as if from a
Protestant and notes referring to Simon in the third
person. The work was vehemently attacked, but
the New-Testament portions were so increased in
size that they were issued in separate parts under
the titles of Histoire critique du texts du Nouveau
Testament (Rotterdam, 1689; Eng. transl., 2 parts,
London, 1689), Histoire critique des versions du
Nouvtau Testament (Rotterdam, 1690; Eng. transl.,
London, 1692), and Histoire critique des principaux
commentateura du Nouveau Testament (2 parts, Rot-
terdam, 1693), these being followed by the NouveUes
observation* cur le texts et Us versions du Nouveau
Testament (Paris, 1695) and by an anonymous
French translation of the Vulgate (4 vols., TreVoux,
1702). This version was also attacked by Bossuet,
and although Simon printed slips bearing changes
in translation and explanations to be pasted over
bis first text, the book was prohibited. Toward the
end of his life Simon printed Lettres choisies de M.
Simon (Amsterdam, 1700) and, under the pseu-
donym of M. de Sainjorc, Bibliatheque critique, ou
recveil de diverses pieces (4 parts, Paris and Amster-
dam, 1708-10). After his death his NouveOe bib-
liotheque choisie appeared (2 vols., 1714), and among
his other writings special mention may be mode of
his Histoire critique des dogmes, des controverses, des
coutumes el des ceremonies des Chrttiens orientaux
(Trevoux, 1711; Eng. transl. by A. Lovell, London,
1685).
Richard Simon was the first to attempt to write
a history of the Bible as a piece of literature, an as-
tounding innovation considering the intellectual
conditions of his time. He did not, however, direct
his attention to the contents or the Bible or to the
development of religious concepts, but rather to the
text, the versions, and the commentaries. Disre-
garding the traditional and dogmatic presupposi-
tions of the age, he critically discussed the Septua-
gint and the Vulgate, and defended the translation
of the Bible into the vernacular. He regarded the
Masorotic text as represent ins a good tradition, but
postulated the late origin of the Hebrew vowel-
points and square script. In New-Testament criti-
cism he defended the Hellenistic idiom against the
purists. In regard to the origin of the Old Testa-
ment, he maintained that there were in Israel, from
the time of Moses, public scribes whose duty it was
to record all matters pertaining to religion and the
State, and also, in their capacity of public orators,
to give directions to the people, these addresses being
published from time to time, and after the Exile
giving rise to the Old Testament in its present form.
The verdict of succeeding generations was most un-
fiivoraUe to Simon, nor was it until the rise of Jo-
harm Salomo Semler (q.v.) that the true raerita of
Simon, with all his shortcomings, received full
recognition. E. Nestle.
riniutHiii.i'i'r- A. Beraus, Richard Simon et tan Hi*.
critique du Vina Testament, Lausanne, 1899; Mem. No-
tice bibtioaraphique Mf Richard Simon, Ml 1882; L_
Dials). OttchicMc da Attn TatatnenU in der chriUliehat
Kirchc. lean. 1869: C. H. Wright. Introduction to the Old
London. 1891 (the lint port nintains a history
»)! H. Mancival. in /.'■■■■..- d'hitt. et titttraturo
I (1890), 159, ii (18971, 17. 223. 525, iii (1B9S),
117. 138, 608. I* (1899). 122. 192. 310. 435; A. Bludau. in
Der Kathalik. 1904, i. 29-422, ii. 114-122; A. Dull. Bi*.
ef O. T. Criticum. New York, 1910.
423
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Simon
Simons
I. First Statement.
Early Life and Views (f 1).
Paideutic Objective (f 2).
Later Life; Literary Activity
(§3).
Theological Controversies (§ 4).
Final Activities (f 5).
SIMONS, MENNO.
Characterization (f 6).
II. Second Statement.
ViewB of Scripture (f 1).
Sin; Justification by Faith (f 2).
Holy Living; the Ordinances (f 3).
The Church (f 4).
Christology (f 5).
Relation to Rationalism (f 6).
Relation to the Reformers (5 7).
Relation to the Swiss Brethren
(§8).
Relation to Monster Anabaptists
(J 9).
Victim of Intolerance (f 10).
I. First Statement: Menno Simons, Dutch Ana-
baptist, was born at Witmarsum (5 m. s.e. of Har-
ingen), Holland, 1492, and died near Oldealoe (25
m. n.e. of Hamburg), Germany, Jan. 13, 1559.
Though the Mennonites (q.v.) bear his name, he
was not their founder, for they existed
x. Early in Holland seven years before he
Life and became a convert; but he was one
Views, of their most influential leaders and
by far their most important author.
Many details of his life are uncertain, for his biog-
raphy remained unwritten both in his own and in
the following generation, so that it must be gleaned
from scanty allusions in his writings and in the
works of his contemporaries. In 1515 or 1516 he
held an ecclesiastical office at Pingjum, a short dis-
tance from his birthplace. In 1532 he became pas-
tor at Witmarsum, where, as he confessed in later
years, he preached from motives of ambition rather
than conviction. Much of his self-accusation, how-
ever, may be due to the morbid severity with which,
like Bunyan and other converts, he judged him-
self, for no suspicion of reprehensibility seems to
have attached to his name at any time, unless it
be charged against him that he remained in the
priesthood for twenty years despite his doubts. In
the very first years of his parochial activity he be-
came skeptical of the doctrine of transubstantia-
tion, and found support for his views on baptism
in the New Testament and the writings of BiUican,
who, with some other Protestants, permitted parents
to choose between infant and adult baptism for their
children. This and the execution of the Anabap-
tist Sicke Snijder at Leeuwarden in 1531 led to re-
newed study of the Bible and the works of the
Reformers, with the result that Menno practically
became an Evangelical preacher, though he had
not yet broken openly with the Church. When he
entered upon his new parish of Witmarsum, he
seems already to have sympathized with Anabap-
tist views.
Menno's attention was less directed, however,
against Roman Catholic teaching than against errors
which had recently sprung up in Ana-
2. Paideutic baptism, such as the doctrines of earth-
Objective, ly power, sword, king, and the plurality
of wives. In this spirit he wrote his
first book, Een gantsch duydelycke end klaer bewys
uyt die H. S. dot Jesus Ckristus is de rechie beloo/de
David inn den geest . . . tegen de grouwelicke ends
grootste Wasphemie van Jan van Leydent although
it was not printed until 1627. Menno's ambiguous
position received a rude shock in Apr., 1535, when
300 Anabaptists were defeated at Bolsward by the
imperial troops, 130 falling in battle, while the
remainder, including his own brother, were made
prisoners and drowned. He felt himself responsible
in a sense for their fate, since he had not taught
them the true way, and he also became convinced
that his priestly office rendered it impossible for
him to gain their confidence, so that on Jan. 12,
1536, he resigned his parish. This " conversion,"
or " rebirth," as Menno termed it, was character-
istically Anabaptist, in that it was based less on a
conviction of the grace of God through Christ in
consequence of a sense of sin and repentance than
on moral earnestness, renunciation, and devotion
to divine truth, whether contained in the Bible or
in the human heart. It was, therefore, the conver-
sion of a layman rather than of a theologian or a
priest. Yet Menno was not uneducated, for he
wrote Latin fluently, was somewhat acquainted
with Greek, and had a certain familiarity with the
writings of his contemporaries (especially Erasmus)
and the Church Fathers.
After his withdrawal from the priesthood and the
Roman Catholic Church, Menno remained for a
time in Friesland, where all who should
3. Later harbor him were threatened with death
Life; in Oct., 1536. Two months later, at
Literary the earnest petition of a number of
Activity, those who agreed with him in faith
and life, he received the laying on of
hands from Obbe Philips, and became an elder
(bishop) of the community. Where Menno passed
the first years after he left the church is uncertain,
but it is not improbable that he lived in East Fries-
land, baptizing both there and in Groningen in 1537.
He seems to have lived in East Friesland until 1541;
in Amsterdam and North Holland from 1541 to
1543; again in East Friesland from 1543 to 1545;
in and near Cologne and Limburg from 1545 to 1547;
and after this latter year in or near Lubeck, with
the exception of a short residence at Wismar in
1553-54. His life during these years may be best
traced by his writings, his first publications being
the most important. To this category belong his
Van de ware nieutve geboorte; Veele goede . . .
leringhen op den 25. Psalm, perhaps the best work
of its author; Van het rechie Christengeloove; and
Van de geestelicke verrijsenisse. The most impor-
tant of all his works, however, was the Fondament-
boek (c. 1539), in which he sought to prove the truth
of his doctrines and urged the authorities to test
the purity of the lives of the Anabaptists, thus
ending the persecution and showing their wide
divergence from the fanatics of Monster. In this
book, moreover, Menno defines belief as trust in
the grace of God and the promises revealed to
man in the words and life of Christ, bringing sor-
row for sin, yet comforting the heart and strength-
ening it in conformity to the divine pattern. The
substitution of adult for infant baptism is based
by him on the commandment of Christ and on
Billions
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
484
apostolic usage, as well as on the doctrine of regen-
eration, of which baptism should be the seal. The
true mark of the Christian was regeneration, not
baptism, while the Lord's Supper was regarded not
as a sacrament but as a memorial service. The
Fondamentboek was also designed to warn his fol-
lowers against errors which might be construed as
morally reprehensible, such as the doctrine of David
Joris that external acts were indifferent, provided
the intention was good.
The Fondamentboek was supplemented by the
Lieffdijcke vermaninge . . . hoe dot een Christen sal
geschickt zijn en van het schouwen ofte
4. Theo- afsnijden der valscher broederen en sus-
logical teren (1541); Kindertuchi (Antwerp,
Controver- 1543); Verdaringhe des doopsels (1544);
sies. Oorsaecke waerom dot ik Merino Simons
niei of en laate te leeren (1544); and a
book, now lost, directed against David Joris (1545),
which was answered by Joris1 son-in-law, Nikolaas
Blesdijk, in Verantwoording, in 1546. During these
years Menno resided for a time in North Holland,
and in 1547 he was one of the three elders who took
part in the conference with Blesdijk in Lubeck, where
the views of Joris were utterly refuted. Meanwhile
Menno became involved in the one great theolog-
ical controversy of his life, the doctrine of the In-
carnation. Several years after his conversion he
became acquainted with the teaching of Melchior
Hoffmann that the body of Christ was born in, not
of, the Virgin Mary, so that the Son of God trans-
formed himself into the nature of man, rather than
took it upon him, also holding that this human
being was formed by God without any cooperation
of the mother. Although Menno laid little stress
upon the acceptance of this doctrine, he was chal-
lenged to a disputation in 1543 by the East Frisian
superintendent Johannes a Lasco (q.v.). They met
in the following January, and Menno promised to
send his opponent the reasons for his belief, writing
them in Latin, but publishing them in Dutch under
the title: Een corteende dare bdijdinghe . . . van der
menschwordinge enzv. Lasco replied in his Defensio
incarnationis Christi (1545), and his opponent re-
sponded in his turn with his Eyne dare bekentenisse
dot de gheheele Christus Jesus Godes eygen Sone is,
although it was not printed until 1554, when the
controversy was renewed. Menno's insistence on
this doctrine after 1547 is to be ascribed neither to
obstinacy nor to an excessive regard for it, although
he believed his dualistic theory more reasonable
than the orthodox teaching. To his mind a Christ
who was at the same time God and man was un-
thinkable, and he accordingly believed that he was
created by God alone, without any intervention
on the part of father or mother, and that in his
earthly incarnation he was nothing but a man into
whom the Word had been transformed. While the
Church taught that we are brethren of Christ in
that he took our flesh upon him, Menno held that
only the regenerate are the brethren of Christ, and
then simply because they, like him, are begotten
of God. From this teaching, however, some drew
the deduction that Christ was not consubstantial
with the Father, but was merely one with him in
will and intent, thus denying the Trinity. The as-
sembly of elders accordingly convened at Goch in
1547 and excommunicated their colleague Adam
Pastor, one of the foremost advocates of this doc-
trine. Menno, who was present, wrote a rather
feeble refutation of Pastor, entitled Bdijdinghe van
den drieenigen Godt, although he did not break off
all association with him.
During his residence on the Lower Rhine in
1545-47 and after he had settled in Holstein in
1549, Menno made frequent journeys
5. Final to confer with his fellow elders, and
Activities, between 1552 and 1554 he published
from his own press a number of wri-
tings, chiefly apologetic in character. One of these,
the Beantwoordinghe over eene schrift Gdii Fabri, is
the longest work of its author, and almost the only
one which gives any information concerning his life
and the conditions of his time. It treats, among
other subjects, of the doctrine of the Incarnation,
on which Menno disputed with Micronius at Wis-
mar on Feb. 6 and 15, 1554. In the following year
Micronius published the minutes of this disputa-
tion, to which his opponent replied in 1556, follow-
ing it with another refutation in 1557. These are not
the most felicitous of the products of Menno's pen;
they are not at all free from personalities and weari-
some repetitions. The closing years of his life were
saddened by the controversies among his followers
concerning excommunication. As early as 1551
Menno had ruled that the faithful should avoid all
association with their fellow believers of unseemly
life, unless these should prove responsive to ad-
monition. In the course of the development of the
community, however, many problems were evolved
regarding excommunication. In 1550 Menno de-
cided, in his Klaer bericht van de excommunicatie,
that this avoidance should be extended to secular
life as well, but not in cases where assistance might
be rendered; he mitigated also the severity of the
banishment as far as possible. The elders Leenaert
Bouwens and Gillis van Aachen, on the other hand,
demanded that excommunication be declared in
the majority of cases without previous warning,
and that, if one of a married pair had fallen under
the ban, the other should avoid him or her. These
measures aroused the deep resentment of the Ana-
baptists living along the Lower Rhine, and they
accordingly sent their teachers Zylis and Lemmeken
to Menno in 1556, whereupon, in the following year,
he went to Franeker and Harlingen to win his fel-
low elders to a milder mood and restore peace. The
reverse was the result, however, and Menno him-
self was threatened with excommunication. In his
fear that he might have conceded too much to hu-
man weakness, he published his Gronddic bericht in
1558, declaring openly that he had formerly erred
and presenting the strictest views. Zylis and Lem-
meken replied, only to be answered by Menno in a
book couched in no very measured tones, though
written just before his death. As he lay dying, how-
ever, he lamented this temporary severity and
warned his followers not to be servants of men, as
he had been.
Menno's character was a mixture of humility,
warmth of heart, pessimism with regard to the
world and life, spiritual piety, loyalty and love to
425
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Simons
the " community," and obstinacy, while he was
deeply conscious of his responsibility as elder of the
people of God. None of his Dutch con-
6. Charac- temporaries surpassed him in ability
terization. to write in a popular and edifying
vein, or in ease of composition.
Through his toil, his books and letters, and the love
which he bore his followers, with which he in-
spired them in their turn, he enabled the community
to increase in numbers and to hold fast to their
lofty morality. Every trace of the excesses of
Munster and Joris had vanished, and henceforth the
community was to remain true to the teachings of
the New Testament as their sole rule of faith. Thus
the followers of Menno reverenced him deeply,
though only as one of their pious teachers. Grad-
ually all his works were printed, not only as a
source of appeal in the controversies over excom-
munication and the doctrine of the Incarnation,
but also for edification. The pietistic element
among the Anabaptists called themselves by his
name, as their opponents had done since 1544. In
Upper Germany and along the Rhine, on the other
hand, the Anabaptists of the sixteenth century were
estranged from him on account of their controver-
sies [due to his insistence on his doctrine of the in-
carnation and marital avoidance in case one of the
married pair was under discipline. Cf. A. H. New-
man, Hist, of AntipedobapHsmt pp. 309-312, Phila-
delphia, 1897], but in the seventeenth and eight-
eenth centuries his name and writings won their
esteem as the representative of their separatistic
life and their opposition to the established church.
The works of Menno, still preserved (so far as
extant) in their original editions at Amsterdam,
were written in colloquial Low German and trans-
lated into Dutch after his death. The first edition
of a small collection appeared in 1562, followed by
larger collections in 1601, 1646, and 1681, the latter
being almost complete. A German edition of all
his writings was published at Elkhart, Ind., in 1876,
and Eng. transl., in 1871. Although there are sev-
eral portraits of Menno, none of them were taken
from life, and only one, which is preserved at
Utrecht, seems to have come from a circle which
knew him personally. In his later years he was a
cripple. S. Cramer.
II. Second Statement: Menno Simons and his
coworkers differed from the more prominent re-
formers of the sixteenth century in rejecting the
doctrinal system of Predestination (q.v.). Prior
to Jacobus Arminius (q.v.) they taught the freedom
of the will. Of the doctrine that freedom of choice
is not granted man, and yet he is held responsible
and punished for sin, Menno speaks as " an abom-
ination above all abominations " (Menno Simons,
Complete Works, ii. 94, i. 221, Elkhart, Ind., 1871).
John Calvin, in turn, who had evidently never ac-
quired a first-hand knowledge of Menno's teach-
ings, speaks of Menno in most contemptuous terms.
While, according to the leading German reform-
ers, " what is not against Scripture is for Scripture
and Scripture is for it " (Luther), Menno held that,
as concerns Christian doctrine and ceremonies, noth-
ing can be rightly maintained that is not expressly
taught and authorized in the New Testament. Need-
less to say that he attributed to the opinion of
neither pope — whom he considered Antichrist — nor
Church Fathers any authoritative
z. Views of weight. On the relation of the Old
Scripture. Testament to the New-Testament
Scriptures he differed fundamentally
from Luther, Zwingli, and Calvin. Menno, as well as
the Swiss Brethren and Huterites (see Mennonites),
held that " Christ alone is our law-giver." The
Old-Testament precepts were largely intended for
premessianic times and have been restated by Christ
and the apostles so far as they are to be applied to
the Christian Church. The Old-Testament Scrip-
tures are indeed a part of the Word of God, they
are the foundation and groundwork for the New,
while the latter is the fulfilment of the Old; but in
matters of Christian worship, practise, and life, the
New-Testament Scriptures are the only authority.
While the Reformers Luther, Zwingli, and Calvin
justified, on Old-Testament authority, a union of
Church and State, war, capital punishment, the
oath, and in part also ritualism, Menno rejected
the same on New-Testament authority. Of the
doctrine of the inner light, as held by Hans Denk
(q.v.) and a few other Anabaptists and later by the
Quakers, not a trace is found in his writings.
On original sin Menno teaches that through the
fall all men inherit a sinful nature. Christ, the sec-
ond Adam, has atoned for the guilt of
2. Sin; original sin, hence no one will be con-
Justification demned for the sin of Adam. All in-
by Faith, f ants are saved through the atonement
of Christ, according to his express
promise. Condemnation awaits those who reject
the means of salvation offered them. The doctrine
of justification by faith is given great prominence
in Menno's system. Luther's teaching on the sac-
raments (baptismal regeneration and forgiveness of
sin through the observation of the Lord's Supper)
he rejects as inconsistent with this doctrine. " To
teach and believe," says Menno, " that regenera-
tion is the result of baptism, my brethren, is terri-
ble idolatry and blasphemy against the blood of
Christ. For there is neither in heaven nor on earth
any other remedy for our sins, be they inherited
evil propensities or transgressions, than the blood
of Christ alone, as we have often shown in our first
writings " (Works, ii. 200). " The blood of Christ
is and will ever be the only and eternally valid
means of our reconciliation, and not works, bap-
tism, or Lord's Supper " (i. 158). The statement
that " Christ is the only means of grace " is found
oftentimes in Menno's writings; ail the riches of
grace may be obtained through faith in Christ —
by no means through works and ceremonies.
Probably no contemporary of Menno Simons in-
sists with more emphasis on the inseparable con-
nection of an obedient, holy life with
3. Holy true faith. " Behold, beloved reader,"
Living; the says Menno, " thus true faith begets
Ordinances, love and love begets obedience to the
commandments of God " (Works, ii.
246). " For this can never fail, where there is true
Christian faith, there is also dying to sin, a new
creature, true repentance, a sincere regenerated, un-
blamable Christian " (i. 118). " True faith which
Simons
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
426
avails before God is a living and saving power which
is, through the preaching of the holy Word, wrought
of God in the heart, renewing, changing and regen-
erating it to newness of mind " (i. 59). On the
Christian ordinances Menno says: " All the rites
ordained of God, both in the Old and New Testa-
ment, have been instituted that our faith may be
exercised and our obedience proven " (i. 34). The
baptism of infants is invalid. Incidentally baptism
is spoken of as the reception of " a handful of
water " (i. 38, i. 124). Menno also observes that
" the poor world has hitherto believed the new birth
to consist in immersion in the water while the
words are said, I baptize thee," etc. (ii. 215). He
did not hold that believers' baptism to be valid
must be administered by a representative of a church
that is entirely orthodox. On the Lord's Supper
his teaching concurs with that of Zwingli; he dis-
approves of " open " communion.
Menno defines the Church as the assembly of
those " who hear, believe, accept, and rightly ful-
fil " the teachings of God's Word (ii.
4. The 345), hence a true Christian church is
Church, necessarily established on the volun-
tary principle. He says: *' Faith is
the gift of God, therefore it can not be forced upon
any one by worldly authorities or by the sword."
" Tell me, kind reader, where have you in all the
days of your life read in the apostolic Scriptures
that Christ or the apostles called upon the power
of the magistracy against those who would not hear
their doctrine and obey their word? " (ii. 71). " Be-
hold how haughtily and how wickedly the princes
assume, without any awe or fear, the authority of
God and the office of the Holy Ghost " (i. 186).
Toleration, accordingly, means the rejection of all
persecution. Menno would have taken it as an in-
sult had he been charged with advancing the mod-
ern idea that false doctrine is, on the ground of
Christian love and forbearance, to be tolerated in
the Church. The government of the Church was
administered by the elders. Questions of faith and
practise were not to be referred to individual con-
gregations. The idea that among the early Men-
nonites " every church was a law unto itself " is
erroneous. Menno and his colaborers withdrew
from congregations that sanctioned what they be-
lieved to be unscriptural doctrine. The great mis-
sionary commission of Christ was held by Menno
to have been given to the Church; he was in fact
preeminently a missionary. With emphasis he in-
sists on the duty of the Church to care for needy
and destitute members. He testifies that notwith-
standing the relentless, bloody persecution which
had left in their care numerous widows and orphans,
and in which many had lost their possessions, no
one of the church which he represented, nor their
children, had been known or would have been per-
mitted to beg (ii. 309). The Church, according to
Menno, is the " communion of saints " in deed and
in truth., nevertheless there is always a possibility
ot those naving a form of godliness and denying the
powei thereof being found in it. In his writings he
refened to the fact that there was a hypocrite
even among the apostles, but insists that neither
offensive sin and transgression nor false doctrine
must be tolerated in the Church. Of church disci-
pline he say 8: " In short, as a vineyard without a
fence or inclosure, or a city without walls or gates, so
is a church without discipline and the excommuni-
cation." Members of the church were not permitted
to eat or do business with those who had been ex-
cluded, except in cases of emergency (I Cor. v. 11;
II Thess. hi. 14). On this point both Menno and
Dirk Philips wrote treatises against the Swiss Breth-
ren who disapproved of the " avoidance " of the
excommunicated. The interesting history of this
practise and the reasons why Menno advocated it
can not be stated in a few sentences. That on his
death-bed he expressed regrets for the stand which
he had taken in this matter, as was believed by the
" Waterlanders," who were of one mind with the
Swiss, is evidently a fable. In the last weeks of his
life he wrote a little book which was published after
his death, insisting on " avoidance " as stringently
as ever.
The swearing of oaths he believed to be forbidden
by Christ. Of war he speaks as a " wicked, abom-
inable business " (i. 137). Capital punishment he
considered incompatible with Christian principles;
he suggests confinement for life in its stead (ii. 407).
Frequently he denouneed the " houses of intem-
perance," " the accursed drunken taverns." He
was an advocate of "the simple life"; church-
members who permitted themselves to drift into
worldliness were strictly disciplined by the church.
Menno believed the coming of Christ near, not,
however, to inaugurate the millennium, but for
judgment.
The old accusation of some of Menno's opponents
that he denied the divine nature in Christ, an in-
sinuation which was vigorously re-
5. Chris- pudiated by him, must be placed in
tology. the same category as other slanders,
such as that he upheld communism
and was the head of a revolutionary sect. He held
a peculiar doctrine on the Incarnation: " The
whole Christ, God and man, man and God, is God's
son and is of heaven" (ii. 151, Elkhart, Ind., 1871).
Not only was he truly God from eternity, but his
human nature was also of heaven and was not the
result of a creation. Of Mary's body he partook
not otherwise than as a seed of grain partakes of
the field in which it is planted (ii. 337). To assert
that he could in that case not be truly human is to
deny God's omnipotence. Had he, as regards his
humanity, " been of the impure, sinful flesh of
Adam, he would be guilty also, through the eternal
justice of God, of judgment and death. And if he
himself owed a debt, how could he pay ours ?"
That this doctrine has a tendency toward the denial
of Christ's divinity was indignantly denied by
Menno. His opinion was, on the contrary, that
what is generally considered the orthodox view of
the incarnation dishonors Christ's divinity, repre-
senting him as a creature as concerns his body.
" If the man [human nature of] Christ was of the
flesh and blood of Mary, it is manifest that he was
not God's son but a created being " (ii. 158). " That I
have ever said this [that the Word was changed into
flesh and blood] no one will, 1 believe, ever be able
to prove; nevertheless they have the effrontery to
427
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Simons
say and write such of us. I have spoken of this as
the eminent apostle has taught me, namely, that
the Word was made flesh " (ii. 159). " As he is the
only and true Son of God, he must also have the
nature of the one of whom he is, this is too plain
to be controverted " (ii. 392). " Although he hum-
bled himself and laid down his divine splendor,
privileges, and glory, nevertheless he was God and
God's Word " (ii. 164). Menno states that " there
are many among us " who have never " heard or
asked a word " concerning the question of the
origin of Jesus' body, and also testifies that he never
refers to this doctrine in his sermons, " but I teach
simply and plainly that Christ Jesus is truly God
and man, a Son of God and a Son of man, con-
ceived of the Holy Ghost and born of the pure
virgin Mary " (ii. 332). The said doctrine of the
incarnation was held by the Obbenites (see Men-
nonites) before Menno identified himself with
them, and it was, according to his own confession,
only after severe and prolonged mental struggles
that he arrived at the conclusion that it is entirely
Scriptual (ii. 330).
The supposition that the teachings of Menno and
his coworkers were tinged with rationalism is with-
out foundation. His faithful colaborer,
6. Relation Dirk Philips, of whom he observes that
to Ration- " Dirk and I are entirely of the same
alism. mind " and whose extant writings fill
a stately volume — an English trans-
lation is now in press— occupied the same position
toward rationalism as Menno, and the same is true
of the Swiss Brethren. The Dutch historian Brandt
asserted that the excommunication of Adam Pas-
tor (q.v.) for denying the deity of Christ was the
work of Dirk Philips. Others have opined that
Menno was at variance with Dirk in this matter.
From Pastor's Underscheit tusschen rechte leer unde
vaUche leer (published in vol. v. of Bibliotheca Re-
formatoria Neerlandica), it is clear that he held
Menno responsible for his excommunication, and
the latter testifies that Pastor was no longer of their
number (ii. 96; the English translation of the pas-
sage is inaccurate, see Menno Symons' Werckcn, p.
312, Amsterdam, 1681). In his refutation of Pas-
tor, Menno speaks of the denial of the eternal pre-
existence of Christ as " a terrible blasphemy, curse,
and abomination " (ii. 184). The hymn of Ludwig
Haetzer (q.v.), expressing antitrinitarian senti-
ments, is not found in the hymn-books of Swiss
and South German Anabaptists, nor of the Menno-
nites. It is doubtful whether its author was rebap-
tized or baptized others, although he agreed with the
Anabaptists in their opposition to state-churchism
and on a few other points (cf. F. Roth, Augsburgs
Reformationsgeschichte, pp. 221-222, 232, Munich,
1901; Heberle in TSK, 1858, p. 845). His friend
Hans Denk, unlike Haetzer, a man of unimpeachable
character, was an advocate of liberalistic sentiments
although not an antitrinitarian, and became the
leader of an Anabaptist party called " Denkians,"
but before his death retracted his former teaching
on the necessity of rebaptism. Unfortunately
Menno and the Mennonites have sometimes been
judged from the writings of such men, with whom
in fact they had nothing to do.
Touching the position of Menno and his friends
with respect to the leading Reformers, it is to be
noted that Menno's personal estimate of Luther
was congenial and appreciative, far
7. Relation more so than the opinion entertained
to the by Luther concerning any Anabaptists.
Reformers. Menno freely acknowledges that " the
Lord has effected much good through
Luther's first writings " (Works, i. 29). He severely
criticizes Luther for permitting himself to lose sight
of the principle of toleration which he had originally
advocated. The Reformation, so far as it was iden-
tified with state-churchism, was in Menno's opinion
quite superficial: it has, says Menno, not brought
a change in the life of the people and its founda-
tions were not laid along Scriptural lines. In the
Lutheran states of central and northern Germany
the priests were given orders to accept the new
standards of faith and practise prescribed by the
heads of the State. The priests, as a rule, accepted
the new order of things and the populace followed
them (no other creed being tolerated by the civil
authorities) with the exception of those who ac-
cepted Anabaptist teachings. If we may believe
Menno's testimony, both shepherds and flock con-
tinued " with few exceptions " in their old incon-
sistent life. There can be no doubt that Menno
was eye-witness of much that must give him an un-
favorable opinion of State-Church Reformation. It
is interesting to notice his evident surprise upon
forming the acquaintance of Johannes a Lasco (q.v.),
that a man of his piety was a representative of Zwing-
lianism. Menno addresses him in one of his books
as his " beloved, holy brother." In his view it was
an inconsistency that while the pope was held to be
antichrist, his ordination was accepted as valid.
" The little gods of Babylon," says Menno, had been
abandoned, but that which was in fact responsible
for prevailing superficiality and inconsistencies
had been left untouched.
Menno, in his extant writings, never mentions
or even alludes to any of the great leaders of the
Swiss Brethren. Was he not informed
8. Relation of the history of the Swiss and South
to the Swiss German Anabaptists ? Is there a his-
Brethren. torical connection between the Swiss
and the Melchiorites and Obbenites,
and if such is the case, did Menno know of it ? In
vain is an answer to these questions sought in
Menno's writings. Of Melchior Hoffmann it is known
that he purposely ignored the Swiss and South
German Anabaptists, it is doubtful whether he was
ever connected with them. The Obbenites had,
with the exception of the doctrine of the incarna-
tion, discarded those teachings which had separated
the Melchiorites from the Swiss Brethren, and
Menno's insistence on the " avoidance " of the ex-
communicated was, as has been stated, not approved
by the Swiss. He was well acquainted with the
teachings of the Swiss and South German Anabap-
tists. It is evident from his writings that there is
no direct historical connection between his people
and certain medieval sects, but this, it may be ob-
served, does not exclude the supposition that such
a connection existed between the Swiss Brethren
and older sects although Menno was clearly not
Simons
Simony
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
428
aware of it. He says, " Soon after the death of the
apostles, through the influence of the unenlightened
bishops, trust in outward works was permitted to
take the place of trust in Jesus Christ " (Wercken, p.
51, Amsterdam, 1681). " The understanding of the
holy gospel, which was lost for many centuries, has
been found again." " May the holy city and temple
which lay desolate for many centuries, be again
rebuilt , "etc. Menno never mentions the Waldenses.
Dirk Philips makes mention of them in his En-
chiridion, but his observations show that he was
not well informed concerning their teachings.
Concerning Menno Simons' relation to the Mun-
sterites (see Muenster, Anabaptists in) it is first
of all to be noted that not all Anabaptists of the
Netherlands who disregarded the principle of non-
resistance were followers of John of Leyden (see
Anabaptists; Muenster, Anabaptists in). Of
his own brother, who in many histor-
9. Relation ical works figures as a Munsterite,
to Miinster Menno says: " My poor brother has
Anabaptists, erred only in this, that he undertook
to defend his faith with the fist and
to oppose violence by violence" (Works, ii. 101).
It must be remembered that an unprecedented per-
secution was waged against the dissenters. The
law of the empire demanded that all who had sub-
mitted to rebaptism and were unwilling to recant
must die, and this law dates from the year 1529
— about four years prior to the rise of the Mun-
sterites. Very many had lost their lives. The Ana-
baptists were in continuous danger of death and
under temptation to take the sword in self-defense.
While Menno was yet a priest a large number of
dissenters, among them his brother, sought refuge
in the " Old Cloister " near Bolsward and defended
it against a contingent of troops. " The poor er-
ring flock," says Menno, " which erred because they
had no true shepherds, after many severe edicts,
killing and slaughter, came together near my place
of residence, in a place called Old Cloister, and,
alas, through the godless doctrine of Munster,
contrary to Christ's spirit, word, and example,
drew the sword to defend themselves, which the
Lord commanded Peter to put up into the sheath "
(i. 4). Although these people followed the Mun-
sterites to the extent of taking the sword, they must
not be held responsible for the highly offensive
practises originated by " King " John of Leyden
at Munster; in fact even many of those who had
accepted the latter's leadership and had gone to
Munster were loath to follow him all the way. When
John, after long and persistent effort, had persuaded
Bernhard Rothmann and the other preachers in
Munster (see Muenster, Anabaptists in) that po-
lygamy was the Scriptural course for the " New
Israel," a rebellion occurred among his followers
within the walls of the besieged city. Mollenhecke,
the leader of the resisting party, and his adherents
were mercilessly put to the sword by " King "
John. Of Munsterite teaching and practise Menno
speaks invariably in severest terms of condemna-
tion. He denounced John of Leyden as a blas-
phemer, seducer, and worthless character, notwith-
standing his unusual gifts as a leader. He says of
the Munsterites: " Their seditious abominations.
such as choosing a king and what they taught con-
cerning the kingdom, the sword, polygamy, worldly
conformity, and the like abominations and infamy
we reject and hate with all our soul " (i. 197). " So
it is in your instance, O ye mad ones," he addresses
them, " (forgive me, for it is the truth that I write).
The prophets you read according to Jewish under-
standing, the doctrine of Christ and the apostles,
you say, is all fulfilled and pretend that there is
now another dispensation," etc. (i. 97). " They
have justified open adultery under the cloak of the
custom of the Jewish fathers, together with other
infamy of which a true Christian must be appalled
and ashamed " (i. 227). " Is it not a grievous error
that you suffer yourselves to be so wretchedly be-
witched by such worthless men, and so lamentably
misled from one corrupt sect into another; first
Munsterite, then of Batenburg, now Davidist [fol-
lowers of Jan David Joris (q.v.)], and thus from
Beelzebub to Lucifer and from Belial to Behemoth "
(i. 94). " How many innocent hearts have they
deceived! How many poor souls have they se-
duced ! What great shame have they brought upon
God's Word! What abominations have some of
them committed under a pious appearance! How
great cause have they given to the poor, blind
magistrates who have, alas! no understanding of
the holy word, to shed innocent blood " (i. 96).
After Menno's renunciation of Romanism and
his identification with the religious body which he
so well represented, it was impossible for him to
labor in public. He was an outlaw and a fugitive
although, through the leniency of local authorities,
he found it possible to sojourn com-
zo. Victim paratively long in a few places. Had,
of however, any appointment for a meet-
Intolerance, ing in which he or one of his friends
was to appear been publicly announced,
he would unfailingly have been apprehended at the
appointed place. In a number of instances the local
authorities would apparently have tolerated him
and his friends, had they not feared the vengeance
of the provincial or imperial government. Menno
knew full well that only as long as such magistrates
could urge the excuse that they did not know of
his whereabouts would they refrain from putting
forth efforts to have him apprehended. He had a
few private discussions with Zwinglian theologians,
such as Johannes a Lasco, Martinus Micronius
(qq.v.), and Gellius Faber, who had obligated them-
selves to observe strict silence concerning these con-
ferences. In several of his books Menno asks his
Protestant friends to arrange for a public debate
with him, obtaining for him a safe conduct from
the government, but this desire was never granted
him. Even Count von Ahlefeldt, who permitted
him to live on his estate at Wilstenfelde in Holstein
(where Menno died in peace), would in all probabil-
ity, had the matter been brought to the attention
of the imperial authorities, not have admitted that
he knowingly gave shelter to this " heresiarch."
Toleration for Menno and his people prevailed
neither on Roman Catholic nor Protestant terri-
tory. He complains bitterly that " not only among
Papists and Turks, but among those who boast of
the holy word " and " in their first writings said
429
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Simons
Simony
much of faith, that it is the gift of God and that it
must not be forced upon any one by the sword of
iron " (i. 196) whoever refused to accept the creed
of the State was relentlessly persecuted. Even the
ruler of Saxony and sovereign of Luther, Elector
John Frederick, treated " Anabaptism " as a cap-
ital crime. In 1536 a number of Anabaptists were
beheaded at Jena in Saxony, upon Melanchthon's
advice, for no other cause than error in doctrine.
Menno says: " I seek . . . the praise of the Lord
and my salvation and the salvation of many souls.
For this I, my poor feeble wife and little children
have for eighteen years endured extreme anxiety,
oppression, affliction, misery, and persecution, and
wherever we sojourned, we were in fear and dan-
ger of life. Yea, when the preachers [of the state
churches] repose on easy beds and downy pillows,
we generally must hide ourselves in secluded cor-
ners . . . and when the dogs bark, it may mean
that the catch polls are upon us here. Whilst they
are gloriously rewarded for their services with large
incomes and easy times, our recompense and por-
tion must be fire, sword, and death " (i. 7).
The writings of Menno Simons and Dirk (Theo-
dor) Philips are the principal sources for the study
of the principles and aims of the most prominent
dissenting party of the Netherlands, Germany, and
Switzerland of Reformation times. Not only were
these men the spokesmen of their immediate fol-
lowers, but the Swiss Brethren were of one mind
with them on all vital points of doctrine and prac-
tise. A view of the Reformation which fails to take
due account of the great body of Christians which
attempted, with unexcelled devotion to principle
— the Reformed historian Ernst M Oiler speaks of
them as " a church of martyrs " — the restoration of
the Church to its primitive purity and power; which,
at variance with the leading Reformers, insisted on
the voluntary principle and separation of Church
and State, must necessarily be inadequate.
John Horsch.
Bibliography: Biographies have been written by A. M.
Cramer, Amsterdam, 1837 (still the best); C. Harder,
K&nigsberg, 1846; B. C. Rooeen, Leipsio. 1848; Browne,
Philadelphia, 1853; F. Bastian, Btrasburg, 1857; and C.
Fleischer, Amsterdam, 1892. See also the literature under
Mennonitjes.
SIMONS, WALTHER EDUARD: German Prot-
estant; b. at Elberfeld May 27, 1855. He was edu-
cated at the universities of Bonn, Strasburg (lie.
theol., 1880), Zurich, Berlin, and Gottingen, and
after holding pastorates at Rheinfelden, near Basel
(1881-83), and Leipeic (1883-92), became, in 1892,
privat-docent for practical theology at Bonn, where
he was appointed professor three years later. Since
1902 he has been professor of the same subject at
Berlin, and also director of the catechetical seminar
of the same university. In theology he belongs to
the liberal school. He has written Hat der driUe
Evangelist den kanonischen Matthdus benuUt t (Bonn,
1880); Eine allkdlnische SeeUorgegemeinde ale Vor-
bUd far die Gegenwart (Berlin, 1894); Die dUeste
evangelieche Gemeindearmenpflege am Niederrhein
(Bonn, 1894); Freikirche, Volkskirche, Landea-
kvrche (Freiburg, 1895) ; Niederrheinisches Synodal-
und Gemeindeleben " unier dem Kreuz " (1897) ; Kon-
firmatum und Konfirmandenunterricht (Tubingen,
1900); Kdlnische Kcmsistorialbeschltlsse (Bonn,
1905); Matthes Weyer, tin Myetiker aits der Refor-
matUmszeit (Tubingen, 1907); Ein Vermdchtniss
Calvin* an die deutsch-evangelischen Kvrchen (1909);
Urkundenbuch tur rheinischen Kirchengeschichte, i.
SynodaUmch (1909; in collaboration with others);
and Die Konfirmation (1909).
SIMONY: A term denned by Thomas Aquinas
as " the deliberate will to buy and sell spiritual
things [privileges and rights] and their appurte-
nances." The primitive Church regarded this offense
as the gravest among those exclusivelyjwithin the
province of ecclesiastic legal ruling, it being con-
ceived as a sin against the Holy Ghost in that it
assumed to engage the offices of the Holy Ghost in
consideration of money or its equivalent. The name
has its origin, according to the narrative in Acts
viii. 18 sqq., in the sacrilege of Simon Magus (q.v.),
who desired to buy from the Apostle Peter the
power to impart the Holy Ghost to whom he would.
Especially the sale or purchase of ordination for
money or its equivalent must, from this account,
have been viewed as simony, seeing that (even as
early as the fourth century) the theory had grown
up that by means of ordination, through the laying
on of a bishop's hands, the Holy Ghost is received,
and with it the power to forgive and to retain sins.
By degrees the concept reached the expanded form
expressed by Thomas Aquinas, ut sup. In the
main, however, simony was held to be traffic in
spiritual offices. The viciousness of simony in this
peculiar sense of the term was purposely emphasised
by the popes in opposition to the emperors during
the investiture strife (see Investiture), and was
employed as chief weapon in that conflict. The
Evangelical conception of ordination involves the
consideration of simony as the bestowal and pro-
curement of spiritual offices for money.
It is directly consonant with the primitive con-
cept of simony, that to give and to take money or
its equivalent not simply for the sacrament itself,
but also for the administration of sacraments and
sacramental acts, came generally to be viewed as
simony. Nevertheless, it soon grew clear that a
voluntary gift in token of gratitude for such dis-
pensations and their acceptance ought not to be so
branded; indeed, where a fixed custom had grown
up of showing oneself thankful by means of suit-
able presents, not to recognize the favor came to be
regarded as reprehensible. In that way the Stole
Fees (q.v.) came into being. A special kind of
simony, which can occur only in the Roman Catholic
Church, is the granting or obtaining of admission
into a spiritual order for money or its equivalent.
An extension of the idea is found when the Church
treats as simony the selling and buying of the right
of patronage on its own account. According to
canon law, certified simony involves in the Roman
Catholic Church for all the guilty parties excom-
munication from which the pope alone can give ab-
solution. If the act has remained secret, however,
the bishops can absolve it. In connection with or-
dination, simony subjects the ordained offender to
suspension from the received rites of consecration,
and to the construction of irregularity.
Simony
Simultaneum
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
480
the ordainer becomes suspended from his pontifical
prerogatives. All provisory transactions wherein
simony has been committed are invalid. Whoever
has procured a benefice through simony, becomes
irregular, deposed from office, and incapable of ob-
taining another appointment. Forfeiture of the
benefice ensues even for the one who has obtained it
through an act of simony wrought by others with-
out his accessory knowledge, counsel, or approval,
only he may recover such benefice by dispensation,
unless in case of a simoniacal election. The inmate
of a cloister who is guilty of simony in connection
with admission to the cloister is visited with sus-
pension from all capitulary offices, and from all
rights of jurisdiction. The latest regulations are
found in Constitutiones Pii IX., Apostolicce sedis,
Oct. 12, 1869.
In the Protestant church, as well, all transactions
affecting official appointments wherein simony has
occurred are accounted void, so that any resulting
grant of office becomes canceled. In the case of
patrons the act is punished by withdrawal of per-
sonal right of presentation. Simony was also occa-
sionally subjected to fine and imprisonment. Now-
adays it is classed as a criminal offense, and so is
liable to civil correction. Wherefore all cognizance
in the matter devolves exclusively on the temporal
courts. From the present standpoint of the Roman
Catholic Church, simony is matter for ecclesiastical
discipline and the disciplinary province of the church
authorities. E. Sehlino.
Bibliography: N. A. Weber, A Hist, of Simony in the
Christian Church, Baltimore, 1909 (goes down to the 9th
century); Bingham. Originee, IV., iii. 14, XVI., vi. 28-30;
G. Phillips, Lehrbuch dee Kirchenrechts, f 193, 7 vols.,
Regensburg, 1845-72; N, MQnchen, Das kanonische Straf-
recht, ii. 274 sqq., Cologne. 1866; P. Hinachius, Kirchen-
recht, v. 161 sqq., Berlin, 1893; A. Leina, Die Simonie. Eine
kanonistische Studie, Freiburg, 1902; Hirach, in Archiv far
katholisches Kirchenrecht, lxxxvi (1906), 3-19; D. Barry,
in Ecclesiastical Review, Sept., 1908, pp. 234-245; J. Dreh-
mann, Papst Leo IX. und die Simonie. Ein Beitrag zur
Untereuchung der Vorgeschichle des Investiturstreitce, Leip-
mc, 1908; DC A, ii. 1900-01; KL, xi. 321-324; Schaff,
Christian Church, vol. 1, passim. Documents relating to
the subject are given in Reich, Documents, pp. 152, 198.
SIMPLICIUS, sim-plish'i-us: Pope 468-483.
According to the Liber pontificalis he came from
Tibur (20 m. n.e. of Rome), and was consecrated as
the successor of Hilary possibly on Mar. 3, 468. His
importance arises from his participation in the
Monophysitic controversy (see Monophysites, §§
5-7), in which he was second only to Leo the Great
and Hilary. He made Bishop Zeno of Seville apos-
tolic vicar in Spain. His biography names four
churches at Rome which were dedicated by him, the
establishment of a hebdomarius for baptism and
penitence, and the offering of costly church vessels.
His death, according to Duchesne (Liber pontificalia),
occurred on Mar. 10, 483 (not Mar. 2).
(A. Hauck.)
Bibliography: Sources are. Liber pontificalis, ed. Momm-
aen in MOH, Qest. pont. Rom, i (1898), 112-113; Jaff6,
Regesta, i. 77 sqq.; E pistol ce Romanorum pontificum gen-
uina, ed. A. Thiel, i. 174 sqq., Braunsberg, 1867 (the let-
ters of Simplicius); MPL, bcviii. 1019 sqq.; and Eva-
grius, Hist, eccl.. III., iv. sqq. Consult further: J. Lang-
en, Oeschichte der rfimischen Kirche, ii. 126 sqq., Bonn,
1885; Hefele, Conciliengeschichte, ii. 602 sqq., Eng. tranal.,
iv. 26 sqq., Fr. tranal.. ii. 2, pp. 9, 15 sqq.; Bower, Popes,
i. 257-271; Milman. Latin Christianity, L 314, 325-327;
DCB, iv. 690-695 (full discussion); and the relevant
literature under Monophtsitbs.
SIMPSON, ALBERT B: Presbyterian; b. at
Cavendish, Prince Edward Island, Dec. 15, 1844.
He was graduated at Knox College, Toronto, in
1865, and also received his theological education
there. He was pastor of Knox Church, Hamilton,
Ont., 1865-74, Broadway Tabernacle, Louisville,
Ky., 1874-80, Thirteenth Street Presbyterian
Church, New York, 1880-81; since 1881, of the
Gospel Tabernacle in the same city. He has been
president of the Christian and Missionary Alliance
since 1887, and in theology holds " the Evangelical
faith in a conservative rather than liberal sense,"
also believing in adult baptism by immersion,
though not a Baptist. Besides editing the Chris-
tian and Missionary Alliance since 1887 and Living
Truths since 1903, he has written The Gospel of
Healing (New York, 1884); Divine Problems in
Genesis and Exodus (1890); The Land of Promise
(1892); The Gospel of the Kingdom (1893); Jesus
in the Psalms (1895); Heart Messages for Sabbaths
at Home (1897); Larger Outlooks on Missionary
Lands (1897); The Holy Spirit; or, Power from on
High (2 vols., 1899); Days of Heaven upon Earth
(1900); Discovery of Divine Healing (1902); Christ
in the Bible (a Bible commentary; 24 vols., 1902-
1907); Echoes of the New Creation (1903); and col-
laborated with M. Wilson in Henry Wilson, One of
God's Best (1909).
SIMPSON, JAMES GILLILAND: Church of
England; b. at London Oct. 16, 1865. He was edu-
cated at Trinity College, Oxford (B.A., 1888), and
was ordained to the priesthood in 1891. He was
successively curate of Leeds parish church (1889-
1893), curate of Edinburgh Cathedral and vice-
principal of Edinburgh Theological College (1893-
1894), rector of St. Paul's, Dundee (1895-1900),
and principal of Leeds Clergy School and lecturer
at Leeds parish church (1900-10), besides being
chaplain to the bishop of Brechin (1896-1900), and
select preacher at Oxford (1909). Since 1910 he
has been a canon of Manchester. He has written
Christian Ideals (London, 1908), Fact and Faith
(1908), and Christus Crucifixus (1909).
SIMPSON, MATTHEW: Methodist Episcopal
bishop; b. at Cadiz, O., June 21, 1811; d. in Phila-
delphia, Pa., June 17, 1884. He was educated at
Madison College (subsequently merged into Alle-
ghany College, Meadville, Pa.), where he was tutor
in 1829; studied and practised medicine, 1829-35;
was ordained deacon in the Methodist Episcopal
Church 1835, and elder in 1837; was vice-president
and professor of natural science in Alleghany Col-
lege, 1837-39; president of Indiana Asbury Uni-
versity, Greencastle, Ind., 1839-48; editor of The
Western Christian Advocate, Cincinnati, O., 1848-
1852; and was elected bishop 1852. He changed his
residence in 1859 from Pittsburg, Pa., to Evanston,
111., and became president of the Garrett Biblical
Institute in the latter place. He was the acknowl-
edged prince of Methodist preachers, and his eloquent
addresses did good service for the Union cause dur-
ing the Civil War, enjoying, as he did, the personal
431
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Simony
Simultaneum
friendship of President Lincoln. He was the author
of Hundred Years of Methodism, New York, 1876;
Cyclopaedia of Methodism, Philadelphia, 1878; Lec-
tures on Preaching, New York, 1879; and Sermons
(posthumous, ed. G. R. Crooks, 1885).
Bibliography: Q. B. Crooks, Life of Bishop Matthew Simp-
son, New York, 1890.
SIMPSON, SAMUEL: Congregationalist; b. at
Centreville, Mich., Nov. 24, 1868. He was edu-
cated at Olivet College, Olivet, Mich. (A.B., 1891),
and Oberlin Theological Seminary (graduated
1894). He also studied at Hartford Theological
Seminary (1896-98) and the University of Berlin
(1900-01). He held Congregational pastorates at
Garner, O. (1894-96), and Chardon, O. (1898-1900),
and was associate professor of American Church
history in Hartford Theological Seminary (1902-
1909). He has written The Life of Ulrich Zwingli,
Siviss Patriot and Reformer (New York, 1902).
SIMSON, JOHN: Scotch theologian; b. at Renfrew
(6 m. n.w. of Glasgow) about 1668; d. at Edinburgh
Feb. 2, 1740. He received his education at Edin-
burgh University (M.A., 1692) ; and appears to have
studied theology at least under the advice of John
Marck of Ley den, as he acknowledged receiving in-
struction from him; he is known to have been
librarian at Glasgow College in 1696; he was licensed
by the presbytery of Paisley in 1698, but, possibly
owing to infirmity in health, did not receive a charge
untM 1705, when he was called to Troqueer, Kircud-
brightshire; he became professor of divinity in the
University of Glasgow, 1708. In this last place he
was exceedingly influential, the presbyteries of the
west of Scotland and north of Ireland receiving a
considerable number of ministers from the men who
studied under him, and yet his position was fre-
quently assailed, and it was believed that he was
untrue to the standards. In part this was due to
his fundamental position that reason was the basis
of theology and to his effort to make orthodoxy un-
derstandable. In Mar., 1714, charges were brought
against him in the presbytery of Edinburgh, to
which charges he made answer in 1715, and the
answer was referred to a committee; the next as-
sembly passed the matter over, and, in 1717, a qual-
ified censure of certain opinions and expressions was
passed. In his later teaching, after combating the
Semi-arianism of Samuel Clarke (q.v.), he assailed
Sabellianism; and in 1726 charges were once more
brought against him, this time in the presbytery of
Glasgow. The next year he was suspended by the
general assembly, a committee being appointed to
carry the case through. But in 1728 Simson's ac-
count of himself was regarded as establishing the
orthodoxy of his belief, though his statements in
teaching were not approved, and suspension fol-
lowed till the presbyteries could be heard from; the
suspension finally occurred and was confirmed in
1 729. The emoluments of the chair were left to him,
but he was debarred from teaching.
His only publications were those connected with
his ecclesiastical trials: The Case of Mr. John Sim-
son (Glasgow, 1715); and Continuation of the Sec-
ond Edition of the Case of Mr. John Simson (Edin-
burgh, 1727-29).
Bibliography: In the British Museum Catalogue, a. v., a
column is devoted to titles of pamphlets, records, etc.,
dealing with the orthodoxy and trial of Professor Simson.
Consult further: Correspondence of Rev. R. Wodrow, ed.
T. MacCrie, 3 vols., Edinburgh, 1842-43; Hew Scott,
Fasti ecclesiai Scoticance, 5 parts, London, 1871; W. M.
Hetherington, Hist, of (he Church of Scotland, pp. 337, 340,
348, New York, 1881; H. F. Henderson, Religious Con-
troversies of Scotland, pp. 5, 8, 11-17, Edinburgh. 1905;
W. Beveridge, Makers of the Scottish Church, p. 174, Edin-
burgh, 1908; DNB, lii. 286-287.
SIMULTANEUM (Lat., "simultaneous [exercise
of religion] ") : A term formerly used in the Ger-
man Empire to denote the authorization of more
than one religious body to hold services side by side
in the same territory, so that the worship of the com-
paratively weaker communion should be more than
the right of mere household devotion. The term
also connoted, as it still does, the simultaneous right
of two congregations of different confessions to the
same ecclesiastical foundation, especially to the
same church building, or the same churchyard. Such
simultaneous conditions repeatedly arose in Ger-
many, notably in the West and Southwest during
the period between the religious peace of Augsburg
and the Peace of Westphalia. The chief causes of
this were the Protestant confiscation of a large
amount of church property after the Peace of Augs-
burg, followed by its restitution, during the Counter-
Reformation, in accordance with the edict of Mar.
6, 1629; as well as the changes, in the course of the
Thirty Years' War, in the status of the religious
bodies in the various territories; the frequent con-
versions of ruling princes (especially from Protes-
tantism to Roman Catholicism); and the legal es-
tablishment of the joint rights of Roman Catholics
to Protestant churches. The legal theory of the
simultaneous use of ecclesiastical institutions (espe-
cially church buildings) is, however, only scantily
developed and is much contested, since regulation
by law is almost entirely lacking, except in Prussia
and Bavaria. The legal basis for the simultaneous
use of a church may arise from joint ownership of
the building by both congregations, although it is
also possible that the church in question may be-
long solely to one of the congregations, so that the
title of the other religious body is merely one of
prescription, the exact determination of conditions
requiring a knowledge of the origin of the simulta-
neum in each specific case. In these instances there
are always two distinct congregations, conceived
as separate legal entities, the view being untenable
which maintains that the communions in question
must be regarded, so far as the simultaneous church
is concerned, not as distinct corporate bodies, but
as a single congregation which still retains fellow-
ship and unity of faith. Legal recognition of actual
joint use is equivalent to a title to such right, and
a legal simultaneum is also created in case one of
the communions concerned cedes the privilege of
joint use at the petition of the other party, while
retaining the right of revoking such permission at
any time. On the other hand, even right prescrip-
tive can not create a simultaneum in case sufferance
of joint use has been forcibly extorted from the
party legally entitled to sole possession. Provision
is thus made for cases in which the legal rights of the
parties concerned can not be determined, the pre-
Simultaneum
Sin
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
432
sumption being that the privilege of that party
which was the later to receive permission of joint
use was granted in response to petition and is re-
vocable; while if the status of joint use can not
definitely be determined, both communions are held
to have equal rights.
The simultaneum is subject to great variation
both in kind and in degree. One congregation may
have the nave while the other has the chancel; sep-
arate hours may be appointed for the religious serv-
ices of each communion; one of the parties may have
the right to use the church only on special occasions,
as for baptism; and in sporadic instances the two
congregations may even worship together. Ex-
penses, especially those for maintenance! must be
defrayed according to any agreements previously
drawn up, or, if occasion demands, from the com-
mon funds of the church. If such funds are lack-
ing or are inadequate, both congregations, if pos-
sessed of simultaneous privileges, must contribute.
When, however, one of the communions concerned
has the exclusive right of possession, the other hav-
ing only a right of use, the former must bear all
charges legally incumbent on the owner, while the
latter is required to contribute only in proportion
to its rights of use. Any new creation of simulta-
neous rights in churches is precluded, from the stand-
point of the Roman Catholic Church, by the rule
that Roman Catholic churches must not be used for
other than Roman Catholic services, and though
Protestants may consistently grant the use of their
church buildings to other religious bodies, as has
been done repeatedly at the request of the Old
Catholics, such action can scarcely give rise to ob-
ligations of a legal nature.
A simultaneum may be dissolved either by the
union of the two congregations concerned (with the
requisite sanction of their ecclesiastical superiors);
or by surrender of rights by one of the parties in
question, although this party is not thereby re-
leased from its possible obligations. It is a moot
question whether one party may demand a settle-
ment with reference to the simultaneous church and
its joint property without the consent of the party
of the second part, even though proper compensa-
tion be offered. This right is generally denied
where the simultaneum has been created by legal
enactments, as by the Peace of Westphalia; but if
the simultaneum is based on a private contract, such
a demand is legal as coming within the scope of
private law. The principles of the modern State
forbid it to use either administrative or legislative
measures to compel churches to adopt a simul-
taneum. If, however, the parties to a simultaneum
become involved in a controversy or dispute which
disturbs the public peace, the authorities (especially
the police) have the right to interfere. In case of
severe breaches of the peace, the simultaneum may
be temporarily suspended; but the attitude of the
State toward religious communities forbids the per-
manent quashing of a simultaneum without the con-
sent of the parties concerned.
In the case of cemeteries, however, the right of en-
forcing a limited or contingent simultaneum is re-
served by the State in connection with its claim to
jurisdiction over burial. The Peace of Westphalia
enacted that if one of the recognized confessions
possessed no cemetery of its own, its members might
be interred in the churchyard of the other. This
principle, with a number of modifications and am-
plifications, is still in force; but while it is recognized
by the German Protestants as well as by the ma-
jority of the German States, the Roman Catholic
Church rejects it except when absolutely compelled
to do otherwise, in the latter contingency forbidding
Protestant ministers to officiate at the burial, and
also endeavoring, wherever possible, to set apart a
special portion of the churchyard for non-Catholics.
The only modern possibility of the necessity of
creating additional simultaneous conditions is the
cleavage of a communion by differences evolved
within itself. This contingency was realized in Ger-
many by the Old Catholic movement. Both in
Baden and in Prussia State law permits Old Catho-
lic congregations, under specified circumstances, to
have simultaneous use of Roman Catholic churches
and churchyards, etc., but this has failed to give
rise to a true simultaneum, since the Curia has for-
bidden Roman Catholics to worship in church build-
ings given by the government to Old Catholics.
E. Sehling.
Bibliography: P. 8. von der Aurach, Die kirchHchen Sv-
muItanverhaUniaee in der PfoU am Rhein, Mannheim,
1866; M. J. Hartung, Dae kirchliehe Recht der Proieetanten
im vormaligen Hertogthum SuUbaek, Erlangea, 1872; K.
Kdhler, SimuUankirchen im Hereogtum He—*, Darmstadt,
1889; W. Wagner, Unlereuchuna fiber die ryewickeche Re-
liffioruklauscl, Berlin, 1889; W. Krajs, Kirchliehe Simul-
tanverhaltnisae, Wunburg, 1890; E. Sehling, Ueber
kirchliehe SimuUanverhaltnieee, Freiburg, 1891; idem, in
NKZ, ii (1891), 777 sqq.; T. Lauter, Die Bntetehuna der
kirchliehen Simultaneen, Wunburg, 1894; Waller, Beitrao
turn Recht der Simultaneen (disputation at Erlangen, 1905);
Stela, Dae Simultaneum in Reppernderf (dissertation at
Wunburg, 1905). Further references to literature on Ger-
man ecclesiastical law are given in Hauck-Hersog* RB,
xviii. 374.
SIN.
Nature (f 1).
In the Old Testament (f 2).
In the New Testament (| 3).
Ancient and Medieval View (f 4).
Doctrine of the Reformation (f 5).
Post-Reformation ViewB (f 6).
Criticism of the Doctrine (f 7).
Theory of Sin (f 8).
The Court of Conscience; Forgiveness (§ 9).
In religious terminology sin is the name for evil.
Practical philosophy [in the Kantian sense] deals
with a contradiction between what is and what
should be in human life, and, in its most intense
moral form, with a " radical evil." The criminal
code knows of misdemeanor, felony,
x. Nature, crime. Moral judgment in common
parlance speaks of want of character,
violations of duty, and vice. As sin, evil is conceived
in a religious philosophy only as it is judged remiss
in its duty to deity with its precepts of life. The
concept sin involves a peculiar modification of that
of evil: (1) its heinousness is more serious for a re-
ligious person, because it is a transgression not only
of a human but of a divine order; (2) the scope of
this religious condemnation extends to offenses
which do not occasion the censure or even the no-
tice of human authority; (3) with the idea of evil
understood as sin, there is combined the represen-
433
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Simultaneum
Bin
tation of a permanent state of the human person
transcending the individual act, which disturbs the
relation to deity. The word sin involves a religious
and a moral judgment of acts and of persons. The
two are more or less inseparable. Natural religion
considers as sins transgressions of the cult and the
religious customs. In the ethical religions the posi-
tive standard appears as a sacred legal order, and
sin assumes the character of legalistic violation. In
the highest ethical religions, which, with H. Siebeck,
may be called religions of salvation, there emerges,
with an inward perception of the ethical life, the
consciousness of a more intimate relation with deity.
God leads his people with fatherly long-suffering
and faithfulness, and expects in return not only obe-
dience, but also gratitude and trust. He gives norms
of religious life in the community, which transcend
the ordinances of law, and aim at the mutual exer-
cise of mercy and love. Where God's will is recog-
nized, there the comprehensive norm of the good
is disclosed. Where this standard is transgressed,
God's personal will is violated and fellowship with
him is interrupted. Christianity, the perfected
ethical faith, understands by sin apostasy from God,
which at the same time is inseparably the violation
of the absolute ethical norm of his will. Both phases
condition the nature of the Christian consciousness
of sin, the first its permanent activity, the second
its seriousness.
The Jewish faith attained a vitality and depth in
the consciousness of sin not met with in any other
pre-Christian religion. The general Semitic concep-
tion of sin as revolt against the divinity is not only
followed to its issue, but also modified.
2. In the Offense to the will of God obtains a
Old Testa- significance not exhausted in the con-
ment sequent results of disaster. In the
Babylonian penitential psalms, it is the
external stress that awakens the thought of sin, fol-
lowed by the cry for help and forgiveness. This
coalescing of the stress of salvation with natural
eudemonistic motives of an elementary religiousness
is also manifest in the Psalms of the Old Testament
(vi., x., Ixxxviii., cii., cvii.); but in the upper stages
of Israelitic piety the religious-ethical idea gains due
prominence (xxxii., Ii.), and the certainty of the
nearness of God overshadows the outer event (lxxiii.
23 sqq.). Hence by the time of the prophets it came
to be recognized that the favor of Yahweh could not
be secured by cultic zeal (I Sam. xv. 22; Hoe. vi. 6).
Among sins are reckoned, besides worship of idols
(Hos. ii. 13; Isa. ii. 8; Ezek. vi. 13) and magic
(Deut. xviii. 10-11), unbelief in Yahweh's power
(Isa. vii. 9), trust in human help (Isa. xxii. 8 sqq.),
unrighteousness in judgment and conduct (II Sam.
xii. 9 sqq.), avarice (Isa. v. 8 sqq.), and extrava-
gance (Amos vi. 4 sqq.). Yahweh's will is con-
ceived as moral, and the requirements of his will as
law, but this is presently exceeded. Insensibility to
God's love (Hosea), ingratitude (Isa. v.; Jer. ii. 5),
and hard-heartedness (Isa. xlvi. 12; Deut. ix. 6,
13) are conceived to be sins. The ceremonial law
of the post-exilic period produced a change which
affected rather the content than the intensity of the
sense of sin. Attention is mainly directed to par-
ticular precepts for the maintenance of the obedience
X.— 28
and purity of the pious. Ceremonial shortcomings
are sinful (Ezek. xxii. 26). However, the sense of
sin did not lose in subjective keenness, if it did in
ethical depth. The strictness of the positive pre-
scriptions impelled to supplication for grace. The
consciousness of sin became superficial with the
period of the Wisdom literature. Although the pre-
sumption remained that sin is against God (Prov.
iii. 32-34), yet the idea is more current that it is
offense against the wisdom of life, and on this ac-
count leads to misfortune (i. 24 sqq.). These tones
reverberate in the post-canonical literature, until
the belief in the future life, judgment, and reward
afford a deeper insight. The Old Testament treats
sin as universal in a great many instances. Often
it is the correlate of human weakness and frailty
(Job iv. 18). There are just ones who walk with
God like Enoch and Noah, but such are models of
piety, not of sinlessness. The latter vanishes in the
light of God's majesty (Job ix. 2). The prophets
called of God are not excepted (Isa. vi. 5). The law
distinguishes between thoughtless sins (Lev. iv. 2),
which may be atoned for by sacrifice, and presump-
tuous sins dishonoring Yahweh and entailing destruc-
tion (Num. xv. 30) . As thoughtless may be reckoned
the sins of youth (Job xiii. 26) and the unconscious
errors of man (Ps. xix. 12); but they, too, oppress
a tender conscience and cause a craving for forgive-
ness, if fellowship with God is not to be forfeited
(Ps. xc. 8, xxxii. 6). Only those may be comforted
by the presence of God, who are of a broken heart
and a contrite spirit (Ps. xxxiv. 18). Thought on
the universality of sin led to the conclusion of the
inclination to evil in every man. The doctrine of an
evil tendency is in the later Jewish literature, but
analogous conceptions are found in the canonical
Old Testament. Sin lies in wait for man (Gen. iv.
7); man's heart is naturally evil (Jer. xvii. 9). More
frequently is there mention of individual responsi-
bility for the sin of the community. 'Pre-exilic
prophets speak of the common guilt of the people
(Isa. i. 3-4; Mic. vii. 1 sqq.). In earlier times the
individual shared the burden of the sin of the en-
vironment (Gen. xix. 15); later generations are
punished for the sin of the earlier (Ex. xx. 5).
Later this was to be reconciled with the conscious-
ness of the independence and the worth of the in-
dividual. As it had become the rule not to inflict
punishment on the children for the offenses of their
fathers (Deut. xxiv. 16), it became recognized as the
divine norm that each was to suffer for his own sin
(Jer. xxxi. 29 sqq.). However, the theory of indi-
vidual earthly requital encountered great difficul-
ties in the face of the facts, due not only to the
limitation of view to an external and temporal
course of events, but to the overlooking of the moral
solidarity. How torturing and hopeless the prob-
lem proved to be is shown not only in Ps. lxxiii.
and the book of Job, but also in the attempt of late
Judaism at an equation of sins and merits, and in
this way to understand man's earthly destiny, with-
out the aid of the later Jewish foreglimpse of the
other world. For a long time Israel did not feel
called upon to investigate the origin of sin. That it
lay in the common nature of mankind seemed pat-
ent, and there was a general conviction of the power
Sin
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
434
of the will to resist it (Gen. iv. 7). Where an evil
act seemed inexplicable or fatal, it was supposed to
have been ordained of God (Judges ix. 23; I Sam.
xxvi. 19). Later Judaism treated such as due to
evil spirits. Sin is not regarded as historically in-
herited (Isa. xliii. 27), but as the common attribute
of one generation after another (Job xiv. 4). The
account in Gen. iii. was not intended to explain the
origin of sin but to show that death and other evils
originated through it. Its influence, beside that of
Gen. vi. 1 sqq., on the conception of sin is first
marked in later Judaism (Eccles. ii. 24; Sirach xxv.
32). To Adam was then charged in part evil and
in part an enhanced proneness to sin in humanity.
In the first case, Adam's fall was said to have in-
jured the state of man by bringing on evil and death
(Baruch), yet each one was to be morally responsi-
ble for himself. But it is further asserted that
Adam's sin increased man's inclination to evil
(IV Esdras iii. 20 sqq.). But at the same place there
was ascribed to Adam a root of evil; hence the his-
torical explanation of sin was not consistently car-
ried out. Least of all does the figure of the serpent
offer a satisfactory explanation of the origin of evil.
Identified later with Satan (see Serpent in Wor-
ship, I., § 1), it served only to symbolize temptation.
The Old Testament offers the thought of the gener-
ation of sin in its actual manifestation as well as a
deep consciousness of guilt and consequent disaster,
arousing the desire for deliverance; but it furnishes
little for the solution of the theoretical problem.
The testimony of Jesus against sin is intimately
associated with the prophetical preaching. Sin is
resistance to the promotive leadership of God, hence
with indifference to moral requirements (anomia,
Matt. vii. 23), contempt of grace (xi. 20 sqq.), and
denial of recognized truth (Matt. xii.
3. In the 31 sqq.). It is treated as guilt deserv-
New Testa- ing punishment (vi. 7). Its universal-
ment ity is assumed; all are called to re-
pentance (iv. 17); and are called evil
(vii. 11). The obligation of mercy Jesus bases on
the general need of forgiveness (xviii. 11 sqq.); his
contemporaries he calls an evil and adulterous gen-
eration (xii. 39). The victims of particular catas-
trophes are not sinners beyond others, but meet a
judgment that all can avoid only through penitence
(Luke xiii. 2-5). The human world is so much
under the dominion of sin that offenses are unavoid-
able (Matt, xviii. 7 sqq.). Although he mentions
the righteous whom he did not come to call to
repentance (Mark ii. 17), yet their righteousness is
questionable. The Pharisees who claim it are hypo-
crites (Matt. xv. 7). Even others who assume it
like the rich young man are not sufficiently earnest
in self-denial (xix. 16 sqq.)- He who looks upon sin
in his brother instead of in himself is worse (vii. 3-
5). Jesus carries sin from its outer appearance back
to its inner origin (v. 21-25, xv. 19), and sees in it
a persistent tendency (vii. 16 sqq., xii. 35). Pro-
portions of sin and guilt vary; there are tempters
worthy of the severest penalty, relative innocents
misled by seducers (xviii. 6), and there is an unpar-
donable sin (xii. 31 sqq.). The greater the possible
knowledge of the divine command, the greater the
responsibility (Luke xii. 47-48); where the revela-
tion of grace receives no penitent response is the
maximum guilt (Matt. xi. 20). Finally, the human
attitude of acceptance or rejection is decisive, when
the divine call to salvation is nigh (xxiii. 37). Jesus,
like the prophets, does not explain the origin of sin;
the fall is not mentioned in the Synoptics. From
the practical point of view Jesus ascribes the pres-
ent source of sin to the evil heart (Matt. xv. 19)
and to the world's offenses (xviii. 7). As a further
source is mentioned, repeatedly, the temptation of
the wicked one (xiii. 19); but the subject is not
treated theoretically. The reference serves to lay
stress upon the infectious and far-reaching power of
evil (v. 37; Luke xxii. 31). The thought of the
kingdom of Satan involves a close relation of sin
and evil (xii. 25 sqq.) ; their connection is illustrated
(ix. 2-6), although to point out their proportion in
individuals is not permissible (Luke xiii. 2-5). That
God judges and punishes sin lies at the root of the
teaching of Jesus throughout. Hence, there is no
salvation without forgiveness (Matt. vi. 12, xviii.
23 sqq.); no way of accepting it but by confession
of sins (Luke xviii. 13-14) and repentance (Luke
xiii. 5). The new in the teaching of Jesus is the
height of his religious-moral ideas (Matt. v. 48), in
the light of which appear as sins what had been pre-
viously looked upon as excusable defects, and the
way of salvation was revealed in his person (Matt.
xx. 28). In connection with the contrast drawn
between the salvation in Christ and the world with-
out, Paul takes occasion to present a total picture
of the nature and life of sin. It is not an individual-
ized acting against the divine will, but a dominating
power, a general tendency, and a total state (Rom.
vi. 12, 14). It is personified, winning men to its
service and compensating them (vi. 17, 23). Jews
and gentiles are under its sway (iii. 9); so all, with
the exception of Christ (II Cor. v. 21) and those
whom he frees from the law of sin (Rom. viii. 3).
Experience shows the universality of sin (i. 24-31),
as do the Scriptures (iii. 9-20). In the last analysis,
the death of Christ would have been dispensable, if
there had been any other way to overcome sin (Gal.
ii. 21). Therefore, the universality of sin is of di-
vine ordinance (Rom. xi. 32); the only way of
escape was to ensue, that opened by grace and
faith (iii. 24-26), so that no person might glory
(iv. 2). Slavery to sin leaves nothing to man but
the experience of his impotence and the futility of
his moral efforts (vii. 18 sqq.). The religious ref-
erence of sin as a contradiction against God is ever
expressly emphasized and forms the background of
Paul's statements. It is disregard of divine revela-
tion, ingratitude for God's gifts (i. 19-21, 25),
alienation from God (Eph. iv. 18), enmity toward
God (Rom. viii. 7), the unethical tendency of liv-
ing for self (II Cor. v. 15); and leads in social life
to envy, hatred, strife (Gal. v. 20). It lays weight
on earthly things (Col. iii. 2), and especially yields
to carnal desires (Rom. i. 24). Therefore unclean-
ness and unbridled sensuality hold sway over man-
kind (Gal. v. 19-21), especially over the heathen
world (Rom. i. 24 sqq.), while the Jews are more
directly exposed to the danger of self-deception
and self-righteousness (x. 3). But notwithstand-
ing all moral differences (ii. 14), there is essentially
435
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bin
no difference among men in God's sight (iii. 23).
All are fallen under his judgment (iii. 19), and have
forfeited the future glory (iii. 23). The gradations
of sin are determined by the progress of divine
revelation; the heathen perish without law (ii. 12);
revelation of the law brings responsibility, the
curse, wrath (iv. 15; Gal. iii. 10). Pre-Christian
sins are treated by God with long-suffering (Rom.
iii. 25); in view of Christian revelation, there is either
grace (iii. 24) or judgment (II Cor. v. 10), either
life or death (ii. 16). The connection of sin with
the kingdom of Satan seldom occurs; only, decep-
tion and temptation are treated as his work (II Cor.
iv. 4; Eph. ii. 2). Peculiar to Paul and original
with him is his connection of sin with the flesh.
He can not mean the identification of the flesh with
sense, for sins of a purely spiritual nature he desig-
nates as works of the flesh (Gal. v. 16 sqq.). The
whole man is represented as aarxt so far as he may
be conceived in a religious-ethical sense (Rom. vii.
18). The distinction is formed from the standpoint
that the spirit of Christ first makes man what he
is by the divine will intended to be (II Cor. iii. 17).
Flesh is man who dispenses with the divine Spirit
or shuts himself against his influence. Paul is thus
enabled to designate the entire pre-Christian de-
velopment as the carnal or psychic (I Cor. xv. 45
sqq.) . But this scheme gains its evident completion
by another thought series of which Paul is unmis-
takably conscious. The flesh is the source of lusts
which oppose God's commands (Gal. v. 16; Eph.
ii. 3); and in this lies its positive significance for
the origin of a bias of life against God. The pneu-
matic law which declares war on the lusts meets
with opposition from the other (Rom. vii. 8, 14),
which is called the "law in the members" (vii. 23).
It is always the Christian's duty after he has been
made free to withdraw his members from the serv-
ice of sin (vi. 18-19). These statements can scarcely
be reconciled unless it be assumed that in the flesh
Paul saw the gateway for the entrance of sin into
the human organism. The natural man is therefore
flesh in the twofold sense that he is without the di-
vine Spirit, and so long as this continues the desires
of the flesh have the upper hand. A stronger in-
fluence on the development of Christian doctrine
than the preceding line of thought has been wrought
by the Pauline teaching of the deed of Adam and
its consequences (Rom. v. 12 sqq.). The object of
the passage is to elucidate the power of Christ's
obedience by the adverse parallel of the disobedi-
ence of Adam with a commensurate significance.
As by disobedience death entered the world, by
obedience came life. Physical death is meant, but
possibly the contrast with the life of Christ gave
it a wider significance. The origin and dissemi-
nation of sin can not be deduced from the pas-
sage; it only states that Adam's transgression was
the first sin, not that he produced the condition of
sinning. It is to be admitted that in vii. the same
is said of the individual's confronting a command-
ment as of the progenitor in v. The effect of the
act of Adam appears different according as the va-
riously interpreted clause " for that all have sinned "
(v. 12) is understood; either as an additional cir-
cumstance, or, what seems more likely, as a refer-
ence to Adam's act, which would then be designated
as a total act of humanity. According to the former,
Adam would be only the leader; according to the
latter, the totally valid representative or even the
type of the human race. Questions are raised rather
than answered. What it certainly implies, that
Adam's act entailed a continuous judgment on
mankind realized in death, does not exceed the view
of Gen. iii. represented in late Jewish circles. These
thoughts obtained a further expansion by Paul's
noted parallelism, which occasioned a further ex-
tension of the comparison than the passage imme-
diately had in view.
A striking completion of the Pauline doctrine of
sin is contained in the Johannine writings. The
totality of sinful life is more prominent. Sin is the
rebellious refusal to accept the divine revelation of
truth and love (John v. 40); it is essentially unbelief
(xvi. 9); love of darkness (iii. 19); guilty blindness
(ix. 41); contradiction of the divine standard of
life (I John iii. 4). It constitutes a sphere of life,
contrary to divine light and life (kosmos), and is
attached to things that abide not (ii. 15 sqq.).
The enemies of truth in it combine under the
prince of this world (John xii. 31), hating the chil-
dren of light and the light itself (xv. 19) but un-
able to sustain themselves under the condemnation
of the light of Christ (iii. 19). Belief and unbelief
originate a certain character, transcending time, so
that one born of God seems incapable of sinning
(I John v. 18), and one having known the truth
who, by denying the same, has backslidden shall
not be saved (probably sin unto death, v. 16). Con-
stant need of forgiveness is recognized for the
Christian life (i. 8). The Epistle to the Hebrews
regards sin as a besetting, impeding power, causing
man to stumble (xii. 1); polluting his conscience
(ix. 14); separating him from Ged (xii. 14). De-
grees in sin are discriminated as in the Old Tes-
tament; such as unintentional errors (ix. 7) and
wilful sins (x. 26), among which is apostasy, for
which there is no forgiveness (vi. 4-6). The Epistle
of James emphasizes that God does not tempt to
evil, but sin is conceived as lust, and brings forth
death (i. 13-15).
The church doctrine is a continuation of the de-
velopment of the Biblical only to a very limited ex-
tent. The principal thing in Scripture, the deter-
mination of evil according to experience by the
norm of the revealed divine will, be-
4. Ancient comes subordinate; the first sin, its
and Medi- connection with extra-human evil
evil View, powers, and its penal consequences
upon the human race come to the front.
A background of the original state has arisen hav-
ing little foundation in Scripture. For a fuller pres-
entation of the doctrine of sin in the early Church
see Augustine, II.; Pelagius, Pelagianism; and
Semifblagianism. The Eastern Church regarded
sin as a weakening of the intellect and of the free-
dom of the will, and integrates it with the fall, from
which it derived universal death. It is uncertain,
however, whether the fall represents a becoming
stationary at a lower level or a sinking from a higher
one. In case of the latter the loss of the image of
God could be thought of as brought upon the race
Sin
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
436
by Adam. Human free-will is preserved, already in
antagonism to the physicism of Gnosticism. A more
serious conception of sin arises in the West. But a
strong sensuous admixture is already introduced by
Tertullian with his combination of the physical
unity of the generations from Stoicism, and the
aversion to procreation of asceticism. In his pres-
entation of sin Augustine starts from the will. Only
after the fall, sin acquired the character of a tend-
ency to evil imposed upon nature. This produces
in the human race, as the " mass of perdition,"
moral depravity, which is incapable of good mo-
tives, though of apparently good actions. Freedom
was retained but the good was beyond its power.
Adam appears occasionally as the representative of
humanity; predominantly, however, he is consid-
ered as its physical head. The transmission of sin
takes place by the propagation of " corrupted na-
ture." Sin is reproduced in " concupiscence/' not
without involving a divine judgment. This " orig-
inal sin " deserves by itself eternal damnation; even
children who have not actually sinned are subject
to this damnation, although in the mildest degree,
unless they have been baptized. The demoraliza-
tion of sin, Augustine thus considers not alike in all.
In the Greek conception there was only an inherited
evil; to Augustine both an original sin and an orig-
inal guilt. Augustinianism was opposed by Pela-
gianism which, as an ascetic moralism, to preserve
moral self-development, held aloof from all physical
representations of sin and hyper-physical ideas of
grace. It denied that sin could be inherited; held
that sin was disseminated by the force of example,
and asserted that sin could be avoided, although
admitting a habit of sinning as a moral impediment.
Baptism it could not conceive as a means of grace
against original sin. Grace is rather pardon and
moral direction than an inner impartation of power.
Semipelagianism gives man in the state of sin the
capacity of acceding to grace, and of affording it
an inner relation. Moderate Augustinianism was
continued in medieval scholasticism. Without
abandoning the formulas of Augustine a rational
conception arose alongside of the religious, by which
it was gradually supplanted. In the original state,
no longer held as the normal, the lower powers were
subordinate to reason, and reason subject to God
(Thomas Aquinas). This " original righteousness "
was a " superadded gift," not to be reckoned with
human nature. The fall deprived man of the super-
natural gift; still his reason and freedom remained.
Original sin, according to Thomas, is formally a
" defect of original righteousness "; materially it
is " concupiscence." The last is not a natural fac-
tor, for " it exceeds the limits of reason "; it is
" contrary to nature," an " injury to nature."
Original sin is thus a corruption of human nature
(habitus corruptus). Duns Scotus contests the sin-
ful character of concupiscentia, and reduces orig-
inal sin to the absence of a long-lost good.
The Reformation reasserted the religious charac-
ter of sin, as a power fatal to the higher life. Art.
2 of the Augsburg Confession represents sin as the
deficiency of the fear of God and trust in him, and
concupiscence is subordinated as the consequence
of this abnormity. Melanchthon follows Luther in
regarding unbelief as the essential element in sin.
Original sin is not a mere passive heritage but the
active power of a life contrary to God,
5. Doctrine and dominates the personal will. Adam
of the Ref- is not only the remote ancestor but
ormation. the type of every one; and the race
participates in his sin. In the ideal
picture of the original state " original right-
eousness " is not a " superadded gift," but the nat-
ural perfection of man. The fall resulted in the cor-
ruption of human nature, which is propagated in
the race. Only Zwingli broke radically with the
Augustinian doctrine. Without denying that Adam
brought universal corruption upon humanity he
would admit guilt only where the inclination to evil
is appropriated by an act of will. Outside of this
it is an infirmity or disease. The Formula of Con-
cord (q.v.) maintained the total corruption of hu-
man nature, and the spiritual death of the natural
man. Human cooperation in salvation, or syner-
gism, is wholly excluded. On the other hand, the
somewhat Manichean Flacian expressions of a sub-
stantial reality of original sin is excluded and the
idea of the capability of justitia civUis belonging
to universal reason, taught by Melanchthon, is ac-
knowledged. The older Protestant dogmatics elabo-
rated these views into a system, taking in all the
reconcilable materials of tradition. As an illumi-
1 nated background of the doctrine of sin is drawn a
broad representation of the excellence of the orig-
inal state, which was of the highest religious, moral,
and natural perfection. The fall was a plunge to
fearful depths, to be explained only by Satanic de-
ception. The result was pride, ambition, and inor-
dinate desire. The sinful act subjects man to divine
disfavor. He becomes guilty and worthy of pun-
ishment. The penalty is death, i.e., physical death
and spiritual death or deprivation of the original
perfection, which is damnation. Original sin is fun-
damentally threefold; inherited sinfulness, inherited
guilt, and inherited desert of punishment. The
descent of sin and its consequences from Adam upon
his progeny takes place naturally by propagation
as well as legally by imputation. To escape the
harshness of the latter there was brought forward
the imputatio mediate, according to which the de-
scendants' own sin was to subject them to this
judgment of guilt and punishment. This device,
however, led to no clear results. Adam is moral as
well as natural head of the race, and his sin is justly
imputed to all (Quenstedt). His sin becomes that
of his descendants by propagation and the inherent
original sin justifies the divine imputation. This
parallelism continued only so long as the distinction
between the inherited condition and the personal
act was not drawn. Where sinfulness did not arrive
at action, as in deceased unbaptized infants, the
inconsistency became apparent. As manifest in the
race, original sin is represented as blindness of rea-
son, of a will devoted to evil, and as a riotous life
of impulse. This " corrupt state " is the fruitful
soil of actual sins. Previous to their commission
the judgment of God by virtue of imputation over-
hangs humanity. As second nature this state is
propagated, forming the substratum of the develop-
ment of the natural life, never wholly disappearing.
437
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Sin
Baptism removes the " formal guilt " or original sin,
but not the desire to evil or concupiscentia. This
disposition is not lost until the departure of the
soul from the body. In degree it is total moral in-
ability, at least in the spiritual sense.
The insuperable difficulties of this view consist in
the speculative elements which are to be comple-
mented by the empirical conception. The doctrine
of the original estate makes the origin
6. Post-Rcf-of sin inconceivable and is an inade-
ormation quate support for its determination;
Views, for according to it the fall appears as
a transformation prepared by nothing,
which threatens the continuity of person and the
possibility of imputation. The relation of Adam
to his descendants is now of an individual to others,
and again of a genus to its members. Sin, guilt,
and punishment are inextricably confused. Most
defiant is the inconsistency of individual responsi-
bility with the summary fate of the race, including
those who know nothing of Adam. Safer ground is
offered by psychological and religious-ethical deter-
minations, except for a closer distinction of the
ethical and religious. A special defect is the over-
sight of sin as a social power. In considering the
relation of Adam and the individual that of man
and his fellow beings is overlooked. Only a
powerful ecclesiastical authority could keep relig-
ious reflection in those grooves. The doctrine of
original sin became one of the first objects of prey
for the Enlightenment (q.v.), after the example of
the Arminians. Kant astonished the rationalists by
discussing a " radical evil " in human nature, a
fundamental inclination to evil, rooted in will, pre-
ceding all empirical acts, involving guilt, and in-
eradicable by human power. True, this was not
original sin, as Kant rejected historical origin and
physical inheritance and insisted that evil was in-
explicable. With Schleiermacher sin is the afflicting
sense of impotence in the consciousness of God. It
transcends the personal life, being in each the work
of all and in all the work of each. It consists in the
total incapability of good. Judged by the highest
type of humanity realized in Christ, it is a dis-
turbance of nature; in view of salvation to come
and the consciousness of God involved it may be
taken as ordered by God himself. The defect of this
theory is the neglect of the ethical standard, and of
sin as -a transgression of will, in behalf of a meta-
physical bias, threatening to make of sin only a cer-
tain necessary moment of development. This idea
is distinctly represented by Hegel. Sin is the in-
evitable transition-point of the finite spirit that
emerges from the conditioned state of nature to
freedom. Richard Rothe designates the object of
human life as an integral part of a speculative plot
of a world drama. Matter is the basis of the earthly
sphere; it is created by God, yet his opposite. Man
continues God's creation, by overcoming with pro-
gressive spiritualization the material inanity present
in himself as sensuousness. Sin is that motive of
life which antagonizes the normal development by
reverting to matter or nonentity. Yet not the de-
termination of man by selfish and sensuous impulses
constitutes actual sin but positive assent contrary
to the moral law; not the natural egoism but ego-
ism assumed as a principle. As contradiction of the
divine cosmic order sin obtains religious significance
also in the degrees of alienation from God and
inimical opposition to him. The almost antipodal
results are reached by Julius Mailer. Sin originates
not from natural conditions but from the self-de-
termination of the creature. Its principle is selfish-
ness, a primary life tendency based on freedom using
sense as a medium of expression. It takes its de-
parture from a primitive extra-temporal decision
involving the character of freedom, of which the
fall is the first revelation. The theory aims to pre-
serve the universality of sin without abridgment of
its guilty character, but only succeeds in basing
personal responsibility on an artificially conceived
presumption and in diverting the attention from
the racial unity and its importance for the life of
sin. A. Ritschl lays stress upon the social effecVof
sin, bringing into evidence a long-neglected Biblical
element. The kingdom of God has its antithesis in
a kingdom of sin, in which every sinful individual
is actively and passively involved, receiving and
imparting influences of evil. He properly refers for
support to the New-Testament doctrine of the
stumbling-block (skandaUm).
The assumption of a primitive state of perfection
as well as of a fall permanently affecting the des-
tiny of mankind has been irremediably shattered
for dogmatics by historical and ethical criticism.
The account of Genesis is to be understood as didac-
tic narrative to be employed as illu-
7. Criticism minated by other Biblical statements.
of the The original state is the condition of
Doctrine, untested innocence, and Adam is the
type of the race according to its cre-
ated disposition and its empirical demeanor. His
act is the type of the human racial sin, which in
the successive generations and social intercourse
continues progressively so far as it is not counter-
acted by moral forces. Universality of sin is the
presupposition for the need of universal redemption
and the universal validity of the work of Christ. A
truth is thus stated accessible to every maturer ex-
perience and attested at all times by witnesses un-
biased by dogma. It may be termed original sin;
for, although an ethical quality of will, and as
obstinacy to God to be conceived of only in personal
life, yet in the testimony of experience it becomes
organic disorder. As such it can be propagated.
With the doctrine of the heredity of acquired char-
acteristics modern thought is more apt to overesti-
mate than depreciate heredity and thus neglect the
guilty character of sin. The idea of guilt attaches
to the conduct of the individual person and its
presupposed freedom. The history of the doctrine
shows that the Christian judgment always adhered
to two points: the recognition of the comprehensive
racial reality of sin, and the personal contingency
of guilt. As to the latter, the Augustinian doctrine
could never satisfy the ethical consideration. Hence
a sharper distinction between bin and personal guilt
is to be followed. Sin is all action against the norm
of the divine will, irrespective whether this contra-
diction to God's will is known or willed by the indi-
vidual or not. Guilt is only the conscious resistance
to this norm within the limits and powers of per-
Bin
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
438
sonal life. Thus the New Testament attests that
the individual is not accountable for the sin of the
race as such, but only for his conscious participa-
tion of the same (Luke xii. 37; Matt. xxv. 42), and
forgiveness is not of original sin, but individual sins
(Matt. vi. 12, ix. 2). Guilt is always individual.
It may be said that the greater the spiritual maturity
of a man the more his sin has become his guilt, and
the further his influence extends the more the sin
of the community establishes his personal guilt.
Likewise the traditional view of eternal damnation
as the universal punishment of sin is not to be
maintained. That the sin of man, awakened by
divine revelation to his life mission, is at the same
time guilt that estranges from God and must be re-
moved by forgiveness is the irrelinquishable convic-
tion of every Christian. It does not follow, how-
ever, that the punishment must be absolute and
alike for all sins. Eternal damnation as a general
punishment of original sin is inadequate to God's
offended righteousness. The New Testament sug-
gests an individualizing on the part of God's
righteousness (Matt. xi. 24; Rom. ii. 2 sqq.). The
Christian faith maintains, (1) without forgiveness
of sins, no salvation; (2) every one that persists in
unbelief will receive just punishment in proportion
to his guilt known only to God. Religiously sin is
unbelief, and as such simply godlessness, admitting
of no degrees; ethically, it is a deviation from the
moral standard, varying in extent, principle, and
persistence. God judges according to the impartial
standard of just ethical estimation. Only his par-
don follows the higher norm of grace not con-
ceivable on the principle of adequate requital, but
immanent in him in the total idea of the moral
world order.
The problem of the origin of sin offers no difficulties
exclusively in the light of punishable sin. The basis
of this is in the conscious practise of freedom on the
part of the personal creature. More
8. Theory difficult is the inquiry how formal hu-
of Sin. man freedom acquired a content con-
tradicting the divine will. Reference
to the total life and original sin only defers the prob-
lem. That God willed sin or imposed it on man
through his nature or law of development is repul-
sive to Christian judgment, and would be incon-
sistent with the divine judgment of sin. Neither is
the evil will creative, but limited to the choice of
alternative conduct. Neither could an extra-hu-
man power contrary to God possess a creative
power beside him to originate evil. Attempts at
solution in this direction have resulted in holding
evil to be the mere negation of the good, which is
unsatisfactory to the Christian conscience. The
only solution remains that the content of the evil
will comes from God; but so far as this is true such
content is not yet evil, but mere imperfection. This
involves not only the sensuous character of the be-
ginning of human life, but also the naive egoism
which obligates man to self-preservation. Both
advance to the valuation of spiritual and common
good in the course of ethical development. With
this, imperfection is transmuted into sin. God in-
tends this imperfection to be removed by man's own
moral self-determination; man wants to retain it
against the known requirement of God. Imperfec-
tion becomes sin when approved and asserted by
the alienated will as the state adapted to the sub-
ject. A derivation of sin does not contemplate at
the same time establishing the basis of its religious
and moral judgment. The latter approves itself by
the revealed will of God; the former may be at-
tempted only on the basis of coherent reflection
upon the facts of experience. If the preceding ex-
planation should lead to an apology for sin, it were
better to abandon all attempt and assert the incon-
ceivability of sin. Paul assumes this deduction of
sin; the Church in its teaching abandoned his view
by exaggerating the original state. If the first state
was one of innocency and imperfection, then the
latter became sin as soon as the human will refused
the divine law of life that prescribed conquest.
That it refused is an act of free will not further ex-
plainable, yet always to be determined as avoidable.
Christian faith can neither admit that God causes
sin as such, nor can it escape the conviction that
he is eternally aware of it and subjects it to his
world-dominion. How an act in time may be subject
of eternal cognizance is inconceivable
o. The to finite mind. The fact itself is at-
Court of tested by the revelation of salvation
Conscience; through the death of Jesus Christ on
Forgiveness, account of sin. How God permits room
for sin in the world is to be seen in fact.
The judgment of sin is concomitant with its unfold-
ing in that its promised success proves itself as de-
ception and its expected freedom as servitude.
Servitude is punishment for the sinful deed. The
bondage of the will, however, consists less in a
confinement of the field of its activity than in the
contraction of its horizon of vision and in the de-
terminism of its motives, both of which are charac-
teristic of the natural man. Many other evils are
attendant penalties of sin which manifest their con-
tradiction to the divine order and may only be re-
ferred to the personal conscience for experience and
proof. The same holds true of Death (q.v.). A
revealing and intensifying judgment of sin takes
place in conscience, which reckons it as guilt to the
sinner; this happens to a certain extent in conse-
quence of the moral law, and more extensively in
consequence of the moral message of divinely sent
prophets (Rom. v. 20). That God consents to the
unfolding of sin and sustains humanity in spite of it
receives full explanation in the manifestation of his
holy love for human redemption. This is a pro-
gressive abolition of sin proceeding from within out-
ward. Beginning with the forgiveness of the debt,
it continues with a renewal of the will, and culmi-
nates in the removal of evil. Such a redemption must
have a historical act of God as its starting-point,
attesting the divine disapproval of sin as well as
love for the sinner. The Gospel of such an act is
essentially one of forgiveness. In the Vedas and
the Babylonian prayers this appears rather as the
removal of the penal consequences than the restora-
tion of the personal fellowship with God, as in the
New Testament (Matt. ix. 6-6; Rom. v. 2). In the
forgiveness of sin, the interference of this with the
central relation of life to God is annulled, hence
within the conception of sin there is no wider con-
439
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Sin
trast than that of unforgiven and forgiven sins.
The former abolishes life in the highest sense; the
latter gives it anew. This contrast has been em-
ployed for the classification of sin as pardonable and
unpardonable; such as sins of oversight and re-
bellion in the Old Testament, and venial and mortal
in the Roman Catholic Church. [The Roman Cath-
olic distinction between mortal (or deadly) sin and
venial sin is that the former deprives the sinner of
habitual grace and of spiritual life, while venial sin
does not. The names of the seven deadly sins will
effectually illustrate their character: pride, covet-
ousness, lust, anger, envy, gluttony, and sloth;
and it is readily apparent that these sins, deliber-
ately persisted in, will drive from the soul all state
of grace. But if such deliberation is lacking, or if
the sin be committed through an ignorance which
the sinner has no means of avoiding, or if, again,
the matter of the sin be of a less grave nature, then
the sin committed is venial, i.e., " the all-just and
all-holy God does not see in it such depravity as
deserves to be punished by eternal torment "
(Hunter, Outlines of Dogmatic Theology, 3d ed., ill.
40, New York, n.d.). It is, however, not always
possible for man to know whether a given unlawful
act is really sin, or whether, if sin, it is mortal or
venial; this can certainly be known only by God;
all that man can do is to have a more or less con-
fident judgment in the matter. Venial sin does not
cause even partial loss of habitual grace, since, if
that were so, venial sin multiplied would amount to
mortal sin, which is a contradiction. At the same
time, venial sin hinders the operation of actual
grace (i.e., grace which is the result of distinct di-
vine acts). By the Decrees of the Council of Trent
(Sess. xiv., cap. 5) it is obligatory to confess all
mortal sins; it is not absolutely required to confess
venial sins, although it is undoubtedly best to do
so.] But the correctness of these distinctions is
questionable. Both betray a confusion of legalistic
and religious-ethical standards. Also the opinion
of A. Ritschl that pardonable sins are sins of igno-
rance raises doubts. In accordance with the New
Testament pardon is to be attributed purely to
God's unlimited grace, Christ's atoning work, and
man's contrite faith, and not conditioned by the
minor importance of a certain category of sins.
The unpardonable sin (Matt. xii. 31-32) is one that,
as obstinate rejection and contemptuous debase-
ment of the recognized truth, bars the return to re-
pentance and faith. As pardon effects access to
God, it translates into the kingdom where the divine
will is supreme. This involves the renewed trans-
formation of the whole life tendency, described by
Paul as the becoming of a " new creature " (II Cor.
v. 17) and by church doctrine as Regeneration
(q.v.) or, with special emphasis on moral change,
as Sanctification (q.v.). In the former sin does not
disappear instantaneously and permanently (Rom.
vi. 12 sqq.; Phil. iii. 12; I John i. 8, ii. 2); yet it
is in a vanishing process and no longer capable of
striking fresh root, the obverse side of which is
cleaving to God through Christ, the unremittent
battle against the remains of sin, and the practise
of perfection. Like the individual, the Church may
assume a purifying process against the common evil
resident in itself, and the more its energies are
rallied to its great ideals of the new life the further
is its purification enhanced. (O. Kirn.)
Bibliography: For expositions of the Scriptural doctrine
of sin the reader is referred first of all to the works cited
in and under Biblical Theology, particularly those by
Schults, Beyschlag, Oehler, Duhm, Smend, Schlottmann,
Noack, Duff, Piepenbring, Dillmann, Holtsmann, Stevens,
Gould, Estes, and Bo von. Consult further: J. Taylor,
The Scripture Doctrine of Original Sin, London, 1738, 4th
ed., Newcastle, 1845; L. Ernesti, Vom Ur sprung der
Stinde nach paulinischem Lehrgehali, Gdttingen, 1855-62;
G. M. Straffen, Sin a* Bet forth in Holy Scripture, London,
1875; E. Menegos, Le PSchc et la redemption cTapres St.
Paul, Paris, 1882; L. Letnme, Die Stinde wider den heiligen
Geist, Breslau, 1883; J. S. Candlish, The Biblical Doctrine
of Sin, Edinburgh, 1893; J. Kdberle, Stinde und Gnade im
religiosen Leben dee Volke Israel, Munich, 1905; W.
Staerk, Stinde und Gnade nach der Vorstellung dee alteren
Judentume, Tubingen, 1905; F. Bennewits, Die Stinde im
alien Israel, Leipsic, 1907 (1906); DB, iv. 528-536; DCG,
ii. 630-635.
As a subject in systematic divinity sin is treated by all
the great dogmaticians, and discussions are to be looked
for in the works named in and under Dogma, Dogmatics.
Special works which may be cited from the large litera-
ture on the topic are: A. Burgess, A Treatise of Original
Sin, London, 1658; G. Tomline, Refutation of Calvinism;
in which the Doctrines of Original Sin, Grace . . . are ex-
plained, London, 1811; G. Payne, The Doctrine of Orig-
inal Sin; or, native State and Character of Man unfolded,
London, 1845; M. P. Squier, The Problem Solved; or. Sin
not of God, New York, 1855; E. Girafd, Lehre von der
Sunde, Strasburg, 1861; J. M Oiler, Die christliche Lehre
von der Stinde, 2 vols., 5th ed., Breslau, 1867, Eng.
transl.. The Christian Doctrine of Sin, 2 vols., Edinburgh,
1868; E. Naville, Le Probleme du mal, Paris, 1868, Eng.
transl.. The Problem of Evil, Edinburgh, 1871 ; J. B. Brown,
The Divine Mysteries: the divine Treatment of Sin, and
the divine Mystery of Peace, London and New York, 1869;
W. G. T. Shedd, Theological Essays, pp. 211-264. New
York, 1877; J. Tulloch, The Christian Doctrine of Sin,
Edinburgh, 1877; G. Heinrici, Die Stinde nach Wesen und
Ur sprung, Frankfort, 1878; G. P. Fisher, Discussions in
History and Theology, New York, 1880; A. Ritschl, Recht-
fertigung und Versohnung, vol. iii., 40-43, 2d ed., Bonn,
1882-83; R. W. Landis, Doctrine of Original Sin as Re-
ceived and Taught by the Churches of the Reformation, Rich-
mond, 1885; M. Dix, The Seven Deadly Sins, New York,
1888; S. Kierkegaard, Zur Psychologic der Stinde, Leipsie,
1890; J. Martineau, Seat of Authority in Religion, pp. 450-
461, London, 1890; D. Gracey, Sin and the Unfolding of
Salvation, London, 1894; R. Harris, Is Sin a Necessity,
London, 1896; R. C. Horner, Original and Inbred Sin,
Ottawa, 1896; C. Clemen, Die christliche Lehre von der
Stinde, Gdttingen, 1897; J. Royce, Studies of Good and
Evil, New York, 1898; E. W. Cook, The Origin of Sin and
its Relations to God, ib., 1899; F. R. Tennant, Origin and
Propagation of Sin, London, 1902, 2d ed., 1906; idem, The
Sources of the Doctrine of the Fall and Original Sin, ib.
1903; J. Tunnel, Hist, du dogme du pichi originel, Macon,
1904; J. N. Espenberger, Die Elemente der Erbsunde nach
Augustin, Mains, 1905; N. R. Wood, The Witness of Sin,
New York, 1905; H. V. S. Eck. Sin, New York, 1907; N.W.
Stroup, The Fact of Sin Viewed Historically and Doctrinally,
Cincinnati, 1908; H. Windisch, Taufe und Sande im alt-
estenChristentumbisaufOrigines. Ein Beitrag sur altchrist-
liehen Dogmengeschichte, Tubingen, 1908; M. L. Button.
The Problem of Evil; a Criticism of the Augustinian Point
of View, Chicago, 1909; J. H. Busch, Das Wesen der Eib-
sUnde nach BeUarmin und Swires. Eine doamenoeschtcht*
liche Studie, Paderbom, 1909; W. D. Hyde, Sin and its
Forgiveness, Boston. 1909; W. E. Orchard, Modern The-
ories of Sin, London. 1909; F. J. Hall, Evolution and the
Fall, New York. 1910. Vigouroux, Dictionnairs, fata.
rf. 7-16.
SHI: The name of a place in Egypt named in
Eiek. xxx. 14-16. Trouble has been caused for
exegetes and investigators by what is clearly a
wrong arrangement of the verses; a correct division
Sin
Sinai
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOQ
440
shows four pairs of names, thus: Pathros and Zoan;
No and Sin; No and Sin; No and Noph. Of these
pairs the first always belongs to Upper Egypt, the
second to Lower Egypt. According, therefore, to
the accepted Hebrew text, which is to be preferred,
the correct view is, that Sin is a place in Lower
Egypt. Ebers' surmise that it was in Upper Egypt
because it appears to derive from the ancient Sun,
which resembles the Greek Syene, overlooks the fact
that this place existed in Hebrew times, and is men-
tioned by Ezekiel as Seveneh (xxx. 6). The Zoan
that bears a relation to Sin in Ezek. xxx. 14-16, was
probably known to the Hebrews under the name of
Rameses (Gen. xlvii. 11). The Sin of Ezekiel is
thought of as one of the most important places in
Lower Egypt, being twice paralleled with Thebes
(No) ; it could not therefore have been an unimpor-
tant place in the east of Lower Egypt (contrary to
W. M. Muller, EB, iv. 4629). As " the fortress of
Egypt," however, it protected during the course of
history the town of Peluedum, which lay on the east
arm of the Nile. To the east of this town a high
boundary wall was erected (Diodorus Siculus, i. 57)
and the town itself was surrounded by a wall twenty
stadia long. The armies of invasion from the East
could not ignore this arsenal and key to Egypt. As
in strategic importance, so also in general signifi-
cance Sin and Pelusium may be identical, as when
Strabo alludes to the marshy surroundings of the
town as Pelusium. But what was Sin-Pelusium
called by the ancient Egyptians ? Brugsch, in the
appendix to his Dictionnaire giographique, accepted
the view of Dumichen, the noted Egyptologist, in his
Oeschichle des alien Aegyptens (pp. 74, 263, 1878),
according to which the capital of the nineteenth
province of Lower Egypt was Am, named after the
two eyebrows of Osiris, which were preserved as
sacred relics in the temple of the town. W. M.
Muller calls it Ame(t), " Prince of Lower Egypt "
(EB, iv. 4628). In ancient Egyptian the word am
(Coptic, ome) signifies morass. Whether the ancient
Egyptians, who loved to play on words, placed a
double meaning on the word " Am," the " town of
the two eyebrows," is uncertain; there was a temp-
tation to play on the word as the city was sur-
rounded by marshes. At the present day, an ancient
ruined castle, northwest of the ruins of ancient Pelu-
sium, is called Tine*h (" clay," or " mud "), an evi-
dence that Sin was an appellation of Pelusium.
(E. KGnio.)
According to the best recent conclusions in Egypt-
ology Sin is either an unknown city or (more prob-
ably) is to be identified with the Seveneh of Ezek.
xxix. 10, xxx. 6 (R. V.). J. F. M.
Bibliography: Consult the commentaries on Ezekiel by
Smend, Leipsic, 1880; Orelli, Munich, 1896; Bertholet,
Tubingen, 1897; Kraetsschmar, Gdttingen, 1900; Q.
Jahn, Leipeic, 1905; C. H. Cornill, Das Buck des Propheten
Ezechiel, ib. 1886; and the articles in the Bible diction-
aries.
SIR, DESERT OF. See Wandering in the
Desert.
SIN OFFERINGS. See Sacrifice.
SINAI, sai'noi or sai'na-ai: The mountain on
which, according to the Pentateuch, Moses gave the
greater part of the Law to the Israelites; identified
for a millennium and a half with a peak of the range
which forms the center of the peninsula of Sinai,
between the two northern arms of the Red Sea.
The range in question consists of Jabal al-Dair
(6,472 ft.), Jabal Musa (7,363 ft.), and
Topography Jabal Katarin (8,536 ft.), but it is ex-
of the tremely difficult of access, being off all
Traditional the main routes, and surrounded by
Sinai barren wastes, especially to the north.
The central group of these mountains
is bounded by valleys on three sides, but continues
without deep indentation on the south. Jabal al-
Dair throws out a triangular spur toward the north
and is bounded on the east by the Wadi al-Sadad,
called Wadi al-Saba'iyah further south. On the
northwest of Jabal al-Dair is the Wadi al-Shaikh,
which turns northward; and on the southwest is
the short Wadi al-Dair, the upper part of which is
called Wadi Shu'aib (" Valley of Jethro "), and
which debouches into the Wadi al-Shaikh. The
other side of the Wadi al-Dair is enclosed by the de-
clivities of the second lofty peak, the southeast sum-
mit of which is called Jabal Musa (" the Mountain
of Moses "), and the northwest summit Ras al-
Zaf?af (" Mountain of the Willow "; 6,540 ft.), the
northwest slopes of the latter running parallel with
those of Jabal al-Dair to the Wadi al-Shaikh, which
continues to the southwest to the steep Wadi al-
Laja, which soon turns to the southeast and leads
to the abandoned Dair al-Arba'in (" Monastery of
the Forty [martyrs slain by the Mohammedans] ")•
South of Jabal Musa and the monastery rises Jabal
Katarin, the highest peak of the whole group, the
foothills of which connect with Jabal Musa. On the
northeast slope of the latter mountain is the Mon-
astery of St. Catharine, behind the apse of the church
of which is the Chapel of the Burning Bush, which
is honored by the removal of the shoes of all who
enter (cf. Ex. iii. 5). The summit of Jabal Musa
may be reached in an hour and a half from the
Monastery of St. Catherine. On the way a little
spring is passed where Moses is said to have tended
Jethro's flock (Ex. ii. 15 sqq.); at a height of 6,900
feet is the small chapel of Elijah (cf. I Kings xix.
11 sqq.); and on the summit are another chapel
and a small mosque, beside which are the ruins of
a church. [Beneath this mosque is a grotto, sup-
posed to be that in which Moses stood when Yah-
weh passed by (Ex. xxxiii. 22).] The other summit
is hard to climb. It takes its name, Ras al-£af$af,
from a willow (Arab, zafzaf) from the wood of which
Moses is supposed to have cut his miraculous rod
(Ex. iv. 2). On the road which passes through the
Wadi al-Dair into the Wadi al-Laja and past the
Dair al-Arba'in, is the IJajar Musa (" Rock of
Moses "), a block of reddish-brown granite about
eleven feet nine inches high, identified with that
from which Moses brought the water (Num. xx. 8
sqq.), and this water is said to have returned here
after having accompanied the Children of Israel in
their wanderings (cf. I Cor. x. 4). Near the junction
of the Wadi al-Laja, Wadi al-Dair, and Wadi al-
Shaikh is the traditional spot where the earth swal-
lowed up Korah and his followers (Num. xvi.), while
a small hole in the rock is shown as the mold of the
441
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Sin
Sinai
golden calf (Ex. xxxii.). The plain of Wadi al-
Raha, northwest of the junction of the three wadis
just mentioned, is held by many to be the camping-
place of the Children of Israel (Ex. xix. 2, 17).
According to tradition, Jabal Musa is the moun-
tain where Yahweh first revealed himself to Moses
(Ex. iii.), where he descended with fire and cloud
and gave the Decalogue (Ex. xix., xx.; Deut. v.),
and where Moses abode forty days and forty nights
(Ex. xxiv. 18; Deut. ix. 9). If the arid Wadi al-
Rafra be taken as the camping-place of the Israel-
ites, Ras al-£af$af would be Sinai, since
Attempted the peaks of Jabal Musa are invisible
Identifier- from Wadi al-Rafea (cf. Ex. xix. 17,
tions in the xxiv. 17). Since, however, the craggy
Sinaitic and perilous summit of Ras al-£af $af
Peninsula, would be ill-adapted for the sojourn
of Moses with Yahweh, it was assumed
that Jabal Musa was Sinai. This theory led to the
supposition that the place of assembly of Ex. xix.
17 was the Wadi al-Saba'iyah, which bounds Jabal
Musa on the east; but this stony, arid, and narrow
valley does not fit the topography required by the
Bible. Sinai has also been identified with Jabal
Sarbal (6,730 ft.), south of the Wadi Firan. This
portion of the peninsula was evidently once densely
populated; the city of Pharan is mentioned by
Ptolemy (V., xvii. 3); and it was the seat of a
bishop in the fourth century and of an archbishop
in the fifth century, until, in the time of Justinian,
the orthodox monks removed from Jabal Sarbal to
Jabal Musa. This identification is, however, ren-
dered impossible by the statement of the " Pilgrim-
age " of Silvia of Aquitaine that Faran was thirty-
five (Roman) miles from the " mount of God,1' a
distance which agrees with that between the oasis
of Firan and the Sinaitic monastery, but is several
times too large for that between the oasis and Jabal
Sarbal. It would appear, therefore, that in the
days of Silvia (about 385) Sinai was identified with
Jabal Musa, and it is equally obvious that Ras al-
Zaf$af was held to represent Horeb.
The Old Testament gives two different names to
the " mount of God/' Sinai and Horeb; and, while
it was formerly held that Horeb was the general
name of the region, and that Sinai was the name of
the specific mountain, it is now maintained that
Horeb is peculiar to E and D, and Sinai
Critical to J and P. Two possibilities thus arise,
View. either that, like Hermon (q.v.), the
same mountain had two names, or that
the sources really designate two different places. The
location of Horeb seems to be best indicated by
Deuteronomy, which indicates (i. 2) that the moun-
tain was west of Kadesh-barnea, and also states
(i. 6-7, 19-20) that the Israelites went from Horeb
to Kadesh-barnea " through all that great and ter-
rible wilderness, which ye saw by the way of the
mountain of the Amorites." In Ex. iv. 27, Aaron
goes from Egypt into the wilderness to meet Moses,
whom he finds at " the mount of God," or Horeb
(cf. Ex. iii. 1), which would thus again seem to be
located on the road running from Egypt eastward
to Kadesh-barnea. J gives the name Sinai to the
mountain on which Yahweh spoke with Moses (Ex.
xix. 11, 18, 20, 23, xxxiv. 4), while P (Num. x. 12)
locates the wilderness of Paran (q.v.) near the wil-
derness of Sinai, which obviously derived its name
from Mount Sinai and is often mentioned (Ex. xix.
1; Num. i. 1, 19, iii. 4, etc.). This would apparently
locate Sinai not far from Kadesh-barnea, in the
desert lying north of the peninsula proper. The
Song of Deborah (Judges v. 4-5) states that Yah-
weh rose up from Sinai to help the Israelites against
the Canaanites, and that he came from Seir and the
" field of Edom." Since, however, Sinai can not be
sought in Edom, Seir and the " field of Edom "
must designate the' southern boundary of Canaan
or of the mountain districts of the Amorites. This
is borne out by Deut. xxxiii. 2-3, where Sinai is
paralleled by Seir and Paran, while the goal was
Kadesh-barnea (reading Kadhesh for kodkesh), these
places all pointing to the southern boundary of
Canaan toward Edom. These passages, therefore,
like Hab. iii. 3, locate Sinai in the southern (or
rather southeastern) vicinity of Kadesh-barnea; but
while this may easily be reconciled with P, J and,
still more clearly, E and D refer to the western
neighborhood of Kadesh-barnea. If the Sinai of J
be identified with the Sinai of Judges v. 4-5, and
if the " three days' journey into the wilderness " of
Ex. iii. 18, v. 3, viii. 27, be taken as having Sinai
as the goal, the real distance must have been much
minimized (cf. the daily marches recorded in Num.
xxi. 12-20); but if these days1 journeys be taken
strictly, the statements of J, E, and D practically
coincide and indicate that Sinai and Horeb were two
names of the same mountain, or at least designated
two mountains close together. Judges iv. 4-5 in-
dubitably locates Sinai further east than is implied
by any combination of the statements of the Pen-
tateuch. The Old Testament thus gives divergent
data regarding the location of the mountain on
which the Law was given; but while it would seem
that Judges v. 4-5 best represents actual tradition,
the region is still too imperfectly explored to permit
of identification of Sinai. The attempt has also
been made to identify Sinai with Jabal Barghir, or
Jabal al-Nur, four or five hours northeast of 'Afcaba;
and others, on account of the association of Moses
with Midian (Ex. ii. 15, 22, iii. 1), have located
Sinai in Midian (q.v.), southeast of Edom. This
theory is, however, irreconcilable with Judges v.
4-5. The hypothesis has likewise been advanced
that the theophany recorded in Ex. 16, 18; Deut.
iv. 11, ix. 15 indicates that Sinai was regarded as a
volcano, so that it has been supposed to be repre-
sented by one of the extinct craters of northwestern
Arabia, southeast of Midian, in the region between
Tabuk and Mecca. While some of the volcanoes in
the Hauran, east of Damascus, may have been active
within historic times, there is no certain evidence
that the Israelites were acquainted with them, nor
do the data of the Old Testament necessitate such
a hypothesis. (H. Guthe.)
Bibliography: C. W. Wilson and H. S. Palmer, Ordnance
Survey of the Peninsula of Sinai, 5 vols., Southampton,
1860-72; C. R. Lepsius, Reise von Theben nach der Hatb-
insel Sinai, Berlin. 1846, Eng. transl., A Tour from
Thebes to the Peninsula of Sinai, London, 1846; idem,
Briefe aus Aegypten, Aethiopien, und der Hattrinsel dee
Sinai, Berlin, 1852. Eng. transl., Letters from Egypt,
Ethiopia, and the Peninsula of Sinai, London, 1863; J.
Sinai
Sinixn
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
Hamilton, Sinai, the Hedjaz, and Soudan, London, 1857;
W. H. Bartlett, Forty Days in the Desert on the Track of
the Israelites, London, new ed., 1867; E. H. Palmer, The
Desert of the Exodus, 2 vols., London, 1871; C. Beke, Dis-
coveries of Sinai in Arabia, and of Midian, London, 1878;
8. C. Bartlett, From Egypt to Palestine through Sinai, the
Wilderness, and the South Country, New York, 1879; R. F.
Burton, The Land of Midian Revisited, i. 144 sqq., 235-
236, London, 1879; G. Ebers, Durch Gosen sum Sinai,
Leipsic, 1881; A. P.* Stanley, Sinai and Palestine in Con-
nection with their History, new ed., New York, 1883;
Q. Ebers and H. Quthe, Palastina in Bild und Wort, ii.
255 eqq., Stuttgart, 1884; E. Hull, Mount Seir, Sinai,
and Western Palestine, London, 1885; H. S. Palmer, Sinai,
from the Fourth Egyptian Dynasty, London, 1892; R. L.
Bensly, Our Journey to Sinai, London, 1896; A. Freiherr
von Gall, AlHsraelitische KuUsUttten, pp. 1 sqq., Giessen,
1898; W. H. Hume, Rift Valleys and Geology of Eastern
Sinai, London, 1901; E. Meyer, in SB A, xxxi (1905), 640
eqq.; idem. Die Israeliten und ihre Nachbarst&mme, pp.
67 eqq., Halle, 1906; W. M. F. Petrie, Researches in Sinai,
New York, 1906; E. Hornby, Sinai and Petra, London,
1907; Robinson, Researches, i. 90 sqq., 119 sqq., 140, 158,
176-177; DB, iv. 536-538; EB, iv. 4629-43; JE, ad. 381-
383.
SINAITA. See Johannes Climacus.
SINCLAIR, WILLLIAM MACDONALD: Church
of England; b. at Leeds June 3, 1850. He was ed-
ucated at Balliol College, Oxford (B.A., 1873), and
after being ordained to the priesthood in 1874 was
successively curate of Tortworth, Gloucestershire
(1874-75), assistant minister of Quebec Chapel,
London, and evening lecturer in logic at King's
College, London (1875-76), and vicar of St. Ste-
phen's, Westminster (1880-89), besides being chap-
lain to the bishop of London (1877-83), assistant
examining chaplain to Bishop Jackson of London
(1883-85), examining chaplain to Bishop Temple
of London (1885-97) and Bishop Creighton of the
same diocese (1897-1901), honorary chaplain to
the queen (1889-95) and chaplain in ordinary
(1895-1901), honorary chaplain to King Edward
after 1901, grand chaplain of England after 1894,
and chaplain to the order of St. John of Jerusalem
after 1900. Since 1889 he has been archdeacon of
London and canon of St. Paul's, and has written,
in addition to several volumes of sermons, The
Psalms, the Authorised Version in the Original
Rhythm (London, 1879); Commentary on the Epis-
tles of St. John (1880); Lessons on the Gospel of St.
John (1886); The Christian's Influence (1892);
Christ and our Times (1893); Words to the Laity on
Subjects of Ecclesiastical Controversy (1895); Lead-
ers of Thought in the English Church (1896); Points
at Issue between the Church of England and the
Church of Rome (1896); The Churches of the East
(1898); and Memorials of St. Paul's Cathedral
(1909).
SINECURE (sine cura): A prebend whose enjoy-
ment is not bound by services rendered, and is there-
fore to be distinguished from simple " Benefice "
(q.v.), to which certain duties are attached, and
from " cure," or the charge of souls. But where the
incumbent of a benefice has authorization to sojourn
at a distance from his place of office and to have his
office discharged by a vicar, his benefice becomes a
sinecure. While sinecures occur but seldom in the
Roman Catholic Church, they still frequently
appear in the Evangelical Church (of Germany).
This is explained by the fact that, although in con-
sequence of the Reformation foundations and
cloisters were usually abolished and their properties
applied in behalf of churches and schools or incor-
porated in the exchequer of the State, yet certain
cloistral and endowed positions were perpetuated,
and the Protestant endowment and cloistral pre-
bends became sinecures which ceased to have any
real ecclesiastical affinity.
But far more numerous than in Germany are the
court, state, and church positions that are sine-
cures in England [these being often used as means
for the advancement of learning by being given to
scholars engaged in special tasks or investigations].
(E. Sehling.)
SINGER, ISIDORE: Austro-American Jewish
editor; b. at Weisskirchen (160 m. s.e. of Prague),
Moravia, Nov. 10, 1859. He was educated at the
universities of Vienna and Berlin (Ph.D., Vienna,
1884), and after founding, editing, and publishing the
Allgemeine dsterreichische LUeraturzeUung (Vienna)
from 1884 to 1887, accepted the post of secretary
and librarian to Count Alexandre Foucher de Careil,
late French ambassador at Vienna. Going to Paris
with the count, he became a member of the staff of
the press bureau of the French Foreign Office. In
1894-95, after residing for a time at Rome, he
founded and edited at Paris La Vraie Parole to
counteract Edouard Drumont's anti-Semitic La
Libre Parole. In 1895 he left Paris for the United
States to publish The Encyclopedia of the History
and Mental Evolution of the Jewish Race, which be-
came The Jewish Encyclopedia (12 vols., New York,
1901-05), of which he was managing editor. He
has written Berlin, Wien und der Antisemitismus
(Vienna, 1882) ; Presse und Judentum (1882); Sotlen
die Juden Christen werdent (1884); Brief e beruhmter
christlicher Zeitgenossen uber die Judenfrage (1885);
Auf dem Grabe meiner Mutter (Prague, 1888); Le
Prestige de la France en Europe (Paris, 1889); La
Question juive (1893); Anarchie et antxshnitisme
(1894); Der Juden Kampf urns Recht (New York,
1902); and Russia at the Bar of the American
People (1904).
SINGLENESS OF HEART: Perhaps the most
adequate rendering of the Greek haplotes, a word
which occurs seven times in the New Testament
and is variously translated in the English versions
(Rom. xii. 8; II Cor. viii. 2, ix. 11, 13, xi. 3; Eph.
vi. 5; and Col. iii. 22). The adjective haplous
occurs Matt. vi. 22 and Luke xi. 34, and the adverb
haplds James i. 5.
As a Biblical-theological conception, haplotes de-
notes a mood or condition of the religious-ethical
life which in natural life is near the idea expressed
by naiveU, but is, however, a matter of moral self-
determination (Matt, xviii. 3). The New-Testa-
ment conception approaches very closely the clas-
sical use, but its use in the New Testament is to be
explained from the fact that it served in Jewish
Greek (Septuagint) as the translation of the He-
brew yosher and torn. The conception finds its real
explanation in the fundamental view of the Evan-
gelical announcement that the kingdom of God is
the only highest good in such a way that all double-
heartedness is excluded (Matt. vi. 33, 24, viii. 22,
443
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Sinai
Sinim
x. 37-39; Luke xi. 23; etc.). Thus singleness of
heart stands in contrast with a condition of heart
in which different tendencies exist side by side, the
religious-ethical disposition being interwoven with
tendencies of the natural ego and thus obscured in
its purity and deprived of its value which lies in its
oneness and singularity (Matt. xxii. 37; II Cor. vi.
14 sqq.). Excluding the intermingling of different
currents or tendencies, which destroy the compact
unity of Christian character, singleness of heart in
the religious sense denotes the entire uprightness,
straightforwardness, and determination of the heart
which in undivided receptivity accepts the grace of
God as he offers it (Ps. cxix., cxxx.). In the ethical
sense, singleness of heart denotes purity, soundness,
and soberness of disposition by means of which the
ethical action is the spontaneous outgrowth of love
from faith. Self-preservation in singleness of heart
is a duty of the justified who will not fall back into
the error of self-redemption.
In dogmatics the conception has found its place
under the conception of sanctification because of
the peculiar constitution of the religious-ethical con-
sciousness, which must cling to the human coopera-
tion with grace in order that the progress of the
state of grace according to the essence of the King-
dom of God may take place in an ascending line.
(L. Lemme.)
SINIM: The name of a region or a people men-
tioned in Isa. xlix. 12. The prophet announces in
the context that Yahweh is about to gather his still
scattered people from the places of their imprison-
ment. He then closes with the statement: " Be-
hold, these shall come from far: and, lo, these from
the north and from the west [Hebr. miyyam, " from
the sea "]; and these from the land of Sinim.1'
Divergent views exist as to the interpretation of the
thrice-occurring " these.1' On first sight the mean-
ing seems to be " these . . . , others . . . , and
■till others . . . ," i.e., three categories seem to be
embraced. In that case, Nfigelsbach's suggestion
that the first " these " is general and is distributed
by the second and third " these " does not comport
with the text. It is to be noted that before the first
and second cases comes the Hebrew word hinneh
(rendered in the A. V. " Behold . . . lo," in the
R. V. more correctly " Lo . . . lo "). It can not
be supposed that a third " lo " has fallen out and
that consequently the general statement " from
far " is explained by the designation of special
localities in what follows. Duhm and Marti propose
to strike out the clause " from the north " and to
substitute the sentence " and those from the ends
of the earth," making four categories. But the
junction in the text of " from the north and from
the west " makes of this clause a joint description
of one class of exiles — i.e., those in the northwest,
the land of Phenicia in its whole extent, Syria, Asia
Minor, and the " isles " (Isa. xlix. 1), where since
the sixth century prisoners had been sold (cf. Obad.
20). The prophet does not intend to name here four
regions (for a case where four are mentioned cf . Isa.
xliii. 5-6), but three, and to this threefold partition
Greek and Aramaic translations, and so the best
Jewish tradition, testify. Nor is Cheyne justified in
making miyyam here mean as an exception " from the
South " (Prophecies of Isaiah, ii. 16, London, 1884).
In defining the expression " from far," one must
realize that the spiritual center for the dispersed
Israelites as well as the center of reference of the
author of Isa. xl. sqq. was Palestine (cf. Isa. xl. 9,
xlix. 14, lii. 7). As compared with Assyria and
Babylonia, the northwestern regions of Phenicia
and Syria were relatively near. Since the trans-
portation of captives from Israel and Judah were
to the Tigris and Euphrates (II Kings xvii. 6, xxiv.
15; Tobit i. 10, 14), when one spoke of exiles the
Hebrews in those regions came naturally to mind.
The expression " from far " would naturally refer,
therefore, to those regions. But the collocation of
words in the text does not relate " from far " and
" from the land of Sinim," which latter therefore
did not lie in the most distant east or south. In
locating Sinim one must remember the law of proph-
ecy: prophets whose date can be surely fixed reveal
a parallelism between prediction and history, and
they name only such lands or peoples as are within
the ken of those whom they address. Accordingly
Sinim must refer to the inhabitants of Sin (q.v.),
viz., the inhabitants of the region about Pelusium,
of which Sin was the frontier fortress, the key, the
entrance, and the emblem. To note the importance
to the Hebrews of the region of which Sin was the
beginning one need but remember Jer. xlii. 1 sqq.
Moreover, it is to be remarked that expressions such
as " the land of . . ." designate always a small dis-
trict (Isa. ix. 1). With this interpretation agrees
the construction of the Targum, Jerome, Rashi,
David Kimchi, Ibn Ezra, Bochart, Ewald, and Bun-
sen. One may not correct the text and read Sewenim
(with A. Klostermann in Deuterojesaia, Munich,
1893; T. K. Cheyne, Introduction to Isaiah, London,
1895; K. Marti, commentary on Isaiah, Tubingen,
1900, and others), since Svmh (Ezek. xxix. 10) and
Syn (Sin) (Ezek. xxx. 15) are different places
in Egypt. [See remark under Sin, following
signature.]
In accordance with the law of prophecy enunci-
ated above, Sinim might refer to the Smites of the
Phenician coast (Gen. x. 17), only that these would
be already included in the miyyam in the preceding
clause. It would be possible also to think of the
Kurdish clan Sin in the district of Kerkuk in the
province of Bagdad suggested by Egli, provided
the stock is really old enough and had significance
for the hearers or readers of this prophecy; but in
that case it would be natural to hear something of
the exiles in that place, and the silence needs ex-
planation. But this very law of prophecy does not
encourage one to think of China. When this pre-
diction was written there had been no emigration
of Jews to China, and it was, in general, impossible
for the author of the passage in question to have
meant by Sinim the inhabitants of the Middle
Kingdom. Authorities do not claim a settlement of
Jews in China before the third century before Christ
(EB, iv. 4644; JE, iv. 33-34), and the tradition of
the Chinese Jews carries their history in the country
back to the Han dynasty (206 B.C. to 201 a.d.).
Finally, were the region of China referred to in the
passage, etymological considerations would lead
ifc^&tioi
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOO
one to look for a sibilant different from the one
which is found in the Hebrew word.
(E. Kama.)
BiBLiaaBAPBT : Discussions of the subject are to be found
principally in the commentaries on legion (see the bib-
liography under that article), especially those of Delitlsch
(3d ed.. 1879. 4th ed.. 1889). Geseaius, Hiuig. Ewsld,
Nagelabach. Chcyue, Knuis, Von OreUi (2d ed., 1004),
DiUnunn, Conttamin, Marti (TQbingen, 1900), and Duhm
(2d ed., Gottingen, 1892). Also the Hebrew dictionaries,
especially Qeaenius, Thttaunu. pp. 948-950, and Brown-
Bhggs-Driver, p. 896. Consult further: F. von Richt-
bofeo. Cl-ino. i. 430-437, 604, Berlin, 1877. el. Yule in
Academy, liii, 333; Egli, In ZWT, vi (18031. 400-410;
T. K. Cbeyne. Introduction to Oie Book of Ita-iah, p. 275,
LoDdon. 1895; idem, Isaiah, in SBOT; DB, iv. 538: EB.
iv. 4043-44; JE, iv. 33; Jacobus, SBD. p. 817; O. P. von
Molleudorf. Dai Land Siniw, in MonaUKhrifc far Gr-
tehichUmd WUsemehafl da JwUnlhumi, xxxv.ii tUOD.
8-0; E. Konig, HdW. unri ana. WorUrbueh, p. 300, Leip-
sic. IS 10.
SINKER, ROBERT: Church of England; b. at
Liverpool July 17, 1838. He was educated at Trin-
ity College, Cambridge (B.A., 1862; M.A., 1865),
where he was chaplain from 1865 to 1871, having
been curate of Coton, Cambridgeshire, in 1863-66,
and librarian since 1871. He has edited Tcstamenta
duodecim patriarcharum on the basis of the Cam-
bridge and Oxford manuscripts (Cambridge, 1869),
together with an appendix giving a collation of the
Roman and Fatmos codices (1879), and has trans-
lated the same document for The Ante-Nicene Li-
brary (Edinburgh, 1872), besides editing Bishop
Pearson's Exposition of the Creed (Cambridge, 1882).
He has written The Characteristic Difference* be-
tween the Books of the New Testan\ent anil the tmme-
illnti l'i Preceding Jewish and the immt'dintdy Suiri rul-
ing Christian, Literature considered as an Evidence
of the Divine Authority of the New Testament (Cam-
bridge, 1865); Catalogue of Fifteenth Century
Printed Books in the Library of Trinity College
(1876); Catalogue of English Books Printed before
1601 in the Library of Trinity College (1885); Memo-
rials of the Hon. Ion Keith- Falconer (London, 1888;
new ed., 1903); The Psalm of Habakkuk: A revised
Translation with exegetical and critical Notes on the
Hebrew and Greek Texts (Cambridge, 1890); The
library of Trinity College, Cambridge (1891); Hete-
kiah and his Age (London, 1897) ; Higher Criticism:
Whalis itt (1899); Essay* and Studies (Cambridge,
1900); and Saul and the Hebrew Monarchy (London,
1904).
SIRICTDS, si-rishlus: Pope 384-398. He was
a Roman, and was chosen, in succession to Damaaua,
Dec., 384, or Jan., 385. His pontificate has little
hi>lciric:il mhiiHhmiicc, except for the development
of the papacy. He regarded seriously his rights and
duties as overseer of the Church, demanded that
his diTMons be preserved, and so prepared the way
for Innocent T. and Leo I. His first letter, Feb. 10,
385 (to Bishop IlimeriuB of Tarragona in Spain),
dealt with the matter of converted Arians and the
obmrvasoa of the early times for baptism, Easter,
and Whitsuntide, with various club's in the Church,
such as penitents, undisciplined monks, married
priests, and the like; a synod held at Rome Jan. 6,
386, dealt with matters of like purport. He also
insisted upon compliance with canonical prescrip-
tions in reference to filling bishoprics and admission
to the ranks of the clergy. In regard to Illyria he
fostered its relations to Theasalonia, intending
through Illyria to hold open for himself a door to
the East. In 390 or 392 he held a synod which ex-
communicated Jovinian and eight associates.
(A. Hauck.)
Bibuoobafht: The Bpistota and Dsewfa are in A. Gal-
landi, BiblioUttra Minini palrum, vol. vii„ 14 vols.. Venice,
1785-81; in MPL. xiii.; and F. C. P. Hinachius. Dorrt-
laln Pitvda Iridorion*, pp. 520 aqq., Leipeia, 1863. Con-
sult: Ltbtr pontificals-, ed. Uomnuen, in M0H, Ot*t. pom.
Rom., i (1898), 85-86; Jane, Re-esta, L 40 sqq.. P. Hin-
schius. Kir-hrnrtcht. Li. U-Si. Berlin. 1SS2; U. Rnuscheo.
Jahrb Qchw drr chrlillichm Kiirhr itnltr ThtodonUM, p. 197 et
passim, Freiburg. 1897: Mirbt, QtuUai. pp. 50-51: Heiclc.
CoaciiimgachicMt. at 46 sqq., Eng. tranal.. ii. 385-388,
Ft. transl., ii. I, pp. 68-76; Bower. Papa. i. [07-130!
riatina. Popes, L 88-92; Milman. Latin CkriMtianitu. i.
119.
SIRM0ND, str'mon, JACQUES: French Jesuit
and one of the most noted of French Roman Catho-
lic scholars; b. at Riom (8 m. n. by e. of Clermont-
Ferrand) Oct. 12, 1559; d. at Paris Oct. 16, 1651.
He entered the Society of Jesus in 1576, and, after
completing his studies and teaching for five years,
ii. ;i-. c -Y.-'A. i:i 1 .V.HI, tn l'uriii-, h ht-rv fur s-iMi'di yi.-:irs
he was secretary to the Jesuit general, Aquaviva, at
the same time pursuing studies which enabled him
to give great assistance to Baronius in the prepara-
tion of his Annates. In 1608 he returned to France,
and on Feb. 22, 1612, was one of the Jesuits who
declared themselves ready to follow the Sorbonne
with reference to Gallicanisra. He took part in the
condemnation of Suarez, and in 1617 became rector
of the College Clermont at Paris, where he had al-
rvi'ly bean for five years After 1637 he was con-
fessor to Louis XIII., and in 1615 and 1645 revisited
Rome to take part in the election of new generals
of his order.
As nn editor Sirmond was indefatigable, his work
here including editions of Goffridi abbatis Vindo-
cinensis epistola, apuscula, sermones (Paris, 1610);
F.nnodius (1611; the standard for more than two
centuries); Ftodoardi historia ecclesiar Resismen
(1611); Fulgcnlius de veritate pradestinationis et
gratia; (1612) and Librarum contra Fabianum ei~
cerpta (1643); Valeriani episcapi homiliw viginti
(1612); Petri Cetlensis epistola, (1613); Apollmnris
Sidonius (1614); Paschasius Radbertus (1618);
Idatii chronicon et fasti consulares (1619); Marcel*
lini comitis lllyriciani chronicon (1619); Anastasii
buMiothecarii collectanea (1620); Facundus episcopvs
Hermianensis pro defensione trium capiliilorum
(162!*) ; StiriHi Augustini nori sermones qiia/lraginta
(1631); Theodoret (4 vols., 1642); Alcimus Avit.ua
(1643; also a standard for over two hundred years);
Hmcmarof Reims (1645); and Theodulf of Orleans
(1646). Among his more independent works spe-
cial mention may lie made of the following: Pra-
dentinatiis (Paris, 1643) and Historia Pradestina-
liana (1648); Appendix cc-iicis Theodosiani noms
cnnstilittionibus cvmulatior (1631; best ed. by G.
Hand, Bonn. 1844); Concilia antiqua Gallia:, cum
ejrielolis ponlifwum, prtneipUHi constUationibus, et
aliis GaUicana rei ccdesiastica- monimentis (3 vols..
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
81* Article*
1629; supplementary volume by P. Delalande,
1666); Anliirhet icus <le canons Arausiamo (2 parts,
1633-34); and the Historic* pamiterdiot publico:,
item ilixquisilio de aiymo (1651). His collected works
were edited by J. de la Baune under the title Opera
•varia nunc primum collecta (5 vols., Paris, 1696;
enlarged ed., 5 vols., Venice, 1728).
(G. LAUBMANfjt)
Bibuoorapht: The funeral oration by H. Valcoiua and a
abort sketch of the life are included in vol. i. of the Optra.
CodbuU further; A. de Barker and C. Sommcrvogel. liib-
liaUUnut do la compagnie de Jims, vii. 1237-61; Licb-
lenbtrgcr, ESR. eL 819-822.
SISEBTJT, si'se-but: Successor of Gundemar
(Guntlrimar) as king of the Visigoths; d. in 620.
He ascended the throne in 612, and was an excel-
lent ruler in most respects, clement, just, and of a
glowing religious devotion, distinguished also aa an
author and as a hero in war. He nevertheless won
it dismal reputation aa the first Spanish persecutor
of the Jews.
Since the earlier periods of the Roman empire the
Jews had been numerous in the Iberian peninsula,
and were highly respected on account of their
wealth. The Viaigotlls, tolerant as they were,
maintained the public rights of the Jews during the
entire Arian epoch. Recured the Catholic was the
first to impose restrictions upon them, pifMHl1glrt*Bg
the prohibition :ijfnins.t the circumcision of Christian
slaves and the acquisition of them either by purchase
or donation (lieges Visigothorum, XII., 2, no. 12,
ed. K. Zeumer in MGII, Leg. nationum Germ., i. 305,
Hanover, 1902). On these provisions Sisebut based
his two notorious laws concerning the Jews, starting
his aiili-A'tnitic campaign at the lirc;inniriK of his
reign (Leges Visigothorum, XII., 2, 13-14, pp. 305-
309). As rightly interpreted by Dahn, his orders
prescribe that Christian bondsmen of Jews Bhould
become Roman citizens and free by law, as should
runaway Jewish servants who were willing to accept
Christianity. Jews were not allowed to have as ser-
vants hired free men. Marriages between Jews and
Christiana were declared null and void. Isidore in
I: . Ilislin in ( !• il 'Iwi ii iii ■ i--,i n -i! in i;:MV while apprecia-
ting the pious intentions of his royal friend, objected
to the mode of conversion employed. In fact, Sise-
but's persecution went far beyond those restrictions.
That there were many compulsory baptisms of Jews,
there is no doubt, and so ilie third edict conjectured
by Jost — presumably without justification — com-
I'clliii:; them to choose between exile and baptism,
is not necessary to explain the numerous departures
of Jews from the country. Many sought refuge
among the Franks.
With such a zealous ruler on the throne the Church
"Was able to display far- rear hi tie activity, especially
as to synodal matters. But with all his religious
r-r.it I)i!H:i.-:tii Sisebut was no " parsons' king," some-
times rather sharply taking the episcopate to task.
In 615 he inaugurated the war of extermination
against the Byzantines which he carried to a suc-
cessful end. As a victor he proved humane enough
to set the captured Byzantines free and to dismiss
them to their home country. (Fhanz Gorkes.)
Biblioorapht. Sources are. The Chnmiea of Isidore of
N-villc. ,■<! (timii.™ in MQH, AueJ. on/., ii (18941. «0-
401). mi. I Iilh H ietoria Guihortm, in (be urns, pp. 201 njg.;
the lattcn of Siaebut to Patricias Cm&rius. ed. W~. Guurf-
lacb la MGtf. Epiet.. iii (1892), 662-075; hla hexametera.
ed. G. Goeta, Index edietanan Jeneruiun, Jeoa, 1887-«8;
the " Chronicle " of Fredogar, ed. B. Kruacb in MGH,
Script, rer. Merov., ii (1888), 133; and the Leget Viri-
gothonon onlwutorum, ed. K. Zeumer. |>p. 305-309, Han-
over. 1804. Consult: F. Dahn. Dit K/migt der Germanen,
vola. v.-vi. peaaim. Lripuc. 18S5; F. U6r™. in ZWT. xl.
284-296, iii. 105-111. .Iii 27l)-S22. 412-450, xW. 41-72.
Also: J. M. Jost, QochidUe der tmelittn, v. 110-120,
Berlin, 1S25: J. Aaehbach, Die Qawafalfi der We*goien,
pp. 236-241. Frankfort. 1827; A. Helfterieb, Westooten-
Keeht, pp. 68-71, Berlin, 1858; F. B. Gums. Kirchengt-
tchidUc Spanient. ii. 2, pp. 78-80, 86-00, 101, 3 vols.,
Keceusburg, 1862-70; K. Zeumer. in NA, xxvii (1002),
400-444: Gibbon, Online tad Fall, chap, to™,; ADB.
zxxiv. 418-421; DCB, iv. 703-704; and tbo literature on
the Jews in Hpain and Portugal under Ibbazu Hibtoby
SISTHHTTJS, si-sin'nl-us: The name of several
persons of note in church history.
1. Pope, Jan. 18-Feb. 8(7?), 70S. HewasaSyr-
ian, and was ill when elected to the papal chair; and
all recorded of him is that he made preparations for
the restoration of the city wall.
2. The Novation: Novatian bishop of Constan-
tinople. He studied with Julian under the philoso-
pher Maximus; became a reader in the Novatian
rimiinmiitv, and in 395 bishop. Socrates (Mat.
ted., V., x., xxi., VI., xxl, Eng. trans]., NPNF,
2 aer., ii. 123, 120, 152, 156) notes his literary activ-
ity, especially in his work on penitence against
Chrysostom, and one against the Mesaaliaiis.
3. Sisinoiusof Constantinople: Orthodox l>isln>|.
of that city 426-427. He is mentioned by Socrates
(Hist, ted., VII., xxviii., Eng. transl., NPNF,
2eer., ii. 168-169).
4. Patriarch of Constantinople, 995-999. He wrote
on the marriage law, and also an encyclical for the
eastern bishops on the procession of the Holy Spirit
(A. Hauck.)
Biblioobafstt: On 1; Mann, Popet, i. 124-126; Bower.
Pope: ii. 14; Platina, Popet, L 175. On 2-1; DCB. iv.
704-705.
SISTERHOODS. See Deaconess, III., 2; Mon at-
ticism; Women, Congregations or; and Women's
Work m the Church.
SISTERS OF CHARITY. See Cbahitt, Sisters
of.
SISTERS OP MERCY. See Mkbct, Sisters of.
SIX ARTICLES, ACT OF THE: An act of the
English parliament, dated June 28, 15.1!), marking
a departure from Protestant principles. It imposed
upon the English people the doctrines of transub-
hhiiilhtion under penalty of death by burning and
rm.ti fit ion of goods; depravation of the sacra-
ment subjected to the same penalty; claims in be-
half of communion in both kinds, and breaking "i
the vows of celibacy were felonies punishable with
death; clerical marriages were dissolved; and
special commissions were to be issued quarterly for
the enforcement of the provisions of the act. The
measure was in part political, aiming to prevent
action against the king, Henry VIII., on the part
of continental Roman Catholic powers. While the
law was severe, executions were few under it. It
was modified in 1544 and repealed in 1547. The
Six-Principle* Baptists
Skinner, John
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
446
text is given in Gee and Hardy, Documents, pp.
313-320.
Bibliography: J. H. Overton, The Church in England, L
390, 395, London, 1897; J. Qaiidner, The English Church
in the 16th Century, passim, ib. 1903; A. Plummer, Eng-
lish Church History (2509-75), pp. 80-81, 84, 805, Edin-
burgh, 1905.
SIX-PRINCIPLES BAPTISTS. See Baptists, II.,
4(a).
SIXTUS: The name of five popes.
Sixtus L: Pope in the reign of Hadrian (Li-
berian Catalogue) and successor of Alexander (ac-
cording to the papal lists). But the monarchical
constitution of the Church was not introduced into
Rome before the middle of the second century,
therefore Sixtus must be regarded as a presbyter
whose name went on the records because he was a
martyr. (A. Hauck.)
Bibliography: Liber pontificalia, ed. Mommaen in MQH,
Gest. pent. Rom., i (1898), 96-100; Bower, Pope*, L 11;
Platina, Popes, i. 22-24 ; Milman, Latin Christianity, i. 250.
Sixtus H.: Pope 257-258. He restored the
communion between the Roman and African
churches which had been broken off in the pontifi-
cate of his predecessor, Stephen I. (q.v.), in the
strife over the baptism of heretics. He fell a martyr
in the Valerian persecution, Aug. 6, 258. The later
reports are mingled with legendary elements. The
length of his pontificate is differently given in dif-
ferent sources. Harnack (TU, xiii. 1) regards him
as the author of the pseudo-Cyprianic writing Ad
Novatianum, though his view has not found general
acceptance. He is right, however, if the question
is concerning the authorship of a composition written
at Rome, 253-258, for no other person of the period
is likely as author. (A. Hauck.)
Bibliography: R. A. Lipsius, Chronotogie der romischen
Bischdfe, p. 213, Leipsio, 1869; J. Langen, GeschichU der
romischen Kirche, i. 347, Bonn, 1881; Harnack, TU, xiii.
1 (1895), 1 sqq., zx. (1901), 116 sqq.; idem, Litterotur, ii.
2, pp. 190 sqq., 387 aqq.; Bower, Popes, i. 34-35; Platina,
Popes, i. 53-55.
Sixtus HI. : Pope 432-440. He was consecrated
July 31, 432; was in office during the Nestorian and
Pelagian controversies, but had little interest in
Christological questions, and was concerned chiefly
in restoring peace between Cyril and the Syrians.
In reference to Pelagianism he was opposed to
Julian of Eclanum. He maintained the rights of
the pope over Illyria and the position of the arch-
bishop of Thessalonica as head of the Illyrian
church. His biography mentions the building (en-
largement) of the churches of St. Lorenzo and of St.
Maria Maggiore and of rich gifts secured for both
churches and for St. Peter's and the Lateran basilica.
(A. Hauck.)
Bibliography: Liber pontificalia, ed. Mommaen in MGH,
Oeat. pont. Rom., i (1898). 96, ed. L. Duchesne, i. p. exxvi.,
Paris, 1886; Jaffe, Regeata, i. 57; J. Langen, Geschichte der
romiachen Kirche, i. 387, Bonn, 1881; F. Gregorovius,
Hist, of the City of Rome, i. 184-185, London, 1894; Bower,
Popes, I. 186-189: Platina, Popes, i. 103-105.
Sixtus IV. (Francesco della Rovere): Pope 1471-
1484. He was born in the vicinity of Savona (23
m. w. of Genoa) in 1414; entered the Franciscan
order; studied in Pa via and Bologna, and obtained
the doctor's degree at Padua. In 1464 he became
general of his order; in 1467, cardinal, with the
title of S. Pietro in Vincoli. He passed not only for
a learned theologian, but was also an unscrupulous
autocrat, never embarrassed on the score of means.
When he ascended the papal throne in 1471, he
first rewarded Cardinals Orsini and Borgia, to whom
he owed his election; and then endowed his nephews
with dignities and benefices. The one, Giuliano, ob-
tained bishoprics, prebends, and the cardinal's rank,
in quick succession. The other, Pietro Riario, was
endowed still more affluently, and became noted for
his prodigality with the wealth of the Church. After
Pietro's death in 1474, the pope diverted his favors
to Pietro's brother, Girolamo; and in 1480 ap-
pointed him " captain general " of the Church, and
made two other nephews cardinals.
The existing situation laid a double task on the
pope: on the one side, the adjustment of affairs in
the East and protection against the Turks; on the
other side, the strengthening of the papal political
power. Sixtus discharged the first of these tasks
piecemeal, sending auxiliary funds to the Venetians.
In the other direction, he made effectual use of his
nephews, weakening the feudal lords of the Papal
States, while he kept creating new complications in
the territorial policy of the Italian states and thus
extended his own power (cf . F. Gregorovius, History
of the City of Rome, book xiii. 3, London, 1900). A
typical instance of his procedure appears in the
conspiracy set afoot, with his acquiescence, by the
Pazzi in Florence against Lorenzo the Magnificent
in 1478. The assassins overpowered and killed their
victim, Giuliano de' Medici, at high mass, but
Lorenzo escaped. The news of the miscarriage of
the plot put Sixtus in a rage and he sequestered all
Florentine possessions in the Papal States of the
Church, and declared war on the republic; peace
was concluded only in view of the new Turkish
war, 1480. On the death of Mohammed II. in the
following year, his intrigues turned upon Italy again,
in order to widen the dominion of Girolamo, whose
portion already embraced Imola and Forli, by the
addition of Ferrara. This fell through, but a bloody
war with the barons in the Papal States ensued.
Sixtus died Aug. 12, 1484, before matters were con-
cluded. K. Benrath.
Bibliography: Pastor, Popes, iv. 197 sqq. (exhaustive);
Creighton, Papacy, iv. 64-134; Muratori, Scriptorea, ii.,
p. iii., cols. 1071 sqq.; W. Roscoe, Life of Lorenzo the Mag-
nificent, 2 vols., new ed., London, 1876; J. Burchard,
Diarium, ed. L. Thuasne, i. 1-16, Paris, 1883, Eng. trans!..
Diary of John Burchard, pp. 1-15, London, 1910; S.
Infessura, Diario della Cittix di Roma, ed. Tommassini, pp.
75-283, Rome, 1890; J. Burckhardt, Geechichte der Renais-
sance in Italien, ed. H. Holtiinger, Stuttgart, 1904; Bower,
Popes, iii. 238-254; Schaff. Christian Church, v. 2, ft 52.
Sixtus V. (Felice Peretti): Pope 1585-1590.
He was born at Grottamare (1 m. s. of Ancona) Dec.
13, 1521; received his education at the neighboring
Franciscan cloister in Montalto; and soon became a
favorite preacher. During the times of Julius III.
he was in Rome, and won the attachment of Philip
Neri (q.v.) and of Michele Ghislieri, afterward Pope
Pius V. After he had been regent of his order's
cloisters in Siena, Naples, and Venice, where he also
represented the holy office before the senate, he was
recalled to Rome as the order's procurator-general.
Pius V. made him bishop of Fermo, and created him
a cardinal in 1570. But the succeeding pope, Greg-
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Hktnner, John
ory XIII., kept him remote from affairs. During this
period tin1 mcrea.se of his collection of books was his
kbwntuog pursuit in ihe beautiful villa on the Es-
quiline, which he exchanged in 1585 for the papal
palace. When the election was settled, he sur-
prised ihe constituency of the Church by showing
himself the ruler bom.
In the first place, Sixtus restored persons! se-
curity and order in the Papal States. Within two
years he exterminated brigandage, suppressing it
with stem hand and by frequent executions. He
also gave attention to the ordering of the civil ad-
mi :ii>t ration and finances, terminated wastefulness
anil peculation, and within three years deposited
three million crowns in Castle Saint Angelo as a
prui!i'iiii:il fund in ovcnl of need. Ultimately, how-
ever, In: expended the sums acquired upon imposing
public structures. Thus he had massive creations
in stone achieved by the ingenious architect Do-
menico Fontana; whence the Rococo stjde came to
dominate in Roman architecture for more than 100
years. His principal achievements in this line were
the Via Sistiiin. Bod the Square of the Lateran.
Moreover, Rome owes to this pope the restoration
of one of the great aqueducts (named after him,
Aqua Felice). Sixtus also left his footprints in the
domain of ecclesiastical organization and adminis-
tration; he found already in operation the still
effective division of the governing boards as " con-
grf'E'jlirjn.-i," ulnKi.' iinmlicr 1 1 1- increased to fifteen.
Since the appointment of cardinals as members or
as chairmen of the congregations had to emanate
ex-i In-hvly from the pope, the matter was duly pro-
vide] that no opinions or decisions should be put
fori li which might contradict the general trend of
papal policy. The administration of the city of
Rome Sixtus concentrated in his own grasp, except
for somn few remnants oE communal independence.
Things (rink t lit- siimc course in the remaining cities
of the Papal States, and it was carefully provided
th;it all significant positions came into the hands of
ecclesiastics.
It is remarkable how Sixtus, who was inflexible
in his own ecclesiastical ami political policy, showed
diplomatic pliancy even to the extent of wavering
an 1 indecision in dealing with other states. Thus
Venice was able to enforce collection of tithes from
thi- orders, as from the secular clergy. With Spain,
despite the pope's yielding in the question of his
feudal claims to Sicily, the situation came to open
rupture because Sixtus declined to pay the 700,000
Crowns promised toward equipment of the Great
Armada on the ground that no landing was made
on the English coast. So with Henry IV., the pope's
continual changes so angered the king that he
threatened openly to retract his obedience. Prior
to a decision, Sixtus was overtaken by death, Aug.
27, 1590. K. Bemrath.
BrauooR«eHT: The sources are ilium in atingly discussed in
Hanks. Pope*, iii ZOn-MT. jr.. lit.li-nz thi? lives by O. Leti.
role.. IjiusMine. lflflO. and V. Te
The s
y Ranke. Papa. i. 34 sqq.. is the beat fi
English. The Britiih Afuirum Catatonic hu an interest-
ing list of documents muter " Remit- , Chmrb of, Popes,
Biitus V." Consult further. J. Duinesnil. Hi*, di SiMe-
OuirK. Para. 1889; J. A. Htlbaer. .Su*MJuirU. 3 vol*..
fb. 1870: A. v.jn Reumont, GacMchu der Stadi Rom., iii.
584 sqq.. Berlin, 1878; O. Gossadiai. G. Prpali ■ SiUo V,,
Bologna, 1878; M. Broach. Gnchir-Mr da Kirdimttaata,
vol. i„ chap. vii.. Goths,, 1880: L. Capranica. Papa Sitto.
3 vols.. Milan. 18S4; I. Raulicb, b Wuobo Archivio Vmtta,
iv (1392); Bower. Popes, iii, 322-326.
SKALSKT, GUSTAV ADOLF: Austrian-Hun-
garian theologian; b. at Opatovice near Ciaslau
(45 m. e.s.e. of Prague), Bohemia, Mar. 13, 1857.
He received his education at the gymnasium in
Teschen, the University of Vienna under the Prot-
estant Evangelical Faculty (D.D., 1898}, and the
1 Hi verbify of Erlangen; served as pastor in Klinlov,
Bohemia, and Lhota in Moravia, till 1896, when he
became a member of the Protestant Evangelical
Theological Faculty in the University of Vienna,
lecturing on pastoral theology and Austrian Protes-
tant church law. He has been active not only in the
lines of his teaching work, but in labors for the
benefit of the Czechs and Slovacs in Vienna and
also in connection with the organization of the
Young Men's Christian A.-six-iation in Austria. Hi*
theological standpoint is that of the New Lutheran
Erlangen school, so far as its position is applicable
to conditions in Austria. Besides a considerable
number of works in the Czech language, he has
issued Zur Geschichte der evartgelischen Kirchenver-
fassung in Oesterreich Ha turn Toteram patents
(Vienna, 1898); Zur Reform des oestcrreu-hischen
EherechU (1906); Der oesterreichisehe Stoat und die
evangd\sche Kirche \m Oesterreich in ihrem wecksel-
seitigen VerhcUtnU I848-8I (1908); and J. A.
Comenius als Reformator der Ereichitng und der
SchuU (1908); and has edited a number of impor-
tant papers bearing on the early history of the
Unity of the Brethren.
SKEAT, skit, WALTER WILLIAM: Church of
England; b. at London Nov. 21, 1835. He was ed-
ucated at Christ's College, Cambridge (B.A., 1858;
MA.. 1S61), and was curate at East. Dereham, Nor-
folk (1860-62), and Godalming, Surrey (ISfiJMH).
He was mathematical lecturer at Christ's College
(18fi3-71), and Englj.sh lecturer (1867-83), while
since 1.S7S he has hwn Ellington and Bosworth pro-
fessor of Anglo-Saxon in the University of Cam-
bridge. In 1873 he founded the English Dialect
Society, and was its president till 1896. He is best
known as an editor of Anglo-Saxon and Early I'ne-
lish Texts, and among his works (hose of theojojfeftl
interest include his editions of Langland's Piers
Plowman (2 vols,, London, 1867-84); Joseph of
Arimatkcea (1871); The Four Gospels in Anglo-
Saxon and Northumbrian (4 vols.. Cambridge, 1871-
1887); WycliffeS New Testament (Oxford, 1879);
.iE!fric's Lives of the Saints (4 vols., London, 1881-
1900); The Gospel of St. Mark in Gothic (Oxford,
1882); The Complete Works of Geoffrey Chaucer
(London, 6 vols., 1894); and the Proverbs of Alfred
(1907).
SKINHER, J0HH: The name of two Scotch
1. Scotch Episcopal; b, at Longside (27 m. n. of
Aberdeen), Scotland. May 17, 1744; d. at Aberdeen
July 18, 1816. He received his higher education at
Miirischu) College, Aberdeen; served as private
tutor, 1761-63; was ordained deacon, 1763, and
priest, 1764; took charge of the congregation* of
Slavery
THE NEW aCHAFF-HEBZOG
Ellon and Udny, Aberdeenshire, 1764; was appointed
to the Longacre congregation, Aberdeen, 1775; was
consecrated coadjutor to the bishop of Aberdeen,
1782, succeeding to the bishopric, 1783, and be-
ing elected primus, 1788. His significance rests on
two facts: (1) he was active in the transmission of
the Scotch episcopal succession in America, having
part in the consecration of Samue! Seabury (q.v.;
also see Protestant Episcopalians, I., 5 2); (2)
also in the ending of the non-juring Scotch schism.
He presided at the synod at Aberdeen April 24,
1788, which resolved to pray for George III. as king,
and later visited London in the interest of his church.
He published A Course of Lectures (Aberdeen, 1786);
A Layman's Account of his Faith (Edinburgh, 1801);
and Primitive Truth and Order Vindicated (Aberdeen,
1803).
2. English Presbyterian; b. at Inverurie (14 in.
n.w. of Aberdeen), Aberdeenshire, Scotland, July 18,
1861. He was educated at the University of Aber-
deen (M.A., 1876), Free Church College, Aberdeen
(1876-77), New College, Edinburgh (1877-80), and
the universities of Leipsic (1JS7H) and Gottingen
(1877). He was Hebrew tutor at New College, Edin-
burgh (1879-80); held Free Church ministries at St.
Fergus, Banffshire (1880-86), and Kelso, Roxburgh-
shire (1886-90); and since 1S90 has been professor
of Hebrew and apologetics in Westminster College
(the theological college of the Presbyterian Church
of England), Cambridge, England. He has written
Historical Connection belivecn "* Old and New Testa-
ments (Edinburgh, 1899); and has edited Ezekiel for
The Expositor's Bible (London, 1895); Isaiah for
The Cambridge Bible for Schools (2 vols., Cambridge,
1896-98); and Genesis for the International Critical
Commentary (1910).
SKIHNER, THOMAS HARVEY: Presbyterian
pastor and educator; b. near Harvey's Neck, N. C,
Mar. 7, 1791; d. at New York Feb. 1, 1871. He
■was graduated from Princeton College, 1812; was
copastor of the Second Presbyterian Church, Phila-
delphia, 1812-16; then pastor of the Arch Street
Church, same city, 1816-32; professor of sacred
rhetoric at Andover, 1832-35; pastor of the Mercer
Street Presbyterian Church, New York, 1835-40; and
professor of sacred rhetoric and pastoral theology in
Union Theological Seminary, New York, 1848-71.
He wrote Aids to Preaching and Hearing (1839),
Hints to Christians (1841), Life of Francis Markoe
(1849), Discussions in Theology (1868); he also
translated ami edited Vinet's Pastoral Theology and
Homtietics (1854). Dr. Skinner was a leader in the
New School branch of the Presbyterian Church, a
preacher of great spiritual power, an able theologian,
and a pattern of saintly goodness.
UlUWMtlir; O. L. Pnsntiw, A ZXHPWM in Memory of
T. H. Skinner, New York. 1S7I: i.letn. The Union Theo-
logical Seminary in tht Ciiu 'if V™ York: historical and
!.,-.>.,r,: p.' :.-.,! .<l;rlr»rf of i!s li'.il fill'i Yen", it... ISJitt; iilt-ui,
The Union Theoloaical Sminaro in the Citu of Ktm York,
tit Daian and another riecade of iU History, ib. 18B9.
SKOPTZI. See Russia, II., { 5.
SKREFSRUD, skrefs'rud, LARS OLSEH: Nor-
wegian missionary to India; b. at Faaberg (84
m. n. of Christiania), Norway, Feb. 4, 1840; d. at
Benagaria, near Ebcnzer, India, Dec. 11, 1910. On
account of poverty he was unable to attend the
gymnasium, but by application he acquired a remark-
able education, being gifted with the ability to use
about forty-five languages. He attended Procb-
now's missionary training-school in Berlin, gradua-
ting after a period of brilliant achievements; he
was then sent by the Gossner society to Purulia,
India, but friction arose with the German members
of the mission, and Skrefsrud sundered his connec-
tion and established in 1867 the Santhal mission,
which became in many ways a model. Id the
interest of the mission he several times visited
Europe, first in 1873-74, when his lectures resulted
in the formation of the first European Santhal mis-
sion committees; in 1881-83, when he was ordained
by the Church of Norway; and in 1894-95, this
time also visiting America. His contributions to
linguistics were notable and numerous; among them
may be mentioned A Grammar of the Santhal
Language (Benares, 1873) ; Santhat-Bngiish and
Engtish-Santhal Lexicon (material completed in
1904 after a period of preparation covering thirty-
five years); and a translation of the Bible into
Santhal — one of the most difficult languages
known. John O. Evjen.
SLATER, WILLIAM FLETCHER : English Meth-
odist; b. at Uttoxeter (30 m. n. of Birmingham),
Staffordshire, Aug. 25, 1831. He was educated at
Wesleyan College, Didsbury (graduated 1855), and
the University of Cambridge (B.A., 1875), and held
successive pastorates in his denomination at Allen-
dale (1S.15-58), Newcastle-on-Tyne (1858-60), GIos-
sop (1860-63), Sunderland (1863-66), Harrogate
(1S66-69), Bamsley (1869-72), Cambridge (1872-
1875), Leeds (1875-78), Edinburgh (1878-81),
Liverpool (1881-84), and London (1884-87). From
1887 to 1903, when he retired from active life, he
was professor of Biblical languages in Wesleyan
College, Didsbury. In theology he is an Evangelical
Arminian, and has written: Religious Opportunities
of the Heathen before Christ (Sunderland, 1866);
Methodism in the Light of the Early Church (Femley
lecture; London, 1885); Faith and Life in the Early
Church (1892); the Gospel of Matthew in The Cen-
tury Bible (1900); and Limitations, Divine and
Human (1906).
SLATTERY, CHARLES LEWIS: Protestant
Episcopal; b. at Pittsburg Dec. 9, 1867. He re-
ceived his education at Harvard University (B.A.,
1891) and the Episcopal Theological School, Cam-
bridge, Mass. (B.D., 1894); was made deacon, 1894,
and priest, 1895; was master of Groton School and
rector of St. Andrew's, Ayer, Mass., 1S94-96; dean
of the cathedral of Our Merciful Savior, Faribault,
Minn., 1896-1907; rector of Christ Church, Spring-
field, Mass., 1907-10; and became rector of Grace
Church, New York City, 1910. He was also lec-
turer in Seabury Divinity School, Faribault, Minn.,
1905-07, and in Berkeley Divinity School, 1909-10.
Ib- is the author of FclU Rcnillc Brunot (New York,
1901); Edward Lincoln Atkinson (1904); The Mas-
ter of the World; a Study of Christ (1906); Life Be-
yond Life; a Study of Immortality (1907); The His-
toric Ministry and the Present Christ; an Appeal for
Unity (1908); and Present-Day Preaching (1909).
449
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Skinner
Slavery
I. Slavery among the Hebrews.
Status of Hebrew Slaves (f 1).
Sources of Supply (§2).
Value of Slaves; Duration of Servi-
tude (§ 3).
Legal Position and Rights (f 4).
II. Slavery and Christianity.
SLAVERY.
Extent of Greco-Roman Slavery (f 1).
Status and Treatment of Greco- Roman
Slaves (ft 2).
Slavery and the Early Church (§ 3).
The Medieval Church and Slavery (f 4).
European Slavery in the Middle Ages
(§5).
81a very in America (f 6).
The Philosophical Attack on Slavery
(§7).
The Christian Attack; Abolition of
Slave Trade (5 8).
Attitude of Religious Bodies (f 9).
I. Slavery Among the Hebrews: Slavery existed
among the Jews throughout their national life, al-
though this servitude was one neither of debasement
nor of cruelty. In patriarchal times the servants,
together with the cattle, formed a por-
i. Status tion of the estate of the head of the
of Hebrew family or tribe (Gen. xxiv. 35, xxvi. 14;
Slaves. Job. i. 3), and there was, accordingly, a
traffic in slaves (Gen. xxxvii. 28),
which was actively carried on by the Phenicians.
The rich nomad chiefs owned numerous slaves,
Abraham having 318 that were " born in his house,1'
i.e., hereditary property (Gen. xiv. 14); and slaves
were also purchased (Gen. xvii. 23, 27). The female
servants seem to have been the especial property
of the wife or daughter, and to have been given as
concubines to the husband (Gen. xvi. 1 sqq., xxix.
24, etc.). The slaves " born in the house " were, in
general, devoted to the family, and some had the
entire confidence of their masters (cf. Gen. xv. 2-3).
Even in the nomad period these servants were not
mere chattels, and the fact that the rite of circum-
cision was performed on servants born in the house,
as well as on those obtained by purchase, indicates
that they were received as members of the same
race, and as such had religious rights and duties.
In the national period the traditional legal principles
were observed, as in the Babylonian code of Ham-
murabi, although the latter lacked to some degree
the ethical and religious spirit that, from the time
of Moses, exercised its more humane influence on
the Jewish law. The Mosaic idea that the whole
Israelitish race had been in slavery in Egypt, and,
being freed from the house of bondage by Yahweh
(e.g., Ex. xx. 2; Deut. v. 6), had now become his
servants and property, led to the inference that,
being his own, they would never again become
the servants of a stranger (Lev. xxv. 42, 55, xxvi.
13); while the recollection of their harsh treat-
ment in slavery taught them to be considerate
and humane to their servants (Deut. v. 15, xv. 15).
With the development of national consciousness,
however, the law distinguished between bondser-
vants of Israelitish stock and aliens (cf. Lev.
xxv. 39-46), though practise may have been less
rigorous than theory.
Slavery was, throughout Jewish history, one of
the consequences of war, and as warriors were more
apt to be killed than taken prisoners, the majority
of captives were women, especially
2. Sources virgins, who were the prize booty of
of Supply, military and predatory expeditions
(Gen. xiv. 12; Judges v. 30; II Kings
v. 2; Deut. xx. 14, xxi. 10 sqq.; etc.). Many pris-
oners of war were sold in foreign lands (Joel iii. 4, 6;
Amos i. 6), and many were bought by the Israelites
from traveling Phenician merchants. Alien settlers
X.— 29
in the land were also liable to come into bondage,
and the Canaanitish population gradually became
the slaves of the Hebrews, especially in the regal
period. After the exodus, slaves of foreign stock
were employed in lower menial capacities in the
camp and in the sanctuary, thus ultimately giving
rise to the Nethinim (see Levi, Levttes, § 3). Both
David and Solomon employed non-Israelitic slaves
in public works, the latter monarch having 153,600
of these bondsmen (I Kings ix. 20 sqq.; II Chron.
ii. 17-18). It was a capital crime unlawfully to de-
prive a> man of his liberty and to sell him (Ex. xxi.
16; Deut. xxiv. 7; cf. the Code of Hammurabi, §
14). On the other hand, a thief caught in the act
was to be sold into slavery unless he could make
restitution (Ex. xxii., 3). Tradition forbade, how-
ever, the selling of a thief into foreign slavery, so that
Herod's law requiring such sale (Josephus, Ant.,
XVI., i. 1) was a serious infringement of hereditary
legal custom. It was usually abject poverty and in-
solvency that entailed the loss of freedom (cf. Lev.
xxv. 39, 47 sqq.), and in such a case a man might sell
his own daughter. The regulations of the Book of the
Covenant (Ex. xxi. 7-11) apply only to a daughter
sold to be the concubine or wife of the buyer or his
son, and expressly protect her rights as a member of
the family; but Deut. xv. 12 sqq. distinctly refers to
female slaves. The law does not specify whether a
father may sell his son, but he doubtless did so, in
case of poverty, rather than sacrifice his own free-
dom. A Jewish creditor might seize both the family
and the person of his debtor, and sell him (Amos
ii. 6, viii. 6; II Kings iv. 1; cf. Isa. 1. 1; Neh. v. 5;
Matt, xviii. 25), though this was not sanctioned in
the Pentateuch.
A slave's value depended on sex, age, health,
capacity for work, and the relation between supply
and demand. Thirty silver shekels was the average
damages for the death of a slave, whether male or
female (Ex. xxi. 32), and some indication of the
value of slaves may perhaps be
3. Value gained from the scale given in Lev.
of Slaves; xxvii. 2 sqq. for those desiring to be
Duration of released from their vows to serve in the
Servitude, sanctuary: for a boy between one
month and five years old, five shekels,
and for a girl three shekels; for a male between five
and twenty years old, twenty shekels, and for a
female ten; for a man between twenty and sixty
years old, fifty shekels, and for a woman thirty; for
a man over sixty years old, fifteen shekels, and for a
woman ten. The price for captive Jews, 120 drach-
mas a head, is almost the same average (Josephus,
Ant., XII., ii. 3). The duration of bondage was
limited only in the case of Israelitish slaves, who
were never absolutely to lose their freedom, unless
they definitely refused to accept it (Ex. xxi. 1-11;
Slavery
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
45<
r
Deut. xv. 12-18; Lev. xxv. 39-55). An Israelite
could buy a fellow Hebrew, whether male or female,
for six years only, and in the seventh year must let
the slave go free, a rule which probably applied
also to those sold into slavery for theft (cf . Josephus,
Ant., XVI., i. 1). On the other hand, a gentile
woman given to such a slave as a wife had no claim to
freedom, and the offspring of the pair were also held
in bondage. In the year of jubilee an Israelite slave
was to be set free, together with his children (Lev.
xxv. 39 sqq.), but if these were born of a gentile
mother, they, like her, must remain in slavery (Ex.
xxi. 4) . The Hebrew slave of a gentile master should
also be freed in the year of jubilee, although he
should previously be redeemed, if possible, by his
family or kindred, his price being reckoned accord-
ing to Lev. xxv. 50 sqq.
Bondservants were better treated by the Hebrews
than were those of ancient Greece and Rome, or even
Phenicia and Babylonia. At the same time Mosaic
law made a distinction between Hebrew slaves and
those of alien birth, priestly legislation especially
considering a Hebrew bondman not as a " bond-
servant," but as a " hired servant " (Lev. xxv. 39-
40, 46). While he was not to be compelled to do
work that was too severe, or unworthy
4. Legal of a man, this falling to the lot of the
Position alien, all slaves, without exception,
and Rights, benefited by the Sabbath law. Fur-
thermore, both those slaves who had
been born in bondage and also, as a rule, those who
were acquired by purchase were circumcised, thus
being received among the people of Yahweh, and so
possessing the privilege of sharing in the religious
feasts, especially in the Passover (Ex. xii. 44; Deut.
xii. 12, 18, xvi. 11, 14). If a slave had been circum-
cised, he could never be sold to a gentile. While it
was permissible to discipline a slave (cf. Prov. xxix.
19, 21 ; Ecclus. xxxiii. 24 sqq.), cruelty to slaves was
punished, not simply by compensating the master
for injury done to his slave, as in Babylonia (cf.
Code of Hammurabi, §§ 199, 219), but by enacting
that a master who seriously injured his slave,
whether male or female, must manumit the slave
in question without receiving compensation (Ex.
xxi. 26-27). A master had no power over the life
of his servant, and if he struck his slave with a rod
and he died under his hand the servant should be
avenged (Ex. xxi. 20-21); but if the slave survived
his punishment for a day or two, no notice was taken,
the money loss caused his master by his death being
deemed a sufficient penalty. However, according to
tradition, if the master used a deadly instrument in
chastisement he incurred the death penalty, even
though the slave did not die for some time; and
tradition likewise held that, should a third person
kill or wound a slave, he should be punished as
though he had injured a freeman. The status of
Israelitish female slaves who were to become part
of the immediate family is set forth in Ex. xxi. 7-1 1 ;
and it is also provided that a gentile prisoner of war
should have a month to mourn her kinsfolk before
being married to her captor (Deut. xxi. 10-14).
Respect for the rights of a slave was considered a
divine ordinance from very early times (Job xxxi.
13-15), and to the present day the lot of the slaves
of the Semitic Mohammedans is a very tolerabl
one. In ancient Judaism, however, the Essence an
Therapeuts alone rejected all slavery, since the,
regarded the system as irreconcilable with tfa
brotherhood of all mankind, and consequently a
unnatural. (C. yon Orelu.)
H. Slavery and Christianity: The problem of th
influence of Christianity on slavery has been pre
foundry modified by the researches of economi
history concerning the origin, nature, extent, chai
acter, and abolition of bondage, so that, rejectin
the older view that the suppression of slavery wa
caused entirely by Christianity, many now hoL
that this abolition was a purely economic process i
which religion had no part. Equal!
1. Extent problematical is the precise state 0
of Greco- affairs confronting Christianity whe
Roman it came to confront slavery, for tfa
Slavery, extent of the system in antiquity is nor
underrated as much as it was former!;
exaggerated. In Greece the climax was reached a
the close of the Persian wars, when a single rid
Athenian could lease a thousand slaves for the Thra
cian mines; and in Rome the system was most flour
ishing at the close of the Republic and the beginning
of the Empire, when at Deloe, the chief market, ten
of thousands of slaves were sold daily. The majority
of these were employed in agriculture and manufac
turing, although the Romans availed themselves o
household slaves to a greater extent than the Greeks
who preferred financial gain to luxury. At the sank
time, the freeman was never entirely superseded bi
the slave, least of ail in the provinces (cf . for Pales
tine, Matt. xx. 1 sqq.; Mark i. 20; Luke xv. 17)
even though cheapness made slave labor predomi
nant in estates, mines, quarries, factories, and thi
handicrafts and trades of the great cities.
The status and the treatment of slaves varied a
different times and places as greatly as their num-
bers. In the patriarchal conditions of the earliest
times the slave, generally a prisoner of war, be-
longed to the family and was treated accordingly
In Greece slaves enjoyed much liberty even later,
especially at Athens; but in Rome
2. Status rigid severity was the rule, particularly
and in large establishments where cruel
Treatment overseers, mostly belonging originally
of Greco- to the servile class, intervened between
Roman master and slave (cf. Matt. xxiv. 49).
Slaves. While, moreover, the slaves seldom
worked in fetters, punishments to in-
sure obedience and to prevent escape were so cruel as
to cause terrible insurrections. It is true that many
slaves fared better than freemen, but even here any
day might bring a change of masters, and though
the slave had many safeguards, he was still, legally
speaking, only a chattel, exposed to every caprice
of his owner. His possession of moral qualities was
ignored; he might at any time be torn from his
family; and he could give testimony only under
torture; yet in religious matters he seems to have
enjoyed liberty. The ancient world never escaped
the antinomy of regarding the slave as at once a per-
son and a thing. Plato considered him a creature
of a lower order of being, only semi-rational, this view
perhaps being colored by the fact that most slaves
!*«
401
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Slavery
were barbarians; while Cato reckoned slaves as
farm implements. Toward the end of the Roman
Republic the status and treatment of slaves changed
partly under the influence of Greece and the superior
culture of the Greek slaves, and partly through the
Stoic doctrine of the equality of all men. Hadrian
deprived the master of the right to put his slave to
death and allowed him to be tried (as he always had
been at Athens) in the courts; and Marcus Aurelius
even permitted slaves to lodge complaints against
their masters in certain cases, while manumission
was made increasingly easy. In all this, however,
there is no demonstrable trace of either Christian or
Jewish influence, the real operative force being that
of Greece. At the same time, the ancient world
never dreamed of a society without slaves, except
as a sort of Utopia or as a reminiscence of the golden
age, which the Roman Saturnalia and similar slave
festivals in Athens, Cydonia, etc., sought to typify,
and the Essenes, Therapeutae, and such Gnostic sects
as that of the Carpocratian Epiphanes to realize.
With such tendencies as these Christianity had
nothing in common. It simply accepted slavery as a
necessary constituent of ancient civilization, nor
is there the slightest evidence that it either con-
demned slavery as a principle or sought to abolish it.
In his parables Christ presupposed the natural re-
lations of master and slave (Matt, xviii.
3. Slavery 23 sqq., xxv. 14 sqq.; Mark xiii. 34;
and the Luke xii. 42 sqq., xvii. 7 sqq.); and
Early Paul expressly declared that Christian-
Church, ity made no change in existing condi-
tions, and that he who was a slave
ought to remain one, even were freedom offered
him (I Cor. vii. 21; cf. also the attitude assumed
toward Onesimus in Philemon 16). All the gentile
Christian communities contained large numbers of
slaves (cf. Rom. xvi. 10-11; I Cor. i. 11; Phil. iv.
22), although these communities were far from con-
sisting predominantly of bondmen. There were also
Christian masters, as is clear from the admonitions
in Eph. vi. 9; Col. iv. 1 ; I Tim. vi. 2 (cf. Clement of
Alexandria, Pcedagogus, III., iv. 26, xi. 73, xii. 84;
Chrysostom, Horn, on I Cor. xl. 6). Of the conditions
in Judeo-Christian households little is known (cf.
Acts xii. 13). The Apostolic Constitutions (ii. 62)
enumerate the purchase of a slave among the neces-
sities of life which justify a Christian in visiting the
marketplace; the Acts of Thomas represent the
apostle as the slave whom Christ sells to a king of
India; and Ignatius (Epist. ad Polycarpum, iv. 3)
discourages the ransom of slaves at the expense of
the community (cf. Salvianus, Ad eccl.f iii. 7), which
seems to have intervened only when a slave's Chris-
tianity was endanged. On the other hand, wealthy
Christians appear to have bought Christian slaves
to manumit them (cf. Hernias, Shepherd, " Simili-
tudes," i. 8; Apostolic Constitutions, iv. 9), and
cases are also recorded in which Christians volun-
tarily sold themselves into slavery to aid the poor
with their price (cf. I Clement, lv.). But despite
external continuity, there was a change of spirit,
kindness of masters and fidelity of slaves becoming
a matter of Christian principle, instead of personal
character, as in paganism (cf . Eph. vi. 5 sqq. ; Col. iii.
22 sqq., iv. 1 ; I Tim. vi. 1-2; Tit. ii. 9-10; Philemon |
16; I Pet. ii. 18 sqq; Didache iv. 10-11; Apostolic
Constitutions, iv. 12), while Augustine, commenting
on Ps. cxxv. 7 (NPNF, 1st series, viii. 602), express-
ly declares: " He (Christ) hath not made men free
from being servants, but good servants from bad ser-
vants " (cf. Conf.f IX., viii. 17). Christians sought,
moreover, to save the souls of slaves (Acts. xvi. 16
sqq.; Aristides, Apol., xv.; Augustine, De sermons
Domini in monte, i. 59). Christianity did even more
than this — it gave the slave the status of a man
(I Cor. xii. 13; Gal. iii. 28; Col. iii. 11; cf. Irenaeus,
Hcer., IV., xxi. 3; Origen, Contra Celsum, iii. 54;
Lactantius, Institutiot v. 15). It is true that a slave
required his master's permission before he could be
baptized (Hippolytus, Canones, x. 63), but even if
this were refused, he could still be an associate mem-
ber of the congregation; and if he were baptized, he
enjoyed the same rights as a freeman. Slaves
might take orders, and some, as Calixtus I., even be-
came popes, while many slaves were venerated as
martyrs, among them Blandina and Potamimna
(qq.v.). Not only were Christian slaves forbidden
to sacrifice for their masters, whether pagan or
Christian (Tertullian, De idolatria, xvii.; Peter of
Alexandria, Canonest vi.-vii.), but the new faith en-
ergetically combated the vices to which slaves of
both sexes had been compelled to minister, besides
doing away with execution by crucifixion and the
branding of fugitive slaves.
The Christian Church, interested only in the faith
of the slave, and leaving his legal position entirely
to the State, made no attempt to abolish slavery.
With the increasing secularization of religious life,
the social cleavage between bond and
4. The free became wider still, and only the
Medieval monasteries clung to the concept, based
Church and on a commingling of classic Stoicism
Slavery, and early Christianity, of the equal
rights and the human status of the
slave. It was from the monasteries, indeed, that the
revolution with regard to slavery was destined to
come. During the imperial period of Rome the im-
portation of slaves had decreased, and they had
largely been replaced by coloni, or serfs, whose num-
ber might include slaves, and more often free
peasants. This system, aided by the subjection of
the conquered peoples in the new German Empire,
persisted in places as late as the eighteenth century;
and though the Church took little part in all this,
and though she frequently protected the oppressed
and even recruited her clergy from the serfs, she
herself exercised seigniorial rights and proved un-
able to exercise a moral influence sufficient to
alter conditions. There were, moreover, actual
slaves until late in the Middle Ages. Even the
Church owned them and vigorously asserted her
rights over them ; but though the slave might still be
bought and sold, and required his master's per-
mission in the most important and personal decisions
of life, he enjoyed (as in Greek and later Roman
legislation) a limited freedom in regard to rights and
property, as well as the protection of the wergild.
The Church took these rights under her protection,
afforded asylum to those seeking refuge, insisted on
humane treatment of slaves, sought to make mas-
ters responsible for the morality of their slaves, for-
Slavery
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
452
bade concubinage with slaves, and secured the
f reedman against capricious revocation of his liberty,
while each parish exercised the right of protection
over the freedmen within it. The manumission of
slaves, very frequent in pagan time, was carried to an
extreme after the conversion of the rich and great
in the fourth century. It is clear, however, from
the apocryphal acts (e.g., Acts of Peter and Andrew,
xx.) that this was not regarded as a Christian duty
in behalf of the slaves, but as an act of asceticism on
a par with renunciation of property, later coming
to form a preliminary to entrance on the monastic
life (cf. Augustine, Sermones, ccclvi. 3, 6, 7). Man-
umission was usually formally declared in the church
(Sozomen, Hist, eccl., I., ix. 6; Codex Theodosianus,
iv. 7), and the classic legal fiction of sale or gift to a
divinity or temple was also observed by Christians.
Unlike the Church, which maintained existing
conditions, monasticism assailed slavery and
finally, as already implied, overthrew it, the two
positions being combined in Gregory the Great, who
as a monk praised manumission as a good work,
and as pope demanded the most rigid discipline from
the slaves belonging to the Church
5. European (cf. Epist. vi. 12 with ix. 200). Canons
Slavery in of councils, as that held at Agde in 506,
the Middle forbade bishops or abbots to diminish
Ages. the property of the Church by manu-
mitting slaves; and in many ways, as
by the prohibition against ordaining a slave or
receiving him in a monastery without his master's
consent, it was clearly shown that slavery was ac-
cepted as an institution, the council of Elvira, by its
eightieth canon, even excluding the freedmen [of
pagans] from holy orders. The monasteries, on the
other hand, received slaves as readily as freemen,
and, unlike the churches, were not expected to
own bondmen. Since, as already noted, the Church
was more interested in the slave's Christianity than
in the slave himself, frequent prohibitions were
enacted, beginning with Constantine, against
ownership of Christian slaves by Jews; and the laws
against the exportation of slaves from the various
Christian lands were closely connected with the pro-
hibition against selling Christian slaves to pagans.
Nevertheless, the Jews of Lyons imported large num-
bers of Christian slaves to Spain and Africa in the
reign of Louis the Pious; the Venetians had an
equally evil notoriety; and Rome itself was a center
of the traffic. The slave-trade increased after the
Slavic wars and the Tatar inroads, those sold into
bondage being chiefly heathens.
It was only in the twelfth and thirteenth centu-
ries that real slavery disappeared from northwestern
Europe, although the system of serfdom long con-
tinued. In 1031 Conrad II. forbade all traffic in
slaves, and a synod held at London in 1102 repeated
the prohibition. In southern Europe, on the other
hand, slavery still persisted, aided not only by the
constant wars with the Mohammedans, but also by
pirate raids. Slavery was made by custom to in-
clude Christians, despite the protests of the Church,
which herself legalized the system as a punishment
for heretics and enemies of the Curia, and made
bondmen of the offspring of priests. Latin Cru-
saders did not hesitate to enslave Christian Greeks,
and the revival of Roman law and the reverence in
which scholasticism held Aristotle alike combined
to maintain the system. At late as 1548 Paul III.
confirmed the right of the clergy and laity to hold
slaves, although their number was no longer large
in Italy. In Spain, on the other hand, there was a
regular system of slavery in the old Roman sense
until the sixteenth century, the bondmen here
being thousands of Moors; while the Portuguese
imported negroes direct from Africa after 1441.
On the other hand, Christians frequently became
slaves of unbelievers, and, the redemption of cap-
tives being esteemed a good work from the earliest
times (cf. Neh. v. 8; Socrates, Hist, eccl., vii. 21),
not only were funds of the Church devoted to this
purpose by the council held at Chalons in the middle
of the seventh century, but the Order of Mercy
(see Nolasco, St. Peter) and Trinitarians (q.v.)
were founded with this special object in view.
(E. von DobschCtz.)
Personal slavery having diminished in Europe in
the fourteenth and following centuries (ut sup.), it
was revived upon a gigantic scale on this continent
shortly after the discovery of America. The scar-
city of labor in the New World, and the necessity
for it, seem to have overcome all objections to the
system, whether founded upon motives
6. Slavery of Christian duty or upon economic con-
in America, siderations. All the European nations,
Roman Catholic and Protestant, which
had colonies in America, engaged in transporting
slaves from the coast of Africa to this continent.
The result was that more than five millions of hu-
man beings were carried from Africa to America
between 1579 and 1807, where they and their de-
scendants became slaves. For more than two cen-
turies and a half no voice, either in the Church or out
of it, was heard against the slave-trade and its con-
sequences.
About the middle of the eighteenth century, how-
ever, two distinct movements arose, one based on
philosophical, and the other on Christian, grounds,
one confined to France and the other to England.
Upon one or the other of them, modern opinion and
legislation in regard to negro slavery have been
based. The philosophical basis is found in that
portion of the celebrated work of Rous-
7. The Phil- seau, fimile, called Profession de foi
osophical d'un vicaire Savoyard. The views there
Attack on laid down made a profound impression
Slavery, upon all writers on the theory of gov-
ernment during the remainder of the
century. According to Rousseau, man is a being by
nature good, loving justice and order. In an ideal
state of society each member would be free, and the
equal of every other. These doctrines and the vast
system which grew out of them were, for various
reasons, embraced with the utmost enthusiasm in
France. But the first public official document in
which these opinions are clearly set forth was the
Declaration of Independence; though in France, the
first article of "The Declaration of the Rights of
Man and of the Citizen," adopted in 1789 at the
beginning of the Revolution, asserts, " Men are
born free and equal, and have the same rights."
And as a logical result of this declaration, based
453
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Slavery
upon the teaching of Rousseau, the French Con-
vention (Feb. 4, 1794) decreed that negro slavery
should be abolished in all the French colonies,
and that all men therein should have the rights
of French citizens. This was the first act by which
any nation in Europe decreed the abolition of
slavery.
By the side of these attacks of the French phi-
losophers on slavery as a violation of natural
rights, a movement arose about the same time,
chiefly in England and in the United States, hav-
ing the same object in view, but founded upon con-
victions of Christian duty. Conscience was the
impulse to action, and the result was earnest,
persistent, and personal work. The African slave-
trade was at first the main point of attack by the
abolitionists. In 1772 Granville Sharp
8. The urged its suppression on religious
Christian grounds. Just before the Revolution,
Attack; Virginia petitioned that no more Afri-
Abolition can slaves be sent into the colony; a
of Slave- few years later, Thomas Clarkson (q. v.)
Trade. devoted his life to convincing his coun-
trymen that they should prohibit the
slave-trade by law, as violating every principle of
Christian humanity. Among the religious denomi-
nations which as a body took an active part in this
work were the Quakers, who presented to the house
of commons a petition for the abolition of the slave-
trade in 1784; the Methodists and Presbyterians
(see below); [and the Baptists. In 1789 the Gen-
eral Association of the Baptists of Virginia resolved:
" That slavery is a violent deprivation of the rights
of nature, and inconsistent with a republican gov-
ernment, and (we) therefore recommend to our
brethren to make use of every legal measure to
extirpate this horrid evil from the land." a. h. n.]
By incessant work, and constant agitation of the
subject in the press and at public meetings, the
little band of abolitionists gained the support of
many prominent public men in England, Wilber-
force, Pitt, Fox, and Burke among the rest. Such
was the feeling roused by the discussion of the
subject, and especially the general conviction of the
violation of Christian duty in maintaining the traffic,
that, forced at last by the outcry of the public
conscience, Parliament abolished the slave-trade in
1807. In the United States the foreign slave-trade
was prohibited in 1808. Shortly afterward, all the
maritime nations of Europe followed the example of
England and of this country; and the work was
crowned by the declaration of the European Con-
gress of Vienna in 1815, engaging all the powers to
discourage the traffic, as one " reproved by the law
of religion and of nature "; thus recognizing the
two forces, religion and philosophy, which had
combined to bring about the result.
In this country the testimony of the Quakers, as
a religious body, against slavery had been uniform
from the beginning. In 1688 the German Friends
residing in Germantown, Pa., petitioned the yearly
meeting to take measures against slaveholding.
From 1696 to 1776, the society nearly every year
declared " the importing, purchase, or sale of slaves "
by its members to be a " disownable offense." John
Woolman and Anthony Benexet, illustrious as
Quaker philanthropists, were the pioneer abolition-
ists of modern times. In 1776 the holding of slaves
was prohibited by the discipline of the
9. Attitude Society of Friends, and since that time
of Religious its members have been conspicuous in
Bodies, supporting anti slavery opinions and
legislation. The highest judicatory
of the Presbyterian Church in this country made
formal declaration in favor of the abolition of
slavery no less than six times between 1787 and 1836.
In 1845 and in 1849 the General Assembly (Old
School) in its action, without avowing any change
of opinion as to the sinfulness of slavery, dwelt more
particularly upon the formidable obstacles to the
practical work of emancipation. In 1864, during the
Civil War, that body proclaimed openly " the evil
and guilt of slavery," and its earnest desire for its
extirpation. The Methodist-Episcopal Church has
been opposed to slavery from the beginning. At
the organization of the general conference in 1784, a
general rule of its discipline was adopted, declaring
slavery contrary " to the golden law of God and the
inalienable rights of mankind," and directing that
preachers holding slaves should be expelled. Never-
theless, after 1808 slaveholding among the private
members of the society was not made a subject of
discipline, though the old rule affirming slavery to
be a great evil, and that slaveholding should be a
bar to office in the Church, was still unrepealed.
The aggressive antislavery sentiment at the North
was always very powerful among the Methodists;
and in the general conference of 1844 it was strong
enough to effect the passage of a resolution by
which Bishop Andrew, who had come into the
possession of certain slaves in right of his wife, was
requested to suspend the exercise of all episcopal
functions until the slaves were freed. This led to the
disruption of the conference, and the formation of
two Methodist-Episcopal churches in this country,
— one at the North, and the other at the South. See
Methodists, IV., 1, § 5.
Before the war there were, in the northern states,
multitudes of Christians of thoroughly antislavery
sentiments who took no active part in the abolition
movement, because they were restrained by con-
scientious convictions as to their duties as citizens;
but when slavery was made the pretext of rebellion
and war against the government, and an attempt
was made to found an empire the corner-stone of
which was slavery, and especially when the national
government had decreed the emancipation of the
slaves, every motive for its further toleration was
removed. By the victory of the North in the Civil
War, the abolition of slavery in the United States
was made complete. See Negro Education and
Evangelization. C. J. StilleI".
Bibliography: On slavery in the Bible consult: J. L. Saal-
schQU, Archaoloaie der Hebr&er, ii. 236 sqq., Berlin, 1856;
A. Barnes, An Inquiry into the Scriptural Views of Slavery,
Philadelphia, 1857; M. Mielainer, Die VerhaUniase der
Sklaven bei den alien Hebraer. Leipsic, 1859, En*, t ran si.,
in Evangelical Review, 1862, pp. 311-355; P. Schaflf. Sla-
very and the Bible, Mercersburg, 1860; M. J. Raphall. Bible
View of Slavery, New York, 1861; M. Z. Zahn. L'Escla-
vaqe »ehn la Bible et le Talmud. Paris, 1867; P. Kleinert,
Dae Deuteronomium und der Deuteronomiker, pp. 55 sqq.,
Bielefeld. 1872; A. GrOnfeld, Die Stelluno der Sklaven bet
den Juden, Jena, 1886; M. Mandl, Dot SklavenrecM dc*
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
A. T.. Hamburg. IRSfi: .F Winter. Die Stellung der Sklaven
bei dm Jvdtn, Halle, 1S88: J. B. Ijghl/oot, in bis com-
mentary on Philemon, the intru.lurTinn. 3d ed.. London.
1892; A. Bertholel.. Die Slftluny der Itrraelitcn und der
Judm eu dm Frrmden. Freiburg. 1MB: J. ¥. UiV'unly.
Hitlory, Prophecy, and the MonumenU, ii. 108 sqo... Now
York. 1890; Bcjiiingcr. Archaolavie. PP- 123-127; DB,
iv. 4B1-M9; fffl, iv. -1053-58: DCC, ii. 641-042: Jff, ii.
403-108.
On slavery in Greece and Rome mimult: H. Wallon,
Htsf. cit tetclacage dant ratdiqnilt. now ed., 3 vols.. Paris,
1879; J. Marquurrli, Priv.iil-lirn ,ln U..mer, pp. I3S sqq.,
176 sqq.. Leiosin. ISSfli W. Rirhter, Die Sktaterd in
erirchUchen Altertume, Brealau. 1880; L. Holkin, Let
Etclaea pMict met let romaint. Lifgo. 1897; M. Sehneide-
win. Antike Humanitat, pp. 200 sqo,.. Berlin. 1897; P.
. La Main a" out
Grlce. Pari
1900.
ie general history of slavery employ: T. Clarkaon,
Hint, of the Slant Trade. London. 1849; E. Levaaaeur,
Uiil. da clatia ouvriira en France . . . jutau'A la revo-
lution, 2 vols,. Pa™. 1859; A, Cochin. L'Abolition de
Facuivaae, 2 vols.. Paris. 1SS2. Eng. tmn.il.. The ReniU
of Slavery. Boston. JS63. and The Retulu of Emancipation,
ib. 1883; J. E. Caimai. The Slave Paver; tit Character.
Career, and Probable Detiant, I-ondon. 1803; H. Wiske-
mann. Die SUacerci, Leyden. I860 (a Drowned essay);
H. Wilson. HiM of the Rite and Pall of the Slave-Power.
3 vols., Boston, 1872-77; A. TounnaEnc. Hist, de Temda-
vage ancien el moderne, Palis. ISHtt; A. Ebeling. Die Skla-
verei. Paderbora. IWiO; r. [). Michael. The Slave and Aw
CAampioiu.- Granville Sharp, Thomat Clark*,*, W. Wil-
berforce. Sir Thorns Fohretl /(.titan. London. 18(11; IV.
Serfdom,
de rod.
Industrial S&
Political Hill
-, Pan
., 1805:
1897;
. J. Niel
r. Slur,
i, 1900; W.
Slavery, 2 vols.. New York. 1003; W.
Stevens, The Store in Hitlory, London, 1904.
On the rtlation of Christianity lo slavery consult: E.
Biol, L' Abolition deferclavaae dant V Occident, Paris. 1840;
J. A. Mfihler, in lietammelle Schriflcn. ii. 54 aqq., Hrgr-ru-
hurg. 1840; C. Schmidt. Euay hiilorioue sur la tocieU
chrirtianieme, Strasburg. 1854; K. J. Hefele, Britraoe sur
KirchenyetchicLte. i. L'IL> sqq . Tubiimr-n, 1804; A. Rivitre.
L'SoKie et retctiii-nrf. Puri.i, 1S04: Uverbeck. Studirn eur
Getchichu der altm Kir.W. i. 158-2*1, Schloss Chemnils.
1875 (on the rchiti'.i, u/ the earlv Church (o slavery);
P. Allard, Let Etclavet ehrttient depui* lei premiers tempi
de rtt/tiec juequ'a la fin de la domination romaine m Occi-
dent. Paris, 1870: W. E. H. Lecky. ffisf. of European
Morale, ii. 08-90. 3d ed.. London, 1877: V. Lechler.
BUmrti und Chr^tcnthum. Lcipsic, 1877-78; T. Zabn.
Stlaverei und Chrielenthum in der alim Welt. Heidelberg,
1879; idem, Skivm out dem Leben der alien Kirche. pp.
116-159. Lsipsic, 1898: 0. L. Brace. Qctta Chrieti; or, a
HiM. of Human Progrett under Chrivianity. London and
New York. 188:!; G. 1'hlh'jni, Christian Charitu in the
Earlti Church. Edinbunih. Ivtl; A It.^tLwhcr. Die Auf-
hebuno der Sklaverei durrfi d,u ri.Hitrn!um, Frank/ort.
1887; R. Knopf. Da* wvhapoiloliKhe Zeilalter. pp. 07
aqq.. Tubingen. 1905; A. Hnraack. Ezpantion of Chrit-
tianilu. new e.l.. Inndon, 1908; Sc)i:i(T, Vliri.dinn rl.H.-.-h.
i. 444-148. ii. 347-354.
On slavery in America consult; A. T. Bledsoe. An Et-
tay on Liberty and Star. m. 1'hiln.lL'lr.bi.i. 1S57; G. Haven,
National Sermonn. Boston. 1869; A. G. Hnygood, Our
Brother in Black; hi* Frenlom and '■•• Future. New York.
1881: L. C. Mai lark. Anii-sinr-cni Struaolf and Triumph
in the M. H. Church, New York. 1881; G. W. Williams,
Hiaf. of the Nam Race in America. New York. 1SS2: A.
Willey, Anti-Slarrru in Slate and Nation, Portland. Me.,
1880: J. R. Brack"!!, The \eara in Voruland, Baltimore.
1889; J. S. Bassett, Slavrry and Servitude in . . . jVorfA
Caralina,2 parts. Billimoro. IS'finT; M. 8. Locke, Aiiri-
Ballaah, B4*t of Slavery in Virginia, Baltimore. 1902.
SLAVIC MISSIONS IN THE OHITED STATES:
Missions founded in the interests of evuiicclism
among the Bohemians who had emigrated to the
1'mU'd ^tjitos, and later extended to include Poles
and Hungarian Slovaks. There are already in this
country nearly three millions of these people, many
of them coni i^umis. ;u-t'(*s.-ible, and responsive to
missionary effort. On coming to America multitudes
of tin? Slavic race abandoned the formal adherence
which in Europe they had preserved to the Roman
< \ii holic Church, and. finding here unrestricted re-
ligious liberty, drifted from religious indifference
into every phase of unbelief. The danger to the
body [Jiiliiic from (ho existence of an element of
the population with these tendencies, awakened the
attention of the thoughtful and religious. The
founder of the first mission was Charies Terry Collins
{d. Dec. 21, 1883), pastor of Plymouth Congrega-
tional Church, Cleveland, Ohio, adjacent to whose
parish were living, iD 1880, 25,000 of the 250,000
liolii*mi;ms then in the United States. He took
counsel with Dr. Albert Henry Schauffler (q.v.), then
recently returned from service in Bohemia and Mo-
ravia, who undertook the conduct of the mission in
18S2. Dr. Siii-iiiill.-r's pioneer work in Bohemia,
liis ni:i*tery of the language and of kindred dialects,
and his passion for souls amply qualified him to
organise and develop this new and important field.
He was, moreover, the only American Protestant
mission. iry liiiguwiically qualitied to Carry on the
work. Olivet Chapel, of which he accepted the pas-
torate, was at first made the center of his labors, but
soon proved too distant from the chief Bohemian
colony and a new location was secured. The Con-
!rri'(.'itio]ial Churches of the city were interested,
and in June, 18S3, adopted the work as their own,
made an appropriation, and enlisted the aid of the
denominational Home Missionary Society. The
H latum fin |i Mission Board of Cleveland, Ohio, was
incorporated Mar. 22, 1884, with representatives
from each Congregational Church in the city which
chose to elect such representatives. Meanwhile, in
ISN-l. Dr. Schauffler had iieen commissioned by the
Home Missionary Society superintendent of Slavic
Missions in the United States, and among his duties
was included that of surveying the centers of Slavic
colonization in the United .States with a view to
future cvangelUation. The local mission in Cleve-
land was carried on in a place secured for it, and
services were conducted in Bohemian and English,
while a Sunday-school was also instituted. Iitter-
dciinmiitational help was secured for the purchase of
a lot and the erection of a church on Broadway, in
l lie center of the colony; the building was dm] Seated
Jan. 1, 1885, and was named "Bethlehem" after
the church in which John Huss preached in Prague.
A church was organized with fifty-nine members on
Mar. 28, 1888 — the first Bohemian Congregational
church in the United Stales, from which three mis-
sions or branches have since been formed, Cyril Mis-
sion 1 1800), Immanuel Mission (1904), and Miipala
(1908), all in Cleveland. This church carries on a
dual work with separate membership, pastorate,
and services in Bohemian and English.
In iiccordance with the general duties of the
snperiiitenderit mentioned above, Chicago was
visited, the claims of the fifty thousand Bohemians
of that city and vicinity were presented, and a
mission organization was effected in 18S4 with the
450
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Slavery
Sleidanus
assistance of Professor Samuel Ives Curtiss and Dea-
con C. F. Gates. The Rev. Edwin A. Adams, who had
been an associate with Dr. Schauffler in Bohemia,
was placed in charge of the Bohemian Mission in
Chicago. The result is a church reporting about
200 members, with a Sunday-school having an aver-
age attendance of 500. Farther extension of this
work appears in the opening of missions to this people
at St. Louis (1889), Silver Lake, Minn. (1890), Mil-
waukee, Wis. (1890), Crete, Neb. (1895), St. Paul,
Minn. (1895), and Vining, Iowa (1899). The Pres-
byterians have missions for the Bohemians at Pitts-
burg, Pa., and at Wisconsin, South Dakota.
Outside of Cleveland and Chicago, the first Slavic
mission was the outgrowth of Polish Sunday-school
work maintained chiefly by the First Congregational
Church at Detroit, Mich., where in May, 1892, there
was formed the first Protestant Polish church in the
United States. The second Polish mission was un-
dertaken in a large community contiguous to Beth-
lehem, Cleveland, Ohio, where Mizpah Chapel was
erected in 1893 and work carried on with the con-
current use of four languages, Polish, Bohemian,
German, and English. Under Congregational direc-
tion Polish missions have been attempted in Toledo,
Ohio, Bay City, Mich., and in the states of Massa-
chusetts and Connecticut. Work has also been done
by the Baptists at Buffalo, by the Methodists at
Baltimore and Detroit, and by the United Presby-
terians at Pittsburg. Another interesting and suc-
cessful work was begun Aug., 1890, at Braddock,
Pa., among the Hungarian Slovaks — a Slavic
people resident in Hungary prior to the advent of
the Magyar — which resulted in 1896 in the organiza-
tion of a church with 119 members, and in the
rapid extension of Slovak mission work to all the
suburbs of Pittsburg, Pa.
Such expansion required additional workers,
trained and educated in the Slavic and English
languages, for thus far the converts had but a
meager education. The Slavic Department of
Oberlin Seminary was instituted in 1885, and
has since been amply endowed, to educate a suffi-
cient ministerial force; and also The Schauffler
Missionary Training School of Cleveland, Ohio,
was established (1886) — also endowed — for the
training of Slavic women as missionaries and Bible-
readers, through whom the homes of the foreign
population may be reached, as can not be prudently
done by men.
The estimated force (1911) of trained missionary
workers is 125, occupying sixty church buildings,
in thirteen different states, and working for five
different denominations. There are, also, religious
papers, published weekly and widely circulated, in
Bohemian and Polish. It is everywhere confessed,
by those who are opposed, as well as by friends of
this work, that these missions have exerted a great,
and uplifting influence for good morals, good citizen-
ship, and a high ideal of religious life, wherever
established. Francis Metherall Whitlock.
Bibliography: Consult the reports of Dr. Schauffler in The
Home Missionary Magazine, New York; and the Reports
of the Congregational Home Missionary Society, 1884 sqq.
SLAVS, CONVERSION OF THE. See Cykil
and Methodius; Miscztslaw; and Wbnzel, Saint.
SLEIDANUS, sloi-d^nus, JOHANNES: Histori-
ographer of the German Reformation; b. at Sc hid-
den (35 m. s.w. of Cologne) probably in 1506;
d. at Strasburg Oct. 31, 1556. His family name was
Philippi. He was educated at Liege and apparently
at Cologne and Louvain, and by 1530 was an Eras-
mian humanist, although professing deep admira-
tion for Melanchthon. In 1533 he took up his resi-
dence in France, where he occupied a number of
positions which brought him into contact with the
anti-Hapsburg policy of Francis I., who sought
alliance with German Protestantism. During this
same period Sleidanus received from the works and
personal letters of Calvin an influence which modi-
fied his entire outlook on life, and he became deeply
interested in the importance of modern history for
the statesman. In 1537 he published at Paris his
epitome of Froissart's chronicle under the title
Frossardi . . . historiarum opus omne, jam primum
et breviter collectum, et Latino sermone redditum (Eng.
transl. by P. Golding, London, 1608), and three
years later was secretly commissioned to watch a
delegate sent to the diet of Hagenau to prevent an
alliance of the Schmalkald League, especially Philip
of Hesse, with Charles V. On his return he wrote,
under the pseudonym of Baptista Lasdenus, an at-
tack upon the pope entitled Oration . . . von des
Bapstumbs auffkomen und abnemen (Strasburg [?],
1541), following this with two similar " orations "
(Augsburg [?L 1542; Strasburg, 1544). In 1541
Sleidanus was sent as interpreter on a second fruit-
less mission, this time directly to the leaders of the
Schmalkald League. His position was then com-
plicated by the repression of French Protestantism
by Francis I., but though he spent some time in
Germany, he returned to France, whence, after ac-
companying Cardinal Jean du Bellay in a vain
effort to attend the Diet of Speier in 1544, he was ap-
parently sent on a secret mission to Germany to win
the Schmalkald League to alliance with France,
thenceforth residing at Strasburg.
Butzer, whose shorter catechism Sleidanus had
translated into Latin in 1544, now urged Landgrave
Philip to appoint the statesman historiographer of
the Reformation, for which he had long been gather-
ing material. The work was delayed, however, by
the French war, and in the mean while Sleidanus
prepared a Latin translation of Philippe de Comines'
chronicle under the title De rebus gestis Ludovici . . .
undecimi, Galliarum regis, et Carcli Burgundies
ducis (Strasburg, 1545). In 1545 he was sent on
another fruitless mission to England, and this in-
terruption was followed by another French war,
but in 1551 he was promised an annual pension by
Edward VI. and Cranmer. From the autumn of
1551 to Apr., 1552, he was an envoy at Trent, and
took part in an embassy to Henry II., while in May,
1554, he was the representative of Strasburg at a
conference held at Naumburg. During all this time
he had labored on his history, despite poverty
and scanty material, and in 1555 it appeared at
Strasburg under the title De statu religionis et rev-
publica, Carolo Quinio Cassare, commentarii (Eng.
transl. by J. Daus, A Famousc Chronicle of owe
Time, Colled Sleidanes Commentaries, London, 1560,
and E. Bohun, The General History of the Reforma-
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOvJ
lion of the Church from the Errors and Corruption*
of the Church of Rome, ib., 1689). Storms of protest
arose against it on every sule, both Roman Cui hniic
and Protestant, ami Melanehthon declared that its
i-i vi-l-u ion of Protestant folly and pet linens was Buch
as to render it unfit to be placed in the hands of
impressionable youth (< 'R, viii. 433).
The tenure of office of Sleidanus, who had taken
an active part in school administration in Stras-
burg since lii'i'.t, expired in June, 1556, and such was
the odium excited by his book that no one wouid
now employ him. When, however, a university
was founded at Duisburg, his name was proposed
for the professorship of history, but before any
action could bo taken he was dead. A few montlis
before lii- death he puhlishtrd his De quaiuor sum-
mis im/„rii:i, Hnbylonico, Pcrsico, Gnrco et Romano,
iibri (res (Eng. transl., London, 1627), which ran
through repeated editions and translations, being
used as bite as the eighteenth century. A number
■of his writings, including the one just mentioned,
■were collected In his opuscula (ed. H. Putschius,
Hanover, 1G0S), and his correspondence has been
edited by H. Baumgarten {SUidan't Brief wechsel,
Strasburg, 1881). (G. Kawerau.)
i:^iii.T
S by I
■ Steidans Lrbcn und Brirfmdud,
Slrasburg. 1S7S, and tlie Arir/vn-W of Sleidanus. ib.
1881. Comiult further: J. O Miillor. .liMJAI Eifetbrrem,
Lwigenbetii. 1»S7; Hourilly. Jnm .S/rtiton d ie Cardinal
da Betlay, m Htttlttin AUtorivu" rf /itttrairr, pp. 225 wjq.,
Paris. 1901: idem. GuVlawae da BtUoy, Paris, 1904;
:, Slriiian-Slmlicn, Bonn. 1005: ADB, xxitiv.
354k
SMALLEY, smSl'li, JOHN: Congregationalist;
b. in Columbia, Conn., June 4, 1734; d. in New
Britain, Conn., June 1, 1820. He was graduated
from Yule College, 1756, where he experienced what
he described sometimes as his actual, sometimes as
hi.- second, .•(inversion, his first having occurred dur-
ing childhood. This later conversion he attributed
to his reading of Edwards' treatise on the Will.
Through this lie became a leader in the contest
against ihe enthusiasm of the Sej.'Li rales, against
tlie Half-way Covenant, and in defense of the New-
England Theology (q.v.).
Having pursued his theological studies with Dr.
Joseph IMI.irny, lie was ordained Apr. 19, IT.iS,
over the Congregational Church in New Britain,
Conn. He remained in this pastorate more than
lifly-live years, and the marked success of his pas-
torate is a matter of historical interest. His suc-
cess as a theological instructor was yet more re-
markable Among his pupils may be named Na-
thaniel Emmons, ami Ehene/cr Porter (qq.V.), who,
ns a professor at Andover, exerted a formative in-
fluence on the seminary. Four of Smulley's ser-
mons wen' of great importance. Two were on The
Conristencu of tlic Sinner's Inability (Hurt ford.
1769; republished in England). Two were entitled
Jiislijif.itiim Ihrnuijh I 'hri.it an Art of Free (irorr. and
None but Believers tared through tlie AH-Siijl'.riint
Satisfaction of Christ (1786, 1787; repeatedly
republished), lie also issued two volumes of Dis-
courses (LS03, 1814).
BniLinonAPHY: W. B. Sprague. Annul* ol the Amrriean
Pulpit. ,. ft.iU-.1K.-., New York. 1X59; \V. Witlkcr, Ln Amrr-
ita* Church Hiitvr* Sims, vol. ill. (win ib, J M ; F . H.
SMARAGDDS, smu-rQg'dus: The name of several
medieval monastic authors.
1. Abbot of St. Mihicl, in the diocese of Verdun,
and one of the most distinguished representatives
of Km nit i ah theology in the Carolingian period. In
810 he was one of Charlemagne's envoys to bear the
resolution of the Synod of Aachen to Leo III., and
was secretary in the ensuing negotiai ions regarding
the procession of the Holy Ghost and the liturgical
use of the Nicene Creed. Louis the Pious not only
gave him many gifts and privileges for his monastery
but also made hjm one of the arbitrators in the
controversy between Ismundus, bishop of Milan,
and his monks. His works, most of which are
collected in MPL, cii., reveal considerable patris-
tic learning and much practical piety, but are al-
most wholly devoid of originality. His chief exe-
getical work, Commetdariut, give coUectionea in eran-
gelia et epixtolas qua per circuit um anni in lemplis
Icuuntur, is n compilation for horoiletic use; but his
Eiporitio, rive commentarii in regulam Saticti Bene-
■lifti reveals him us an adherent of the strict reforms
of his contemporary, Benedict of Auinne (q.v.);
and a similar tendency is discernible in his compila-
tion of ascetic rules, chiefly from Cassian and
Gregory the Great, entitled Diadema monaehorunt.
The latter treatise was abridged by Smaragdus for
the use of Louis the Pious, the strictly monastic
sections being omitted, and the remainder expanded
or curtailed as the special theme of this new Via
regia demanded. He likewise wrote the Acta
coVationix Romanir and collaborated in the EpUtola
Frotharii et Smoragdi ad Ludovicum Augustum,
while he is also held to be the author of the Epistala
Caroii Magni ad Leonem Tertium Pontificem de
procetsu BpirituM Sancti {MPL, xcviii. 923). His
Ctmmenterfttt in Prophctas and llistoria Mortai-
terii Sancti Michnelis are still unedited, but a few
fragments of his Grammatica major, tire commen-
tarius in Dtmalum have been published by J.
Mabiilon (Cetera analecta, Paris, 1723, pp. 358-350).
This was evidently the earliest of his works, prob-
ably written while he was still master of the monas-
tery school (between 800 and NO")). [His Carmina,
ed. E. Dtlmmler, are in MGI1. Poet. Lot crri Car., i.
), 607-619, ii. (1S84), 698; cf. M. Manitius in
JV.4,:
. («
663 1
9. Biographer anil -uccessorof Benedict of Aniane:
b. 783; d. nt Aniane (16 m. w.n.w. of Montpellierl
Mar. 7, 843. His real name was Ardo. His Vita of
his predecessor, an admirable bit of biograpliicaJ
writing, has repeatedly been edited (ASB, Feb., it.
100-620; MPL, ciii. 354 Bqq.; MGH, Script., TV.
00S-2J0. Hanover, 1S87).
3. Abbot of a monastery at I.tineburg, Saxony;
flourished about 1000. He has been, regarded,
though without sufficient evidence, as the author
of (he Grammatica, major noted above.
(O. ZOCKXERf.)
BimjodHAPHi: Tho prolegomena in MOB, Pott. Lot., ut
447, '70S: H. linurr'-fiii. .-iiri.ywWItM hiMoriqut* tt IUU-
ratrrt. pp. 10") -m., [**m. I-1IJ1 : K Wcnicr. Alkuin vij
innJ»fet™lrt. pp. 25, 317-:<1H, Vn-nim. tX7»- A. Eb*rl.
Oachiehte der Literatur da MitlelaUcr*. ii. 108-112, Lop-
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
sir, 1S8D: Wstlenhnch. DOQ, i (180^). 326; Wtrmim-
holt, in Hittoritckt ZtiUrhrilt, 1902, pp. 193-213: O.
Kinkier, to TuueitillrJire d« Chrirtcntinfit. pp. i&j-liM.
CiiltemJob. IMS; Hnuck. KI>, ii. 1 13-1 14. 592-594 et pM-
•jm, OCB. iv. 708-709; ASfl. MO. iv„ L MB-OBO) Ui
li. 427-128.
SMECTYMHUUS. See Calamt, 1.
SMESD, Kclvmendt, JULIUS: German Protes-
tant; li. at Longcrich (IS in. ii. c. of Milnster) May
10, 1857. He studied at the universities of Bonn,
Halle, and Giittingen from 1876 to 1879 (fin. thcol.,
Bonn, 1884); wan assistant pastor at Paderborn
(1879-81), Bonn (1882-85), and Siegen (1885);
ami pastor at Seelscheid (1885-91). He was then
professor of practical theology nt the seminary for
preachers at Fried berg, Hesse (1891-93); and since
IS',':: lias occupied a similar position at the Univer-
sity of Strasburg, where he was rector in 1906-07.
In theology he describes himself as a. "pupil of
Alhrechi Uit-schl, but does not belong to any party
and, with decidedly liberal theological convictions, is
devoted as a preacher and teacher to the promotion
of ecclesiastical piety." He has been associate
editor (with F. Spitta) of the Monatachrifl fur Got-
temtielUt und kirchliehe Kunst since 1897, and has
written Deutsche* Litderbuch (Dortmund, 1892);
J-'.-i.T.-tiiinlrn (Giittingen, 1892); Der erziehliehe
Wert der Musik (Dortmund, 1894); Die evangel-
izrhm dndschen Messeit Iris :u Lathers deiitseher
Mouse (Ciittingen, 1896); Der erste evangclitche
tiitttr.-aliftist in Strassbury (Strasburg, 1897); Der
Wert der Todcserinnerung fur das innere Leben
(1897); Kelchversagung und Keichspendung in der
n>>, ndU ■tflixchen Kirche (Giittingen, 1898); Dae
Wetcn der evoiigdischen Frommigkrit (Straslairc,
lSflp); Feicrstunden, neve Folge (Gottingen, 1901);
Zur Frage der Kidtusrede (Freiburg, 1902); Der
tvangelische (iottesiiienst, cine Liturgik nack evan-
gelischen (iriuiilniilvm ft iiittingen. 1904); Kirchen-
buck fur erfniiiilinrhe Gemeinden (-' vols., Striisburg,
1 1HMMI81 : .SfWr/rrmacftcrs polilisehe Predigt (1906) ;
FextprrHigtrnWWS); Evangelic-he Predigten (1910);
nnd Dem Volkc miui die Religion erhallen Werden
(1911).
SMEND, RUDOLF: German Protestant; b. at
I.engorieh (18 m. n.e. of Munster) Nov. 5, 1851.
lie was educated at the universities of Giittingen,
Berlin, and Bonn (Ph.D. Bonn, 1874), became pri-
vat-dr-vnt atllalte, 1S75; ossocinte professor 1880;
professor of theology at Basel, 1881; professor of
Old-Testament exegesis in the philosophical faculty
of the University of (niltineen, 1X89. lie has written
Der Prophet Ezekiel Erkldrt (Leipaic, 1880); Die
Inxchrift dee Kiinigs Mem von Modb (Freiburg,
1SSH; in collaboration with A. Social; I.ehrbuch tier
aUtnlamtnSirhem Religionsvrisseiitchnfi (Freiburg,
18WJ); Weisheit dee Jesus SiracJi, Text nnd Er-
Ulirii'ig I HHPfi) ; GriWIiiKrh-tt/rifrh-hrbrdiechcr Index
zur iVciKheil dt* Jesus Sirneh (Berlin, 1907); and
Alter und llerkunfl den Acliikar-Romans und sein
VerluUtmee zu Aesop (Giessen, 1908).
5MET, smet or smf. PIERRE JEAN DE: Jesuit
missionary : li. at Termoiide VH) in. H.w. of Antwerp).
Belgium, Jan. 30, 1801; d. in St. Loujb, Mo., May
83, 1873. lie left Belgium for the United States at
the age of twenty and became a Jesuit novice at
Whiiemarsh, lid., but in 1823 a new Jesuit settle-
ment was established at Florissant, near St. Louis,
whither De Smet went. His influence with the
Indians became so strong that he was requested by
the United States Government to allay threatened
uprisings in Oregon and Washington (1858). Again
in 1802 and 1867 he visited hostile tribes. Hut stead-
ily refused to have any association with American
military measures against the Indians. In 1808
he was the prime mover of the trebly of peace Mgncd
by Sitting Bull between the Sioux and the United
States Government, and two years later he nude
another visit to the some important tribe. He was
unceasing in his efforts to prelect I he Indians against
the encroachments of the Americans, and his relig-
ions leal and piety were commensurate with his
humanitarian endeavors. His control over the
Indians was marvellous, and in his efforts for the
amelioration of their condition he crossed the ocean
nineteen times, pleading their e:,use everywhere.
Among his workers special mention may be made of
his Lettere and Sketchee, with a Narrative of a Year's
Residence among the Indian Tribes of the Roekg
Mountains (Philadelphia, 1843); Oregon Missions
and Travels over the Rocky Mountains in 1845-4B
(New York, 1847); Voyage an grand dlsert en 1851
(Brussels, 1853); IFesfern Missions and Mission-
aries (a series of letters; New York, 18IW); and
New Indian Sketches (1865).
Bibuoobapht: F. DeynoocH. P. J. dt Srntt. miuionain
belat aui 6lalt Unit. Bruoela, 1878; H. M. CfcftbOlha
«nd A. T. Richsrcbon, Lift, Lrtlm. onrf Trartlm u! Pirrrt
Jean dt 3mtt, S. J., * vola., Nsw York. 1905.
SMITH, ALEXANDER COKE: Methodist Epis-
eojial. Smith. Ill-hop; b. in Sumter Co.. S. C.. S'pt.
18, 1849. He was educated at Wofford Codlege,
Spartanburg, S. 0. (A.B., 1872), and, after holding
various pastorates in his denomination, was pro-
fessor of mental and moral philosophy in the same
institution (1886-90); and of practical theology in
Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Term. (I8S042),
after which he again took up ministerial duties.
In 1902 he was elected bishop.
SMITH, ARTHUR HEHDERSOH: Congregntion-
olist; b. at Vernon, Conn., July 18, 1845. He was
educated at Bcloit College (A.B., 1867), Andover
Theological Seminary (1807-69). Union Theological
Semi nary, New York (graduated 1870), and the
Colli'ge u( Physicians and Surgeons, New York City
(1S7U-71). In 1871-72 he was a missionary at Chi-
cago and Clifton, 111.; was stationed at Tientsin,
China, (1872-80) under the auspices of the American
Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions; was
at P'ang Chuang, Shantung (1880-90), although in
1KS6 *7 he was acting pastor of the First Congrega-
tional Church, Pasadena, Col. He was in Peking
during the siege of the city in 1900, anil was then
stated supply of Union Church. Tientsin, in 1900-01.
after which he returned to P'ang Chuang for four
years (1901-05). Since 1906 he has been o " mis-
siouiry H large " in China, ciccpt for a brief visit
to the United States, and is now engaged in literary
work, speaking and traveling extensively in the
interest of missions. In theology he is a liberal
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
conservative, and, besides his work as associate
editor of The Missionary Review of the World, has
written The Proverbs and Common Sayings of the
Chinese (Shanghai, 1888); Chinese Characteristics
(Chicago, 1800); Village Life in China (1899);
China in Convulsion (1901); Rex Christus: An
outline Study of China (New York, 1903); China
and America Today: Study of Condition* and
Relations (1907); and Uplift of China (1907).
SMITH, BENJAMIN MOSBY: Presbyterian; b.
at Montrose, Powhatan County, Va., June 30, 181 1 ;
d. at Petersburg, Va., Mar. 14, 1893. He was
graduated at Hampden-Sidney College, Prince Ed-
ward County, Va., 1829, and at Union Theological
Seminary, Va., 1834; was tutor there, 1834-36;
pastoral Danville, Va., 1838-40; at Tinkling Spring
and VY'aynesborough, 1840-45; and at Staunton,
1845-54; and then became professor of oriental and
}iiUii:;il literature in Union Seminary. From 1858
to 1874 he was with Dr. Dabney pastor of the Hamp-
den-Sidney College Church. He published A Com-
mentary on the Pxalms and Proverbs (Glasgow, 1859;
3d ed. Knoxville, Tenn., 1883); Family Religion
{Philadelphia, 1S59); Questions on the Gospels (vol.
i., Richmond, 1868).
SMITH, CHARLES SPENCER: African Method-
ist Kniscopal bishop; b. at Colbome, Ont., Max. 16,
1S52. He was ordained to the ministry of his de-
nomination at the age of twezity; and was a member
of the Alabama House of Representatives (1874-76).
He then pursued a course of study at Meharry
Medical College, Nashville, Tenn. (graduated 1880).
hi lsvj hi- founded the Sunday-school Union of the
African Methodist Episcopal Church, of which he
was secretary and treasurer until 11WJ0, when he
was elected bishop. He is presiding bishop of the
missions of his denomination In South Africa, hav-
ing visited the western and southwestern coast of
that continent in 1894. He has written Glimpses
of Africa, West and Southwest Coast (Nashville.
1895).
SMITH, CHARLES WILLIAM: Methodist Epis-
copal bishop; b. in Jefferson township, Fayette
Co., Pa., Jan. 30, 1840. He was educated in the
public schools and privately. For twenty-one
years (lS.i'.l .HO) he held pastorates in the Centreville
circuit. Somerset Co., Pa., Carniichaels, Pa., Bridge-
port, Pa., Carson Street, Pittsburg, Uniontown, Pa.,
Arch Street, Alleghany, Pa., First Church, Canton,
O., Smithfield Church, Pittsburg, and First Church,
MeKeesport, Pa. He was presiding elder of the
Pittsburg district, 1880-84, and from 1884 until
liXIS. when he was elected bishop, was editor of the
Pittsburg Christian Advocate. He was vice-chairman
of the committee that framed the present constitu-
tion of his denomination and a member of that
which compiled the present hymnal of the Methodist
Episcopal Church and the Methodist Episcopal
Church. South: ami that assisted in organizing the
Methodist Church in Japan.
SMITH, DAVID: Presbyterian j b. at Carluke
(28 m. s.w. of Edinburgh), Lanarkshire, Scotland.
May 21, 1866. He received his education at the
academy at Rothesay, Isle of Bute, Glasgow Uni-
versity (M.A., 1887; D.D., 1908), and tie Fn
Church College, Glagsow; was Geo. A. Clark schol
and lecturer in Glasgow U Diversity ; minister of tl
United Free Church, TullioUan, 1894-1907, and <
St. Andrew's United Free Church, Blairgowri
1907-10; Bruce lecturer in Glasgow United Fn
College, 1909-10; and was appointed professor i
theology in Hagee College, Londonderry, 1 01 1
He has written: The Days of his Flesh,- the earth
Life of our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ (Londo:
1905; 8th ed., 1910); The Pilgrim's Hospice:
little Book on the Holy Communion (1906); tl
volume on Matthew's Gospel in The WestminsL
Neur Testament (1908); The Face of Jesus (1908); .
Legend of Bethlehem (1909); Man's Need of Go
(1910); A Legend of Jerusalem (1910); and U
Epistles of John in The Expositor's Greek Testamei
(1910).
SMITH, ELI: American missionary and Biblicj
translator; b. at Northford, Conn., Sept. 15, 1801
d. at Beirut, Syria, Jan. 11, 1857. He was gradi
ated from Yale College, 1821, and from Andove
Seminary in 1826, and in May of the same year en
barked as a missionary of the American Board t
Malta. In 1827 he went to Beirut, and in Marcl
1830, undertook with Harrison Gray Otis Dwighi
under directions from the American Board, a. join
ney through Persia, to get information concemin
the Nestorian Christians. The expedition, whic
lasted a year, resulted in the establishment of a mi;
sion among that people. In 1838 he ttccompanie
Edward Robinson in exploring the desert of Sina
He accompanied the same scholar on his journey i
1852, and contributed materially to the accurac
and discoveries of Robinson's Researches. In 184
he began his translation of the Bible into Arabic, an
finished a translation of the entire New Testament
and the Pentateuch, historical books, Isaiah, Jere
miah, and other portions of the Old Testament
He possessed eminent attainments in Arabic, an
has a distinguished place in the annals of the Amei
ican mission at Beirut. He published Reacarehe
of... Eli Smith and ...H.G.O. Dwight in Armenia
including a Journey through Asia Minor and int
Georgia and Persia, with a Visit to the Nestoriai
ond Chaldean Christians of Oormiah and Salma
(2 vols., Boston, 1833; London, 1834).
Bibliookafht; itimmaiy Herald, 1857, pp. 224-229.
SMITH, GEORGE: Assyriologist; b. at Chelate
(4 m. s.w. of St. Paul's). England, Mar. 26, 1840
d. at Aleppo, Turkey, Aug. 19, 1S76. He began lif,
as an engraver; taught himself the oriental Ian
guages, and first came into prominence in 1866 by i
contribution to the London Athenaeum, upon thi
Tribute of Jehu, which revealed his studies, assidu
ously carried on at leisure moments, of the Ninevit4
sculptures in the British Museum. In 1867 hi
entered upon his official life at the British Museum
and in 1870 was appointed a senior assistant of thi
lower section in the department of Egyptian anc
Oriental antiquities, and from that time stood ii
the first rank of Assyrian scholars. He made expe
dttions to Nineveh in 1873 at the expense of thi
London Daily Telegraph, and in 1874 and 1875 or
behalf of the British Museum, and obtained ii
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
i cuneiform inscriptions (see Asstru,
III., i 7, for his explorations). He published The
Phonetic Value* of the Cuneiform Characters (London,
1871); The Chaldean Account of the Deluge ... Re-
printed from the Transactions of the Society of Biblical
Archeology (1873); Assyrian Discoveries,- an Ac-
count of Explorations and Discoveries on the Site
of Nineveh, during 1873 and 1874 ■ ■ ■ until IUus-
trations (1875); The Assyrian Eponytn Canon, Con-
taining Translations of the Document*, and an Ac-
count of the Evidence, on the Comparative Chronology
of the Assyrian and Jewish Kingdoms, from the Death
of Solomon to Nebuchadnezzar (1875); Ancient His-
tory from the Monuments, I., Assyria, II., Babylonia
(2 vols., 1875-77); The Chaldean Account of Genesis,
Containing the Description of the Creation, the Fall of
Man, the Deluge, the Tower of Babel, the Times of the
Patriarch*, and Nimrod; Babylonian Fables, and
Legend* of the Gods; from the Cuneiform Inscriptions.
With Illustrations (1876); History of Sennacherib
(1878). See Absyhia, III., | 7.
BiiuooBArar: A. H. Hayes, In Nature, Sopt, 14. 18711;
TSBA. vol*, i.-v.; R. W. Rocem, Hut. of Babylonia and
Auvria. vol. i.. New York, 1900; H. V. HUpreofat, Ei-
phmtiion* in Bible Land: Philadelphia. 1003; DNB, liii.
39-11.
SMITH, GEORGE ADAH: United Free Church
ol Scotland; b. at Calcutta, India, Oct. 19, 1856.
He was educated at Edinburgh University (1873-
1875; M.A., 1875) and New College, Edinburgh
(1875-78), and the universities of Tubingen (1876)
and Leipsic (1877). He then traveled in Egypt and
Syria, and in 1880 became assistant minister at the
West Free Church, Brechin, also being tutor in
Hebrew in the Free Church College at Aberdeen in
1880-82. From 1882 to 1892 he «M minister of
Queen's Cross Free Church, Aberdeen; became
professor of Old-Testament language, literature, and
theology in the United Free Church College, Glas-
gow, in 1892; and principal of Aberdeen University
in 1909. He has traveled extensively in Palestine,
and was Percy Turnbull Lecturer on Hebrew poetry
at Johns Hopkins in 1896, Lyman Beecher Lecturer
at Yale in 1899, and Jowett Lecturer in London in
1900. He has written Book of Isaiah (2 vols., Lon-
don, 1888-90) ; The Preaching of the Old Testament to
the Age (1893); Historical Geography of the II oly Land
(1894); Book oj the Twelve Prophets, commonly Called
the Minor (2 vols., 1896-97) ; Life of Henry Drum-
morirf(1898); M odern Criticism and the Preaching of
the Old Testament (Lyman Beecher lectures; 1901);
Forgiveness of Sins, and Other Sermons (1904); and
Jerusalem: The Topography, Economics, and His-
tory from the Earliest Times to A .D. 70 (2 vols., 1908) .
SMITH, GEORGE VANCE: English Unitarian;
b. at Portarlington (40 m. w.s.w. of Dublin), Ireland,
June 13, 1816; d.atBowdon (25 m. e. of Liverpool),
England, Feb. 28, 1902. He was educated in Man-
chester New College, York, 1836-41, and London
University (B.A., 1841); was minister at Bradford,
Yorkshire, 1841-13, and Macclesfield, 1843-46; the-
ological tutor in Manchester New College, Manches-
ter and London, 1846-57; minister at York, 1858-
1875; at the Upper Chapel, Sheffield, 1875-76; and
from 1876 was principal of Carmarthen Presbyte-
rian College, Wales. He was one of the New Testa-
ment revisers from the formation of the committee
in 1870. A " liberal Christian," unfettered by sub-
scription to theological creeds, he was the author of
The Prophecies Relating to Nineveh and the Assyrians,
Translated from the Hebrew, with Historical Intro-
ductions and Notes, Exhibiting the Principal Results
of the Recent Discoveries (London, 1857); Eternal
Punishment, a Tract for the Times: with Remarks
on Dr. Pussy's Defence of the Doctrine (1865);
The Bible and Popular Theology: A Restatement of
Truth* and Principles, with special Reference to
recent Works of Dr. Liddon, Lord Hatherley, the
Right Hon. W.E.Gladstone, and Other* (1871); The
Spirit and the Word of Christ, and Their Permanent
Lessons (1874); The Prophets and Their Interpreters
(1878); TexU and Margins of the Revised New Testa-
ment Affecting Theological Doctrine briefly Reviewed
(1881); The Bible and its Theology as popularly
Taught (1892); and one of the authors of The
Holy Scriptures of the Old Covenant, in a New
Translation (1859).
SMITH, HASKETT: Church of England; b. In
London July 16, 1847; d. at Chorley Wood (20 m.
s.e. of Hertford), Hertfordshire, Jan. 12, 1906. He
was educated at Christ's College, Cambridge (B.A.,
1870); was ordered deacon in 1870 and ordained
priest in the following year; was curate of Can-
wick in 1870-72; and of St. Mary Magdalene,
Lincoln, 1872-75; second master of Lincoln Gram-
mar School, 1870-75; and rector of Brauncewell-
cum-Anwick, Lincolnshire, 1875-99, although he
resided for several years on Mount Caimel and
traveled extensively, spending also two years in the
United States, when he was in charge of All Saints',
Pasadena, Cal., 1898-1900. In 1900 he took charge
of Ballarat Cathedral, Australia. In theology he
was a Broad-churchman. He wrote The Divine
Epiphany, in Ten Progressive Scenes (London, 1878);
The Lord's Prayer: A Series of short meditative Ad-
dresses (1 885); For Ood and Humanity: A Romance
Of Mount Cannel (3 vols., Edinburgh, 1891); Hand-
book for Travellers in Syria and Palestine (London,
1892); Guide to the Mediterranean (1900); and
PatroUers of Palestine (1906).
SMITH, HEICRY: Puritan; b. at Withcote
(12 m. e. of Leicester) o. 1550; d. at Husbands
Boeworth (13 m. s.s.e. of Leicester), buried there
July 4, 1591. His father was wealthy and his con-
nections were aristocratic. His education was re-
ceived at Oxford (B.A., 1578-79), and he became a
Puritan while an undergraduate. He had con-
scientious scruples against taking a pastoral charge
and so ministered in other ways, first in Husbands
Boeworth, and from 1587 to 1590 in London where
he was "lecturer "at St. Clement Danes. Ill-health
compelled his resignation and he returned to the
country to die. He made a great reputation for
himself as a preacher, winning the sobriquet of
"silver-tongued." His sermons were taken down in
shorthand and printed at first without his knowledge,
but before his death he made a collection of them and
gave them his revision. They passed through at
least seventeen editions, but the modern reader finds
them leas interesting than he expects. They are,
however, good reading. Perhaps enough are given
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
in Tlic Sermons of Henry Smith, the Silvi r-Tangurd
Preacher, a selection edited by John linmn. London,
1909. He wrote also Latin poetry, and sonic has (icon
translated.
: There is t Mrmmr by Thomas Fuller is no.
SMITH, HENBYBOYHTOH: American theologian;
b. in Portland, Me., Nov. 21, 181,5; d. in -New Vi.rk
Feb. 7, 1877. He was graduated from Bowdoin
College in 1834; studied theology at Anilover and
Bangor, and then spent a year as tutor in Greek and
as librarian at Bowdoin. Late in 1837 he went
abroad on account of ill-he;illh, ami passed the
winter in Paris, hearing lectures at the Surboime, at
the Institute, and at the Royal Academy. The
next two years were spent chiefly at Halle and Be rUn.
After a short visit to England, he returned home in
the summer of 1840, and was at once licensed to
preach. But his health again gave way. delaying
his settlement until the close of 1842, when he was
ordained as pastor of the Congregational Church at
West Amesbury, Mass. Here he labored four years,
supplying also during two winters the chair of
Hebrew at Andovcr. In 1847 ho became professor
of mental and moral philosophy in Amherst I 'ollegc,
and in 1850 of church history in Union Theological
Seminary, New York City. Three years later he was
transferred to the chair of systematic theology.
In both departments he wrought with the ham) of a
master, and, alike by his teaching and his writings,
won a commanding position as one of the foremost
scholars and divines of the country. His influence
was soon felt throughout the Presbyterian Church
and was especially powerful in shaping opinion in
the New School branch of it, 1.1.1 which he belonged.
He was sole editor of The A'ew-York EvaMgtliat,
and joint editor of The American Theological He-
view. The American Presbyterian and Thcut&jinil
Review, and, later, The Presby'iriiiii Quarterly ana1
Princeton Review. In 1859 h.' published Tables af
Church History, a work embodying the results of
vast labor. He took a leading j ■ /iftnorable
Union Convention at Philadelphia in 1867. During
the war he wrote very ably in support of the national
cause. In 18.59 he revisited Muropc, also in I860,
and again in 18C9; the latter visit, lasting a year and a
half, included a journey to the East. After his re-
turn he resumed his labors in tlic seminary, hut with
health so greatly enfeebled that early in 1874 he
resigned his chair and was made professor emeritus.
Whether regarded as a theologian, as a philo-
sophical thinker, or as a general scholar and critic.
Smith was one of the most accomplished men of Ins
time. He was specially gifted as a theological
teacher, arousing enthusiasm in his students, in-
spiring them with reverence for the Holy Scriptures,
fostering in them a devout, earnest, catholic spirit,
dealing gently and wisely with their doubts, and
impressing upon them continuiilly. alike by example
and instruction, the sovereign claims of their Re-
deemer, the glory of his kingdom, and the blessed-
ness of a life consecrated to him. His services to the
Union Theological Seminary were caned and ines-
timable. The Presbyterian Church in the United
States also owes him a la.it ins debt of gratitude. He
has been called " the hero of re-union," and no man
better merited the praise. Most of his essays and
reviews are embraced in his FafiA and Philosophy
(ed. G. L. Prentiss, New York, 1877); his Lectures
on Apologetics (ed, W. S. Karr) appeared in 1SS2,
New York. He was also the author of Introduction
la Christian Theology: 1: A general Introduction:
S: The special Introtluclion; or, the Prolegomena cf
systematic Theology (ed. W. 8. Karr, 1883); and
System of Christian Theology (ed. TV. S. ICarr, 1884).
Bibuoqbafht: Mis. H. B. Smith. Henry Boitnitm Smith,
hit Lift and hit Work, New York, 1880; L. F. Steam.-.
Henry Boynlon Smith, Boston. 1802; G. L. Premiss. Union
Theological Simtmant in . . . New York; HiHorieal and
bioorapHcat Skrltha, Hew York. UW| item. Union Thca-
tofioei Srminawy, . . . Another Decade of it* History, As-
SMITH, HEHRY G00DWIH: Presbyterian, son
of the preceding; b. iu Now York City Jan, 8, 1800.
He was educated at Amherst College (A.B., 1SS1I
and at Union Theological Seminary, New York
(1884). He was pastor of the Presbyterian church
at Freehold, N. J. (1886-06), and, after studying in
Europe in 1896-97, was appointed professor of sys-
tematic theology in Lane Theological Seminary.
Cincinnati, 0., a position which he retained until
11)03, when he retired from active life.
SMITH, HEBRY PRESERVED: Congrcgation-
aliat; b. at Troy, O., Oct. 23, 1847. He was edu-
cated at Marietta College, Amherst College (A.B.,
1869), Lane Theological Seminary (1872), and the
universities of Berlin (1*72-74) and Leipsic {1S76-
1877). He was instructor in church history at Lane
Theological Seminary (1x7-1-75), and in Hebrew
(1875-76); professor of Hebrew and Old-Testament
exegesis in the same institution (1877-93). From
1898 to 1906 he was professor of Biblical litera-
ture at Amherst College (lN'iX-1906); and professor
of Hebrew language and literature at HeUtlviHe
Theological School, Meadville, Pa., since 1907. In
theology he affirms Ins " belief in religion as the life
of God in the human soul, and in the Christian
religion as the fullest measure of that life, me, Hated
through Jesus Christ." In I.ST.j he was ordained to
the Presbyterian ministry, but was suspended for
alleged " heretical " teaching by the Presbytery of
Cincinnati iti IS'JS. Si\ years later he was received
ittto the Congregational niinisl ry by tlte Hampshire
Association. He has written Bililieal Scholarship
and Inspiration (in collaboration with L. J. Evans;
Cincinnati, I Mil); Innfiirnliim and Inerrancy (1 89:1) :
The Bible, anil Islam (Mew York, 1896); Critical
Commentary on the Books of Samuel (1899); and
Old-Testament History (1904).
SMITH, ISAAC GREGORY: Church of England;
I). at Manchester Nov. 21, 1826. He was educated
at Trinity College, Oxford (B.A., 1819), and was
fellow of Brasenose College, Oxford, from 1850 to
1855. He was ordered deacon in 1X53 and ordained
priest In the following year. He was rector of Ted-
slrmp-Dfliimere (18.54-72); vicar of Great Malvern
(1872-96), and rector of firr-at Bhettbrd (IS90-1904),
when he retired from act ive life. He was prebendary
of Pratum Minus in Hereford Cathedral (1870-S7).
rural dean of Powick (1882-'..")), examining chaplain
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
to the bishop of St. David's (1882-97), ami honor-
ary eanou of Worcester (18)17-%), and Bam p ton
lecturer in 187;!. He has written Life of Our Bless,;!
Sii-iour (London, 1864); Faith and Philosophy
(1807); The CharaderUHet of Christianity (Bamplon
lectures; 1873); History of the Dim-rue of Worcester
(in collaboration with P. Onslow; 1883); History
of fhrixtian Monaslicism (1892); Boniface (18%);
The Holy Days (poems; 1900); The Alkanasum
Creed (lilO'J); H7«i( is TYutfi f (1905); and Thoughts
on Religion (2 series, 1900).
SMITH, JAMES ALLAH: Church of England;
b. at Pyecomlic, fluqwnr, Aug. 2, 1841. He was edu-
cated at Wadham College, Oxford (B.A., 18ii;ti. and
wns ordered deacon in 1801 and ordained priest in
ISfiii. He was curate of Holy Trinity, Marylebone,
18li4-u(); lecturer of Boston, Lincolnshire, lStlti-70;
vicar of Holy Trinity, Nottingham, 1870-84; and
vicar <jl Swansea in 1SS4-1902 and of Hay in 1902-
KNVt; prebendary (if Sane tie Cruris in Lincoln
Cathedral in 1875-87, and chancellor and canon
residentiary of St. David's Cathedral in 1897-1903;
became dean 1803; chaplain to the bishop of St.
David's, 1897.
SMITH, JOHH : One of the leaders of the school
■of seven tee nth -century philosophers known as the
" Cambridge Tlatomsts " (q.v.); b. at Achurch (14
m. s.w. of Pete Thorough), Northamptonshire, llilfi;
d. at Cambridge Aug. 7, lfl5'2. He studied at Em-
manuel College, Cambridge (B.A., 1640; M.A., 1644,
in which year he was chosen fellow of Queen's), He
Beems to have shown something of Whichcote's
marvellous power as a teacher, and to have been of
pure and lofty character; but he left behind him
nothing except the Select Discounts (ed., with
Memoir, .1. Worthington, London, 1660), which are
:iiiim;ded by the breath of a high, divine reason, and
ehow a logic almost us keen and direct ay Chilliim-
worth's, and an imagination as rich as Jeremy
Taylor's. Taken together, they form the first part
nf u scheme of thought which Smith did not live to
finish. The opening discourse, " Of the True Way
i>r Method of Attaining to Divine Know ledge."
gives the keynote of bis system, and shows how
he attempted to draw up a scheme of speculative,
find Platonic, philosophy. Having defined the
mode uf attaining the divine, and distiiiguisln-d
>t from athcum on one side and superstition on the
other, lie proceeds to expound its main principles,
immortidity and God, to which he intended to add
" the communication of God to mankind through
Christ.
BinucKiiMi-Hi. Bsiiln Iho memoir id tho Stint Duroina,
ut wip . nin-iult: W. M. MpicaKp, rVnluml Trulli ofChrii-
tianilu. Pnijlev. MOD; J. TulliHh. Rnlitmnt Thrnlogu and
Chrittinn Philnmphv in England in the 17th Century, ii.
1(7-102, Ediiihurnh, 1HS1>; K T CnmpngnM, Tht Can-
bridir I'latoniMi, rirfnrd. 19(11: E. (Iwnte. SermltrnUi
Centum MenaflMitmle- Forerunner, afth, Nea THeotoay.
Ne* York, !»0»: DNB. liii. 74-75: and in gcweml tlir
litcnlurr under Cauiuudo* PLATuNisra.
SMITH, JOHH PYE: English Independent;
b. ut Sheffield May 25, 1774; d. at Guildford (17
m. s.w. of London) Feb. 5, 1851. He bud no regular
schooling, but read otmiiroroutsly in his father's
book-simp, and in I 79b, on the expiration of his ap-
jni'iiiiceship, studied I tii'iiU'iTy at Holherham Acad-
emy until 1800, when he was appointed resident
tutor at Homerton College, London. Six years
later he was promoted to a theological tutorship,
which be retained until shortly before his death.
As tutor he lectured on the New Testament, Hebrew
grammar, logic, rhetoric, mathematics, and, in his
later years, on science. He was essentially a man of
industry, versatility, and piety rather than of
brilliancy or depth, yet he made a profound im-
pression on the theological thought of his time l>y
his Scripture Testimony to tlie Messiah (2 vols.,
London, 1818-21: a valuable defense of Trinitnrinri-
ism against Cnilnrianii-m! and IMotiou tn'ttrern tin-
Holy Scripture ami Some Parts of Oeoloyiral Science
(1K39). He was likewise the author, among other
works, of The Reasons of the Protestant Religion
(London, 1815); Four Discourses on Out Sacrifice
and Priesthood of Jesus Christ, and on Atonement
and Redemption (1828); On the Principles of Inter-
pretation as applied to the Prophtries of Holy Senp-
farc (1829); Scripture awl Tlicalooy {\*m)\ and tho
posthumous First Lines of Christian Thcolo-pi
(1854).
BlEUOoHinii : J. Mfilwnv. Memoir* nl rlii- Lift nml Writings
of John Put Smith, London. IS53: DSB. tin. 86-87.
SMITH, JOHN TALBOT: Roman Catholic;
b. at Saratoga, N. Y., Sept. 22, 1855. He was
educated at the Cathedral School, Albany, N. Y.,
and at St. Michael's College, Toronto (1S74-S1).
After being a missionary in the Adirondaeks from
18,81 to 1889, he was editor of the A>te fork Catholic
Review from 1889 to 1892. Since 1900 he has been
a trustee of the Catholic Summer School, tmd presi-
dent since 1805. He has written A Woman of Cut-
(arc (New York, 1S81); Solitary Islantl (1884); His
Honor, the Mayor (1891); Saranac (1893); The
Training of a Priest (1896); The- Chaplain's Ser-
mons (lSIHi); Bremer Azarias (1887); Lenten Ser-
BHm (1890); The Man who Vanished (VM2); T)ie
Clo:-..;i Road (1904); and History of the Catholics of
New York (3 vols., 1906).
SMITH, JOSEPH. See Mormons.
SMITH, JOSEPH FIELDTHG: Mormon; b. at
Far West, Mo., Nov. 13, 1838. At the age of ten,
he went to Salt ljike with the other Mormons ex-
pelled from N'auvoo, and for six \i-n-: (ISIS .",!)
was a herdsman, harvester, and woodsman it: ("tail.
In 1854 he was sent as a Mormon missionary to
Hawaii, where he remained until !.s.>S, returning to
be sergeant at arms of the territorial legislature
(1858-4SD). In 1S5S lie was made a high priest and
a member of the high council, and in 1800 was a mis-
sionary to England, also visiting Denmark and
Paris in 1862. He again visited Hawaii in 1864,
where he was in charge of the Mormon missionaries,
but was recalled and waa associated with the church
historian's office, and engaged in home missionary
work, until 1866, when he waa ordained on apostle,
being also elected a member of the city council of
Salt Lake City and of the territorial legislal uri' in the
same year. In 1867 he was made one of the council
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
of twelve, but in 1868 removed to Provo, Utah,
returning, however, to resume his work in the his-
torian's office. Appointed director of all the Mor-
mon missions in Europe, he made a tour of England,
Scandinavia, Germany, France, and Switzerland
in 1874, and again visited Europe in 1877. He waa
recalled by the death of Brigham Young, but made
a short mission to the eastern states in the same
year, after which he was in charge of the endowment
house at Salt Lake City until it was closed in 1884.
In 1880 he was appointed second counselor to
President John Taylor, and in 1882 was also presi-
dent of the council of the Utah legislature, as well
as president of the Utah constitutional conven-
tion. He waa continued in his position of second
counselor by President Wilford Woodruff, and, on
the death of Lorenzo Snow in 1001, succeeded him
as president of the Mormon Church, which dignity
he still holds.
SMITH, JUDSOH : Congregationalist; b. at
Middlefield, Mass., June 28, 1837; d. at Roxbury,
Mass., June 29, 1906. He was graduated from
Amherst College (A.B., 1859) and from Oberlin
Theological Seminary, Oberlin, 0. (1863). He was
tutor in Latin and Greek in Oberlin College (1862-
1861); instructor in mathematics and metaphysics
at Williston Seminary, Easthampton, Mass. (1864-
1866), and was ordained to the ministry (1866). He
was professor of Latin in Oberlin College (1866-70),
and of ecclesiastical history and positive institutions
in the Oberlin Theological Seminary (1870-84),
also serving as dean of the faculty; lecturer in mod-
ern history at Oberlin College (1875-84), as well as at
the Lake Erie Female Seminary, Psinesville, O.
(1879-84); and lecturer on foreign missions in the
Hartford Theological Seminary from 1884 till his
death. He was acting pastor at the Second Con-
gregational Church at Oberlin in 1874-75 and again
in 1882-84. In 1883-84 he was editor of Bibliotheca
Sacra, on which he continued to serve as associate
editor. After 1884 he was foreign secretary of the
American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Mis-
sions. His theological standpoint was that of the
New England theology, holding fast to the historic
faith of Christendom, but welcoming all new light
that broke forth from the Word of God. He was
the author of Lectures in Church History and the
History of Doctrine from the Beginning of the Chris-
tian Era to 1648 (Oberlin, O., 1881), and Lectures
in Modern History (1881).
SMITH, RODNEY ("GIPSY SMITH"): Meth-
odist evangelist; b. at Wanstead (6 m. n.e. of Lon-
don), Essex, England, Mar. 31, 1860. He is of Gipsy
parentage, and was converted at the age of sixteen.
In 1877 he became an evangelist under the auspices of
the Christian Mission of London, and preached suc-
cessfully in various places, particularly at Whitby,
Sheffield, Bolton, Chatham, Hull, Derby, and Han-
ley. Meanwhile, the Christian Mission had devel-
oped into the Salvation Army (q.v.), and in 1882
Smith was dismissed for a technical breach of dis-
cipline. He continued to preach in Hanley, how-
ever, but in 1883, after conducting evangelistic serv-
ices for a time at Hull, made a brief visit to Sweden.
Returning to Hanley, he remained there until 1886
when he resigned to resume evangelistic work, bei
engaged in these labors until the end of 1888. Eai
in 1889 he visited the United States, conductii
services in various cities, returning to England lat
in the same year and becoming connected with t!
Manchester Mission. In 1801 he again visited tl
United States. In 1802 he conducted services
Edinburgh, and from this grew the Gipsy Gosp
Wagon Mission, devoted to evangelistic work amoi
bis own people. He visited America for the thi:
time in 1893. After a five months' revival in Gla
gow in 1893-94, Smith went to Australia, preachy
at Adelaide, Melbourne, and Sydney, after whit
he returned to England by way of the United State
In 1805 he preached in London, Manchester, Edit
burgh, as well as in many smaller cities, and in IS!
paid his fifth visit to America, returning to EttgUi
and conducting brief evangelistic campaigns uni
1807, when he became first missioner of the Nation
Free Church Council- This position he still retain
and in this capacity he has conducted reviva
throughout England, besides paying still anotb
visit to the United States in 1907.
SMITH, SAMUEL FRAKCIS: American Baptis
b. in Boston, Mass., Oct. 21, 1808; d. there No
16, 1895. He attended the Boston Latin Scbo
1820-25; was graduated from Harvard Universit:
Cambridge, Mass., 1829, and from Andover Theolq
ical Seminary, Mass., 1832; was pastor of the Fin
Baptist Church, Waterville, Me., 1834-42, an
during the same period professor of modem lai
guages in Waterville College; pastor of the Fin
Baptist Church, Newton, Mass., 1842-54; an
editor of The Christian Review, Boston, 1842-41
and of the publications of the American Baptit
Missionary Union, 1854-69. Though his fame real
upon the authorship of the hymn " My country, 't
of thee " (written at Andover, Mass., in Feb-, 183!
while a student in the theological seminary), an
the missionary hymn " The morning light is breal
ing " (written in the same year and place), he wrot
many other hymns. Most of the pieces include
in Lowell Mason's Juvenile Lyre (Boston, 1832
the first book of children's music, were his transit
lions from the German. He edited Lyric Genu
being selections of poetry, with several original piece
(Boston, 1843); and in collaboration with Baro
Stow The Psalmist (1843) which contained twentj
seven of his own hymns, and is the most creditabl
and influential of the American Baptist collectior
of its period; also Rock of Ages, being selections <
poetry, with some original pieces (1866); and he wi
the author of Life of Rev. Joseph Grafton (1848;
Missionary Sketches (1879); History of Netrtm
Mass., Town and City from its Earliest Settlement i
the Present Time (1880); and Rambles in Missiot
fields (1884).
SMITH, SAMUEL STAHHOPK: American Pre*
byterian; b. at Pequea, Lancaster County, Pa
Mar. 16, 1750; d. at Princeton, N. J., Aug. 21, 1811
He was graduated from Princeton College, 176^
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
was tutor there, 1770-73; first president, of Hamp-
den Sidney College, 1775; became professor of
moral philosophy at Princeton College in 1779; and
was president, 1794-1812. In 1786 he was a mem-
ber of the committee which drew up the Form of
Government of the Presbyterian Church. He had a
high reputation as a pulpit orator and college presi-
dent. He published Senium* (Newark, N. J., 1799);
Lectures on the Evidences of the Christian Religion,
(Philadelphia, 1809); Lectures ...on... Moral and
Political Philosophy (Trenton, N. J., 1812); Prin-
ciples of Natural and Revealed Religion (New Bruns-
wick, N. J., 1815); (posthumous) Sermons, with
Memoir (2 vols., Philadelphia, 1821).
BiEuoaiiiPHit W. B. Sprague. A nnalt of tht American Pul-
pit, UL 335-345, New York. 1858: I. W. Riley. American
PMloranhy; the tarty Scluott, pp. 487-606. ib. 1907.
SMITH, SYDNEY: Church of England; b. at
Woodford (7 m. n.e. of Charing Cross), London, June
3, 1771; d. in London Feb. 22, 1845. He was
graduated from Oxford, 1792; took holy orders,
1794; was minister of Charlotte Episcopal chapel,
Edinburgh, 1797-1802; canon of Bristol, 1828; and
canon residentiary of St. Paul's, 1831. He was one
of the most famous of English wits; but be was also
a forcible, earnest preacher, and a sagacious critic
and reviewer. He was the real founder of The Edin-
burgh Review (1802 sqq.) and wrote for it some eighty
articles which are among the best that appeared
during the first twenty-five years of its publication.
Besides his Sermons (2 vols., London, 1809) he pub-
lished Peter Plumley's Letters, and Selected Essays
(1886), which did much to promote Roman Catholic
emancipation; Sermons Preached at St, Paul's
Cathedral, The Foundling Hospital, and Several
Churches in London, together with Others Addressed
to a Country Congregation (1846); Elementary
Sketches of Moral Philosophy (1850); and in 1848
appeared the fourth edition of his works in 3 vols.
Bibuoouprt: Lady Holland (his daughter). A Memoir of
the Rev. Sydney Smith. With a Selection from his Letter;
ed. Mrs. Austin, London. 1855; 3. J. Read. Sketch of the
Life and Timet of . . . Sydney Smith, at. 1884; A.
Chevrillon. Sydney Smith a la renaitttmee det idle, liberal r,
er, Ar-oleterrt «u tix. tittle. Paris, 1894: DNfi, liii. 119-123.
SMITH, THOMAS: Free Church of Scotland; b.
at Symington (31 m. s.e. of Glasgow), Lanarkshire,
July 8, 1817; d. at Edinburgh Hay 23, 1900. He
was educated at the University of Edinburgh, and in
1839 was ordained a missionary to Calcutta. Until
1858 he was engaged chiefly in teaching in the Gen-
eral Assembly's Institution and after 1843, when he
joined the Free Church, in the institute of the latter
denomination. He was long an associate editor of
the Calcutta Christian Observer, and for ten years
edited the Calcutta Review. For a short time during
the Mutiny he was chaplain of the Black Watch,
and it is especially noteworthy that he was the first
to organize the system of senana missions in India.
In 1858 he returned to Scotland; was minister of
Cowgatehead Free Church, Edinburgh (1859-80);
and professor of evangelistic theology in New Col-
lege, Edinburgh (1880-93). He wrote Mcdiarral
Missions (Edinburgh, 1880); Anselm of Canterbury
(1882); Alexander Duff (London, 1883); Memoirs
of James Begg (2 vols., Edinburgh, 1885-88); and
Euclid, his Life and System (1902); translated the
Clementine Recognitions for the Ante-Nicene
Fathers (Edinburgh, 1867) and G. Wameck's
Modern Missions and Culture (1883); and edited
the letters of S. Rutherford (1881).
SMITH, WILLIAM AflDREW: Methodist Epis-
copal, South; b. at Fredericksburg, Va., Nov. 29,
1802; d. at Richmond, Va., Mar. 1, 1870. He
professed religion at seventeen years of age, pre-
pared for the ministry, and was admitted into the
Virginia, Conference in 1825. In 1833 he was ap-
pointed agent for Randolph-Macon College, then in
its infancy. He then filled many of the most im-
portant stations in his conference until 1846, when
he was called to the presidency of Randolph-Macon
College. This position, as well as that of professor
of mental and moral philosophy, he filled with great
acceptability and efficiency until 1866, when he
moved to St. Louis, Mo. After serving here as pas-
tor of Centenary Church for two years, he became
president of Central College, located at Fayette in
that state. At the eventful general conference of
1844 he took a specially prominent part; and in the
celebrated appeal of Rev. Francis A. Harding, and
in the extra-judicial trial of Bishop James Osgood
Andrew, he won a national reputation for delibera-
tive and forensic eloquence and for rare powers of
argument and debate. He was a hard student and
an earnest thinker. The vigor and clearness of his
intellect, his candor, independence, energy, and
unquestioned ability, caused him to stand in the
front rank of the leading minds in the Methodist-
Episcopal Church, South. His Philosophy and Prac-
tice of Slavery (Nashville, 1857) attracted wide at-
tention as one of the ablest presentations of the
southern side of the slavery question ever published.
Biblioobapht: A biographical sketch by Bishop J. C.
Granbery is embodied in the M inutet of the denomination
(or 1870.
SMITH, WILLIAM ROBERTSOH: English crit-
ical theologian and Semitic scholar; b. at New Farm,
near Keig (22 m. n.w. of Aberdeen), Aberdeenshire,
Nov. 8, 1846; d. at Cambridge Mar. 31, 1894. He
was educated by his father and at Aberdeen
University (1861-65), New College (the
Life. Free Church theological hall), Edin-
burgh (1866-70), and the universities of
Bonn and Gdttingen (summers of 1867 and 1869),
while in 1868-70 he was also assistant to the pro-
fessor of natural philosophy in Edinburgh Univer-
sity. In 1870 he was appointed professor of oriental
languages and Old-Testament exegesis in the Free
Church College at Aberdeen, and five years later he
became a member of the Old-Testament revision
company. It waa during this period that a crisis
occurred in Smith's career when he was invited to
prepare articles on Old-Testament criticism for the
ninth edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica. The
very first articles (" Angel " and " Bible ") aroused
a storm of protest, and on the unfavorable report of
an investigating committee, in 1877, Smith demand-
ed formal trial. His activity as a teacher practically
ended in the following year; his entire series of
articles for the encyclopedia were held to impair
belief in the inspiration of the Scriptures; and in
1881 he waa suspended from his professorship. He
had meanwhile delivered at Edinburgh and Glasgow
Smith
Snethen
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
464
two series of lectures which were published as The
Old Testament in the Jewish Church (Edinburgh,
1881) and The Prophets of Israel (1882). In 1881 he
was invited to become editor in chief of the Ency-
clopaedia Britannica, to which he had continued to
contribute, and for which, besides his editorial
duties, he now prepared a series of additional ar-
ticles. He did not, however, permit his Semitic
studies to languish, but spent the winter of 1879-80
in Egypt (also visiting Syria and Palestine) and the
following year in Egypt and Arabia. In 1883 he was
appointed to the Lord Almoner's professorship of
Arabic at Cambridge, where he was elected a fellow
of Christ's College in 1885, and in 1886-89 he was
chief librarian of the university. In the latter year
he was chosen Adams professor of Arabic, a dignity
which he held until his death. In 1888-91 he had
been Burnett Lecturer in Aberdeen, the three courses
being the religious institutions of the Semites, their
religious beliefs, and the historic significance and in-
fluence of their religion. Failing health, however,
forbade him to publish more than the first series,
Lectures on the Religion of the Semites: Fundamental
Institutions (Edinburgh, 1889).
Smith maintained that Semitic religious concepts
were common to all primitive peoples, and that these
concepts were to be deduced from the data of known
popular religions, the outworking of this theory be-
ing best seen in his Kinship and Marriage in Early
Arabia (Cambridge, 1885) and in his Religion of the
Semites. It was, indeed, in these two books that his
scientific work reached its acme. His study of
primitive Arab life, both as recorded in literature and
as observed at the present day, led him to identify
it, in all essentials, with that of the
Theory early Semites as a whole. As the basis
of Semitic of the most primitive Arab social organ-
Religion, ization he assumed matriarchy, with
exogamous polyandry and a totemistic
clan system, and for this he sought parallels among
the Hebrews and Arameans. His underlying
ethnological theories, however, need much investi-
gation and revision, and his comparative method,
operating with analogies, often gives his hypotheses
only the support of phenomena first recorded
at a late period. Nevertheless, the Kinship and
Marriage represents an amalgamation of scattered
data into a system of culture-history never be-
fore attained in Semitic science. In the Religion of
the Semites Smith sought to ascertain the original
significance of the earliest religious institutions,
maintaining that the history of ancient religions
must be based essentially on ritual, sacrifice, and
religious law, and thus seeking to prove that religion
was the common possession of the prehistoric Semitic
race. Here again, however, the precautions already
noted must be observed. He held that the conserver
of religion was the tribe united by the consanguinity
of all its members, personality being merged in com-
munism. At this period there is an animism which
makes little distinction between beings and things.
The tribal god is considered the physical source of the
tribe, and thus a member of it. To the earlier matri-
archy corresponds a mother goddess, beside whom
arises a father god with the development of patri-
archy. As the tribe expands in power, the tribal god
gains prestige and is regarded as king. With the rise
of kingship comes an exaltation of law, the king often
being the source of law and being in duty bound to
safeguard it. The concept of the tribal god thus
receives an ethical content, that of justice. This
ancient tribal religion was crystallized in fixed in-
stitutions, particularly in sacrifice, and its cardinal
concept was " sanctuary," which Smith compared
with the Polynesian taboo and regarded as especially
affecting sacred places. Side by side with this re-
ligion of the nomadic Semites Smith posited the
Baal-cult of the agricultural Semitic peoples, Baal
being, according to him, essentially a fertility deity.
This double system was reflected by the Semitic
sacrifices, those to Baal being a tribute of the prod-
ucts of the field, and those to the tribal god being an
animal victim which was eaten (its blood being
devoted to the deity), thus renewing and strength-
ening, by eating the same sacrificial victim, the blood
kinship within the tribe as well as between the tribe
and the tribal deity. This kinship, however, could
be secured only if the sacrificial victim was itself
akin to the tribe, so that the victim was the totem
of the tribe, which might be killed only for the sacri-
ficial meal. From such a meal Smith deduced his
theory of sacrifice. Gradually the communal meal
and the offering became blended, and the sacrifice
even became (notably in India) a means of actually
controlling the deity. On the other hand, his theory
of the basis of human sacrifice is untenable, nor can
all the phenomena of Semitic religion be derived, as
he fancied, from a single source; while it is also
problematical whether all the concepts of a primitive
religion can be coordinated in a fixed system.
(Rudolf StCbe.)
Bibliography: DNB, liii. 160-162. In the British Museum
Catalogue, 8. v., are entries of pamphlets concerning the
trial and the views of Smith, but they are controversial
and add little to knowledge of his life. Consult on the
trial H. W. Moncrieff, Hist, of the Case of Professor W.
Robertson Smith, Edinburgh, 1881 ; H. F. Henderson. The
Religious Controversies of Scotland, chap, xi., Edinburgh,
1905.
SMYRNA. See Asia Minor, IV.
SMYTH smaith (SMITH), JOHN: English Sepa-
ratist, generally considered the founder of the Gen-
eral Baptists; d. in Amsterdam Aug., 1612 (buried
Sept. 1). He studied at Christ's College (he is iden-
tified by the principal authorities with a John Smith
who was graduated B.A., 1576; M.A., 1579). He
was cited before the university authorities for
preaching on Ash Wednesday, 1586, in favor of a
strict observance of the Sabbath; was preacher or
lecturer at Lincoln, 1603-05; after nine months of
consideration and perplexity he left the Church of
England, and became pastor of a Separatist con-
gregation in Gainsborough, 1606. For further notice
of his work see Baptists, I., 1.
Smyth's publications were A True Description out
of the Word ofOod of the Visible Church (1 589; several
times reprinted) ; The Bright Morning Star, or the Res-
olution and Exposition of the twenty-second Psalm,
Preached publicly in Four Sermons at Lincoln (Cam-
bridge, 1603; the only known copy is in the library
of Emmanuel College, Cambridge); A Pattern of
True Prayer, a Learned and Comfortable Exposition
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
or Commentary upon the Lord's Prayer (London, 1605
and 1624; apparently the first edition has disap-
peared); The Difference* of the Churches of the
Separation (n.p., n.d., probably 1608 or 1609; it
called forth a reply from Ainsworth, 1609); Par-
allels, Censures, Observations (1609; a reply to
Richard Bernard and Ainsworth); The Character
of the Beast (1600; in controversy with Richard
Clifton on infant baptism) ; A Reply to Mr. R. Clif-
ton's ' Christian Plea ' (1610). The library of York
Minster possesses a unique tract which contains
(1) An Epistle to the Reader by T, P. [Thomas Pig-
gott]; (2) The Last Book of John Smith, Called the
Retraction of his Errors and the Confirmation of the
Truth; (3) Propositions and Conclusions concerning
True Christian Religion, Containing a Confession of
Faith of Certain English People, Living at Amster-
dam, in 100 Propositions; (4) The Life and Death
of John Smith (reprinted in Robert Barclay's Inner
Life of the Religious Societies of the Commonwealth,
pp. i.-xvi., following p. 117, London, 1876).
Bibliookapht: Edward Arbor, Tin Story of the Pilorim
Fathm. pp. 131-140, London. 1897; T. Crosby. Hi*, of
UuEmluhBapliiU.i. 91-09.285-271, ib. 1738; J. Ivimey.
HiM. of the Enaliih BaptitU. i. 113-122, ii. 503-606, ib.
1811-30; J. Clifford. Tht EngliiK Baptiti. app. x.. Jriii..
London. 1881; H. M. Driter. The True Story of John
Smj/th. the Sr-baptul, Baton. 1881; A. H. Newman.
Him of AnhaalohapiUm, pp. 37S-J93, Philadelphia, 1897;
DfiB. liii. 68-70.
SMYTH, JOHH PATERSOH: Church of Ireland;
b. at Killarney {44 m. w.n.w. of Cork), County Kerry,
Feb. 2, 1852. He was educated at Trinity College,
Dublin (B.A., 1880), and was ordered deacon in 1880
and advanced to the priesthood in the following
year. He was curate of Lisburn Cathedral (1881-
1883), and of Harold's Cross, Dublin (1883-88); and
inciiTiilM'iii of Christ Church, Kingstown, until 1902.
Since i'M\2 he has been vicar of St. Ann's, Dublin.
He has also been chaplain to the Lord Lieutenant
of Ireland since 1889 and professor of pastoral the-
ology in Trinity College since Ii>02. He has written
How we got our Bible (London, 1886; 18th ed., 1906);
The Old Documents and the New Bible (1890); How
God Inspired the Bible (1892); The Divine Library:
Suggestions how to Read the Bible (1896); The Bible
for the Young (3 vols., comprising Genesis, Exodus,
Joshua, Judges. Prophets ami Kings, and Matthew;
1901 -OS); Thi ■Preacher and his Sermon (1907); and
Gospel of the HereaJ 'tor (1910).
SMYTH, SAMUEL PHILLIPS HEWMAH: Con-
gn -(rationalist; b. at Brunswick, Me., June 25,
1843. He was educated at Bowdoin College (A.B.,
1863) and at And over Theological Seminary
(graduated, 1867). In 1863 he was an assistant
haulm in the Naval Academy at Newport, R. I.,
and in 1864-65 was lieutenant in the Sixteenth Maine
Volunteers. From 1867 to 1870 he was acting
pastor of the Harrison Street Chapel (now Pilgrim
I'hurrlil, Pn.ividence. It. T., after which he was
pastor of the First Congregational Church, Bangor,
Me. (1870-75), and of the First Prpsbvterian
Church, Quincy, III. (1876-82). In 1882 he be-
'■■init' pastor of the First Congregational Church,
New Haven, Conn., becoming pastor emeritus
in 1908. He has written The Religious Feeling:
A Study for Faith (New York, 1877); Old Faiths
X.— 30
in New Lights (1879); The Orthodox Theology of
To-day (1881); The Reality of Faith (sermons;
1884); Christian Facts and Forces (1887); Personal
Creeds (1890); Christian Ethics (1892); The Place
of Death in Evolution (1897); Through Science to
Faith (1902); Light in Dark Places (1903); Passing
n*ftafilWfi|'ll» and Coming Catholicism (1908); and
Modern Belief in Immortality (1910).
SNAPE. AHDREW: Participant in the Ban-
gorian controversy (see Hoamt, Benjamin); b.
at Hampton Court (13 ra. s.w. of London] in 1675;
d. at Windsor Castle Dec. 30, 1742. He was edu-
cated at Eton and at King's College, Cajribriilcf
(B.A., 1693; M.A., 1697; D.D., 1705); became lec-
turer at St. Martin's, London, and chaplain to the
sixth duke of Somerset, by whom he was made
rector of St. Mary-at-Hill and St. Andrew Hubbard
in 1706; he became chaplain to Queen Anne and
;iftiTiv:irii to King George I.; then headmaster of
Eton in 1711, in this period attacking Benjamin
Hoaiily, one of his Letters to the Bishop of Bangor
(1717) passing through many editions; his part in
the controversy caused the loss of the king's favor
and the position of chaplain; he was made prov-
ost of King's College, Cambridge, 1719, and was
vice-chancellor of the universit y, 172:5-24; became
rector of Knebworth, Hertfordshire, 1737, and the
same year changed to West Ildesley, Berkshire,
holding this position till his death. His sermons
were collected, Forty-five Sermons on Several Suo- .
jects (3 vols., London, 1745); he also edited the .Ser-
mons of Dean Robert Moss (1732).
BiBUOQRArBTt DNB, liii. 203, when references to ■Batter-
ing notice* are found.
SNETHEN, NICHOLAS: Methodist Protestant;
b. at Fresh Pond (now Glen Cove), Long Island,
Nov, 15, 1769; d. on a journey from Cincinnati May
30, 1845. In 1794 he entered the ministry of the
Mi'iln»!isjt Episcopal Church, and served for four
years in Connecticut, Vermont, and Maine;
preached in Charleston, S. C, 1798-99; and during
1800 was traveling companion of Bishop Asbury
(q,v.) ; he was secretary of the general conference of
1SIX), mid a member of the conferences of 1.S0-1 um]
1812, taking a prominent part in the measures for
the limitation of the prerogatives of bishops; he
retired to his farm at Longanore, Md., 1806, but in
1809 reentered the ministry, serving in Lialtiinorr-,
Georgetown, and Alexandria, and acting also part
of the time as chaplain of the house of representa-
tives; in 182! I he removed to Indiana, and, when the
Methodist Protestant Church (see Methodists, IV.,
3) was organised, united with it, preacliing and
traveling in behalf of it till his death; he became
one of the editorial staff of The. Methodist Protes-
tantin 1834; in 1836 took charge of the college of the
denomination which was founded in New York City,
which enterprise, however, was a failure; in 1SH7 he
returned to the west to take charge of the Manual
Labor Ministerial College started at Lawrenceburg,
Ind., which also failed, and he then took up his
residenre in Cincinnati, where he continued to live.
His principal publications were A Reply to O'Kelly's
Apology (1800). and Answer to O'KeUy's Rejoinder
(1801); Lectures on Preaching (1822); Essays on
Snowden
Social Service
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
466
Lay Representation (1835); Lectures on Biblical Sub-
jects (1836) f and a volume of sermons (1846; ed. W.
G. Snethen).
Bibliography: References to him will be found in the
literature on the early Methodists, e.g., J. M. Buckley, in
American Church History Series, v. 341, 364, 366, 533,
599, New York, 1896.
SNOWDEN, JAMES HENRY: Presbyterian; b.
at Hookstown, Pa., Oct. 18, 1852. He was educated
at Washington and Jefferson College (A.B., 1875)
and Western Theological Seminary, Alleghany, Pa.
(graduated, 1878) . He has held pastorates at Huron,
O. (1879-83), First Presbyterian Church, Sharon,
Pa. (1883-86), and Second Presbyterian Church,
Washington, Pa. (since 1886). From 1893 to 1898
he was also adjunct professor of political economy
and ethics in Washington and Jefferson College, and
since 1898 has been editor-in-chief of The Presby-
terian Banner (Pittsburg). He favored the revision
of the Presbyterian Confession of Faith in 1901-03
and union with the Cumberland Presbyterian
Church in 1904-06, and in theology belongs to the
progressive wing of his denomination. He has
written Scenes and Sayings in the Life of Christ
(Chicago, 1903); and Summer across the Sea (New
York, 1909).
SOCIAL BRETHREN : A denomination of Chris-
tians holding to the general doctrines of orthodox
Christianity, formed in 1867 by an association of
persons who had been members of various churches
but disagreed with their former brethren on certain
points of doctrine and usage. The leading points
of their faith are belief (1) in the Trinity as united
into one godhead; (2) in the Scriptures as contain-
ing all things necessary to salvation; (3) in Christ
as the only mediator between God and man; (4) in
the visible Church as the congregation of the faith-
ful who have been redeemed through Christ, among
whom the pure Word of God is preached and to
whom the sacraments are duly administered; (5)
in redemption, regeneration, sanctification, and
salvation through Christ as enduring to the end, yet
with a possibility of apostasy; (6) in baptism— by
sprinkling, pouring, or immersion — and the Lord's
Supper as ordinances of Jesus Christ appointed in
the Church, of which true believers are proper sub-
jects, to which all such have right to be admitted;
(7) in suffrage and free speech in the Church as the
right of all lay members; and (8) that minister*
are called of God to preach the Gospel and that only.
The churches are principally in Illinois and Mis-
souri. They are grouped into associations of the
ordained ministers, licensed preachers, exhorters,
and delegates of the societies of a covenant body of
three or more churches; the associations posses
appellate jurisdiction over the churches. The as-
sociations are affiliated in a general assembly com-
posed of the ordained ministers, licensed preachers,
exhorters, general superintendent of schools, and
delegates of two or more associations, and this as-
sembly has appellate jurisdiction over the associa-
tions. The associations meet annually, the general
assembly every second year.
Thef United States Census Bulletin for 1910 gives
them for 1906: 17 organizations, 15 ministers, 1,2©
communicants, 15 church buildings with two rented
halls, and church property valued at $13,800.
SOCIAL SERVICE OF THE CHURCH.
I. General Survey of Philanthropy.
Among Hebrews and Orientals
(5 1).
In the Eastern Christian Church
(5 2).
The Occident (§ 3).
Decline in the Middle Ages
(§4).
Rise of Monastic and Cathedral
Hospitals (§ 5).
Municipal Hospitals (SO).
The Reformation (§ 7).
Humanism and Modern Philan-
thropy (5 8).
II. Philanthropy in Great Britain.
To Downfall of Monasteries
(5 1).
To find of Seventeenth Century
(5 2).
Sporadic Efforts for Relief of Need
(5 3).
Legislative and Other Relief Meas-
ures (5 4).
Rise of Corporate Philanthropy
(5 5).
Hospitals; Care of Insane; Nursing
(5 6).
Anti-Slavery and Prison-Reform
(5 7).
Ragged Schools; Young People's
Societies (58).
Movements under Personal Initia-
tive (5 9).
Movements in Scotland (5 10).
Total Abstinence (5 11).
The Colonies (5 12).
Prospects (5 13).
III. Philanthropy in America.
Colonial Practise (J 1).
Church and Voluntary Phflaa-
thropies (52).
Defects Remedied by Organisation
(5 3).
Public Administration of Aid (§ 4).
Principles of Work (J 5).
The Church's Higher Duties (§ 6).
Conclusion (57).
IV. Poor-Relief, General Survey.
The Ante-Nicene Church ((1).
The Post-Nicene Church (§ 2).
The Middle Ages (5 3).
The Reformation Period (§ 4).
Three Modern Types (§ 5).
V. Poor-Relief in the United States.
Early Practise ({ 1).
Modern Conditions and Methods
(5 2).
I. General Survey of Philanthropy. The pre-
Christian world possessed no philanthropical insti-
tutions. The Old Testament demands mercy and
charity and contains individual ordi-
i. Among nances for the care of the poor (tithes,
Hebrews Deut. xiv. 28, 29, xxvi. 12 sqq.), but
and there was no organized philanthropy
Orientals, in Israel. There was no need of in-
stitutions because economic conditions
prevented poverty on a large scale. Post-exilic Juda-
ism laid great stress upon almsgiving and there
was much mutual aid among the Jews, especially in
the Diaspora. Likewise there was no organised
charity in Greece and Rome. The aid of needy
citizens in Athens as well as the distribution of corn
in Rome were not acts of philanthropy, but of a
political character. The idea of Christian philan-
thropy is approached most closely in the so-called
collegia of the Romans, which aided their members
by defraying funeral expenses, by distributing bread,
wine, or money, and by giving financial aid in
cases of sickness, journeys, and other eventualities.
A real activity of charity developed first in the
Christian congregations; but here, too, there were
467
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Snowden
Social Service
no institutions for the reason that they were not
needed. The members of the small congregations
were able to fulfil their mutual duties
2. In the without institutions, and the poor who
Eastern were mostly slaves were provided for
Christian by their masters. These conditions
Church, changed with the fourth century in
consequence of the entrance of the
people generally into the Church and the economic
decline of the empire with its resultant pauperism.
The foundation of philanthropical institutions was
one of the results of meeting larger needs with larger
means. They originated in the Orient not earlier
than the middle of the fourth century. Basil
founded near Casarea a large institution for the
sick, and especially for lepers and strangers; and,
according to his letters, poorhouses at various
points in his diocese, which were administered by
rural bishops. At Antioch, during Chrysostom's
activity (c. 380), there existed a hospital for the
sick and a house for the poor before the city for
those who, suffering from elephantiasis and can-
cer, were forbidden to enter the city. In Constan-
tinople under Theodosius I. existed hospitals of
the churches. Chrysostom mentions an inn for
strangers, the necessary expenses for which were
defrayed by the church. The assumption tliat the
number of such institutions increased in the fifth
and sixth centuries is undoubtedly correct owing
not only to their recognized value, but doubtless
also to the expansion of monasticism, and Johannes
Cassianus reports that the oriental monastical so-
cieties regularly supported xenodochia (houses for
strangers); but there is no positive proof . With the
growing number of institutions there naturally
took place a division of labor. The foundation of
Basil was at the same time an asylum for strangers,
an institution for the poor, a place of occupation, a
hospital, and a home for incurables. This combina-
tion was impossible for any length of time; and
according to the rich terminology of the Codex of
Justinian there was a differentiation into poor-
houses, foundling-hospitals, orphanages, and homes
for the aged.
The Occident followed the example of the East
somewhat later. Here philanthropical institutions
seem to have been unknown until toward the end
of the fourth century. Ambrose does not mention
them and Augustine, in preaching of
3. The hospitality, clearly betrays that the
Occident reception of strangers in private houses
was still necessary; but he, through
one of his presbyters, erected a xenodochium. About
Rome the first foundations proceeded from the
circle of men and women influenced by Jerome.
Later establishments are ascribed in the book of
the popes to Pope Symmachus, to Belisarius, the
general of Justinian, and Pelagius II. In the let-
ters of Gregory I. xenodochia are mentioned several
times. Beside those, Gregory the Great knows also
of smaller institutions of the same kind, called dea-
conries, i.e., houses in which deacons cared for the
poor of their district. He mentions such in Rome,
Peearo, and Naples. In Gaul Sulpicius Severus is
the first to be known to have founded a philan-
thropical institution by transforming his own house
into a hospitium damns. The early institutions
were founded and supported by the churches or by
private individuals. The Church undoubtedly
gathered the means of support from its members.
It is not improbable that in the beginning the State
for a time participated in the support; but it is
certain that as early as 390, the xenodochia and
kindred institutions were left entirely to the care
and administration of the Church, and the State
restricted its power to protect and advance them.
It approved the principles of organization, com-
plemented them with norms of administration,
and granted privileges which the Church then in-
corporated in legislation. The Roman emperors
on the whole approved the episcopal administra-
tion of the philanthropical institutions, as well as
of the other estates of the churches, and invested
the bishops with the duty as well as the right over
the acquired bequests. Roman law considered
philanthropical establishments as ecclesiastical in-
stitutions and granted them and their administra-
tors the same rights and privileges which the Church
possessed in general. Concerning the inner ar-
rangement and especially the personnel of the xeno-
dochia there is only incomplete information. Their
administration was in the hands of officers ap-
pointed by the bishop. In the hospitals there were
physicians and a great number of servants partly
remunerated, such as probably the Alexandrine
Parabolanoi (q.v.). More frequently the nurses
seem to have been taken from the circles of ascetics.
They lived after the manner of the monks. This
seems to have been the case especially in the Occi-
dent. Gregory the Great ordered that only rdigiosi
should be elected deacons in Sardinia. The con-
ceptions of monasterium and xenodochium seem to
merge together. During the political disturbances
from the second half of the fourth century, which
finally led to the destruction of the Roman Empire,
a great number of philanthropical institutions per-
ished; but the institution as such continued in the
East and the West. The number of xenodochia in
medieval Constantinople, according to C. du Cange,
amounted to thirty-five. Under Gothic rule the
hospital of CsBsarius of Aries was founded and the
three hospitals of Symmachus were built while
Theodoric the Great governed Rome. In the Frank-
ish Empire Childebert and his wife Ulthrogota
founded a large xenodochium at Lyons; the one
mentioned by Gregory I. was built by Queen
Brunehilde and Bishop Syagrius at Autun. Be-
sides large institutions like these there can not have
been wanting xenodochia in the country; for the
Synods at Orleans (549) and at Chalon-sur-Sadne
(after 644) protected their possessions in the same
way as that of churches and monasteries. Gregory
of Tours mentions an asylum for lepers at Chalon-
sur-Sadne; such are also said to have been at Ver-
dun, Metz, and Maestricht (636), besides many other
institutions at various places. Most widely dis-
persed throughout the Prankish Empire were the
small poorhouses (matricides) in the different
churches. In the course of time these matricuUs
developed into brotherhoods of lower church serv-
ants, probably brought about by requiring of their
inmates, if capable of work, small church services
Social Berrioe
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
468
in return for the alms received. The maJtricvlot of
the Frankish period seem originally to have be-
longed regularly to churches or monasteries. From
the Rule of Chrodegang it is evident that episco-
pal churches possessed matriculce also in the coun-
try. The development of the law of church prop-
erty in the FranKish period made it poesi* le for
individual matriculce to develop nto in^eoendent
institutions under administrative heads. They were
allowed to acquire their own property and to dis-
pose of it, subject to the will of the bishop. Male
adult paupers seem to have been cared for in the
matricidot, sofar as may be determined.
Although the philanthropical institutions trans-
mitted from the ancient Church continued in the
Frankish Empire, and their number, perhaps, even
increased, yet after the migration of
4. Decline nations the period of the institutions
in the closed owing to the economical trans-
Middle formation of Europe. Commerce was
Ages. interrupted, change of population
ceased, industry was paralysed, and
cities emptied themselves into the agricultural
districts; hence, the need of such institutions ceased
with the exception of asylums for lepers and hos-
pices on the mountain-passes. From the time of
Charles Martel and his sons and the alienation of
ecclesiastical property the independent xenodoch-
ium almost entirely disappeared, except in Italy.
They existed in the passes of the Alps for the re-
ception of pilgrims, also in the bishoprics of Mo-
dena, Arezzo, Aquileia, partly the possession of the
bishoprics and partly of the king or the landed no-
bility. Although their purpose was still the care
of the poor and the reception of strangers, the rev-
enues were frequently not used for that purpose,
or the institutions had fallen into decay; and the
efforts on the part of the nobles for their restora-
tion and the application of their means to their
original object were in vain. Thus in Italy the his-
torical continuity was almost though not quite
broken; the hospital of the Middle Ages linked
itself with the xenodochium of the early Church.
North of the Alps, it is evident that the xenodochia
as institutions became quite extinct, and in Britain
the name does not occur. Into the gap, however,
advanced the rising monastic philanthropy. This
is already indicated in the rules of Benedict, and
the restoration of monastical philanthropy was in-
cluded in the reform of the monasteries under
Charlemagne and Louis the Pious in the ninth
century, succeeding that of decay. It is true, the
monasteries again greatly degenerated in the latter
times of the Carolingians, but the efforts of Charle-
magne were not entirely futile. The statutes of
Corbie, the property-list of Prum, and other sources
indicate monasteries here and there in which
strangers and poor people found refuge and assist-
ance. But its very limited extent goes to show that
institutional philanthropy at the beginning of the
Middle Ages had lost its importance. The practise
of hospitality in the monasteries indeed was more
extensive, but this was in the least degree benefi-
cent.
The further reform of the monasteries in the
tenth and eleventh centuries and the foundation
of the new orders had, no doubt, an influence upon
the growth of monastical philanthropy. In every
well-arranged monastery there was
5. Rise of now an infirmary for the monks, a
Monastic hospital (hospitale pauperum, elee-
and moaynaria) in which a number of
Cathedral paupers were continuously supported
Hospitals, and needy travelers received refresh-
ment, while well-to-do strangers were
cared for in a special hospice for clericals and
monks. But the support fell mainly to transients
and beggars and the aid to the permanently de-
pendent was negligible. Ulrich of Zell reports
that in the Lent season of 1085, at Clugny,
1,700 poor were fed, but at the same time,
the number of permanently aided people in the
eleemosynaria of this extraordinarily rich monas-
tery amounted only to eighteen. To the hospitals of
the monasteries were then added those of the cathe-
drals. Canon 141 of the rule of Aix-la-Chapelle
expressly prescribed that every cathedral should
have also a hospital for the poor. The necessary
expenses were to be provided from the property
of the churches, and the canons had to contribute
a tithe of their revenues. Although these ordinances
may not have been followed strictly by all cathe-
dral churches, yet from that time in many of them
an asylum for the poor and numerous city hospitals
existed. The work in these hospitals was done in the
beginning by members of the monastery or the
cathedral, or at least taken in charge by them; at
a later time by the laymen of minor brotherhoods
and sisterhoods who crowded the monasteries and
cathedrals in great numbers. These formed a con-
vent by themselves and developed in the course of
time into an order by adopting a rule, most fre-
quently the so-called rule of Augustine, and receiv-
ing a master or mistress. Thus there developed
from the monastical hospital the house of the hos-
pital brotherhood. Many of these hospitals re-
mained in the possession and under the supervision
of the monastery or cathedral to which they be-
longed, others acquired independence and became
again mother-houses of new hospitals which were
consolidated with them. There arose hospital
orders, or monastical societies, the chief task of
which was the hospital service. The most famous
hospital orders are those of the knighthood. When
hospital service among the knights gradually re-
ceded behind the service of arms and was left to
the half lay brethren and half sisters of the third
estate of the order, the common hospital orders
took up their work. The largest among them were
the Orders of the Cross who had settled chiefly in
Italy, the Knights of the Cross with the Red Star
in Bohemia and Silesia (see Cross, Orders of), the
Knights of St. Anthony (see Anthony, Saint,
Orders op), and the Order of the Holy Spirit.
The houses of the hospital orders and brother-
hoods constituted the transition from the ecclesias-
tical to the municipal hospitals, whereby only these
institutions again acquired a more general signifi-
cance for the promotion of social conditions. Munic-
ipal became most of the " Holy Spirit hospitals,"
which since the thirteenth century were founded
in different places in Germany; they were the fruit
460
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Social Servioe
of either private or municipal initiative, to meet
the emergent needs of the rapidly growing cities,
but were in the least degree hospitals
6. Munic- according to the later sense. The ad-
ipal ministration and care of inmates were
Hospitals, as a rule in the hands of a corporation
like an order, while others were under
the direct administration of the municipal coun-
cil which installed the hospital officers and in
every case guarded the administration of the
property. The inmates bought a place in these
institutions for old age or were received through
the favors of those having charge of the funds.
Besides these, strangers, travelers, paupers, and
the sick [found in them a temporary refuge.
Hospitals in the real sense there were none. Many
cities beside the hospitals provided also a house for
lepers before the gates. In France in 1225 there
were 2,000 houses for lepers, in England 115. A
special order was organized, the Order of the Breth-
ren of the House of Lepers of St. Lazarus in Jerusa-
lem, or, as it called itself at a later time, the Knight-
hood of St. Lazarus (see Lazaribtb). After the
thirteenth century there were numerous houses for
the support and burial of destitute pilgrims, and
Alpine hospices, and orphans and foundlings were
received in hospitals. Foundling-hospitals were
numerous in Romance countries, but rare in Ger-
many. The Elsingspittel in London was designed
for the blind; in Paris Louis the Pious founded an
institution for 300 blind people. Insane asylums
are met with only toward the end of the Middle
Ages, but they were penitentiaries rather than
sanitariums. Fallen girls found refuge in the houses
of the Order of St. Mary Magdalen and the Sisters
of Penitence. The tendency toward municipal
control increased until in the fifteenth century the
appearance of civil, communal poor-relief, which
took place first in the hospitals. Local councils
proceeded from the control of purely municipal
foundations to that of the ecclesiastical, made
necessary by their decline. The members of the hos-
pital orders had become rich lords and the funds
for the poor had become diverted to their luxury
or to ecclesiastical objects, frequently not without
fraud; as a result of which the cities took over
the hospitals for their reform and administration.
At first the Reformation seems to have had a
destructive rather than constructive influence upon
philanthropy and philanthropic^ institutions, be-
cause of a sudden the old motives of
7. The almsgiving ceased before the appear-
Reformation. ance of the new of spontaneous be-
nevolence (ut sup.). With the new
stimulus the Lutheran Reformation revived the
aim of communal poor-relief. The institutional for
the time retired into the background. The process
of secularizing was to be carried out everywhere,
the older hospitals were to be reorganized or in-
corporated with the communal poor-relief, or new
ones, essentially asylums for the sick, were to be
erected. In spite of the renewed motive, the abun-
dant charitable activity, and the wide multiplica-
tion of institutions, the worthy aim of the Refor-
mation, which was the sufficient care of communal
poor and the suppression of mendicancy, fell short
of realization and went down in the Thirty- Years*
War. More, however, was accomplished in the Re-
formed Church. In Zurich and Geneva, poor-relief
was turned over wholly to the municipalities. By
the restoration of the office of deacons the Reformed
churches in the Netherlands and in France suc-
ceeded in calling to life a philanthropy that was in
many respects exemplary; especially the excel-
lently managed orphanages in the former, which had
a great influence upon charitable work in Germany,
in particular upon August Hermann Francke and
in the nineteenth century upon Theodor Fliedner
(qq.v.). In England medieval ecclesiastical phi-
lanthropy was replaced by the parish care of the
poor under the authorization of the State. The
principle of the " work-house " (ut sup.) established
in England is still in force, but it has been supple-
mented by the foundation of special institutions;
especially, for poor children (the district and paro-
chial schools) and for the destitute sick (the infir-
maries and convalescent homes). In the Roman
Catholic Church, the Council of Trent commended
the medieval type of the institutions to the special
care of the bishops, but communal poor-relief was
not restored, and philanthropy continued pre-
eminently institutional. It is to the credit of that
Church that after the Reformation great service
has been rendered; new institutions and new orders
have been added, especially in France, Italy, and
Spain. The main defects to be pointed out are the
diversion of funds to prelates and nobles, and the
want of systematic efficiency and unity. The Lu-
theran Church received a new impetus from Piet-
ism. The orphans' home in Halle, the great work
of Francke, gave rise to many similar foundations;
but the zeal soon slackened contemporaneously
with State assumption of the entire sphere of poor-
relief. By an edict of July, 1774, the government
of Prussia was entrusted with the supervision of
the pious bodies and all benevolent institutions,
especially hospitals, orphanages, and poorhouses.
Consequently numerous philanthropical institu-
tions of the Church were secularized.
The humanism of the Enlightenment presented
the first idea of a rational philanthropy, revolution-
izing the same not only in Protestant-
8. Human- ism but caught up as the keynote also
ism and in Roman Catholic domains. The in-
Modern terest aroused by an abundant human-
Philan- istic current literature toward the close
thropy. of the eighteenth century resulted in
numerous establishments, beginning
with the general charitable institution at Hamburg
in 1788. Orthodox Christianity was stimulated by
the influence and began to develop a more strenu-
ous activity. The Society of Christianity of Basel,
founded in 1780, cultivated not only the distribu-
tion of Bibles and tracts, but also the care of the
poor and sick, training-institutions, and the like.
The distress on account of the wars of French con-
quest and liberation called to life institutions of
various kinds for the alleviation of pain and dis-
tress, and with the reawakening of the Christian
sense, with the gradual invigoration of churchly
life, there went hand in hand a revival of philan-
thropy which called into existence a multitude of
Booial Servioe
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
institutions of all kinds; especially houses for the
education of male and female workers in the sphere
of philanthropy (deacons and deaconesses), houses
of refuge, Magdalen asylums, asylums for drunkards,
colonies for workingmen, hospitals, infirmaries,
institutions for the blind, the deaf and dumb,
epileptics, and others. The Innere Mission reports
for 1907 18,200 deaconesses of the Kaiserswerth
Federation and others, and in all 25,000 sisters
engaged in charitable relief; and likewise German
brotherhoods with a membership of 2,645. There
are no statistics for philanthrapical institutions in
Germany. Those for Prussia contained in Statix-
tuchet Handbueh fUr den preussweften Stoat, i. 409
(1893), indicate 1,441 general institutions for the
sick alone, with 75,224 beds, besides equally nu-
merous institutions covering the other departments
of philanthropy. A surprising feature of philan-
thropy in Germany is the preponderance of munici-
pal institutions over those of the State, the Church,
and private foundations. Here the idea of the
Reformation is fully realized. The importance
which philanthropies! institutions on the whole
have for the care of the poor is shown by the sta-
tistics of the German Empire for 1885 (Statislik
dec Devttchen Reicht, xxix.), according to which
270,038 persons in institutions and 616,533 persons
outside of institutions were supported. Thus al-
most one-third of all the beneficiaries in the empire
was supported in institutions, which warrants the
inference that the philanthropic institution has be-
come the permanent basis for public charity and
is destined to advance along this line.
(A. Hattcx.)
IL Philanthrophy in Great Britain: The history
of the relation of Christianity toward eleemosynary
activities in England and the other portions of the
United Kingdom extends over a
I. To Down- period of thirteen centuries divisible in-
tall of to three distinct epochs. The first of
Monasteries, these covers the interval between the
introduction of Christianity into Eng-
land in 597 a.d., and the dissolution of the monas-
teries in that country which was practically com-
pleted by 1540. In Scotland they were put down,
and in many cases destroyed by the mob, about
twenty years later. More than, perhaps, in any
portion of western and southern Europe, Chris-
tianity had appeared in England as a civilizing as
well as a moralizing agency, and its functions re-
sembled those of modern missions to the barbarous
tribes of Africa and Polynesia rather than those of
missions planted in the midst of the venerable
civilizations of India and China. Throughout this
period of nearly one thousand years, the framework
of society was predominantly military. In such an
atmosphere of continual contention the care of the
sick, the relief of the needy, and even the instruction
of youth, were possible only under the supernatural
sanction claimed by the Church, and for the most
part all three were in the hands of the monastic
orders. The transition from paganism to Chris-
tianity among the masses of the population was a
far slower process than was the nominal acceptance
of that faith by the chiefs of the petty kingdoms
forming the Saxon Octarchy. Speaking particu-
larly of the Northumbrians, J. R. Green obeervi
" With Teutonic indifference, they yielded to thi
thegns in nominally accepting the new Christian!
as these had yielded to the king. But they retain
their old superstitions side by side with the new wo
ship." With this view E. A. Freeman agrees. Sui
religious zeal and humane impulses aa the Dark Ag
produced found their expression mainly in the cloi
tered life. When, in the comparative enlighte
meat of the thirteenth century, the great preacbii
orders of itinerant friars sprang up, those wl
adopted the rule of Francis of Aasisi (q.v.) we
charged by their great founder to minister to U
sick in the lazar-houses whose occupants leprae
and kindred diseases had doomed to isolation froi
their fellows. The oldest existing hospital in Loi
don, St. Bartholomew's, originated in a monaster
dating from the twelfth century. Institutions si
apart for the treatment of the sick as such wei
hardly known until the sixteenth century.
With the downfall of the monasteries ends the fin
period. The next century and a half constitutes th
second epoch. During it, philanthropy was depenc
ent on the means and conscience of the individui
citizen, except so far as the State supervened undc
the Elizabethan poor law. Toward the end of tfa
seventeenth century forms of associated bensvt
lence begin to appear. This phase constitutes th
third stage in its evolution.
It is easy to understand why the abrupt suppret
sion of these ecclesiastical institutions in both Erui
land and Scotland should leave
2. To End chasm in the lives of the poor. Th
of Seven- situation is brought vividly before th
teenth eye in the following passage from
Century, report by the commissioners charge
with receiving the surrender of Beat
lieu Abbey in Hampshire (the original spelling i
retained):
" Ther be Sayntuary men here for dett, felon)
and murder, xxxii; many of them sged som
very seke. They have all, within (except?) iii
wyves and childem, and dwellynge houses an<
ground wherby the lyve with their famylies
whiche beynge all assembled before hus, and tin
Kinges Highnes pleasure opened to them, they havi
verye lamentable declared that if they be nowe sen<
to other Saynturyes, not onlie they but thei
wyves and childem also shal be utterly undon."
The law which dissolved the monasteries did in
deed transfer the liability to perform the accus
tomed services for the poor to the shoulders of tin
new owners of the confiscated property, but it was i
duty easily evaded. Though not the only cause, tin
alienation of monastic property — and there wen
615 monasteries whose aggregate revenues were esti
mated at $8,000,000— was one of the principa
causes of the great distress chronicled by Bisho]
Latimer and other contemporary writers. Him
self no friend of the old order, that prelate break
forth against the lax morality of the new in th.
following vehement passage from one of his sermons
" In times past men were full of pity and com pas
sion, but now there is no pity. . . . Now charity i
waxen cold, none helpetb the scholar nor yet tin
poor." For two generations there appears to hav.
471
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Social Service
been an interregnum in the general provision made
by society for its less fortunate members from the ex-
tinction of the religions orders to the passing of the
first poor law, only partially filled by the custom
of placing in the churches boxes for the receipt of
alms for the poor. Instances also are recorded of
poor men received into wealthier persons' house-
holds. Gradually benevolent private citizens came
forward who were liberal in their bequests of proper-
ty for maintaining schools and alms-houses. Per-
haps the majority of the older towns of England
contain grammar-schools dating their foundation
to one of the Tudor sovereigns. It may be doubted
whether, in many of these instances, the monarch
for the time being had any real share in establish-
ing them. Henry VIII. 's school at Coventry, for
example, was so named in order to win his protec-
tion, but it was endowed by John Hales, a private
citizen.
During the period which elapsed between the final
severance from Rome and the accession of the
House of Orange in 1688, the sympa-
3. Sporadic thies of the benevolent discovered
Efforts further scope in founding loan charities
for Relief for assisting deserving tradesmen to
of Need, start in business, in dowries for por-
tionless maidens, in ransoming the
Christian captives of the Mohammedan despots
on the North African littoral, in providing work
for the unemployed poor, and in gifts and bequests
to ameliorate the lot of the sick and of debtors and
other prisoners. The late Rev. B. Kirkman Gray,
in his standard work A History of English Phir
lanthropy (London, 1905), mentions " forty-six be-
quests for setting the poor on work between 1572
and 1692." The express injunctions contained in
the Gospels had always given to the relief of the
sick and of prisoners an especial sanction, and the
frequently recurrent visitations of the plague and
other epidemics, as well as the harshness of the
criminal law, offered abundant opportunity. The
Rev. J. Bamford, rector of St. Olaves, Southwark,
was a shining example of fidelity to one's post. Dur-
ing the plague year of 1603, he incurred consider-
able unpopularity among his flock by urging on them
the unfamiliar practise of isolating patients under
proper guardianship, instead of thronging round
them or deserting them as pity or panic got the
upper hand. Another remarkable example is that
of Nicholas Ferrar (q.v.). This gentleman, who
in early life had been secretary to the Virginia
Company, removed from London during the plague
year of 1625, and collected round him at Little
Gidding, a sequestered village in Huntingdonshire,
a band of persons of both sexes numbering at one
time, including his own family, as many as forty,
into a kind of religious community having for its
object joint prayer, almsgiving, and acts of personal
charity, such as teaching school, preparing cordials,
dressing wounds, and otherwise tending the sick.
Unfortunately, these efforts, however creditable
to those who made them, were but sporadic, inade-
quate to the needs of the time, and of uncertain
duration. The community of Little Gidding sur-
vived its founder's death only to be dispersed in
the unquiet times of the Civil War. This last event,
by impoverishing the propertied classes, cut off a
principal source of the flow of material charity,
although the Puritan majority in the
4. Legisla- Long Parliament are entitled to credit
tive and for passing enactments conceived in
Other Relief the interest of the masses, such, for in-
Measures. stance, as those in relief of poor debtors
and for the reform of prison abuses.
Dishonest trustees too often intercepted and misap-
plied the funds dedicated to endowments confided
to their administration. Again, the philanthropist
of the seventeenth century was handicapped at
every turn by his want of practical knowledge. His
art was in its infancy. The reserve of past experi-
ence on which he could draw was small. He had to
make his own experiments, and to grope his way by
the light of his own blunders. John Evelyn (d. 1706),
a stanch churchman of the period, was one of
four commissioners appointed by Charles II. in
1664 to undertake the care of the sick, wounded,
and prisoners in the then pending war with the
Dutch. His own district took in the coastline of
Kent and Sussex, and he seems to have extended his
attention to the families of the slain, for he notes in
his diary under date of May 16, 1665, " To London
to consider of the poore orphans and widows made
by this bloudy beginning." He reckoned the ex-
penses of his mission at $5,000 a week and subse-
quently at double that sum, and had the greatest
difficulty in extorting it from the government of the
day, as may be judged from the following passage
from a letter to the lord treasurer's secretary:
" One fortnight has made me feele the utmost of
miseries that can befall a person in my station and
with my affections: To have 25,000 prisoners, and
1,500 sick and wounded men to take care of, without
one peny of money, and above £2,000 ($10,000) in-
debted. It is true I am but newly acquainted with
buisinesse . . . learning that at once which others
get by degrees." He proceeds to speak of his desire
of serving God " in anything which I hope He may
accept, for I sweare to you no other consideration
should tempt me a second time to this trouble."
The closing years of the seventeenth century saw,
as Kirkman Gray has pointed out, the extension of
individual into corporate philanthropy. The
.leaders in this new departure included men like
Robert Nelson (d. 1715) who had made
5. Rise of the grand tour of France and Italy, for
Corporate the older countries of the continent
Phflan- were at that time somewhat in advance
thropy. of the English in this respect. The in-
flux of Huguenot refugees consequent
upon the revocation of the Edict of Nantes also lent
a stimulus to the movement. With Nelson was as-
sociated Anthony Horneck (d. 1697), a German
settled in England who had taken orders in the
Established Church. Evelyn describes him as " a
most pathetic preacher, a person of a saint-like
life." Both Nelson and Horneck were authors of
numerous theological works. They joined in form-
ing associations for the reformation of manners and
morals which sprang up during the last quarter of
the century as a reaction against the license preva-
lent during Charles the Second's reign. Nelson was
one of the founders of the Society for Promoting
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOQ
Christian Knowledge (see Tract Societies, III., 2)
in 1698 and the Society for the Propagation of the
Gospel in 1701. He was also a member of the com-
mission appointed by the bouse of commons to add
fifty new churches to the metropolis, then rapidly
extending its boundaries. A great object of both
the societies above named was, in the first instance,
to extend religious teaching to portions of Great
Britain and her dependencies which were untouched
by the parochial system of the Church of England.
Thus, regions so far apart as the Scottish Highlands
and the American plantations became objects of
their efforts. A cooperator in the same field was
Thomas Bray, commissary to the governor of Mary-
land. The Society for the Promotion of Christian
Knowledge had its headquarters in London, but
had correspondents throughout the country. A
great feature of its work was the establishment of
" charity schools." These were originally day-schools
imparting rudimentary instruction in reading and
writing and, generally, also in arithmetic and some
simple manual occupation. Religious instruction
was insisted upon in all the schools. In the absence
of any uniform or national system of education, the
society did a great work, although the total number
of children in attendance all over the country ap-
pears never to have exceeded 30,000 at any one time.
The system continued to be actively carried out
through the greater part of the eighteenth century.
Toward the end of this period Hiss Hannah Ball
(d. 1792), an early disciple of John Wesley, started
a Sunday-school at High Wycombe. Another was
set on foot in Gloucester by Hiss Cooke, also a
Methodist, for the benefit of the children engaged
in her uncle's pin-factory. From such small be-
ginnings the movement was spread largely through
the sympathy of the editor of the influential Glou-
cester Journal, the well-known Robert Raikes,
(q.v.). In 1801 a conservative estimate computed
these schools at 1,516, with an average exceeding 100
children in each, in London alone (see Sunday-
schools).
The eighteenth century witnessed the spread, and
indeed almost the genesis, of the modern hospital
system. Until then, the only hospitals, even in
London, had been adapted from the
6. Hospitals; medieval monastic establishments of
Care of St. Bartholomew's and St. Thomas's.
Insane; Bedlam was rather a house of deten-
Hureiiig. tion than a curative institution for the
insane. While the care of the sick, in its
early stages, was intimately connected with the
afflatus of Christianity, the forward movement of
the period above mentioned appears to have owed
its origin mainly to the humane instincts of leading
medical practitioners combined with an entirely
legitimate desire in the profession to utilise the in-
stitutional care of the sick in the study and
advancement of the science and practise of the heal-
ing art. From these considerations it would seem
that, so far as the extension of the hospital system
at this date was a branch of philanthropy, it falls
outside the title and scope of the present section.
An exception should perhaps be made in the case of
the new and more humane treatment of the insane
inaugurated in 1791 at York by William Tuke (d.
1822), a tea-merchant of that city and a meml
of the Society of Friends. In the Tuke fami
as in the sect to which it adhered, philanthropy 1
been hereditary. William Tuke's great granda
James Hack Tuke (d. 1896), twice traveled in Irela
to administer relief during the famine year of 18-
and again during the distress of 1881. He a
journeyed to Paris during the Commune of 1871
distribute 1100,000 raised by his de nomination
relieve the sufferings arising from the siege of t
preceding winter. A further exception with regt
to the late Miss Florence Nightingale (q.v.), w
first established a training-school for sick-nun
and had herself in early life been a disciple of Eli
beth Fry (q.v.), should also, perhaps, be made.
Conversely, the Methodist movement of the sai
century (see Methodists, I.) was too excluaivi
concerned with the Evangelical revival to re,
among directly philanthropic or sac
7. And- agencies, though John Wesley biros
Slavery and wrote against Slavery (q.v.). Witht
Prison- founders of the so-called " Clapht
Reform. Sect," however, the association of t
agitation against the slave-trade, a
ultimately against slavery itself, was close and i
timate. As early, indeed, as 1727, the Society
Friends at its annual meeting had taken up t
position that " the importing of negroes from th
native country and relations by Friends is not
commendable nor allowed practise." From the
two bodies were drawn most of the champions of t
crusade. The historian Lecky remarks that t
activity of the philanthropic spirit " has been large
stimulated by the Evangelical Revival." T
Society for the Abolition of the Slave Trade found
by Granville Sharp (d. 1813) in 1787 was large
composed of Quakers. William Wilberforce (q.'
was a leading member of the Low-church or Eva
gelical colony settled round Clapham Commc
and was besides an influential member of parli
ment and a friend of William Pitt, the prime miniytj
Thus he constituted a link between the religious ai
the political worlds. Thomas Clarkson (d. 134
was already in deacon's orders in the Church
England when be took up the question, and actual
refrained from taking priest's orders lest th
profession should interfere with his prosecution
the cause, to which he felt so strong a call that !
writes, " At length I yielded, not because I saw ai
reasonable prospect of success in my new undc
taking (for all cool-headed and cool-hearted mi
would have pronounced against it) but in obedieni
1 believe to a higher Power." Again, the era
Prison Reform (q.v.) was inaugurated by Jol
Howard (q.v.)- Of Non-conformist training ar
strong religious sentiments, his duties as hi|
sheriff of Bedfordshire brought him into conta
with the harsh treatment of prisoners in his natii
land. The horrors of jail fever were equaled b
those of the miscellaneous herding together of tl
novice or perhaps the innocent with the most d
proved. His end came in the course of proeecutii
his investigations in the prisons of South Rusai
His endeavors were directed toward the reform
the system; those of Elizabeth Pry who, like tl
Tukea, came of a prominent Quaker family, aimi
478
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Social Service
at the reform of the individual prisoner. Their
memories have been perpetuated and their work
continued by societies bearing their names.
Inspired also by the Evangelical sentiment, and
one of the foremost pillars of that branch of the
Church of England [throughout the middle half of
last century, was Anthony Ashley Cooper, seventh
earl of Shaftesbury (q.v.), of whom Professor Blaikie
has remarked, "The lives of Howard, Mrs. Fry,
Wilberforce, and other great philanthropists are
associated mainly with a single cause — Shaftesbury's
with half a score." Like Wilberforce, he stood for
the ideal of philanthropy in the stormy cross-seas
of politics. His sympathies for the suffering were
first attracted to the insane by an inquiry instituted
in parliament into the condition and treatment of
that unfortunate class. Thenceforward he con-
tinued throughout his life a member of a perma-
nent commission charged with the supervision of
asylums for lunatics. In 1833 he proceeded to
engage in the amelioration of the lot of industrial
workers, particularly of women and children, at that
time employed not only in factories but also in col-
lieries. Not content with knowledge at second hand,
he ascertained the conditions under which they
worked by personal visitation. And here it seems
permissible to observe that the charity of one gen-
eration is apt to become the oppression of its suc-
cessors. One of the abuses against which Shaftes-
bury strove was the exploitation of young children
in the textile trades. Yet this very practise had
been fostered, if not inaugurated, in those schools
for imparting instruction in manual crafts as well as
in book-learning and conduct, set up by the Society
for Promoting Christian Knowledge, and carried
still further in schools connected with the work-
houses of those days. Of course there was always
this marked difference that the factories were run
for private profit, while the receipts from the
school-children's handiwork went to support the
schools, and not into the pockets of the managers.
To return to Lord Shaftesbury. In the " hungry
forties " he took up the cause of the uncared-for boys
in the streets, and promoted the organization of
the so-called Ragged Schools for their
8. Ragged benefit — another of those charitable
Schools; movements directly traceable to relig-
Young ious impulse. Rather than oppose,
People's in common with the land-owning class
Societies, as a whole, the repeal of the Corn
Laws, he vacated his seat in the house
of commons. By this time he had acquired a
definite influence among the working classes, who
were beginning to appreciate his disinterested ef-
forts on their behalf. When the wave of discon-
tent, which had been gathering mass and moment
through a long series of years, threatened in 1848
to catch infection from Paris and to break forth
into active revolt, he was besought to exercise that
influence in favor of peace and order, and after-
ward received the thanks of the home secretary
for his efforts in that direction. Another cause
which enlisted his aid was that of the improvement
of working-class dwellings. Lord Shaftesbury was
also a supporter of the Young Men's Christian As-
sociation (see Young People's Societies). This
society was set on foot in 1844 with the primary
object of evangelising the masses of young men en-
gaged in trade and business in the metropolis,
many of them living at a distance from their families
and friends, and left to their own resources to avoid
or to succumb to the varied temptations surround-
ing them in so vast a city. In time it added to its
original program by establishing libraries and
reading-rooms, classes in various branches of study,
and employment bureaus. Sir George Williams
(q.v.), himself head of a large drapery firm in St.
Paul's Churchyard, was identified with this effort
from its commencement, and was its treasurer until
his death, when the association included 7,229
branches scattered throughout the United States
as well as the British Empire. A sister society for
young women followed in 1855. Reference has been
made to the Ragged School movement. Connected
with it as regards the class to be benefited was the
Reformatory and Refuge Union, founded in 1856 to
supply a center of information and encouragement
for the already numerous local and isolated efforts
to meet the needs of the various classes of delinquents
— e.g., youthful offenders, unfortunate women, and
discharged prisoners.
It has been pointed out above that the last two
centuries have been the age of associated benevo-
lence. But this is not to say that individual benefi-
cence has been superseded. On the
o. Move- contrary, during the past half-cen-
mcnts under tury, as much at least as during any
Personal earlier period, schemes of the greatest
Initiative, magnitude have been the outcome of
the initiative of a single person. Even
the method of three centuries ago of bequeathing
money for pensions or almshouses is not extinct.
But the ideal of personal service is higher, and the
chief benefactors have in their lifetime drawn to-
gether bands of sympathizers who act under their
leadership and can continue their work. The great
mission carried on by the late Dr. Thomas John
Barnardo (d. 1905) had its modest beginning in his
compassionate observation of the city arab class
while himself a medical student. At the date of his
death 60,000 children were computed to have
passed through the various institutions he had
founded, 16,000 having been placed in British
colonies. Of these it is said that only 300, or less
than two per cent, have failed to do well. Another
great organization in the same field is the Church
of England Society for Waifs and Strays. With its
establishment the Rev. Edward de Montjoie Rudolf
has been especially connected. The Society for the
Prevention of Cruelty to Children, which holds a
quasi-official position, and has had 144,234 children
under its notice during the twenty-five years of its
existence, was the creation of Benjamin Waugh, a
Congregationalist minister. As an example of what
individual inspiration can effect, it would be hard to
find a more conspicuous example than that of the
Salvation Army (q.v.), the creation of the evangel-
izing zeal of the Rev. William Booth (q.v.), and his
wife Catherine Mumford Booth (q.v.). To plan an
organization designed for home mission work upon
a military framework must have demanded great
originating power in the first instance. To extend it
BodU BorviuB
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
bo as to meet multiform distress in many lands and
races demanded obviously great organizing power.
When General Booth issued his scheme of social re-
form In Darkest England (London, 1890), the Array
had already officers and others engaged wholly in
the work to the number of 4,506 in the United King-
dom and 4,910 in the United States and the rest
of the world, and it possessed Shelters, Rescue
Homes, a Prison Gate Mission, and other institu-
tions. The Church Army is a somewhat similar
organization founded in 1882 by the Rev. Wilson
Carlile (q-v.), a Church of England clergyman, rector
of St. Mary-at-Hill in London.
As stated above, the monastic system came to an
end in Scotland about twenty years after its over-
throw in England. In John Knox's work on eccle-
siastical government, entitled The Book of Ditcipline,
it is recommended that the revenues
io. Hots- of the old Church should be applied
ments in among other things to the maintenance
Scotland, of education in the parish and burgh
schools, and to the relief of the aged
and infirm poor. The able-bodied poor were, ac-
cording to his scheme, to be compelled to work.
In 1562, the General Assembly of the Kirk peti-
tioned for provision to be made for the poor. Prac-
tical effect, however, was not given to Knox's
recommendations respecting education until an Act,
passed in 1696, stipulated for the maintenance of a
school in every parish at the cost of the heritors,
or landowners. Nearly three centuries after Knox,
another great divine of the Scottish Presbyterian
church led the van in the reform of poor-relief,
which took place in Scotland as in England, though
not upon identical lines, in the first half of last
century. This was Thomas Chalmers (q.v.), a man
of wide interests who had added to his professional
training in theology the study of natural science
and of political economy. Placed in charge suc-
cessively of the large parishes of Tron and St. John
in the city of Glasgow, then rapidly growing into
the commercial capital of Scotland, he organized,
with the help of a number of zealous lay coadjutors,
the administration of relief to the poor of the
parish on such lines that, while the total expendi-
ture was reduced from SS,000 to J 1,400, "this
result," according to Professor Blaikie, one of his
biographers, " was accompanied not by a diminu-
tion but an increase of comfort and morality.
Drunkenness decreased, and parents took an in-
creased interest in the welfare of their children."
The influence of Chalmers' experience and teaching
in this department of philanthropy was wide-spread,
and its fruits may still be seen in the extensive
ramifications of the charity organization system on
both sides of the Atlantic and of the Pacific.
The movement in favor of Total Abstinence (q.v.)
found in Ireland one of its earliest champions. This
was Theobald Mathew (q.v.), a Fran-
ii. Total ciscan friar in Cork. Visiting much
Abstinence, among the poor, he became impressed
with the evils of intemperance, and,
having taken the pledge himself at the instance
of some Non-con formist friends, he proceeded to
preach what be already practised. Possessed of an
engaging personality, his influence was immense
with his fellow countrymen. Judges on assize com
mental on the diminution in crime. The ex
chequer officials had to comment upon the diminu
tion in revenue, for the receipts from the excise o:
spirits fell by one-third. Unfortunately the famim
diverted his energies to raising funds for the suf
ferers. He visited New York and Washington, an<
prosecuted his campaign there between 1849 ani
1851.
Enjoying ample land-room with general pros
perity, the over-seas self-governing countries of thi
empire have so far escaped the necessity of dis
covering new solutions for distress ii
n. The their midst. Local adaptations o
Colonies, machinery originated in older countries
— the societies founded by St. Vincen
de Paul (q.v.) from France, the Salvation Arm]
and the Young Men's and Young Women's Christuu
Associations from England, and the Women1
Christian Temperance Union from the Unite*
States — appear to have proved adequate hitherto
to supplement the governmental activities of I
democratic regime. A great deal of quiet bemevo
lence and neighborliness is exhibited in the read;
adoption of orphans and destitute children int-
private families.
Within the last forty years the desire for socia
reform in Great Britain has taken three new shapes
those, namely, of charity organization, of tenemen
reform, and, through reform of tenements, the ref
ormation of the tenants, and of settlement work
While great public spirit and much genuine humai
sympathy have been displayed in these movements
and while, in all three, zealous clergymen and othe:
church-membera may be found taking a share, they
in common with the earlier hospital movement
have been too little the product of ecclesiastical o:
definitely religious leadership to come within thi
scope of the present treatment.
It may be that philanthropy is on the verge o
passing into a further stage. From causes whict
were glanced at in the opening paragraphs, law
state-craft and diplomacy, medicine and literature
as well as education, were once subordinate bir
almost exclusive domains of the Church. To b*
able to read was proof presumptivi
13. Pros- that a man was a priest, or at least ii
pecta. minor orders. The four first pur-
suits have, of course, long since passec
into the hands of the laity, and education is passing
now. At the present moment, departments whict
hitherto have formed the realm of philanthropy
are in process of annexation by the State itself
Already school-children are fed, septuagenarian;
pensioned, and employment bureaus and relief work;
subsidized at the public cost. Proposals embodying
a drastic alteration of the poor law are being ac-
tively urged. If they are carried out in theii
entirety the drain on private resources will read
first of all on the funds available for purposes ol
voluntary charity, while at the same time few de-
partments of benevolence will remain outside the
control of the State or of municipalities. The trans-
ference of power from the classes supplying benefac*
tors to the classes supplying beneficiaries, already
to a great extent effected, ia likely to accelerate
475
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Social Service
this process, of which the attendant dangers are
obvious. It can only be hoped that the motives
which have hitherto inspired philanthropic action
will in the future inspire the conscientious and sym-
pathetic discharge of their new duties on the part
of the central and local administrations and their
officials. In this connection the influence of the
Christian Social Union, a body under the guidance
of Bishop Gore of Birmingham, Canon Scott Hol-
land, and other distinguished Anglicans both lay
and clerical, which studies social and economic
problems and seeks to control industrial and com-
mercial relations in accordance with the principles
enunciated in the New Testament and by the
Church, may have a great future open to it.
C. H. d'E. Leppinoton.
in. Philanthropy in America: The develop-
ment of philanthropy in the modern western world is
illustrated by the parable of the seed growing secret-
ly, " First the blade, then the ear, then
z. Colonial the full corn in the ear." In the pioneer
Practise, communities there is little poverty and
no pauperism; the few who need assist-
ance are cared for by their neighbors; organized
charity is not needed. The churches in the early
New England colonies included practically the
whole population, and any of their members who
were in need or in suffering were relieved by the
voluntary compassion of the brotherhood. As the
communities grew older, and families decayed, and
the number of the defective and the decrepit and
the helpless multiplied, some communal provision
was made for the care of the poor; each town con-
tracted with some citizen for the keeping of its de-
pendents. Later, poorhouses were erected and
yearly appropriations were made, at the town
meetings, for the support of the poor. In these
poorhouses the hopelessly insane were also con-
fined, no provision yet being made for restorative
treatment. Outside of New England the county
was generally charged with the care of the poor;
the almshouses and infirmaries were -county insti-
tutions. Thus it will be seen that the tendency
pointed out above (I., § 7) as prevailing among the
Lutheran and Reformed churches at the time of
the Reformation was active in the American com-
munities. The care of the poor was turned over
to the public authorities. When the town and the
church were practically one this was of no impor-
tance; but when the standing order was disestab-
lished, and the secular community was discriminated
from the religious community, this virtual abandon-
ment by the church of one of its primary functions
was a serious matter for the church and perhaps
for the poor.
At the present day, therefore, the American
churches do not consider themselves wholly responsi-
ble for the care of the poor of the com-
2. Church munity. The same thing is true of
and Volun- Great Britain. This work has been
tary Philan- largely taken over by the civic author-
thropies. ities — by the town or the parish or the
city or the county. The churches do,
however, find work of this kind to do. Many
churches have in their own membership those
who, from misfortune or accident, are in want, and
something is done for the relief of these, though,
even here, the ministry often lacks much of being
all that could be desired. The churches, also,
through mission Sunday-schools and other such
agencies, extend their acquaintance among the
poor and the unfortunate, and thus the rich and
the poor are brought together and want is supplied
and sorrow comforted. Services of this nature are
not noised abroad, but it is probable that the
amount of help thus quietly extended to needy per-
sons is considerable. A great variety of voluntary
philanthropies are also maintained in every popu-
lous town or city. Hospitals, homes for the aged,
orphanages, creches, Magdalen asylums, societies
for the relief of the poor in their homes, free dis-
pensaries, diet kitchens, convalescent homes, dis-
trict-nursing organizations, social settlements, and
many other such organized methods of compassion
and friendship are everywhere in operation. By
these voluntary philanthropies a large part of the
charity of the community is administered. These
are, in good part, the inspiration of the churches;
most of the workers in them are church-members.
Generally these voluntary charities are undenom-
inational; representatives of all the churches unite
in maintaining them; they furnish a grateful occa-
sion for the manifestation of Christian unity.
The administration of this voluntary philan-
thropy by the churches and the various charitable
organizations, is apt to be defective in two ways;
there is, first, much overlapping, and
3. Defects unscrupulous mendicants are often
Remedied able to secure aid from several differ-
by Organi- ent sources at the same time; and,
zation. secondly, the relief is apt to be ren-
dered without adequate investigation,
and upon sentimental and emotional, rather than
practical, considerations, so that habits of mendi-
cancy are encouraged and the character of the re-
cipients is damaged. For these reasons the organ-
ization of the voluntary charities has been found
necessary, so that cooperation might be secured
and relief be administered by more rational and
conservative methods. The " Charity Organiza-
tion Societies " or " Associated Charities " have
been, for the last quarter of a century, effective
agencies in the improvement of the methods of
charitable relief. They have not always been able
to secure so large a degree of cooperation as they
have sought, for there are many sentimental per-
sons in the churches and the charitable societies
who have but dim comprehension of the amount
of harm that may be done by fostering mendicancy,
and who are more disturbed by a tale of physical
discomfort than by the spectacle of a ruined charac-
ter. But the principle of the charity organization
societies, " Not alms but a friend," is the sound
Christian principle; the aim is to stimulate self-
respect, self-reliance, industry, and frugality; to
give temporary relief when that is needed, but,
above all, to help the poor to help themselves.
Much criticism has been bestowed on this work by
those who view the matter superficially; these
organizations have sometimes been called " socie-
ties for the prevention of charity." It is quite
probable that the repressive features of the work
Social Sendee
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
476
have sometimes been over-emphasized, but the
need of such discriminations and restraints can not
be gainsaid, and the efficiency of our voluntary
charities largely depends on such cooperation and
regulation as the charity organization societies
seek to secure.
The greater part of philanthropic work, however,
is done by public agencies. The Christian religion
has filled modern society with what Benjamin Kidd
calls " a great fund of altruistic feel-
4. Public ing," which finds expression in a va-
Administra- riety of public philanthropies. To
tion of Aid. that extent the State has been Chris-
tianized. " All-of-us," cooperating
through civil institutions and public agencies, are
seeking to care for the poor and the sick and the
unfortunate. Let it not be forgotten that it is the
enforcement of the teachings of Jesus Christ by his
Church that has brought this to pass. Such results
are not visible in non-Christian countries. The
public philanthropies are largely institutional.
Hospitals, almshouses and infirmaries, asylums for
the insane, the blind, the deaf, the feeble-minded,
the epileptic, homes for orphan children, sanatori-
ums for the victims of tuberculosis — all such insti-
tutions are provided for the most part gratuitously
for the helpless poor and the unfortunate. Much
of this work is of such a character that it could not
well be left to voluntary agencies; the burden of
it ought to be borne by the entire community.
That the community is willing to bear it — that
public opinion requires the imposition of this charge,
upon the public treasury is a signal triumph of
Christian civilization.
The legitimacy and necessity of what is techni-
cally called indoor relief are thus apparent. But the
State also undertakes to administer relief to the
poor in their own homes, and for this service it is
ill qualified. If, indeed, such conditions as prevail
in the German cities could be secured — if the mu-
nicipality could enlist a large force of its most in-
telligent and competent men and women to serve
as visitors, this work might be done by the public
with the best results. In Berlin more than 3,000
visitors of the poor are appointed by the city. They
are selected with great care, are men of character,
and are compelled to serve. The districts are small
and the service is not onerous, but it is not optional;
the penalty of refusal or neglect is disfranchisement.
With such a force of visitors the city can dispense
relief intelligently. But it is doubtful whether any
such service as this could be secured by an Amer-
ican city; the investigating force is always absurdly
inadequate and generally incompetent; the officials
charged with this duty are frequently careless
and sometimes corrupt; the funds are used for
political purposes, and, as a rule, the needy are
neglected and impostors get the lion's share. For
this reason some American cities have abolished
public outdoor relief and leave the care of the
people in their own homes to voluntary charity,
sometimes employing the associated charities or
other voluntary organizations to do the work of
investigation, and granting relief upon their recom-
mendation.
It thus becomes evident that the conditions of
philanthropic work in America at the present time
are somewhat chaotic; the work is not well sys-
tematized; there is much conflict of
5. Principles jurisdictions and much confusion of
of Work, methods; there is great need of some
revision of the entire program of char-
itable relief. The principles which should govern
this administration have been somewhat roughly
indicated in this survey. (1) It is important that
the State should more clearly define its own phil-
anthropic function; that it should determine how
much it can wisely undertake in behalf of the de-
pendent classes. The institutional work in which
it is now widely engaged should, for the most part,
be carried forward. If public outdoor relief is to be
attempted this relief should be given in such a way
as not to demoralize the recipients. The work to be
done in such cases is largely the repair or the re-
building of damaged character. It ought to be in
the hands of those who have some skill in the res-
toration of souls. If the State can not furnish offi-
cials who know how to save men and women, it
would better leave this work to be done by others.
But it will still be necessary that the law stand
near to help the volunteer workers. There is many
a broken family the wreck of which is caused by
the brutality and dissipation of the husband and
father, and the wisest help will fail to lift the fam-
ily out of misery unless he can be separated from
them and subjected to a discipline in which he
may recover his manhood. He ought also to be
kept at productive labor and his net earnings turned
over to his family. Charity workers are constantly
meeting complications of this sort in which the
power of the State must be invoked for the protec-
tion of the weak and the enforcement of conjugal
or parental responsibility. If, therefore, such co-
operation as this between the State and the volun-
teer workers is to continue, the terms upon which
it is carried on should be explicitly defined by law.
(2) It is also needful that the churches should come
to a clear understanding of their relation to this
entire problem of philanthropy. If they have in-
spired the commonwealth to undertake these works
of compassion they have done well, but their work
is not yet done; it is hardly conceivable that an
institution which represents Jesus Christ in the
world should ever be able to discharge itself from
responsibility for the poor, the sick, and the un-
fortunate. It has no business on its hands more
urgent than this; it can never convince the world
of the genuineness of its commission unless it is ad-
dressing itself intelligently and efficiently to this
task. (3) The churches of every town or city should
recognize their joint responsibility for the care of
all the poor and the miserable and the unfortunate
of their community. If the State has taken over
some portion of it, still the churches are responsi-
ble for seeing that the work of the State is hu-
manely done. This is a work that can not be
done by the churches without systematic coopera-
tion. If there were no other reason for the union
of the churches of the community, this would be
reason enough. The Christian people of every city
are confronted by poverty, sickness, distress, and
misfortune. They can not count themselves dis-
477
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Social Servioe
ciples of Jesus Christ if they are indifferent to this
call. And they can not meet this responsibility
unless they unite. This is the summons to the or-
ganization of the municipal church, which must
include all who call themselves Christians. Some-
thing which might thus be described ought to exist
in every Christian community. The responsibility
of this body for the care of the needy and the help-
less can not be gainsaid. No creed is needed for
such an organization; it should be simply " the
union of all who love in the service of all who
suffer." (4) In many communities the nucleus of
such an organization already exists. There is a
" Federation of the Churches," or a " United
Brotherhood," which holds occasional union meet-
ings, but sometimes finds it hard to justify its exist-
ence. Let it envisage this task. Let it assume
the responsibility for the philanthropies of the city.
(5) When it is manifest that the churches are united
for this purpose, it will not be difficult to bring the
local charities into cooperation. Most of the workers
in these local charities are members of the churches
and they will recognize the right of the municipal
church to take charge of this business. Thus the
entire field would be covered, every section of the
city would be supervised, and the work would be
so divided among the churches and the other or-
ganizations that there would be no overlapping,
and no failure to reach and relieve cases of real
need. (6) The administration of outdoor relief
would thus be made intelligent and adequate; the
churches by uniting would recover for themselves
that sacred and vital function which through their
divisions they have so largely permitted to lapse,
and they would regain the opportunity of exerci-
sing that friendship which is the primary reason
for their existence. How greatly this would
strengthen their hold upon those portions of the
community which are now largely alienated from
them needs not to be said. The financial burden,
if all the churches shared it, would be very light;
the actual amount of money needed for the relief of
want in American communities is not large; the
help that is needed is moral, rather than material.
Every poor family needs a friend, and in the ma-
jority of cases the less there is of financial assistance
the better for all concerned. (7) This municipal
church would also put itself into closest sympa-
thetic relations with all the voluntary philanthropic
institutions of the city which are studying these
problems, and seeking to make their service more
intelligent and efficient. All these institutions are
dependent on the churches, and there is great need
that their relation to the churches be made more
vital and organic. The municipal church would
have a committee in charge of the interests of each
one of them, watching its work, giving sympathetic
counsel and support, and reporting its needs to the
churches. (8) The municipal church would also
establish helpful relations with the municipal char-
itable and reformatory institutions, with hospitals,
children's homes, work-houses, juvenile courts,
jails, and prisons. Over all the unfortunate in these
places it would exercise a watchful care. There
would be an efficient committee over each of them
observing the conditions, studying the problems,
and keeping the Christian community thoroughly
informed respecting them. It is not to be assumed
that this supervision of public institutions would
be necessarily critical or inquisitorial; it would
normally be sympathetic and helpful; it would only
seek to bring the good-will of the Christian commu-
nity into close and practical relations with some of
its neediest members.
It is a deplorable fact that the organizations
which represent Jesus Christ in our modern com-
munities have no methods of keeping themselves
in touch with the inmates of these public charitable
and correctional institutions. They have passed
all that business over to the State, and have divested
themselves of responsibility for it. It is a faithless
performance. In that impressive parable of the
judgment the Son of man arraigns those who are
brought before him, because, as he says, " I was
sick and in prison and ye visited me not. . . . In-
asmuch as ye did it not to one of these my breth-
ren, even these least, ye did it not to me." Until
the Christian Church in every city or town has put
itself into relations of practical friendship with all
these classes, it is resting under a heavy condem-
nation.
Such are some of the pathological phases of the
philanthropy which the Christian Church in the
modern community may be expected to practise.
But the true philanthropy is not
6. The merely remedial. It seeks to discover
Church's and remove the causes of misery.
Higher And the Christian Church has, for so-
Duties. ciety as well as for the individual, not
only a message of redemption but also
a message of regeneration. It must cleanse the
sources from which want and sickness and vice are
flowing. It is futile to go on relieving all these so-
cial maladies and leave untouched the causes which
constantly produce them. And the municipal
church, when it has once fairly grappled with its
great tasks, will feel that its most important work,
after all, is to give us a new heaven and a new
earth wherein dwelleth righteousness. (1) It will
discover that the sickness and physical debility to
which it is trying to minister are in considerable
part the result of bad housing-conditions, of un-
sanitary tenements and overcrowding, and it will
turn the light on these conditions and stir up a
public sentiment which shall abolish nuisances and
pestilence-breeders, and secure healthy habitations
for the people. (2) It will bring home to the Chris-
tian conscience of the community the fact that in
most of our cities multitudes of children have no
accessible playgrounds but the streets, and that
the conditions there surrounding them are unfavor-
able to the development of sound character. Abun-
dant evidence shows that the streets are the sem-
inaries of vice and crime. Little that is normal in
the life of a child is permitted in them; the tend-
ency of the associations of the street is toward that
which is abnormal and criminal. Safe and well-
regulated playgrounds are a vital need of city boys
and girls and far less costly than the reform schools
to which so many of them are later sent. A few
intelligent men and women have discovered the
importance of this provision and are working to
8ooial Service
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
478
secure it, but the churches are primarily responsible
for the welfare of these bo^s and girls, whether they
belong to their Sunday-schools or not, and it is
their business to educate the community upon
this vital matter. (3) It is hardly needful to dwell
upon the devastations of the drink evil (see Total
Abstinence); nor to point out how large a share
of our philanthropic labors and sacrifices are made
necessary by this destructive vice. The municipal
church will be wide awake to this evil, and may be
depended on to do what it can to abate the injuries
of which the saloons are the source. It is to be
hoped, also, that it may discover the importance of
meeting that bad influence by counter-attractions,
and providing safe places of social resort for the
multitude of homeless young men and women. The
terrible ravages of the social evil will also challenge
the faith and courage of the municipal church.
For much of the poverty, the disease, the crime,
the wreckage of homes is due to this cause. Com-
petent observers of social conditions assure us that
the damage done by the saloons is trivial compared
with this. To whom may people look for an intelli-
gent, thorough, adequate treatment of this social
malady, if not to the Christian Church ? Is it pos-
sible that the institution which is charged with the
moral education of society can venture to ignore
this responsibility? (4) Much of the poverty and
sickness to which we are called to minister is due
to the devitalized condition of the laborers, and this,
in many cases, is the result of child labor in earlier
years. When the municipal church begins to deal
with the causes of the ills it is trying to cure, it
will find here some serious work to do. (5) Unem-
ployment is an ungainly word, but it describes an
ugly thing. Much of it is due to shiftless men or
inefficiency, but by no means all. Two-thirds of
the families which apply in good times to the char-
ity organization societies for aid are in need because
they are out of work. To this tremendous problem
the municipal church must address itself sympa-
thetically and intelligently. This is the gravest of
misfortunes, the sorest of troubles. If any man de-
serves a friend it is the man who is in need and is
willing to work. Such a man ought never to be in
doubt that there is one great friend to whom he
can go, and that is the Christian Church. Such
men generally do go to the ministers; there is a
constant procession of them to the doors of the
study, but it is hardly possible for the minister to
find work for many of them; if the municipal church
were properly organized it would have an employ-
ment bureau. (6) Not a little of the unemploy-
ment and the consequent poverty which taxes
philanthropy is caused by industrial wars. Very
destructive and disastrous to the fortunes and the
characters of employers and employed are these
bitter conflicts; the municipal church ought to be
able to put an end to some of them. It is the repre-
sentative of the Prince of Peace, and it has no
more sacred function than that of the peace-maker.
These are not the only ways in which the muni-
cipal church could exert its influence in removing
the causes of those ills to which it is called to
minister. But enough has been said to make it
clear that when the Christian Church comes to
itself and realizes its opportunity and its respon-
sibility it will find a mighty task upon its hands
and a reason for being of which it has
7. Condu- as yet hardly seemed to be aware. Not
sion. only in relieving existing want and
suffering, but in attacking and remov-
ing their causes, it will rise to its full stature and
fulfil its high calling. It will not be needful to
explain to any one whose church it is; in its life
the life of the Son of man will be reflected. Such a
church will justify its own existence; it will be
evident that its most vital function has been fully
restored to it, and it will recover the credit it has
lost, not only among the less fortunate classes, but
also among all earnest men and women to whom
the common welfare is a serious concern.
Washington Gladden.
IV. Poor-Relief, General Survey: Pre-Christian
times afford no evidence of a systematic relief of
the poor. In the heathen world there were some
approaches to it; such as at Athens
1. The the care of those incapacitated for
Ante- Nicene work and in Rome the distributions
Church, of corn and, from Nerva's reign, the
alimentations. Liberality and per-
sonal benevolence were customary in Israel. An
organized poor-relief, however, was first provided
by Christianity. The beginnings of the care of
the poor in the congregation are noted in the
New Testament; and by the second century the
organization was complete. The means were col-
lected by free gifts; partly through monthly con-
tribution to the parish treasury, and partly through
the oblations made at the celebration of the Lord's
Supper, consisting principally of natural products.
Compulsion to give, direct or indirect, was excluded
(II Cor. ix. 7). The administration of these means
and the general superintendence of poor-relief were
vested in the bishop, who was assisted by several
deacons. The discipline of the Church was a suffi-
cient safeguard against the careless diversion of
such means to the unworthy. The Church has at
no other time more strongly emphasized the duty
of the care for the poor and unfortunate, and at no
other time has it more positively insisted that every-
thing be done freely from the motive of love. As-
sistance was chiefly in kind, and the limited size of
the parishes also made possible an effort to help
each one according to his particular need. Above
all, it was sought to make the poor economically
independent by procuring for them employment
and tools. A poor-list, in which the circumstances
of the needy were described, prevented any being
overlooked. Widows and orphans were special
objects of attention, the education of the latter
being entrusted to the bishop. The sick were at-
tended, and strangers received the privileges of
hospitality. By means of letters of introduction
any stranger coming in Christ's name was kindly
welcomed; and, before examination as to being a
true brother, he was provided with rest and refresh-
ment. He was cared for but two or three days at
the expense of the Church; thereafter he must
work [cf. Didache, xi. 5, ed. P. Schaff., p. 200 and
note, New York, 1890]. The individual parishes
also mutually aided one another. In this period
470
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Social Service
poor-relief actually attained its end, and there was
no want within the Christian communities.
The triumph of the Church under Constantine,
placing as it did large means at its disposal, at first
tended to improve the condition of
2. The the poor. Freedom to receive bequests
Post-Nicene attached the ever-increasing idea that
Church., almsgiving had a penitential efficacy
and opened an abundantly increasing
source of revenue. These means enabled the Church
to extend its poor-relief to meet the growing need
attending the economic decline of the empire. The
poor-lists of the metropolitan churches now num-
bered thousands of names. At Antioch 3,000
widows and young women, and at Alexandria, in
the time of Johannes Eleemon (q.v.), 7,500 poor
were regularly cared for. At the same time there
were poorhouses, orphan-asylums, hospitals, and
guest-houses for pilgrims and strangers. All the
great bishops of the period were true guardians of
the poor. Yet with the expansion of the Church,
the relief of the poor was more and more trans-
ferred from the parishes to the Church at large, or
to institutions. The oblations in increasing meas-
ure lost their significance, the larger part of the
funds being supplied by the Church estates. Grad-
ually the deacons, on account of the complicated
administration of Church estates, made way for
stewards as mediaries between them and the bishop.
A considerable part of the work attended to pre-
viously by the parishes was transferred to the in-
stitutions, and the care of the poor lapsed into a
wholesale almsgiving. Christian chariias came to
be very like the Roman liberated*; the bishops took
the place of the emperor as the great purveyors of
alms. The organized poor-relief of primitive days
ceased, and begging became more and more preva-
lent.
The conditions amidst which the new Frankish
kingdom came into being excluded the poor-relief
of the congregation in the early times. This re-
quired a higher economic basis and
3. The higher development of the cities. In-
Middle stead of administration of money there
Ages. was a return to the distribution of
natural products. The unsuccessful
attempt at the restoration of primitive poor-relief
disappears with the dissolution of the Frankish
Church. Charlemagne had not only enjoined the
Church to bestow on the poor a portion of its tithes,
but promulgated laws compelling landed proprietors
in case of need to support their vassals. In the
famine year of 779 he levied a formal poor-tax.
Begging was expressly prohibited. No landed pro-
prietor was to suffer the poor to go begging on his
domains. No one was to give to beggars who would
not work. But after Charlemagne's death this
scheme of poor-relief quickly fell to pieces. Dur-
ing the ensuing Dark Ages there was no organized
poor-relief by either Church or State. The dictum
that the property of the Church was the possession
of the poor under the influence of the feudal sys-
tem lost its meaning. It was not the parishes that
exercised benevolence, but isolated individuals or
associations in asylums and cloisters. The funda-
mental reason why there was no organized poor-
relief in the Dark Ages was that benevolence was
primarily not to help the poor, but to secure one's
own personal salvation. There was abundant alms-
giving in individual cases and beneficiary funds of
all sorts were established; there were institutions,
orders, and associations; but no effort was made
to reduce the whole to a well-ordered system, and
there was neither coherency nor at bottom the pri-
mary aim to help the poor. The result was general
mendicancy, which was looked upon not as a dis-
grace but as a kind of profession. There were gilds
and brotherhoods of beggars, and towns levied a
tax on the beggar gild as they did on others. The
Liber vagaiorum (Eng. transl., The Book of Vagabonds
and Beggars, London, I860) which Luther repub-
lished, with an introduction, shows that frauds of
every sort were associated with begging. Steps
had to be taken against this state of things, though
it would have been contrary to medieval views alto-
gether to forbid it. Attempts were at least made
to introduce some sort of order, to determine who
might beg and how. These laws became numerous
in the fifteenth century; and as these regulations
of beggars precede the later administration of the
poor, so they mark the first advent in the fifteenth
century of communal poor-relief. This appears
first as associational. Already the ancient work
associations involved the duty of mutual aid. But
now in the towns, independently of the gilds, which
assisted their own poor when necessary, associa-
tions of citizens were formed for the care of the
poor. At first these had no connection with the
local government, which, from the fourteenth cen-
tury, however, came to administer their affairs, and
the associational relief became the communal.
There had arisen, besides, a municipal poor-relief,
an income being derived for that purpose from
funds deposited by citizens with the authorities.
As this work increased, special officers were ap-
pointed to superintend it.
These were, however, but beginnings. The Ref-
ormation awakened fresh motives of active charity,
and set up new aims. By the doctrine
4. The of justification by faith, it struck at
Reformation the motive of the merit of good works
Period, and replaced the same by that of lov-
ing gr&titude. The new aim was not
to secure personal salvation but primarily to relieve
the poor. A new poor-relief was developed, the
outlines of which had appeared in Luther's An den
CkrMichen Add deut&cher Nation (Wittenberg,
1520). Begging was to be abolished not merely by
prohibition but by local provisions for all the poor.
All who could work were to do so, and relief was
restricted to the necessaries of life. It was in effect
the old parish poor-relief of the primitive churches.
In place of ordinances regarding beggary, poor-
laws were passed; first, that of Augsburg (Mar.
21, 1522), more important that of Nuremberg (July
23, 1522). After the Peasants' War the poor-relief
was reorganized with the reconstitution of the
Church-system. Funds were collected in part
through charitable endowments and in part through
collections taken either in the churches or in house-
to-house visitation. Contributions were voluntary
and the funds were administered by overseers known
Social Service
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
480
as treasurers or deacons authorized by the congre-
gation or civil governments; and they were gov-
erned by strict regulations. Excellent as the sys-
tem was in theory, it did not succeed in practise.
The income from endowments was not what had at
first been anticipated; and, after the first enthusi-
asm had subsided, the collections declined. But,
even more important, the overseers were inexpe-
rienced and incompetent. In the Reformed con-
gregations of Germany, France, and particularly
Holland, the aim toward a considerate, personal,
and individual treatment of the poor was success-
fully worked out to the smallest details. In the
Roman Catholic countries and districts voluntary
poor-relief has continued through the various orders
and establishments, though not by parish relief;
and a work has been done to which Protestantism
offers no parallel.
Fundamental are three great types of poor-relief,
of which all others are modifications: namely, the
English, French, and Dutch. Fore-
5. Three most is the English. The law of Eliza-
Modern beth of 1601 has remained to this day
Types, as the basis of poor-relief. In every
parish from two to four citizens in good
standing were appointed overseers of the poor, and
to them was confided the duty of providing work
for all who were without means of support and had
no settled employment. They had the right of
taxing the members of the parish for means of sup-
plying material for the employment of those ca-
pable of work, and for supporting those who were
incapable. The emphasis upon setting to work the
able-bodied led to the rise of workhouses (at first
called " the industrial house "), the first of which
was opened in 1679. In 1713 an act authorized
such workhouses, and any pauper who refused as-
sistance at one was denied it elsewhere. There then
arose a distinction between assistance given in an
institution (indoor relief) and that given outside
(outdoor relief). By the Gilbert act of 1782 and
the act of 1796, outdoor relief was legalized and be-
came the rule. The " allowance " system was
started, by which the difference between actual
earnings and a minimum scale based on market
prices and the size of the family was paid by the
State. Pauperism vastly increased. In 1834 re-
forms were introduced. Outdoor relief was limited.
Poor-associations, called unions, were formed,
each with a board of guardians, composed of the
justices of the peace and selected members of the
parish, to distribute relief. A central board of com-
missioners, the poor-law board, was established,
which from 1872 has been subordinated to the local
government board. This system is now entirely a
matter of civil administration; its aim is, by in-
door strictness and hard labor, to diminish the
numbers of outdoor paupers. It is lacking in the
element of training and promotion, not providing
suitably for the sick, the weak, or the unfortunate
by accident. The civil poor-relief confines itself
only to the immediate necessities and leaves the
rest to benevolent initiative, and nowhere else have
societies and institutions of free beneficence mul-
tiplied as in England.
In France the constitution of July 4, 1793, pro-
claimed that public poor-relief was a sacred obliga-
tion. It was proposed by a decree of July 7, 1794,
to acquire the hospitals and other private institu-
tions. Workshops were to be opened for those who
could work, and a yearly pension given to those
who could not. Of this scheme the only part put
into execution was that connected with the destruc-
tion of the old system. After the Revolution be-
nevolent institutions so far as possible were restored
to the Church, and Napoleon I. reestablished the
orders of relief and granted every sort of State rec-
ognition and support. The old orders and congre-
gations increased and new ones were gradually
added; and relief rests mainly upon the voluntary
aid of these. By a decree of Nov. 27, 1796, local
boards (bureaux de bienfaisance) were established
in the ecclesiastical communes, to render house-re-
lief; but these are not in conflict with the institu-
tions. These boards were not, however, made com-
pulsory, and in 1897 existed in less than one-half of
the communes. They have no power to levy assess-
ments. The State has, however, taken over the care
of the young and the insane and assigned them to
the poor regulations of the departments.
The Thirty- Years' War almost put an end to
poor-relief in Germany. After the war numerous
regulations were adopted, but rather to prevent
begging than to aid the poor. Toward the end of
the seventeenth century workhouses and houses
of correction were established. The Pietist move-
ment, by its free impulse toward charity, and the
Enlightenment (q.v.), by its humanism, contrib-
uted toward the progress of poor-relief. For the
first time a comprehensive literature on poor-relief
sprang up and from 1870 there has been an earnest
effort for reform. A general institution for poor-
relief was established at Hamburg, and widely
copied. The basis for the care of the poor
was really laid, however, by the general law of
June 6, 1870, on the principle adopted in
Prussia Dec. 31, 1842, and gradually extended to
include all of the empire excepting Bavaria and
Alsace-Lorraine. According to this the former home-
relief was replaced by that of dependent residence,
qualification for which was established by two-years'
standing in the parish or lost by a two-years' ab-
sence. Whoever has no dependent residence is
called " land poor." Whenever any one within this
privilege happens to be in want the local charity
must take cognizance of the same. The work is in
general in charge of poor-associations, and its char-
acter and scope are determined by the laws of the
different states, to which imperial legislation has
entrusted all details. The Elberfeld system has
been extensively and successfully introduced. The
essential characteristic of this is the principle that
to the individual overseer only a very small number
of dependents (not more than four) are assigned
with the largest freedom of adaptation, limited only
by general directions. The theoretical result of
the evolution of poor-relief is summed up in the
phrase, promotion of self-support; and the prac-
tical result was voiced in the expression of the
charity congress of 1857 at Frankfort — the organic
cooperation of the civic authorities, the church
offices, and voluntary associations. The Church
481
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Social Service
fulfils an intermediate function between the private
relief of individuals and associations, and the civic
relief, being voluntary like the former and organ-
ised like the latter. The Church fosters the motive
of voluntary charity and has regard in the distribu-
tion for the religious-moral welfare of the benefici-
aries, especially of the young. The State acts in
regard to its own safety, is impartial to all, and thus
has the advantage of strict and just discrimination,
systematic administration, and enforced contribu-
tion. The legitimate sphere of the charity of the
Church is in the congregation, which is concurrent
with that of the municipality and the State. See
Charity. (G. Uhlhorn1\)
V. Poor-Relief in the United States: Two general
methods of poor-relief exist in the United States;
outdoor relief, and indoor (or institutional) relief.
Each of these classes is subdivided into private and
public relief. Public relief is relief given wholly or
in part from public funds (state, coun-
x. Early ty, or municipal). Private relief is
Practise, relief given from funds administered
by private organizations or societies
receiving their funds from voluntary contributions,
endowments, and the like. The basis of public
poor-relief in the United States is the almshouse
or poorhouse, the terms being synonymous. In
early American life, inmates of poorhouses were
let out to the lowest bidder, a system obviously
unjust to the pauper. Poorhouses in the early
nineteenth century were, so to speak, a human
refuse heap for the dependent and defective
classes. Abuses were frequent and the conditions
of subsistence and existence of the inmates were
anything but satisfactory. In the early middle
period of the nineteenth century, special insti-
tutions began to be established for special classes
of dependents and defectives. To-day in many
parts of the country children under two years of
age, the insane, the epileptic, and the more markedly
feeble-minded have been removed from the poor-
house and placed in special institutions, generally
under the State authorities. The residue of the
poorhouse is composed largely of the aged and in-
firm. Most poorhouses shelter temporarily the
tramp and vagrant classes, thereby perpetuating
the existence of vagabonds, who are able-bodied
but live in idleness. In many modern poorhouses
the cottage system of construction and classifica-
tion is in vogue. In New England and in the Middle
Atlantic States the poorhouses are generally under
township management; in other parts of the coun-
try they are under county management. However,
in over one-half of the counties in the United States
there are no poorhouses. Instead, paupers are
maintained by so-called public relief or " board-
ing-out " under the supervision of overseers or
similar officials, comparable to the English " re-
lieving officer." The boarding-out system lias its
advocates on the ground of economy. While efforts
are made with increasing frequency to control tend-
encies to pauperism and special aid through poor-
relief, it must still be said that much of the public
outdoor relief given to American dependents is mis-
directed or palliative, in that the relief results, at
the best, in the perpetuation or reduction of pau-
X.— 31
perism in the individual case, but does not prevent
the pauperism of others.
American poor-laws are based largely on English
poor-laws. Settlement with the subsequent right
to poor-relief is obtained through residence, the
time necessary to acquire settlement differing in
the various States from several months to several
years. Much of the difficulty in wisely adminis-
tering poor-relief in the United States arises from
the temporary character of the appointments to
office of the overseers of the poor, and their conse-
quent lack of training in the best principles of
charitable relief; partly also from the migratory
nature of many of the families and individuals in
receipt of poor-relief. Vagrancy laws are lax and
indifferently enforced. The " passing-on system "
of relieving the community of a considerable part
of the burden of poor-relief is so frequent as to be
a subject of much serious discussion among pro-
gressive charity workers.
The United States is rich in certain forms of be-
nevolent institutions. The special census report of
benevolent institutions in 1905 shows 4,207 institu-
tions of all kinds, 2,166 of which were known to
have been in existence in 1890, 2,004
2. Modern having been founded between 1890
Conditions and 1903 inclusive. Of these there
and were 1,075 orphanages and children's
Methods, homes, 1,493 hospitals, 753 perma-
nent homes for adults and children,
449 temporary homes for adults and children, 166
nurseries, 156 dispensaries, 61 schools and homes
for the deaf, 39 schools and homes for the blind,
15 schools and homes for the deaf and blind. The
total population Dec. 31, 1904, was 284,362; in-
mates admitted during 1904, exclusive of dispensa-
ries and nurseries, 204,372. Cost of maintenance,
1903, $55,577,633, of which the annual subsidy from
public funds was $6,089,226. This enumeration
omits all almshouses, public and private hospitals
for the insane, and schools for the feeble-minded,
as well as institutional activities of an occasional
character. Special census reports on the above-
named institutions show the following:
Admitted
Deo. 31, during
1903. 1904.
Insane in hospitals 160,151 49.022
Feeble-minded in institutions 14,347 2,599
Paupers in almshouses 81,764 81,412
246,262 133,633
Total for 1904 379395
An article in The Metropolitan Magazine for Oct.,
1909, estimates as follows New York State's char-
itable expenditures for 1907:
Institutions reporting to the State Board of
Charity $23398,013
Institutions and organisations not reporting to
board 17,000,000
Hospitals for insane, etc 5,927,000
Churches 3,000,000
Individuals 15,179,770
$65,004,783
The same article estimates that $260,019,132, or
over a quarter of a billion, annually is expended for
charity in the United States.
Sooial Serrice
Sodftliwn
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOQ
482
In about 200 cities in the United States there
are charity organizations or similar private socie-
ties, the fundamental principles of which are the
relief of the poor in their homes, registration of
cases, cooperation with other charitable societies,
careful investigation of applications for relief, or
other aid. In some cities, notably New York, no
public outdoor relief is given by the city; the pri-
vate charitable societies alone caring for the poor
in their homes. In most cities the charitable or-
ganizations and the public poor-officials work more
or less in harmony in the administration of poor-
relief. In general, institutions for special classes
of the dependent and physically or mentally de-
fective are under state or other governmental man-
agement. Almost every state has a public super-
visory body, generally appointed by the governor
to inspect and advise, and, in some states, to
administer state charitable institutions. Generali-
zing, it may be said that poor-relief in the nineteenth
century saw three general stages of development.
The first, the development of institutions for the
care of the various classes of the poor; secondly, the
development of the system of the care of the poor
in their homes in which the relief of the individual
family was the goal. The third stage developed
from about 1895, and is marked by increasing
efforts to prevent pauperism.
The doctrine of prevention has become practically
a gospel in charitable work. The most prominent
movements to-day in preventive charity are tene-
ment-house reform, warfare against tuberculosis,
against child labor, the movement for parks and
playgrounds, the movement for the reduction of con-
gestion of population, for prison reform, for better
health, and many other like movements. The prob-
lem of poor-relief in the United States is becoming a
national problem of the reduction of poverty. The
public press, periodicals, magazines, etc., are lay-
ing special emphasis upon charitable and correc-
tional problems. Charity workers are emphasi-
zing the prominence of heredity and environment
as causes of poverty, and take the standpoint that
with the reduction or removal of preventable con-
ditions, due to heredity and environment, poverty
will be reduced. ' O. F. Lewis.
Bibliography: On the history the standard work is G.
U hi horn, Die christliche Liebesthatigkeit, 3 vols., Stuttgart,
1882-90, Eng. transl. of vol. i., Christian Charity in the
Ancient Church, New York, 1883. Consult further on the
history: E. L. Chastel, ittudes historiques aur V influence
de la chariti durant lea premiere aiecles, Paris, 1853; A.
Emminghaus, Doe Armenweeen und die ArmengeseUge-
bung der europaischen Staaten, Berlin, 1870; A. Thijm, De
Geetichten van Liefdadigheid in Belgie van Karel d. Gr. tot
aan de xvi. eeuw, in Memoirs couronnea of the Royal Acad-
emy, vol. xlv., Brussels, 1883; idem. Lea Hoapitaux en
Belgique en moyen-dge, Lowen, 1883; B. Riggenbach, Dae
Armenweeen der Reformation, Basel, 1883; G. Ratxin-
ger, Qeschichte der kirchlichen Armenpflege, Freiburg, 1884;
C. J. R. Turner, Hiat. of Vagrants and Vagrancy, London,
1887; D. Tourbie, Daniechea Armenrecht, Berlin, 1888; F.
H. Wines, Report on the Defective, Dependent, and Delin-
quent Classes, U. S. census, Washington, 1888; H. G.
Willink, Dutch Home Labour Colonies, London, 1889; R.
P. Lamond, The Scottish Poor Lowe, Glasgow, 1892; L. A.
Rubbrecht, Rcmedee contra le pauperiame, Brussels, 1892;
B. H. Dahlberg, Bidrog tell Svenaka Fattiglagetiftningena
Historia. Upsala, 1893; E. Chevallier, La Loidea pauvrea
et la sociSte anglaiae, Paris, 1895; J. Cummings, Poor-Lawa
of Massachusetts and New York, Baltimore, 1895; W. G.
Lumley, Union Assessment Acta and the Poor Rate Act,
London, 1895; A. Loth, La ChariU catholique en Franc*
avant le revolution, Tours, 1896; Sir G. Nicholls, A Hiat.
of the English Poor Law, 2 vols., London, 1898; E.
Mischler, Die Armenpflege und Wohlthatigkeit in Oester-
reich, Vienna, 1899; E. M. Leonard, Early Hiat. of Eng.
liah Poor Relief, Cambridge, 1900; O. B. P. G. de Qeron,
Assistance publique et bienfaiaance privie, Paris, 1901;
W. H. Diemsday, Hodden* a Overseers' Handbook, London,
1901; J. B. Little, The Poor Law Statutes, 3 vols., London,
1901; P. F. Aschrott, The English Poor Law System, Lon-
don, 1902; H. S. Brown, American Philanthropy in the
19th Century, 2 vols., New York, 1902; A. Hoffmann and
H. Simon, Wohlfahrtspflege in Rheinland und Westfalen,
DQsseldorf, 1902; L. Lallemand. Hist, de la chariU, 4 vols.,
Paris, 1902-10; J. J. Esser, De pauperum extra apud Ro-
manes, Campis (?), 1902; C. A. Ellwood, Public Relief and
Private Charity in England, Columbia, Mo., 1903; B. Kuske,
Dae Schuldenweeen der deutschen Stadte im Mittelalter, Tu-
bingen, 1904; E. Mareseont du Thilleul, L' Assistance pub-
lique a Paris, 2 vols., Paris, 1904; E. Sellers, The Danish
Poor Relief System, London, 1904; K. Singer, Sociale FVr-
sorge, Munich, 1904; B. K. Gray, Hist, of English Phi-
lanthropy, London, 1905 (important); E. W. Capen, His-
torical Development of the Poor Law of Connecticut, New
York, 1905; J. E. Graham, The Law Relating to the Poor,
Edinburgh, 1905 (deals with Scotland); E. von M Oiler,
Die Elendenbruderschaften. Bin Beitrag tur Qeschichte der
Fremdenfursorge im Mittelalter, Leipsic, 1906; F. Apple-
ton, Church Philanthropy in New York, New York, 1907;
M. Fluegel, The Humanity, Benevolence and Charity Legis-
lation of the Pentateuch and the Talmud; in Parallel with
the Laws of Hammurabi, the Doctrine of Egypt, the Roman
Twelve Tables, and modem Codes, Baltimore, 1908; M.
Godbey, The Bible and the Problem of Poverty, New York,
1908; E. C. Rayner, Story of the Christian Community,
1686-1009. A notable Record of Christian Labour in Lon-
don Workhouses and Lodging Houses, London, 1909; J. J.
Walsh, The Thirteenth, Greatest of Centuries, New York,
1909; R. M. Berry, Germany of the Germans, ib. 1010
(deals with poor laws); Schaff, Christian Church, vol. v.,
. part 2, i 79; the Proceedings of the national, state, and
municipal Conferences on Charities and Corrections and the
Annual Reports of the boards of charities, etc., of the vari-
ous states and cities.
On the theory and practise in various countries consult:
A. Baron, Le Pauperiame, Paris, 1882; J. Piatt, Poverty,
London, 1884; C. V. Bohmert, Das Armenweeen in 77
deutschen Stadten, 3 parts, Dresden, 1880-88; W. Booth,
In Darkest England and the Way out, London, 1890; E. G.
Balch, Public Assistance of the Poor in France, London,
1893; H. G. Borgesius, Het Vraagstuk der Armerzoroing,
Amsterdam, 1895; J. A. Hobson, The Problem of the Un-
employed, London, 1896; B. Gewin, Arbeidsbeurzen,
Utrecht, 1898; W. C. and R. C. Glen, General Orders of
the Poor Law Commissioners and the Local Government
Board Relating to the Poor Law, London, 1898; E. T.
Devine, Practice of Charity, New York, 1901; idem, Essen-
tials of a Relief Policy, New York, 1903; idem, Princi-
ples of Relief, ib. 1904; idem. Misery and its Causes, ib.
1909; C. R. Henderson, Introduction to the Study of the
Dependent and Defective Classes and of their Treatment, 2d
ed., Boston, 1901; idem, Modern Methods of Charity:
the Systems of Relief ... in the principal Countries hav-
ing modern Methods, New York, 1904; T. Mackay, Public
Relief of the Poor, London, 1901; H. Albrecht, Handbuch
der sotialen W ' ohlfahrtspflege in Deutschland, 2 parts, Ber-
lin, 1902; Beitrage tur Armenstatistik, Jena, 1902; P. C.
J. A. Bodes, Armengoederen en Armenbesturen in Fries-
land, Leeuwarden, 1902; T. B. Chilcott, Law Relating to
the Administration of Charities, London, 1902; J. A. Riis,
The Battle with the Slum, New York, 1902; J. Sutter, Brit-
ain* s Next Campaign, London, 1903; R. Hunter, Poverty,
New York, 1904; M. Higgs, How to Deal with the Unem-
ployed, London, 1904; J. Ladoff, American Pauperism
and the Abolition of Poverty, Chicago, 1904; C. S. Loch,
Methods of Social Advance, London, 1904; E. U. Pasini,
La Difesa dd Povero, Perugia, 1904; C. F. Rogers, Char-
itable Relief, London, 1904; P. Aid en, The Unemployed,
London, 1905; Y. E. de Froment, UAasiatance Ugale et
la lutte centre le pauperiame en Angleterre, Paris, 1905;
A. Niceforo, Lea Classes pauvrea, Paris, 1905; W. Reason,
Our Industrial Outcasts, London, 1905, A. G. Warner,
American Charities, revised ed., Boston, 1908; H. M
483
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Soolal Servioe
Socialism
Conyngton, How to Help. A Manual of Practical Charity,
London, 1910; W. Cunningham, Chrietianity and Social
Questions, New York, 1910; C. S. Loch, Charity and Social
Life, A short Study of Religious and Social Thought in
Eolation to Charitable Method* and Institution*, London
and New York, 1910; H. F. Ward, Social Ministry; an
Introduction to the Study and Practice of Social Service,
New York, 1910; J. W. Harper, The Church and Social
Betterment, Glasgow, 1910; W. J. Tucker, The Function of
the Church in Modern Society, Boston, 1911.
I. Definition.
II. Communism.
III. Ancient and Medieval Socialism.
IV. Modern Socialism.
1. The Preparation.
2. The First Period.
SOCIALISM.
3. The Second Period.
In Germany (} 1).
In France, Italy, England, and
Russia (ft 2).
In the United States (J 3).
V. The Demands of Organised So-
cialists.
VI. Socialism Untried.
VII. Advantages Claimed.
VIII. The Claims Considered.
IX. Criticism.
X. Improvements Needed.
XI. The Relation of the Church.
L Definition: The term Socialism, derived from
the Latin, socialis, from socius, " a companion,"
came into general use in 1835. It has passed through
many changes of definition. It implies administra-
tion in the interests of society as a whole, so as to
afford equal individual opportunity. This may be
accomplished by the voluntary association of some
of the individuals in a community, or of all the per-
sons within a definite region. When extended over
a national territory, it has been termed national-
ism. As most frequently employed, the term, so-
cialism, denotes control by organized society of
land and capital, of industrial production, and of
the distribution of the income therefrom. Political
socialists ordinarily demand State ownership of
land and of the instruments of production. Under
the fire of criticism there has been a tendency to
abandon this extreme position. The abler social-
istic writers show themselves ready to accept ex-
perimentation, advancing toward the theoretic goal
only so far as may be proved practicable. The plat-
forms of political parties, however, which alone can
be accepted as authoritative utterances, have in no
respect relinquished the full nationalist program.
n. Communism: The extreme form of social-
ism is termed Communism (q.v.), which, in strict
application, is the ownership in common of all pos-
sessions, public control and rearing of children, and
the abolition of the marriage tie. In consequence
of the universal odium felt toward the communists
of Paris because of the atrocities of 1871, the word
is now rarely used by socialistic writers. As a
working system, communism, even when the right
of separate families is respected, has not exhibited
elements of permanence. Ancient and modern in-
stances have been short-lived, showing greatest
persistence when cemented by a common religious
conviction. The monastic establishments of the
Middle Ages, purely communistic in organization,
separated the sexes; and similar to these were the
Brethren of the Common Life (see Common Life,
Brethren of the). The Libertines (q.v., 3) and
the Familists (q.v.) were well-known communists
of the Reformation period. John Ball, the Wy-
cliffite priest, who instigated the Wat Tyler rebel-
lion, was a medieval socialist, claiming that the peo-
ple had been robbed of their proprietorship in the
common land.
UL Ancient and Medieval Socialism: Socialistic
features were found in the constitutions of Athens
and Sparta, combined with slavery. Of the theo-
retic systems the more noted were Plato's " Repub-
lic," More's Utopia (Louvain, 1516), Campanella's
" City of the Sun " (Frankfort, 1623), and James
Harrington's Common-Wealth of Oceana (London,
1656), which last advocated a limited monarchy,
having its revenue from public lands.
IV. Modern Socialism: The Socialism of to-day
springs from three national sources: France con-
tributed the doctrine of personal liberty and equal-
ity, England demonstrated the value of coopera-
tion, Germany presented the ideal of the socialistic
state.
1. The Preparation: The preparation for mod-
ern socialism came from the French philosophic
literature of the eighteenth century. The chief
writers were Voltaire, Rousseau (qq.v.), De Mably,
Morelly, De Warville, Boissel, and Mabeuf . These
writers gave direction to the popular unrest of
France, and laid the theoretic foundation for a so-
cialistic state marked by liberty, equality, and
mediocrity, in which the inefficient, the indolent,
and the unfortunate would find provision, and the
refinements of civilization would take their chances.
It was Jean Pierre Brissot de Warville who wrote
La proprUU exclusive est un vol, which trenchant
sentence supplied to Proudhon his famous La pro-
prUU e'est le voly " proprietorship is robbery."
These men aimed at the subversion of the existing
system in France, some of them taking part in the
Revolution of 1789. Their writings prepared for
the work of their successors in the following century.
In England during this period Adam Smith pub-
lished The Wealth of Nations in 1776. Contempo-
raneous with this literary movement was the de-
velopment of the factory system, the adoption of
steam power, and of the machinery at that time
invented. The resultant evils called forth the first
Peel factory legislation in 1802; and with Robert
Owen's report to the parliamentary committee on
the poor laws in 1817 began the English contribu-
tion to modern socialism. In that report Owen
recommended segregating workers in communities
of 1,200, where they should live in one building, and
work and its products should be in common. Ex-
periments attempted in England and America met
with only temporary success.
Modern Socialism may be treated in two periods:
the first extending from 1817 to the middle of the
century, the second from that time to the present.
8. The First Period: When the Reform Bill of
1832 extended the franchise to the middle classes
Socialism
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
in England, the wage-earners regarded themselves
as betrayed, and there resulted a movement known
as Chartism, which demanded universal manhood
suffrage. In 1848 the excitement became acute,
and the cause was espoused by certain philanthro-
pists, terming themselves Christian Socialists, among
whom Frederick Denison Maurice, Charles Kings-
ley (qq.v.), and Ludlow were the leaders. They en-
couraged the wage-earners to form cooperative as-
sociations, the value of which approved itself widely;
and the movement, merging with that of coopera-
tion, disappeared from public view (see Christian
Socialism). The pioneer in France was Saint
Simon (q.v.), whose writings founded socialism on
the teachings of Christ, stripped of traditional ad-
ditions. His noble aim was defeated by the sensual
mysticism of his followers. Fourier advocated com-
munities of 1,800 persons, living in a great building
a community life with free affinity instead of mar-
riage. Experiments in France and America failed.
Louis Blanc favored workshops -under State rules,
with superintendents elected by the operatives, and
equal wages for all. The experiments by the pro-
visional government of 1848, though failures, were
not determinative of the value of the scheme.
Proudhon opposed the immorality of the earlier
socialists and advocated equality of wages and the
confiscation of private property. His famous say-
ing derived from De Warville, " Proprietorship is
robbery," underlies the present socialist demand
for the confiscation of all property employed in pro-
duction. He expected a high moral development
in society, under which government should become
unnecessary because of human excellence. The
stern repression of the socialists by the government
in June, 1848, and the apparent prosperity of the
second empire put an end to socialistic agitation
until the rise of the present republic. German so-
cialism begins with Johann Karl Rodbertus (1805-
1875), whom many regard as the founder of so-
called scientific socialism. He based his doctrine on
the assertion that labor is the source and measure
of all value, and demanded nationalization of land
and capital for the purpose of abolishing the commer-
cial crises which deprive men of work. He attacked
the individualistic system as productive of such
crises, and called for a gradual change without
revolution.
8. The Second Period: As with Rodbertus, the
activity of other distinguished socialists, overlap-
ping the middle of the century, falls chiefly in the
second period. Ferdinand Lassalle advocated a
l in new P0^03-! Par*y» devoted to the in-
Oermany Merest of the wage-earner. He claimed
that the wage-earners received a com-
pensation sufficient to provide merely a bare exist-
ence, which statement has been called the " iron
law of wages." He argued for productive coopera-
tion by associations aided by State loans. Two
names, Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, are closely
associated as the founders of the revolutionary
school of so-called scientific socialism, which may
be dated from the manifesto of the communist
party in 1848. This was a somewhat incoherent de-
fense of the abolition of private property, closing
with an appeal to the socialists of all nations to
unite. In 1867 the masterpiece of Marx, Das Kapi-
tal, set forth his economic theory of surplus value,
which was virtually Lassalle's " iron law of wages,"
asserting that the wage-earner in industry received
a bare subsistence and that the surplus of his prod-
uct went to the capitalist. He advocated govern-
mental ownership and control of land, capital, and
all productive and distributive industry, remunera-
tion of workers by certificates representing hours
of labor, and payment for all workers regardless of
quantity and quality solely according to the num-
ber of work-hours. Organized in 1862, the off-
spring of previous associations, the International
Association of Working Men, better known as " The
International," held world congresses until 1873.
Beginning with the recommendation of cooperative
societies, these bodies later demanded nationaliza-
tion of the means of communication, mines, forests,
and land, the abolition of rent, interest, profit, and
all remuneration to capital. The International op-
posed itself to war, but lauded the communists of
Paris in 1871 as martyrs to the cause of the wage-
earners. In the congress of 1872 the Russian an-
archists aroused serious strife which resulted in the
death of the organization in the following year. In
1889, however, and frequently since then, interna-
tional congresses have been held, notably one in
London in 1896, disturbed by anarchists, who were
thereupon excluded. The socialist movement in
Germany advanced in two parallel lines, the aim of
the one being socialization through the state, and
that of the other the establishment of a cooperative
system independent of state interference and grad-
ually absorbing all industry. By a fusing of exist-
ing parties in 1875 was formed the present Social-
istic Working Men's Party, which aims to convert
" private property in the means of production into
social property," and to conduct all production and
distribution under social control.
For some time succeeding the fall of the Paris
commune French socialism was under a shadow,
and suffered from differences which
*• *** were reconciled and ended in 1905 by
VJ^?0*' the formation of a united party, de-
England cku^g f°r the transformation " of the
and Russia, capitalistic organization of society into
a collectivist or communal organiza-
tion." In 1892 the socialists of Italy separated
from anarchism, but have since suffered from dis-
sension, and have shown their activity chiefly in
municipal work, in strikes, and in cooperation.
After the wane of the Owen and the Christian so-
cialist movements in England, though some Eng-
lishmen took part in the International, socialism
evidently lost influence among the people. In 1884
two organizations came into existence, the Social
Democratic Federation in politics and the Fabian
Society in educational activity. The strength of
the trade-unions and the native conservatism of
the English workman have hindered the acceptance
of socialistic principles. The great dock strike of
1888 aroused a new interest which issued in the
organization of the Independent Labor Party. The
socialistic vote in parliament presents a steadily in-
creasing influence. In 1908 the conference of the
labor party of Great Britain, formerly conserva-
485
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Sooialiam
tive, declared for State control of production. The
Russian Socialists, generally known as Anarchists,
except in methods differ little from those of other
nations. Their chief aim is the abolition of the
central despotism and the establishment of free
federation of free associations, that is to say, the
universal adoption of the Mir or Russian communal
village government.
In the United States, after the early community
experiments, organized socialism dates from 1868
with the founding of the German Labor Association
which became a section of the Inter-
TT itad B^onal. *n 1874 was organized the
States body which became the Socialist Labor
Party of North America. In 1897 a
rival socialist party was organized, which, on re-
ceiving large accessions from the older party in
1899, took as its title the Socialist Party. In 1908
the Socialist Party polled 420,464 votes.
V. Demands of Organized Socialists: Socialistic
parties are agreed on the principle of collective
ownership and administration of the factors of pro-
duction, the means of transportation and commu-
nication, and the method of distribution. In re-
gard to the application of the details socialists are
widely at variance. Whether all land, all machin-
ery, all wage-paying shall be controlled by govern-
ment are matters on which are held diverse views,
though the political programs generally demand
complete nationalization. While desiring to abol-
ish rent paid to landowners, socialists expect rent
to be paid to the State. Interest on loans and divi-
dends on stock are regarded as unearned income
which should be abolished. As the State cares for
the individual, socialists demand that inheritance
be denied, the savings of all passing to the State on
their death. The immediate demands of the Euro-
pean socialistic parties call for little more than the
freedom and protection enjoyed by the American
citizen. The Russian desires the abolition of the
central government; the German, of the paternal
State; the French desire the State to assume the
entire industrial direction. The control of industry
by restriction, direction, and publicity, exercised
by the state and federal governments as it is ad-
ministered in this land, inasmuch as it is exercised
collectively, is socialism as far as it extends. In
the multitudinous duties of the factory inspector,
in protective labor laws, in the limitation of the
labor of women and children, and in the control of
corporations by commission, the American state
employs a direction of industry which is socialistic.
VL Socialism Untried: The socialistic state or
cooperative commonwealth of thorough-going so-
cialism has never proved itself by experiment.
What has been tried, has been the socialistic com-
munity within the competitive state. A few such
communities, founded on strong religious senti-
ment, have survived a century. The majority, ex-
hibiting a purely economic socialism, have been
short-lived. Whether, therefore, an economic or-
ganization, possessing the materials and conducting
the production of all economic goods, could be
made successful, is a question purely theoretical.
Cooperative societies for production and distribu-
tion have maintained themselves successfully in
the presence of competition, especially in Belgium
and England; but these enjoy the stimulus of com-
petition. The claims made by socialistic writers
are, therefore, based merely on conjecture, a con-
dition to be remembered in estimating the advan-
tages claimed for the system.
VEL Advantages Claimed: The chief claims of
advantage over the competitive system may be
thus stated: (1) The saving of the capital wasted
in duplicating productive agencies, as parallel rail-
ways and light, telephone and telegraph systems
on the same territory, etc. (2) The saving of com-
petitive advertising, trade solicitation, and the
like. (3) Scientific adjustment of production to
consumption, thus avoiding economic crises. (4)
The guaranty of a comfortable living to all men.
(5) The abolition of the middle-man in disposal of
goods. (6) The development of unselfishness
throughout society. (7) The abolition of litigation
concerning property. (8) The termination of trade
disputes and strikes.
VIIL The Claims Considered: An examination
of these claims reveals their weakness. It is evi-
dent that State socialism involves a radical over-
turning of the economic basis of society. To ap-
prove itself to calm judgment, it must be shown
not only that State socialism must be more effect-
ive than the present system, but also that it would
be better than any possible modification of the pres-
ent system. Over against the above claims, con-
sidered in order, may be stated the following:
(1) Duplication is not necessarily waste. Parallel
railways often prove their value by developing new
regions for increased market supply. The opera-
tion of the economic law of combination tends to
the elimination of unnecessary duplication, while
by government regulation unwise duplication may
be checked. (2) Under socialism a large amount
of advertising would still be necessary to inform
the public of the usefulness of State products.
Combination and agreement have the tendency to
reduce wasteful competitive advertising. All the
necessary saving might be had apart from socialism.
(3) It has always been to the interest of producers
to make a scientific adjustment of production to
consumption. Thus far there is no known method
sufficient for the task. It remains to be proved
that human foresight can prevent economic crises.
The socialist claim is sheer assumption. It must be
shown in what way and by what wisdom this adjust-
ment can be made, and also that it would be im-
possible under the individualist system. (4) By
discouragement of the captains of industry, de-
moralization of the most thrifty and skilful work-
ers, and denial of adequate rewards to stimulate in-
vention, socialism would disastrously impair the
productivity of society. All would be approximate-
ly on the same level, which would be a condition
of general poverty. (5) The present middle-men
would be largely replaced by officials required to
manage the distribution of the products. Even
under competition there is a tendency to eliminate
the middle-men. The claim remains to be proved.
(6) Far from developing a spirit of unselfishness,
socialism, by its denial of just reward to skill and
diligence, would produce a spirit of discontent on
Sooialim
Society of Vary
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
486
the part of the most able in society, who would be
tempted to reduce their production to the meager
output of the least valuable workers. (7) As per-
sonal property would still exist and rights would be
established in connection with rentals, there would
still be large room for invasion of rights and conse-
quent litigation, especially if the right of gift and
of inheritance were maintained. Industrial differ-
ences would require judicial adjustment in more
instances than under the present system in which
there is so much of negotiation between the inter-
ested persons. (8) Socialism does not remove the
cause or the occasion of strikes, it merely shifts the
basis; the contention, instead of being between
private or corporate employer and employed, will
be between the government and the employed.
Complaints that some workers receive an undue
proportion of the wealth produced, will doubtless
be submitted to arbitration; but strikes would fol-
low that arbitration as frequently as now. It is
only on the Marxian basis of time payment regard-
less of quantity and quality of output that strikes
would disappear; and, if that system were estab-
lished, there soon would be a revolt of the more
efficient workers.
IX. Criticism: In addition to these categorical
strictures other objections of greater force may be
presented: (1) Socialism would largely terminate
individual opportunity. The individual would no
longer be free to choose that work for which he is
best fitted. All would be required to accept what
the government indicated. What is unfortunately
true of some to-day, would become the rule for all.
(2) The demand for the nationalization of the soil
may have some ground of reason in Europe where
the toiler is excluded from the land held by great
estates. It is foundationless in this country where
it is difficult to obtain a sufficient number of per-
sons to till the soil. (3) The doctrine of the in-
creasing misery of the wage-earners, prominent in
the Manifesto of 1848, is still held by some social-
ists, though abandoned by the more intelligent,
who substitute the claim that the difference in the
economic comfort of rich and poor is increasing.
The latter claim is unsubstantiated, the former de-
monstrably false. (4) The tyranny of socialism
would necessarily result in arrest of the general
progress. The advance of civilisation has come of
individual initiative; socialism removes opportu-
nity by suppressing individual production. Some
socialists claim that the industrial phase of govern-
ment would be conducted by the same men who are
now industrial leaders. They fail to show how the
most able are to be discovered and advanced to
leadership. Under the competitive system the man
who has the best machine or method of manage-
ment passes the less progressive. Under socialism
the men who are in control will not look with favor
on the inventive person whose success would in-
volve their retirement. Society will thus be robbed
of the elements of progress which competition sup-
plies. (5) The claim that the ablest will be the
leaders is, however, without foundation. The high-
est talent can not be enlisted by a system which
robs it of its adequate rewards; and, if coerced by
stern necessity, will not have the spirit to give its
best work. Furthermore, the structure of the in-
dustrial system will be political, not economic. The
men in office will be the plausible and the talkative,
not the thinkers and organizers. Such men will
rigorously exclude from office the men who might
achieve for society. (6) This absorption of all
power by the political demagogue would be im-
pregnably fortified by the absolute control and cen-
sorship of the press by the government which
would suppress all external publication. As the
government could not publish everything offered,
it would be necessary to have a body to determine
what books and what newspaper or magazine arti-
cles should be published. All articles and books
seeking to expose government corruption would be
sternly suppressed, and the one method of inform-
ing the public would thus be closed to all reform-
ers. Under these conditions the arrest of general
progress would be complete. (7) Although the
more intelligent socialists, recognizing the share
in production of inventive and organizing genius,
the grades of skill, the participation of insurance,
interest, and provision for replacement, have aban-
doned the Marxian doctrine of equal payment for
all workers, manual and mental, according to the
number of work-hours; nevertheless, the mass of
socialists cling to the doctrine and proclaim it as
their aim. This would be the robbery of the skilled
in favor of the unskilled, robbery of the head-worker
to enrich the hand-worker, an exploitation as un-
just as any wrong of which socialists complain in
the present system. (8) Socialists perceive that
the institution of the family within the socialistic
system threatens the prosperity and permanence of
the system, as it constitutes an interest more en-
grossing than the body politic. This has been the
defect in those experiments which have perished.
Attack is, therefore, made upon the family by sug-
gesting the separate support of the mother while
she cares for her children, the public rearing and
care of children, and even free and terminable mar-
riages. Another attack on the family appears in the
desire to abolish inheritance, first openly stated in
the manifesto of 1848. This strikes at the right
and duty of the father to support his children, fully
recognized in both Jewish and Christian ethics. In
application it would be undisguised legal robbery.
(9) The confiscation of land and the factors of
production without compensation to the owners,
as advocated by the Fabian Society and others,
would be robbery by legislation, as would also the
repudiation of the national debt demanded by the
English Social Democrats. It becomes evident
from what precedes that, instead of developing a
high brotherly regard for others, socialism exalts
greed and indolence and the disposition to profit
by the exploitation of others. In a word, socialism
claims a right to do that which it condemns in the
competitive system.
X. Improvements Needed: It may justly be ad-
mitted that improvements are needed and possible
in the competitive system. For American indus-
trial society the chief improvements needed may be
grouped under three topics: (1) The relation be-
tween employer and employed. (2) The condition
of the unskilled. (3) The equalization of produo-
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
tion and consumption. Experiments in meeting
these needs are in progress, some of which promise
as satisfactory adjustment as socialism could elTeet.
XI. The Relation of the Church; The Christian
Church has not been in favor with socialists because
in their minds it is associated with oppression, in
Europe with the oppression of the Roman Catholic
Church, in America with the oppression of capital-
ists. The Church in America has not hitherto suc-
ceeded in disabusing the minds of the masses of
their error, but recent activities and utterances of
various branches of the Church, especially the es-
tablishment of labor departments, have been di-
rected more efficiently to this end, and have been
attended with marked success. Not a few social-
ists are found in the Church in England and Amer-
ica. The Christian Socialists in the United States
have formed several organizations for confen-nee
and cooperation, no tidily tins Christian Socialist
Federation which declares for the cooperative com-
monwealth. Far more numerous in the Church are
those who see the need of wise measures to modify
the present economic By stem in the interest of the
least paid, and of the activity of the Church as the
messenger of Christ to persuade all classes to Chris-
tian brotherhood, that the change may be peaceful
and permanent. Socialism, stirred by the with-
holding of his due from the wage-earner, attempts
a solution by withholding his due from the eco-
nomical and from the skilled. There is needed
something more than a mere economic change;
there is needed the spirit of Christ. It is the mis-
eion of the Church to teach men that spirit; and
she must become the most potent agent in accom-
plishing that which socialism inadequately plans,
the winning of the world to live in the spirit of the
^Redeemer. James Cabteh.
Bibudobafht: Consult the literature under Christian So-
cialism, nnil Communism, oepeciiilb' the works of Noyej.
Nordhoff, and Hinds. Also: Mnretly, Cod* dt la nature,
Paris, 1755; F. M. C. Fourier. Thioris dew qvatre mauit-
mrnti. Pari*, 1808: idem. he Kovorau Mandt industrirl;
ib. 1929; C, H. St. Simon, Ulndustrie, Paris, 1817; idr-m,
L'Orsonitalion, ib. 1819: idem. Du sustime industrid. 3
vols., ib. 1821-22; idem, Lr r/aaHW Christianisme. ib.
1825. En*, transl.. The Sew Christianity. London. 183';
J. J. L. Blanc. Organisation du Iraenil, Pahs. 1840. En«.
tram)., Oreanitaiion of Labor. London. 1848; E. Csbel.
Voyage en Iraric. Paris. 1840; J. Raskin, Unto This Last;
London. 1802: K. Marx, Das Knpital, Hamburg, 1867. new
ed., 3 vols., 1908. Eijr. tram]., Capit-I. l-'iti r.1 . I,,nd..r,,
1908: T. WooLwy. Communism and Socialism. New York.
1880; E.Bellamy. Lo.<king Backward. Boston. IV.*. Idttt,
Equality. London. 1897; A. Sr Willi'. The (im.'™h,, „/
oVialism. ib. I.sv.i; I ;,l,i;m Swift v, A'.i.-.,i;/« in S,rinti*m.
London, 1890; F. Emjels. Sorialitm. Utopian ami Srimlifi-,
ib. 1892; R. T. Ely, Socialism: ill Nature. Strength, and
Wrokne,,. ib. 1801; J. Jnurix. SrMHI in Socialism, ib.
IBOfl; T. Kirkup. History of Socialism, 3d ed.. New York,
1907; idem. An ln-iuiry into Socialism. 3d ed., ib. 1907;
R. C. K. Elisor. .Modern Socialism. 2d ed.. Now York.
1907; H. G. Welle, A'ev Worlds for Old. Edinburgh, 1908;
idem. Socialism and Ihr Family. Boston, 1D0S: P. Lcroy-
Besulieu. CalMicifm. New York. 1908; W It. II,,„t,r.
Socialists at Work, ib. 1908; The Cast ooainst Sociolirm.
New York. 1908: G. M, Bell, Social Sen-ire. ib. 1908:
M. Hillqult. Socialism in Theory and Practice, ib. 1908;
idem, Hist, of Socialism in Ihr United States, new ed., ib.
1910: W. Rauschenbu-i-b, Chrittiam!; ■•ml the Social
Crisis, lb. 1908: E. P. Tenney. Contrasts in Socio/ Proa-
rat, ib. 1908: C. B. Thompson. Tht Churches and the
Wane Earner: ib. 1908: W. E. Chadwiek. Social Wort,
ib. 1909; Idem, Sofia! Ilttaliomhip in the bight of Chris-
tianity, London. 1910; A. St. Lodger. Australian Social-
ism: . . . its Origin and Development, New York, 1909;
E. Hommacber. Dai philosophitth-i-konomische System del
Marxismus, Leipsie, 1909; J . Sp^iriio. Socialism. New York,
1909; J. J. Minn, The Morality of Modem Socialism, lb.
1909; T. C, Hall. Social Solutions in the Lathi of Christian
Ethics, ib. 1910; Jane T. Stoddart, The New Socialiim.
New York. 1910; H. Jones, The Working Faith of the So-
cial Reformer. London. 191(1: V. Qnyot, Socialistic Falla-
cies. New York. 1910; W. L. Wilson, The Menace of
Socialiim, Philadelphia. n. d.
See
SOCIETY OF MARY: 1. Harist Fathers: A
religious order founded in lSltj uniting the work of
education with that of missions. The founder was
Jean Claude Marie Colin (b. at Saint Bonnel -le-
Troncy, in the diocese of Lyons, Aug. 7, 1790; d.
al \iilre-l':Liiie-de-l:i-\evliere, in the department of
Rhone, Feb. 23, 1875), who persuaded his brother
and some others to join in the organization of an
order under provisional rules drawn up by him.
He received the approbation of Pius VII. in 1818,
and the members took up the task of preaching in
the neglected parts of the diocese, and in 1K2'.1, hav-
ing greatly increased in numbers, assumed charge
of the ecclesiastical seminary of Belley. In 1835 the
attention of the Holy Sec? was turned to the South
Sea Islands and the need for workers there; the
Marisls. were asked to undertake missions in those
regions, and accepted the invitation, upon which
Gregory XVI. approved the Society of Mary in the
brief Omnium gentium of Apr. 2!t, ISiil'i, final sanc-
tion being given by Pius IX., Feb. 28, 1873. The
mother house is al Lyons, but the order has spread
until it consist* of six provinces, two in 1" ranee, one
in the British Isles, one in the United Slates, one in
New Zealand, and one in Oceania. In the I'nited
States the order has an archbishop, 105 priests, 75
novices, 5 lay brothers. 2 t mining-houses, 4 colleges,
and 18 parishes besides missions. Tile government
is under a superior general, with four assistants, a
general procurator, a procurator apud sanctum
sodem, and the first alone is elected for life; the
official residence of the general officers i" Home.
2. Society of Mary of Paris: A society founded
in 1S17 by William Joseph i liaminndc, the primary
purpose of which is the salvation of its own mem-
bers, and then all works of zeal. The formation of
the society was stimulated by a desire to strengthen
the church after the losses occasioned by the Trench
Rev nl ii ( ion. and various sodalities were formed, the
culmination of which was the society under discus-
sion. One of the peculiarities of this organization
is the inclusion of both clerical and lay members,
bound together by the vows of poverty, celibacy,
obedience, and stability in the service of the Virgin,
and employed in various works of mercy and serv-
ice. Since the expulsion of the order from France
in 1903, the headquarters are at Nivelles, Belgium,
where the superior general resides. The order com-
prises seven provinces, and has houses in the prin-
cipal countries of Europe outside Great Britain,
also in Africa, China, Japan, the Hawaiian Islands,
Canada, Mexico, and the I'nited States. In the
last the society settled in 1849, and it reports
there 2 normal schools, 4 colleges, 3 high schools.
Society
Socinus
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
488
and 44 parochial schools, principally in the Middle
West.
Bibliography: On 1: The Constitution* were published at
Lyons, 1873, and the Statuta capitulorum gcneralium in
the same place, 1907. Consult: Life of Venerable Fr.
Colin, St. Louis, 1009; Pert Colin, Lyons, 1898; Pere
Colin, ib. 1900; Mangeret, Lee Origines de la fox catholique
en NouveUe-Zilande, ib. 1892; C. Egremont, V Annie de
Viglise 1900, Paris, 1901; Baunard. Un eiecle de rigliae de
France, ib. 1902; Hervier, Lee Missions maristes, ib. 1902;
Heimbucher, Orden und Kongreoationen, iii. 339-343.
SOCIETY FOR PROMOTING CHRISTIAN
KNOWLEDGE. See Tract Societies, III., 2.
SOCIETY FOR THE PROPAGATION OF THE
GOSPEL IN FOREIGN PARTS. See Missions to
the Heathen, B, II., 4, § 4.
SOCINUS, so-sai'nus, FAUSTUS, SOCINIANS.
I. History.
Faustus Socinus (J 1).
Early Socinian Movement (J 2).
The Dispersion (J 3).
II. Doctrines of the Socinians, or Older Unitarians.
Scripture (J 1).
God (t 2).
Creation; Man ($ 3).
Christology ($ 4).
Work of Christ ($ 5).
Soteriology; the Church; Eschatology (J 0).
L History: As a radical by-product of the Ref-
ormation appeared the antitrinitarian movement.
At first it was represented by such individuals as
the Anabaptists Hans Denk, Ludwig
x. Faustus Haetzer, and Jakob Kautz (qq.v.),
Socinus. and by Michael Servetus (q.v.) and
his followers (G. V. Gentile, Georgius
Blandrata; qq.v.), but there was as yet no unity
of organization. To it belonged also Laelius Soci-
nus (q.v.); but the founder of the antitrinitarians
as a sect was his nephew, Faustus Socinus (Fausto
Sozzini; b. at Siena 1539; d. at Luclawice, near
Cracow, Mar. 3, 1604). He was early left an orphan,
and his education was defective. He devoted himself
to the study of law like his relatives, specially
Laelius, by correspondence with whom he derived
anti-Roman religious and theological instruction.
He lived at Lyons, 1559-62, and at Zurich, 1562,
where he was absorbed in the study of the literary
fragments of his uncle, and began his literary ac-
tivity with Explicate prima partis primi capitis
Evangelii Johannis (Rakow, 1562), a sort of pro-
gram of antitrinitarianism. During 1562-74 he,
decked with honors, held official positions at the
court of Francesco de Medici at Florence, and in-
dulged in the diversions of the period. At Basel,
1574-78, he elaborated his system, originating two
of his most important works: De Jesu Ckristo
servatore (Basel, 1594) against the French Reformed
clergyman J. Covet, and De statu primi hominis
ante lapsum (Rakow, 1610) against F. Pucci of
Florence. He accepted an invitation of Georgius
Blandrata (q.v.) to Transylvania, unsuccessfully
aiding the latter in attempting to dissuade Fran-
ciscus Davidis (q.v.) from his non-adorant views.
The theological turmoil, together with the outbreak
of the pest, caused him to leave Transylvania, 1579,
and proceed to Poland, where the name Socinus had
acquired fame from bis uncle's two sojourns (1556
and 1558), and where the Unitarian movement was
gaining in political influence. Here (1579-1604)
he made an earnest effort to unite the divergent
parties into one organization. In Cracow, 1579-83,
he endeavored in vain to join with the Polish Breth-
ren, a society of Unitarians, but was hindered by
his refusal to be rebaptized.
In common with the Anabaptists, the Unitarians
strongly objected to the holding of political office,
resorting to the civil courts, and military service.
Theological differences also existed among Arians on
the preexistence of Christ, on chiliasm, and the non-
adoration of Christ (see Davidis, Franciscus, f §
4-5); but by disputations in synods, by special
discussions, and a number of literary works, So-
cinus finally succeeded in bringing about harmony
and the acceptance of his own views. His idea of
baptism (see below) prevailed over the Anabaptist
at the Synod of Rakow, 1603. In 1583 he left
Cracow from fear of the persecution of King Stephen
Bathory and settled at Pawlikowice, a village near
Cracow. He returned to Cracow, 1585-87, attend-
ing the Synod of Brzesc in Lithuania in 1588, where,
by the brilliant success of his theological disputa-
tions, he permanently confirmed his influence over
the Unitarians. Several times he was ill-treated;
thus, in 1594, by a troop of soldiers, and on Ascen-
sion day, 1598, when students of Cracow, incited
by Roman priests, threw him out of his sick-bed,
carried him half-naked through the streets, and in-
flicted bloody injuries. Only by the mediation of
Martin Vadovita, a professor of the university, did
he escape death by drowning. During the assault
all the papers, manuscripts, and books found in his
house were burned on the market-place. He next
lived at Luclawice, 1598-1604. His works, exe-
getical, polemical, and dogmatic, appeared in vols.
i.-ii., Bibliotheca fratrum PoUmorum, edited by his
grandson, Andreas Wiszowaty (Irenopolis [Amster-
dam], 1656 and after); also under the special title,
Fausti Socini Senensis opera omnia. The most im-
portant dogmatic works are, Pradectiones iheologicce
(Rakow, 1609); Christiana religionis brevissima
instUutio per interrogationes et responsionest quam
catechismum vulgo vocant (1608); and Fragmentutn
cateckismi prioris F. L. S., qui periit in Cracoviensi
rerum ejus direptione. Immediately after the death
of Socinus appeared the Racovian Catechism, the
chief symbol of the Socinians. The work of revising
the catechism of 1574 was assigned to Socinus and
another Unitarian, Statorius. Both worked inde-
pendently; the InstUutio of Socinus was left unfin-
ished at his death; and after the death subsequently
of Statorius the work was completed on the basis
of the manuscripts of Socinus by Valentin Schmalz,
Hieronymus Moskorzowski, and Johann Volkel
(published in Polish, 1605; larger German ed.,
1608; in Lat., Catechesis ecclesiarum, ed. and en-
larged by Moskorzowski and dedicated to James I. of
England, and briefly cited as Catechismus Racovien-
sis, 1609; another Latin ed. with emendations and
additions by Johann Crell and Johann Schlichting,
furnished probably by Wiszowaty and Joachim
Stegman, Jr., Amsterdam, 1665; with much added
matter, 1684; Eng. transl., by Thomas Rees,
London, 1818).
Until the death of Socinus Unitarianism was in
489
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Society
Sooinus
the ascendency in Poland. Many small congrega-
tions were composed almost entirely of the nobility
distinguished by humanistic culture.
2. Early The most important society was at
Socinian Rakow (55 m. n.e. of Cracow), a city
Movement founded by the Reformed Johannes
Sieninski in 1569, which soon became
a colonial center for a free-thinking spiritual life,
specially after the accession to Socinianism of the
younger Sieninski. Its excellent school was at-
tended at one time by 1,000 students. Philosophy
and theology were taught; and associated with it
was a publishing-house transferred from Cracow.
Rakow was also the meeting-place of the annual
general synod. The prosperity of Socinianism was
mainly due to the influence of its great ministers,
theologians, and scholars, proceeding from its aca-
demic center at Rakow. Valentin Schmalz (b. in
Gotha 1572; d. at Rakow 1622) was won to Uni-
tarianism while studying at Strasburg, 1591; came
to Poland and was rebaptized; was rector of the
school at Szmigel; became preacher at Lublin,
1598; and teacher and preacher at Rakow, 1605.
He made many journeys in the interest of Unitarian-
ism, and left fifty-two writings of a vehement po-
lemical nature. Johann Volkel (b. at Grimma, 17
m. s.e. of Leipsic; d. 1618) became a Socinian in
1585, after the completion of his studies at Witten-
berg; was rector of the school in Wengrow; and
later preacher in Poland. His chief work, De vera
religions (Rakow, 1630), was a systematic presen-
tation of the Socinian doctrine and was authorita-
tive. Christoph Ostorodt (b. at Goslar, 40 m. s.e. of
Hanover; d. at Buskow, near Danzig, 1611) studied
at KGnigsberg; became rector of the school at
Luchow in Pomerania; entered the Unitarian soci-
ety, 1585; fled to Poland and became preacher at
Rakow. He was strongly Anabaptist, and war-
fare, public office, litigation, the oath, and riches
were repugnant to him. His most popular work
was Unterrichtung von den vornehmsten Hauptpunk-
ten der christlichen Religion (Rakow, 1604). Hier-
onymus Moskorzowski (d. 1625) founded the Uni-
tarian congregation in the town of Czarkow; and
wrote polemical works beside an " Apology of the
Socinians." In the following generation Johann
Crell (b. at Helmersheim, in Franconia, 1590; d.
at Rakow 1631), by his eminent endowments, thor-
ough culture, and tireless energy, takes first rank.
He was educated at Nuremberg and Altdorf ; was
converted to Unitarianism partly by Ernst Soner
at Altdorf; fled to Poland, 1612; became professor
of the Greek language in Rakow, 1613; rector of
the school, 1616; and preacher at Rakow, 1621-31.
Crell was an extremely prolific writer, producing
commentaries on the New Testament; two books,
De uno Deo patre, a very sharp attack by a Socinian
upon the orthodox doctrine of the Trinity; and
Ad librum H. Grotii, quern de satisfactione Christi ad-
versus Faustum Socinum Senensem scripsit, responsio.
All the works of Crell are published in Bibliotheca
fratrum Polonorum, vols. iii. and iv. (ut sup.). Jonas
Schlichting (b. at Bukowice, near Strasburg-on-
the-Drewenz, 80 m. s.s.e. of Danzig, 1592; d. at
Selchow, near Teltow, 11 m. s.w. of Berlin, 1661)
studied at Rakow and at the University of Altdorf;
became preacher at Rakow; went to Transylvania,
1638, to settle the controversy of the Non-adorantes,
but without success; was outlawed by the diet
which burned his confession of faith, 1647; and left
Poland, 1658. He left commentaries on most of
the books of the New Testament (Bibliotheca, vol.
iv.); the Confessio fidei christians (1642), trans-
lated into Polish, German, French, and Dutch; and
De triniiate, de moralibus Veteris et Novi TestamenH
(1637). Johann Ludwig von Wolzogen (b. at Neu-
hausel or Ersek-Ujvar, 50 m. n.w. of Budapest,
1599; d. 1661) was a distinguished exegete, and,
besides his commentaries, wrote a Compendium
religionis Christiana and a severe criticism of the
doctrine of the Trinity (Bibliotheca, vols, viii.-ix.).
Samuel Przypkowski (b. 1592; d. in Brandenburg
1670) studied at Altdorf (1614-16); was compelled
to flee from Poland; and wrote Vita Fausti Socini
(1636); and a comparison of the Apostles Creed
with the symbols of his day. Andreas Wiszowaty
(b. 1608; d. at Amsterdam 1678) was a grandson
of F. Socinus; educated at Rakow, Leyden, and
Amsterdam; pastor of various congregations in
Poland; expelled by the edict of 1657; lived at
Mannheim, 1661-66, as pastor of the Socinian exiles;
and subsequently at Amsterdam. The most im-
portant of his sixty-two writings was Religio ration-
alis. Stanislaus Lubienik or Lubienicki, the younger
(b. at Rakow 1623; d. at Hamburg 1675), was the
author of the Historia Reformationis Polonicce (Am-
sterdam, 1685). Peter Morskowski was the author
of Politia ecclesiastica or Socinian agenda, written
at the order of a convention at Dazwie, 1646 (3
books, Leipsic, 1745).
Socinianism, which had flourished during the first
decades of the seventeenth century, succumbed to
the Roman Catholic reaction started under Sigis-
mund III. At the instigation of the Jesuits, the
church at Lublin was destroyed, 1627.
3* The Under Ladislaus IV., by act of the
Dispersion, senate at Warsaw (1638), the school at
Rakow was suppressed, the Socinians
were deprived of their church and printing-estab-
lishment, and their preachers and teachers were pro-
scribed. Under John Casimir (1648-68) the final
blows fell upon the remaining Unitarian congrega-
tions. The Swedish invasion occasioned a respite,
and some resorted to the party in favor of the
Swedish king, hoping for relief. In consequence they
were accused of treason and suffered indescribable
afflictions. After the withdrawal of the Swedes
(1638) the Diet of Warsaw prohibited the confession
and promotion of " Arianism " on pain of death.
Many migrated to other lands, many joined the
Roman Catholics, and others remained, secretly pro-
tected by Roman Catholics and Protestants. A new
edict (1661) decreed a stricter enforcement of the
laws against the Socinians. Soon the same fate be-
fell the other Protestants, and the Jesuit reaction
reached its climax with the massacre of Thorn,
1724. Socinianism secured an influential promoter
in Germany in Ernst Soner (b. at Nuremberg 1572;
d. at Altdorf 1612). He studied at Leyden, 1597-
1598, where Ostorodt and Woidowski converted
him to Socinianism. As professor of medicine and
physics at Altdorf he clandestinely labored in the
docizra*
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
400
Interest of Socinianism and attracted a great num-
ber of Socinian students from Transylvania, Hun-
gary, and Poland. Some time after his death this
hearthstone of Socinianism in Altdorf was discov-
ered. Some of the students recanted, others were
banished, the Poles were expelled, and the Socinian
writings were burned. Meanwhile some Polish exiles
found a refuge in Oppeln and Ratibor, Silesia, and
in the territory of the duke of Brieg. There, at
Kreuzburg, they held two synods, in 1661 and 1663.
Also Elector Karl Ludwig of the Palatinate allowed
them to settle at Mannheim, but owing to their
proselytizing tendencies they were compelled to
leave in 1666 and scattered in Holland, Prussia,
Silesia, and Brandenburg, forming local congrega-
tions. The pastor at Kdnigswalde was Samuel Crell
(b. 1660; d. at Amsterdam 1747), grandson of Jo-
hann Crell (ut sup.). Under the pseudonym Arte-
monius he published a treatise ItUHum Evangelii
Sancti Johanni (Amsterdam, 1726), in which he
sought to prove the corruption of the text of the
prologue of the Fourth Gospel. He maintained that
the ante-Nicene view of the Trinity differed from
the post-Nicene. He wrote also a dogmatical trea-
tise, based on Rom. v. 12 sqq., Cogitationes nova de
prima et secundo Adamo (Amsterdam, 1700). After
his death Unitarianism disappeared from Branden-
burg but not from the other territories of the Prus-
sian monarchy. Toward the end of the sixteenth
century Socinian congregations had sprung up near
Danzig, Buskow, and Straszin. In 1640 Elector
Georg Wilhelm, urged by the Prussian estates, en-
joined vigilance for the expulsion of the Antitrinita-
rians, Socinians, and Photinians. Frederick William
of Brandenburg, the " Great Elector," seconded by
his deputy in Prussia, Prince Boguslav Radziwil,
seeking to make his land an asylum for Protestant
refugees, pursued the principle of toleration. So-
cinians consequently settled in the districts of Lyck,
Rhein, and Johannisburg, without the privilege of
owning land. In 1670 the estates secured a rescript
for their expulsion. Upon the intercession of the
elector and the king of Poland the storm was allayed;
but in 1679, 1721, and 1729 the estates repeated
their demands under Frederick William I. The So-
cinians maintained themselves in wretched condi-
tions and in small numbers until the nineteenth
century. In the Netherlands antitrinitarian ideas
appeared simultaneously with Anabaptist views, and
at first frequently combined with them. In 1597
and 1598 Ostorodt and Woidowski found many ad-
herents in Amsterdam and Leyden. In 1599 the
states-general ordered the burning of the Socinian
writings and the expulsion of those two men. Never-
theless, the movement spread so as to call forth ap-
peals for restriction from the synods (1628-53),
until finally the states-general laid an edict of pro-
hibition upon Socinianism. This was not strictly
enforced, however, and many refugees from the con-
temporaneous Polish repression found asylum in
Holland. Among those of special importance were
Jeremias Felbinger (b. at Brieg in Silesia, 27 m.
s.e. of Breslau, 1616), who was preacher in Sraszin,
and lived afterward in Poland, Prussia, and at Am-
sterdam, 1687. He was Arminian on the doctrine
of redemption and taught the resurrection of the
wicked to judgment. Christoph Sand, the younger
(b. at Kftnigsberg Oct. 12, 1644; d. at Amsterdam
Nov. 30, 1680), was educated at K&nigsberg; went
to Amsterdam, 1668; and was author of Bibliotheca
antitrinUariorum (Freystadt, 1684). Daniel Zwicker
(b. at Danzig 1612; d. at Amsterdam 1678) was
compelled to leave his native city, 1643; lived after
1657 in the Netherlands; and wrote Iremcum Ireni-
coram (1658), which caused a great sensation. Rea-
son, the correctly interpreted Scriptures, and true
tradition are presented as the three fundamental
norms. Socinianism in the Netherlands was ulti-
mately absorbed by the Remonstrants, Anabap-
tists, and Collegiants (qq.v.).
In Transylvania, Unitarianism spread at the
same time as in Poland, owing to the activity of
Blandrata (q.v.), alternating between the two
countries, and the influence of Franciscus Davidis
(q.v.). In 1568, by resolution of the Diet at
Thorenburg, the Unitarian confession was recog-
nized, and, toward the end of the reign of Zapolya
II., it promised to become the prevailing religion of
the country; but the division caused by Davidis'
non-adorantism was used by the Catholic opponents
to their advantage. The non-adoranies were sup-
pressed and excluded (1638) by the Unitarians; at
the same time occurred the suppression of the Sab-
batarian element; but a succeeding period of per-
secutions reduced the Unitarians themselves during
the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. The
German and Polish elements disappeared com-
pletely after the eighteenth century, leaving only
the Magyar. A theological representative of later
Transylvanian Unitarianism was Bishop Sen tab ra-
hami (Michael St. Abraham), 1737-1758, author of
a Summa universes theologies chrUtiance secundum
Unitarios (Klausenburg, 1787). From 1821 the
Unitarianism of Transylvania entered into closer
relations with that of England, and from 1834 with
that of North America, a step which furthered
its material and spiritual promotion. The Uni-
tarians in Transylvania, inclusive of about 1,000
Hungarian Unitarians, may be estimated at nearly
60,000.
n. Doctrines of the Socinians or Older Unitarians:
Early Socinianism is presented in its main sources,
which are the works of Faustus Socinus, the Ra-
covian Catechism, and the writings of the foremost
Socinian theologians until about the
i. Scripture, middle of the seventeenth century
contained in the Bibliotheca Fratrum
Polonorum, vols, iii.-iv. It adheres throughout to
the authority of Scripture, and is decidedly super-
naturalistic. The Christian religion is the way re-
vealed by God for the pursuit of eternal life. The
Mosaic religion was incapable of breaking the power
of the flesh, since it did not announce the hope of
immortality, but limited itself to the prophecy of
earthly happiness. Christianity is a perfected
Mosaism, superseding the ceremonial and juridical
laws, retaining and refining more sharply the eth-
ical, and kindling by higher rewards the love of man
to God. Though inspired, the Old Testament is
practically superfluous and of only historical value.
According to Socinus the sacred writers were in-
spired in respect to the content of religious truth
491
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Socinu*
only; in secondary matters even the apostles might
err. His two criteria for the critical elimination of
the ungenuine and for judging what is of divine
content are (1) accordance with reason, and (2)
moral significance and utility. The tendency was
ever toward a more rationalistic faith.
The doctrine of God is divided into the ideas of
the essence of God and of his will. The being of
God undistinguished from his existence is not con-
sidered in the abstract metaphysical sense, but in
the concrete relation to the world of finite being,
more positively in relation to man.
a. God. Being and sovereignty are identical in
God. He possesses absolute (ex ae
ipso) determination of will in the sense of the Sco-
tist Scholasticism (q.v.). His existence, nature, and
attributes are subjects of positive revelation; there-
fore involved with the proofs of the authority of
Scripture. With respect to the divine attributes
the canon holds that they are inseparable in un-
derstanding. Socinianiam was occupied mainly
with that of omniscience. God's foreknowledge is
limited to the necessary, and does not apply to the
possible; otherwise there would be no human free-
dom. Special attention is given to the attribute of
divine unity, which coincides with the divine aseity,
even the conception of God itself. The knowledge
of the unity of God is necessary for salvation, be-
cause otherwise man would be uncertain as to who
had revealed to him salvation. It is also profitable
for salvation to know that God is only one person.
Here is the nexus of the polemical battle with or-
thodoxy. The doctrine of the Trinity is represented
as contrary to Scripture. That the Holy Spirit is
anywhere in Scripture called God is denied. The
passages in which Father, Son, and Spirit are repre-
sented, according to orthodoxy, to be coordinate,
are invalidated. This is followed by the proof of
reason against the Trinity, consisting in pointing
out the inconsistencies and irrelevancies in the dog-
matic formula and emphasizing the omission from
Scripture of such terms as " substance/1 " person,"
" eternal generation of the Son," and " preexist-
ence." Thus, the thesis of Socinus was sought to be
established: " Plurality of persons in one divine es-
sence is impossible." The creation out of nothing is
denied by the Socinians and there is posited a pre-
existing matter from which God formed the world.
Ex nihUo according to II Maccabees vii. 28 is iden-
tical with the ex informi materia (formless matter)
of Eccles. xi. 17, or the tohu wabhohu (Gen. i. 2)
which is not said in Scripture to have
3. Creation; been created. Here appears the dual-
Kan, ism that governs the whole system.
The divine image in man consists es-
sentially in his dominion over nature, including
mind and reason; from these the likeness to God is
derived. Man, created mortal, has by nature noth-
ing of immortality, and therefore did not lose this
virtue by the fall. Man was not created perfect or
originally endowed with a high measure of wisdom.
He had a negative or possible free will, not a posi-
tive actual freedom. The fall was due to a weak
understanding and an inexperienced will, so that
sensuality blinded the reason and incited to trans-
gression. Inner nature merely asserted itself; yet
Socinianism aimed to conceive sin as an act of free-
dom, in which it was not altogether consistent.
Through sin Adam and his descendants have not
lost free choice. In so far as original sin is the de-
nial of this freedom, Socinianism disputes it most
emphatically. Original sin as depravity of the
choice of the good and as a penalty impending over
man contradicts Scripture, which in its admonitions
to repentance everywhere presupposes the freedom
of man, and the doctrine not less emphatically con-
tradicts reason. Lust and inclination to sin, in
which original sin is said to consist, are possible in
all but not shown to be in all. Granted that there
is such a doom over all, that it is the result of
Adam's sin would not follow. If this were so, orig-
inal sin would cease to be sin; for there is no sin
where there is no guilt. Hence there is no original
sin as such. Inconsistently, however, the general
mortality of the human race is traced to the sin of
Adam; after the fall man, mortal by nature, was
abandoned to his natural mortality because of the
sin of Adam. With this assumption there is con-
nected that of a certain sinful disposition produced
by the continuous sinning of all generations. Ac-
cordingly, the freedom of man is weakened; but
with the aid of God man may appropriate salva-
tion. This divine reenf orcement is needed to avoid
gross and violent sins, contrary to reason; and those
over which reason affords no mastery require speci-
ally potent and lofty promises of grace, and these
are the promises in Jesus Christ.
The doctrine of salvation contemplates only a
select part and has been characterized as ethico-
aristocratic. The Gospel effects a total change in
the spiritual nature of man. Christ
4. Chris- came, not to restore man to the orig-
tology. inal state before Adam, but to lift him
to a more exalted one. The Christian
is more than the truly human. Is then Christ also
more than human? Socinianism answers that he
was, on the one side, truly mortal man; on the
other, more than mere man, a man with unusual
endowments, imbued with immeasurable wisdom,
and exalted by God to unlimited power and immor-
tality. Christ was bound to be of like nature with
man, because the goal of religion was immortality
mediated by his resurrection, and if, on the other
hand, his advantage above all men was in his divin-
ity, he could not die. The Catechism expressly
teaches that the Scripture denies to Christ the di-
vine nature, in so far as it testifies to his humanity.
Here lies the second great polemical center of So-
cinianism. Other human beings are called sons of
God (Hos. i. 10; Rom. ix. 26). " Only begotten
son of God " means " favorite and most beloved "
(cf. Heb. xi. 17; Prov. iv. 3). " Equal with God "
(John v. 18; Phil. ii. 6) refers to unity of power and
work; and the statement " I and my Father are
one " (John x. 30) is to be understood in the sense
that the disciples are to be in accord as he and the
Father are one (John x vii., 1 1 , 22) . Against the doc-
trine of preexistence it is maintained that the
" beginning " (John i. 1) is the beginning of the
Gospel (cf. xv. 27, xvi. 4). The creation of the
world by the Word meant either the reformation
of the human race, or the future eon of immor-
Socinus
Soorates
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
492
tality. " The Word was made flesh " (i. 14) should
be " was flesh," meaning that he through whom
God revealed his will was subject to all human mis-
ery and death. The kenosds (Phil. ii. 6) can not
possibly refer to divine nature. From John iii. 13,
31 and vi. 38, 62, it is concluded that Christ was
caught up into heaven for a season like Paul. Con-
trary arguments of reason are added: (1) Two ab-
solutely different substances can not unite in one
person, because mortality and immortality, varia-
bility and invariability are irreconcilable; (2) if the
union of the two natures be inseparable, then Christ
could not have died; (3) the height of absurdity
was the communicatio idiomatum of Lutheran doc-
trine. On the other hand, Socinians expressly as-
serted that Christ was " more " than all other hu-
man beings, superior in endowments but not in
nature. He was conceived of a virgin, is perfectly
holy, and has power to reign over all things. Just
as dominion over the earth constitutes in man the
inherent image of God, so the absolute power con-
ferred by God upon Christ constitutes his divinity.
In this sense he is truly God (I John v. 20) and is
to be worshiped, next to the Father. Socinus calls
the rumrodorantes non-Christians, because they have
not Christ.
The work of Christ in redemption is concentrated
in his prophetic and kingly offices. For the prophetic
office he was qualified by the instruction received
during his sojourn in heaven (ut sup.).
5. Work The content of revelation is essen-
of Christ tially composed of " precepts and
promises." The Lord's Supper is a
ceremonial precept, supplementing the law of the
Old Testament. Great emphasis is laid upon the
symbolic idea of immersion and the breaking of
bread. The Lord's Supper is taught as a memorial
of Christ's death after the view of Zwingli, and the
term sacrament is spurned. Baptism was depre-
cated as not of permanent validity, but only as a
primitive rite of confession for Jewish and pagan
converts. For those born of Christian parents it is
unessential. It is not commanded and not designed
for infants, who are incapable of confession, and
those of Christian parentage are holy by virtue of
descent (I Cor. vii. 14). Among promises, on the
other hand, are (1) eternal life, characteristic of the
New, absent from the Old Testament; (2) the Holy
Spirit, not as a person but a power or divine activ-
ity, manifest visibly in the early Church and in-
visibly later as the spirit of revelation and faith.
The essential element in the prophetic office is the
death of Christ. The new revelation was attested
(1) by the sinlessness of Jesus, (2) by his holy life,
and (3) by his miracles and death. The doctrine of
satisfaction is disputed in the manner of Scotist
scholasticism. Christ's death was necessary to attest,
first, the great love of God for human redemption;
and, secondly, the resurrection to eternal life on the
condition of obedience. The kingly office of Christ
consists in the exaltation to the right hand of God to
reign in his stead, power over his enemies, and the
eternal reign and protection of the just, and begins
with the ascension. The high-priestly office is an
adjunct of the kingly, and means that he will, and
actually does, come to the succor of man, which
is styled a sacrifice. Its seat is in heaven, since on
earth Christ is not high priest and has no taber-
nacle fit for the high-priesthood.
The soteriological doctrine shows an essentially
Pelagian form. Presupposing human autonomy, it
conceives the divine will as manifest
6. Soteriol- in revelations, to which the human
ogy; the obedience with divine reenforcement
Church; responds. On justification it is taught
Eschatology. that that article of faith involves three
elements: assent to the teaching of
Jesus as true, trust in God through Christ, and obe-
dience to the divine commandments. In effecting
this, faith is justifying and saving. All imputation
is repudiated. The true Church is " the company
of those who hold and profess sound doctrine."
The Church is one with a school of the true knowl-
edge of God. In government it is an ecclesiastical
democracy, subject only to Christ the head. The
offices are those of pastor, elders, and deacons, of
whom the first is elected by the synod. Church dis-
cipline is strictly insisted upon. Interference by
the state is refused, even in case of heresy. The
Christian is obligated to endure passively all that
the civil power imposes, but active obedience is due
only where there is no conflict with God's Word.
" Rather to suffer than to commit injustice " is prac-
tised in private life; fellow church-members are to
be prosecuted in civil courts only in urgent cases;
and on the same principle military service is re-
nounced, except that with weapons one is permitted
to make a feint upon an enemy. Socinus and a
majority of theologians approved of holding civic
office as not in conflict with the law of Christ; but,
in practise, this was impossible in view of the fore-
going. In eschatology, the resurrection of the flesh
is repudiated. The real substance of man or spirit
will be retained, and identity of person clothed in
a spiritual body (I Cor. xv.). The ungodly, with
the devil and his angels, shall be annihilated. Thus
the end like the beginning of the Socinian doctrine
is immortality. (O. ZdcKLERf)
Bibliography: On the life and teaching of Socinus consult:
J. Crell, Beschrijvinghe van Godt en zijne eygenschappen
. . . Hier is by Ghevoeght F. Socini leven en daden, Rakow,
1650 (?); S. Prsykowski, Vita Fausti Socino, Cracow.
1636, Eng. transl.. The Life of thai .Incomparable Man
Faustus Socinus, London, 1653; G. Ashwell, De Socino et
Socinianismo, Oxford, 1680; A. Calovius, Scripta Antx-
sociniana, 3 vols., Ulm, 1684; J. Toulmin, Memoirs of the
Life, Character, Sentiments and Writings of F. Socinus,
London, 1777; C. F. Illgen, Symbola ad vitam et doctrina
Fausti Socini, 3 parts, Leipsic, 1826-40; E. Tagart,
Sketches of the Lives and Characters of the Leading Reform-
ers of the 16th Century, London, 1843; P. Lecler, Faust e
Socin. Biographique et critique, Geneva, 1885; Bayle,
Dictionary, v. 168-180.
For the history of Socinianism consult: Bibliotheca
Fratrum Polonorum, 6 vols., Amsterdam, 1626; B. Lamy,
Hist, du Socinianisme, Paris, 1723; S. F. Lauterbach,
Ariano-Socinianismus olim in Polonia, Leipsic, 1725; M.
Maimbourg, The Hist, of Arianism, . . . with Account of
the . . . Socinian and Arian Controversies, 2 vols., Lon-
don, 1728-29; F. 8. Bock, Hist. Antitrinitariorum, maxims
Socinianorum, 2 vols., Kdnigsberg, 1774-84; T. Lindsey,
Historical View of the State of the Unitarian Doctrine and
Worship from the Reformation, London, 1783; A. Fuller,
The Calvinistic and Socinian Systems Examined and Com-
pared, Edinburgh, 1815; F. Trechsel, Die protestantischen
Antitrinitarier vor Faust us Socinus, 2 parts, Heidelberg,
1839-44; O. Fock, Der Socinianismus nach seiner SteUung
in der Gtsammtentwickelung des christlichen Qeistes, i. 121-
493
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Booinns
Soorates
263, Kiel, 1847; R. Wallace, Antitrinitarian Biography,
3 vols., London, 1850; W. Cunningham, Historical Theol-
ogy, vol. ii., Edinburgh, 1862; E. L. T. Henke, Vorlesungen
Qber neuere Kirchengeschichte, i. 453 aqq., Halle, 1874;
J. Ferencz, Kleiner Unitarierspiegel, Vienna, 1879; J. H.
Allen, in American Church History Series, x. 49-06, New
York, 1894; H. Dalton, Lasciana, Berlin, 1898; W. J.
van Doruwen, in ThT, 1898, parts 1-3; J. F. Hurst, Hist,
of Rationalism, revised ed., New York, 1901; O. Koniecki,
Oeschichte der Reformation in Polen, pp. 198-220, Breslau,
1901; G. Krause, Reformation und Oegenre formation im
. . . Polen, Posen, 1901; A. C. McGiffert, Protestant
Thought before Kant, pp. 107-118, New York, 1911; the
works on the history of doctrine, e.g., Hamack, Dogma,
v.-vii, especially vii. 119-167.
SOCINUS, LAELIUS (LELIO SOZZINI): Anti-
trinitarian, and uncle of Faustus Socinus (q.v.); b.
at Siena in 1525; d. at Zurich May 16, 1562. One
of the Italian free inquirers, he left Italy about 1544
to escape the Inquisition, and, going to Switzer-
land, found a home in Zurich. His candid intelli-
gence and pleasant manner were the cause of much
homage from the leading German and Swiss Re-
formers. Later on, though he did not expressly
deny the doctrine of the Trinity, suspicion arose
against him, and he needed the assistance of Bul-
linger to appease Calvin, and to turn aside the doubt
as to his belief. Thereafter he abstained from con-
troversy, and kept his opinions more to himself.
At the time of his visit to Italy in 1560, on the occa-
sion of his father's death, his correspondence brought
upon his house the ill repute of heresy, so that the
family estate was confiscated to the Inquisition, and
he returned to Zurich to spend there the last two
years of his life in poverty, and yet in peace and
prestige due to the friendship of Sigismund II. of
Poland. He published De hcereticis, an sint perse-
quendi . . . doctorum virorum . . . sentential (Mag-
deburg [Basel], 1554); and De sacramenUs diseerta-
tio (Freistadt, Holland, 1654).
Bibliography: J. C. F. Hoefer, Nouvelle biographie generals,
8.V., 46 vols., Paris, 1855-66; J. H. Allen, in American
Church History Series, x. 49-56, New York, 1894; and the
literature under Socinus, Faustus.
SOCRATES, sec'ra-tls: Greek church historian;
b. at Constantinople c. 380.
L Life: Even in ancient times nothing seems to
have been known of the life of Socrates except what
was gathered from notices in his " Church History."
His birth and education are related in V., xxiv. 9;
his teachers were the grammarian Helladius and
Ammonius, who came to Constantinople from Alex-
andria, where they had been heathen priests (V.,
xvi. 9). A revolt, accompanied by an attack upon
the heathen temples, had forced them to flee. This
revolt is dated about 390 (cf. the annotations of
Reading and Hussey to V., xvi. 1). That Socrates
later profited by the teaching of the sophist Troilus,
is not proven; no certainty exists as to his precise
vocation, although it may be inferred from his work
that he was a layman. On the title-page of his his-
tory, he is designated as a scholasticus (lawyer). In
later years Socrates traveled and visited among
other places Paphlagonia and Cyprus (cf. Hist,
ecd.y I., xii. 8, II., xxxviii. 30).
IL His "Church History": Socrates' work on
church history was first edited in Greek by R.
Stephen, on the basis of Codex Regius 1443
(Paris, 1544) ; a translation into Latin by Johannes
Christophorson (1612) is important for its various
readings. The fundamental edition, however, was
produced by Valesius (Paris, 1668),
Period, who used Codex Regius, a Codex Vati-
Purpose, canus, and a Codex Florentinus, and
Scope, also employed the indirect tradition
of Theodorus Lector (Codex Leonis
AUatii). The history covers the years 305-439,
and was finished about 439, in any case during
the lifetime of Emperor Theodosius, i.e., before
450 (cf . VII., xxii. 1 ; fuller details in Jeep, Quel-
lenuntersuchungen zu den grieckischen Kirchenhis-
torikern in Neue JahrbUcher fur Philologie und
P&dagogik, xiv. 137 sqq). The purpose of the
history is to give a continuation of the work of
Eusebius (I., i.). It relates in simple language and
without panegyric what the Church has experienced
from the days of Constantine to the writer's time.
Ecclesiastical dissensions occupy the foreground;
for when the Church is at peace there is nothing
for the church historian to relate (VII., xlviii. 7).
The fact that, besides treating of the Church, the
work also deals with Arianism and with political
events is defended in the preface to book V.
Socrates seems to have owed the impulse to write
his work to a certain Theodorus, who is alluded
to in the proemium to bk. II. as " a holy man of
God " and seems therefore to have been a monk
or one of the higher clergy.
The history in its present form is not a first edi-
tion. This is shown in the opening of the second
book, where Socrates relates that he has thoroughly
revised books I. -II. He has done this
Sources, because in these books he had orig-
inally followed Rufinus, and in books
III.-Vn. he had drawn partly from Rufinus and
partly from other sources. Then, from the works of
Athanasius and the letters of prominent men of
his time, he learned that Rufinus was not trust-
worthy, and was therefore induced to revise his
work, and add the numerous documents scattered
through the first two books. That the revision was
not confined to these two books, but extended to
the following ones, is shown by the erasure of the
repetition at the end of the sixth book in the sec-
ond Florentine manuscript. This passage proves
also that the first edition was not only prepared but
published. An attempt to state the sources used
by Socrates was first made in a thorough manner by
Jeep. It was shown that Socrates usually makes
express mention of the source of his information.
Geppert (see bibliography) offers a systematic anal-
ysis of these sources as follows: (1) Rufinus is often
transcribed (I., xii., xv., II., i.; etc.), often quoted
without acknowledgment from the Greek transla-
tion by Gelasius of Csesarea; (2) Eusebius, De
vita Constantini, cited in I., i., viii., xvi.; etc.;
(3) Athanasius, De synodis, cited II., xxxvii.; and
above all the Apologia contra Arianos (cf. the pref-
ace to book II.) ; (4) the collections of the acts of
the councils by the Macedonian Sabinus, cited I.,
viii., II., xv.; etc.; (5) Eutropius, who is nowhere
cited, although the comparison of Socrates II., xv.
with Eutropius X., ix. shows the use of this author;
(6) the Fasti, to whom Socrates is indebted for
his political and semi-political data. Formally,
Soorates
Soexensen
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
494
Socrates is sometimes in accord with Idatius, some-
times with the Ckronicon paschale, and occasionally
with Marcellinus Comes. It is surprising that all
the Olympiads are incorrectly stated by two
years; (7) the list of the bishops of Constanti-
nople, Alexandria, Antioch, and probably also of
Rome and Jerusalem. For Constantinople, the
bishops of the Arian and Novatian parties are also
noted. Jeep believes that other sources have been
used, for instance, Philostorgios, Eunapius, Auxa-
non, and the letters of Constantine. Haraack and
Geppert conjecture the use of biographies of the
emperors. This is not proven and seems especially
improbable for the time of Constantine, since Soc-
rates expressly states in the preface to book V. that
he was unable to obtain data concerning the polit-
ical events of that time and observes that hence-
forth he would write what he himself saw or what
he had been able to learn from eye-witnesses. The
composition of the " History " is not seldom me-
chanical. Socrates often cites Eusebius and Atha-
nasius literally (ii. 37) and it not infrequently hap-
pens that he copies his sources almost word for
word. Yet criticism of the sources is not lacking,
as in the fact that recognition of the untrustworthi-
ness of Rufinus induced Socrates to rewrite his work.
Socrates was one of the most celebrated men of
his time, and could fully appreciate Hellenic dis-
cipline, of which he says that Christ
Author's and his disciples looked upon it as
Limitations neither harmful nor divine, therefore
and Rela- every individual should be allowed to
tionships. take the stand he pleases, either for or
against it. Moreover, although the
Holy Scriptures reveal divine dogmas" to us and re-
vive our piety — the real life and faith — nevertheless,
they do not give training in logic, by the aid of
which we must meet the adversaries of the truth;
this, however, is essential, since the enemy is best
combated with his own weapons. Socrates did not
possess real learning; he relates simply, rarely cut-
ting the thread of his descriptions by reflections, as,
for instance, in III., vii., xvi. He had also little
interest in mere theology. For him, the principal
factor in Christianity was the doctrine of the Trin-
ity, but he did not feel the need of conceiving this
distinctly and intelligently and of formulating it.
He essentially agrees with his citation from Eva-
gnus' Monachicum (III., vii. 23) : " We must bow
down in silence before the unutterable." This in-
difference of Socrates to theology, perhaps also an
inborn mildness of temperament, determined his
attitude toward the ecclesiastical disputes of his
time; he was opposed to the use of force against
heretics (VII., xli., cf. xxix.). He does not judge
harshly even the Arians, although he regarded them
as notorious heretics (I., viii. 1-2). His attitude
toward the Novatians was especially friendly; he
reproaches Celestine with having persecuted the
Roman Novatians (VII., xi.), and considers seri-
ously whether the hard fate that befell John Chrys-
ostom was not a punishment for his having des-
troyed Novatian churches (VI., xix. 7). He often
alludes to the Novatians specifically (I., x., II.,
xxx viii.; etc.), and is remarkably well informed
regarding their history. These facts have been ex-
plained by the assertion that Socrates himself was
a Novatian, but this is incorrect, at least for the
time when he wrote his " History/' In V., xx. 1,
he speaks of the Novatians in the same way as of
the Arians, the Macedonians, and the Eunomians.
The personal relations of Socrates with Auxanon,
who had been present at the Nicene council and
lived up to the time of the younger Theodoshis (i.
13; cf. i. 10; Auxanon, whether of the same faith or
not, could therefore give valuable information), and,
on the other hand, the importance of the Novatian
communities in Constantinople, explain his interest
in this sect. It is self-evident, in spite of his good
will, that no great work could be expected from a
writer like Socrates. He was well qualified to re-
late personal experiences, but was not able to write
history. This was the judgment of Valesius and it
is confirmed by the later commentators. His re-
ports are not reliable, and, in cases not a few, wrong.
However, the later books, especially the sixth and
seventh, contain much valuable information.
(G. Loeschcke.)
Bibliography: Other editions than those mentioned in the
text are by Q. Reading, Cambridge, 1720, reproduced in
MPO, lxvii.; R. Hussey, Oxford, 1853, reproduced by
W. Bright, ib. 1878. Eng. transls. are in Bonn's Eccle-
siastical Library, London, 1851, and in NPNF, 2 ser.,
vol. ii.
On the' life of Socrates consult the introductions to the
editions as given in the text and above; Fabriciua-Haxies,
Bibliotheca Orctca, vii. 423 sqq., Hamburg, 1801; Ceillier,
AtUeura socres, viii. 514-525; Bardenhewer, Potrologie,
pp. 332-333, Eng. transl., St. Louis, 1908; Schaff, Chris-
tian Church, iii. 880-881; DCB, iv. 709-711; KL, xi. 473-
476. On his work consult the essay of Jeep mentioned
in the text, and the introductions in the editions of the
text; F. A. Holshausen, De fontibus, quibut Socrates, So-
zomenus, ac Theodoretus in scrxbenda historic, sacra tut sunt,
Odttingen, 1825; J. O. Dowling, Introduction to the Critical
Study of Ecclesiastical Hist., pp. 34 sqq., London, 1838;
H. M. Gwatkin, Studies of Arianism, p. 97, Cambridge,
1882; Batiffol, Quastiones Phitostorgiana, Paris, 1891;
Rauschen, in Jahrbuch der christlichen Kirehe, 1897, pp.
2 sqq.; F. Geppert, Die Quellen de$ Kirchenhistorikere
Socrates Sckolastieus, Leipsic, 1898.
SOCRATES: Greek philosopher and teacher;
b. in Pseania (on the east of Mt. Hymettus, near the
modern Liopesi, 8 m. s.e. of Athens) 469 B.C.; d. at
Athens in May or June, 399. As a youth he was a
sculptor, but he later devoted his manhood, even
till old age, to the assiduous practise of bringing to
birth the thoughts and characters of his youthful
countrymen, humorously likening his occupation
to that of a midwife. In three battles — at Potidaea,
at Delium, and at Amphipolis — he proved himself
a brave and efficient citizen-soldier. At the age of
sixty, as a senator — the only instance in which he
accepted office — he showed his moral and political
heroism by withstanding alone the excited passions,
and for the time thwarting the perverse and vin-
dictive purpose, of the people in their popular as-
sembly. He also in 406 opposed the illegal dispo-
sition of the trial of eight generals by a single vote.
At the age of seventy he was accused of corrupting
the youth, and not worshiping the gods of his
country, tried before the popular dicastery, con-
demned by a small majority of votes, and sentenced
to death by drinking hemlock.
The philosophy of Socrates is not so much a sys-
tem of doctrines as a spirit of inquiry and a method
496
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Sooxmtes
of search for the truth. That method, the method
of question and answer, was so characteristic of
Socrates, and at the same time so full of life and
power that it was adopted more or less by all his
disciples and has ever since been known as the
Socratic method. It is seen in its perfection in the
" Dialogues " of Plato, which are the idealized con-
versations of the idealized Socrates. The subject-
matter of the Socratic philosophy is ethics in contra-
distinction to physics; its aim is practical to the
exclusion of barren speculation; and conscious
ignorance, modesty, moderation, and pure and high
morality are among its most marked characteristics.
The chief good, our being's end and aim, accord-
ing to the Socratic ethics, is happiness, that well-
being which results from well-doing in obedience to
the will of God and with the blessing of Heaven.
Xenophon and Plato agree in making Socrates
teach that he who knows justice is just, and the
man who understands virtue is virtuous: in other
words, he resolves ail virtue into knowledge. But
it is plain from both these writers that he used
knowledge in a high and comprehensive sense un-
usual in ethical treatises, but strikingly analogous
to that in which it is used in the Scriptures. He
makes knowledge identical with wisdom, and ig-
norance with folly and sin, just as in the Bible
piety is wisdom, and sin is folly: the wicked have
no knowledge, while the righteous know all things.
Socrates believed in the existence of one supreme
Divinity, the creator and disposer of the universe,
ail-powerful, omniscient, and omnipresent, per-
fectly wise and just and good. His method of dem-
onstrating the existence of such a being was
strictly Baconian, the same argument as Paley
used in his Natural Theology. And what Xenophon
records of his master of those unwritten laws in the
soul of man which execute themselves, and make
it impossible for any man to be unjust, or impure,
or licentious, without paying the penalty (which
proves a greater and better than any human law-
giver), recalls Bishop Butler himself. Socrates be-
lieved himself to be under the constant guidance of
a divine voice, which always warned him when he
was in danger of going or doing wrong, and thus,
indirectly, always led him in the right way; and he
taught that every man might have the same divine
guidance. He held the doctrine of the immortality
of the soul and the future life as strenuously as
Plato did, but without those dreams and chimeras
of its preexistence and successive transmigrations
by which the creed of the latter was disfigured. It
was the beauty and glory of Socrates' character,
that his doctrine of providence and prayer and a
future state was the controlling principle of his life,
and he believed that death was not an evil, but the
highest good and the richest blessing. His teach-
ings, illustrated by a conscientious, unselfish, heroic,
missionary life, and sealed by a martyr's death, are
the main secret of his power, and these exhibit him
in his true relation to Christianity.
D. Percy Gilmore.
Bibliography: Sources are the " Memorabilia " and " Sym-
posium " of Xenophon. Plato's " Apology." " Sympo-
sium," "Crito." and " Phtedo^ Plutarch's Deoenio Socratis,
and Diogenes Laertiua, " Lives of Philosophers." To be
taken into account are the works on the history of philoso-
phy by H. Hitter, 4 vols., Oxford, 1838-46; W. A. But-
ler, 2 vols., Cambridge, 1856; Q. H. Lewes, 4 vols., Lon-
don, 1857; J. B. Mayor, Ancient Philosophy, Cambridge,
1881; A. Schwegler, 3d ed., Freiburg, 1882; W. Windel-
band. New York, 1893; J. E. Erdmann.vol. i., London, 1892;
E. Zeller, 2 vols., 1897; F. Ueberweg, ed. Heinse, 9th ed.,
Berlin, 1901-05, Eng. transl., of earlier edition, vol. i.,
London, 1875. Consult further: F. Charpentier, La Viede
SocraU, 3d ed., Paris, 1699, Eng. transl., London, 1758;
R. Nares, An Essay on the Demon or Divination of Socrates,
London, 1782; J. W. Hanne, Socrates ale Genius der Hu-
manitat, Brunswick, 1841; J. P. Potter, The Religion of
Socrates, London, 1831; idem, Characteristics of the Greek
Philosophers, Socrates and Plato, ib. 1845; E. M. Ooulburn,
Socrates, London, 1858; E. Goguel, Aristophane et SocraU,
Strasburg, 1859; H. Schmidt, Sokrates, Halle, 1866; A.
Gamier, Histoire de la morale, Paris, 1865; A. Chaignet,
La Vie de SocraU, Paris, 1868; E. Alberti, Sokrates: ein
Versuch fiber ihn nach den QueUen, Gottingen, 1869; P.
Montee, La Philosophic de SocraU, Arras, 1869; J. S.
Blackie, Pour Phases of Morals, London, 1871; H. E.
Manning, The Damon of Socrates, London, 1872; A.
Fouillee, La Philosophic de SocraU, 2 vols., Paris, 1874;
C. Charaux, L'Ombre de SocraU, Paris, 1878; A. W. Benn,
The Greek Philosophers, 2 vols., London, 1882; idem.
The Philosophy of Greece, ib. 1898; A. B. Moss, Socrates,
Buddha, and Jesus, London, 1885; C. du Prel, Die Mystik
der alten Griechen, Leipsic, 1888; F. Dummler, Akademika,
Giessen, 1889; R. M. Wenley, Socrates and Christ, Lon-
don, 1889; A. Doring, Die Lehre des Sokrates aU sociales
Reformsystem, Munich, 1895; R. W. Emerson, Two Un-
published Essays, Boston, 1896; A. D. Godley, Socrates
and Athenian Society in his Day, London, 1896; E. Pflei-
derer, Sokrates, Plato und ihre Schiller, Tubingen. 1896;
J. T. Forbes, Socrates, Edinburgh, 1905; E. Lange, Sok-
rates, Gutersloh, 1906.
SODEN, HANS KARL HERMANN, FREIHERR
VON: German Protestant; b. at Cincinnati, O.,
Aug. 16, 1852. He was educated at Esslingen,
Urach, and the theological institute of Tubingen,
and was then curate at Wildbad, near Stuttgart
(1875-80), pastor at Dresden-Striesen (1881-82),
and archdeacon at Chemnitz (1883-86). Since 1887
he has been pastor of the Jerusalemkirche, Berlin,
and in 1889 became privat-docent for New-Testa-
ment exegesis at the university of the same city,
where he has been associate professor since 1893.
In theology he belongs to the liberal school, and
has written Der Brief dee Apostels Paulue an die
Philipper (Freiburg, 1889); the volumes on He-
brews, the Epistles of Peter, James, and Jude, Co-
lossians, Ephesians, Philemon for the Handkom-
mentar turn Neuen Testament (2 vols., 1890-91);
Reisebriefe aue PaldsHna (Berlin, 1898); PaldsHna
und seine Geschichte (Leipsic, 1899); Die Schriften
des Neuen Testaments in ihrer dUesten erreichbaren
TextgestaU (Berlin, 1902 sqq.); Die urichtigsten
Fragen im Leben Jesu (1904); and Urchristliche
lAterahirgeschichU (1905).
S0D01L See Palestine, II., § 10.
SOERENSEN, ANDERS HERMAN VILHELM:
Danish clergyman; b. at Randers (a town of Jut-
land, 118 m. n.w. of Copenhagen) June 27, 1840.
He was graduated from the Randers Latin School
(1858), and from the University of Copenhagen
(candidate in theology, 1865); with his wife he
conducted in Copenhagen a school for girls, 1865-
1874; in 1869 he was made chaplain at Frederiks-
berg (a suburb of Copenhagen), in 1876 pastor in
Taanum-Hornbdk (Viborg), and in 1890 pastor at
Husby (Fun en), his present charge. He is regarded
as Denmark's greatest living authority on foreign
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
i this subject he is a well-known
writer and speaker. Hia writings are obaracte&Md
by thoroughness. Notable among his productions
are his articles in the Nordiak Missionstidsakrift,
which he has edited since 1899, and in Nordiak
fTflUlhllfllnil. also Vor Tids Missionsforventmngrr
og Miaaionareauttater (1895); and Kina og Mit&iontl-
rerne (1900). John O. Evjen.
SOHM, s6m, RUDOLF: German Protestant
jurist; b. at Rostock Oct. 29, 1841. He was edu-
cated at the universities of Rostock (LL.D., 1864),
Berlin, Heidelberg, and Munich; was privat-docent
in the faculty of law of the University of Gtittingen
il.Sij; 70), and was appointed associate professor
in 1870. In the same year be became professor at
Freiburg, and from 1872 to 1887 occupied a similar
position at Strasburg. Since 1887 he has been pro-
fessor of German and canon law in the University
of Leipsic. His views upon canonistic theory,
though unusual and novel, have gained great signifi-
cance in German theological thought. His writings
of theological interest are Das VerhOllnis von Stoat
and Kirche (Tubingen, 1873); KirchengeachichU im
Gmndriaa (Leipsic, 1888, 14th ed., 1905; Eng.
transl. of 8th ed., Outline* of Church History (Lon-
don, 1895); Kirchenrecht, vol. i. (1892); Wesen und
Ursprung dtt Katholizieniua (1909).
SOHIT, son, GEORG: German Reformed theo-
logian; b. at Rossbach, in Upper Hesse, Dee. 31,
1551 ; d. at Heidelberg not later than Apr. 23, 1589.
In 1566 he visited the University of Marburg; went
to Wittenberg in 1569; studied first jurisprudence,
and then changed to theology, which after 1572 he
studied at Marburg. His unusual erudition led to
his reception into the teaching corps of the univer-
sity in 1574; lie became professor of Hebrew in 1575.
His principal thi-nlogifiil adversary was his own
disciple, JSgidius Hunnius (q.v.). In HOSaquebM
of the ecclesiastical agitations [in Hesse], he ac-
cepted a call to Heidf-llierg in 1584, but only a brief
career of activity was there his portion.
His dogmatic writings treat, mainly of the ques-
tions in dispute between Lutherans and C'aJvinisis
(touching the Lord's Supper, Christology, and free
will) and also controvert the Church of Rome. His
collective works appeared in 3 vols. (Herborn, 1591-
1592; 3d ed., 1609). Cam. Mihbt.
BiBiJOQiurBT: J. Calvin's Oralin de vila ri obiiu O. Sohn,
Heidelberg, 1589, a reprinted in the " Works," vol. i.,
• -,e lifoby M.
rrudilanan, pp. 206-301, Frankfort. 1706; J. Tilemnm
Vita profeswrum . . . in acadfmia Afarburgenri,
140, MsrbutK. 1727. Cf. F. W. Strieder. Grundtaii,
12B-
\riflalraeraachidU'. xv.
100-112. Casael, 1806; H. Hoope, Qnrhidile drr htMn-
Khen QBneraltjffioden 15Q8SE. passim, ib. 1&47.
SOLEMH LEAGUE AHD COVEBAHT (1643).
See Covenanters, J 4.
SOLITARY BRETHREH. See Commtjnibm, II., 5.
SOLOMON : Third king of all Israel, second son of
David by Bathsheba, and his successor. His dates,
according to the old rhronology, are 1021-981, ac-
cording to Ewald 1025-986, according to Kamp-
hatisen 977-938. The natural heir to the throne
was Adonijah. since his elder brothers, Amnon and
Absalom, had been killed, while Chileab (or Daniel),
of whom little mention is made, probably died in
early youth (cf. II Sam. in. 2-4; I Kings i. 5 sqq.).
While, however, it was customary for the succes-
sion to go by primogeniture (cf. I Kings ii. 15), the
king had the privilege of choosing hie successor,
and on this the hopes of Solomon were based.
Solomon, the fourth of David's sons to be bora in
Jerusalem (II Sam. v. 14), was brought up by the
prophet Nathan, who apparently called him Jedi-
diah (II Sam. xii. 25). Bathsheba seems to have
been the favorite wife of David, and evidently made
the end of her ambitions the gaining of the throne
for her eldest surviving son. Two factions thus
arose at the court of the aged David. Joab and the
high priest Abiathar were the partiians of Adonijah;
Bathsheba, Nathan, Benaiah, and the second priest
Zadok were on the side of Solomon.
On the approach of David's death Adonijah as-
f"*H his partiians at the stone of Zoheleth near
Jerusalem. The news of this gathering naturally
excited the extremest alarm among the adherents
of Solomon. At the instigation of Nathan Bath-
sheba hurried to David, telling the dying king that
he had sworn to appoint Solomon his successor,
and that Adonijah had already seised the throne
(I Kings i. 11 sqq.). David renewed hia oath and
commanded that Solomon be placed upon the royal
mule, anointed king, and proclaimed as the lawful
sovereign of Israel. When the acclamations of the
new ruler were heard at the stone of Zoheleth, Adoni-
jah fled to the altar, where his life was spared by
Before the death of David, however, he announced
his last wishes to his successor. These were three:
vengeance on Joab for blood guiltiness incurred in
the murder of Abner and Amasa; rewards to the
sons of Baraillai of Gilead for aid rendered David;
and death to Shimei for having cursed the king
(1 Kings ii. 3 sqq.). The foolish ambition of Adoni-
jah brought about his execution, while his partisan
Joab was put to death, and the high priest Abiathar
was deposed (I Kings ii. 13 sqq.), Joab being re-
placed by Benaiah and Abiathar by Zadok. The
rise of Solomon to the throne has been held by such
scholars as Wcllhausen, Stade, and Renan to have
been the result of a mere palace intrigue of the usual
oriental type, while David's will is alleged to be a
figment of a subservient courtier anxious to turn
the responsibility for the succeeding bloodshed from
Solomon to David. For all this there is not the
slightest evidence.
On his accession to the throne Solomon sought to
protect and to extend the rich heritage of David,
who had gained for his realm dimensions which
compelled the respect of all the nearer East. On
the other hand, it was inevitable that on the death
of David recalcitrant vassals and hostile neighbors
should make trouble on the boundaries. Thus
Hadad, of the royal line of Edom, who liad fled to
Egypt from David, seised the opportunity to renew
hostility, and apparently made his country par-
tially independent of Israel (I Kings xi. 14 sqq.).
Again, according to I Kings xi. 23 sqq., there is an
allusion to the foundation of the kingdom of Da-
mascus by a daring Syrian general who established
407
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Sohm
8olomon
himself in the city during the reign of Solomon. It
is thus evident that while Solomon held the king-
dom together, it was not without difficulty or even
without some diminution of territory. Possibly,
however, Solomon attached less importance to pro-
tecting his frontiers than to strengthening Israel
within. He built strong fortifications, prepared
material of war, and kept his supplies in the best
possible condition. Above all, he was successful in
introducing the horse for cavalry and chariots.
Solomon seems to have possessed high talents
for organization and finance, and his justice became
proverbial. The entire land of Israel was divided
into twelve administrative districts, each required
to pay the expenses of the royal court for a month.
There likewise seemed to have been special districts
for public works, one of the chief officials of the
kingdom being Adoniram, master of the levy.
Hand in hand with this organization doubtless
went the final absorption of the Canaanites, whom
Solomon compelled to share in the levies and taxes
of the Israelites. Besides introducing the horse
into Israel, Solomon extended his commercial rela-
tions to the Sabeans of South Arabia and to Ophir
(q.v.).
Solomon's financial talents seem to have been
exhausted in acquiring vast wealth. He was even
obliged, toward the end of his reign, to pawn twenty
cities, while taxation was so heavy that discontent
appeared in the revolt against his successor. Solo-
mon had never learned in the stern school of his
father. He grew up as a rich heir in the splendor of
a royal court, inheriting certain despotic tendencies
and weaknesses, and inclined to prodigality, dis-
play, and sensuality. In addition to the fortresses
and the luxurious court, which included 700 wives
and 300 concubines, his palaces and the Temple
(q.v.) required an immense outlay. With the help
of Syrian artists he transformed a large part of the
hill of Zion in the eastern part of Jerusalem into a
sort of city of palaces. Like his riches, the wisdom
of Solomon was proverbial (cf . I Kings iv. 29 sqq.) ;
3,000 proverbs and more than 1,000 songs were
ascribed to him; and he was said to be the author
of Ps. bcrii. and exxvii., as well as of the book of
Proverbs (q.v.). (R. Kittbl.)
Bibliography: The sources are I Kings i.-xi. and I Chron.
xzix. 22-11 Chron. i.-ix. Consult further: The works on the
history of Israel by Milman, Stanley, F. Newman, Ewald,
Stade, Kfthler, Klostennann, Cornill, Kittel, McCurdy,
Kent, and others named under Ahab or Israel, Histobt
or; G. Weil, The Bible, the Koran, and the Talmud, or.
Biblical Legends of the Mussulmans, pp. 200-248, London,
1846; G. Meignan, Salomon; son regne, ses ecrits, Paris,
1890; M. Grunbaum, Neue Beitrage tur semitischen Sagen-
kunde, pp. 190 sqq., Berlin, 1893; idem, Oesammelte Auf-
•Otze xur Sprach- und Sagenkunde, pp. 22 sqq., 167 sqq.,
ib. 1901; F. Vigouroux, La Bible et lee dicouvertee mod'
ernes, iii. 253-405, 6th ed., Paris, 1896; B. W. Bacon,
Solomon in Tradition and Fact, in New World, 1898, pp. 212
sqq.; R. F&rber, Kdnig Salomon in der Tradition, Vienna,
1902; C. F. Kent, Student's Old Testament, ii. 14-16, 165-
199, New York, 1905; G. Beer, Saul, David, Salerno,
Tubingen, 1906; DB, iv. 559-569; BB, ii. 2235-38, iv.
4680-40; JE, xi. 436-448; Vigouroux, Dietionnaire, faso.
iv. 1382-96.
SOLOMON BAR ISAAC. See Rashi.
SOLOMON, ODES OF: The Odes of Solomon,
which, until recently, were, except for certain
X.— 32
fragments and quotations, altogether lost, were
commonly connected in the tradition of Christian
literature with the Psalms of Solomon (see Pseud-
bpigrapha, II., 1). In this grouping of material,
the ancient stichometries gave them a place, more or
less honorable, among the subcanonical literature.
How near they came to actual ecclesiastical accept-
ance could only be guessed by analogy, from the
companion volume to which they were attached.
The stichometries, however, gave a rough idea of
the compass of the book, from the point of view of
a librarian or bookseller, from which it was easy
to infer that a lost book of nearly the same compass
as the Psalms of Solomon was once in circulation
in Christian churches. In the next place, quota-
tions professing to come from the missing book
were recovered from two quarters: first, there was
a passage relating to the birth of Christ from a virgin,
quoted by Lactantius (De div, inst.y iv. 12; Eng.
transl., ANF, vii. 110), which he said was from
the nineteenth ode of Solomon. Second, there was
a series of Odes of Solomon quoted in a Coptic book,
a chief monument of Gnostic literature, which goes
under the name of PistU Sophia. These odes and
fragments of odes were turned back into Greek and
published by Ryle and James at the close of their
edition of the Psalms of Solomon.
The book itself, so long lost, was recovered by
J. Rendel Harris in a Syriac version, Jan. 4, 1909;
it had been reposing along with a number of other
Syriac fragments on his bookshelves, apparently
for a couple of years or more, the manuscript in
question having come from the neighborhood of
the Tigris. When the identification was made, it
appeared that the manuscript, a late paper one of
no extrinsic value, contained both the Odes and
the Psalms of Solomon; it was slightly mutilated
at the beginning, so that odes one and two and a
part of ode three were missing; at the other end
the eighteenth of the Psalms of Solomon was gone
and part of the seventeenth. The nineteenth ode
contained the quotation which Lactantius gives in
a Latin translation; all the matter quoted by the
Pisti* Sophia was also identified, and in addition a
part of the first ode was also with some probability
detected in the Coptic text. So that, with a very
slight deduction for the imperfection of the manu-
script, the complete book was recovered and restored
to its place in Christian literature. The forty-two
odes thus recovered are of rare beauty and spirit-
uality; with possibly an exception or two, they
come from a single hand, and represent a hitherto
unknown department of early Christian literature.
They were produced in the latter part of the first
century or the early part of the second. The writer
was a person of Gentile extraction, who had be-
come attached to a Church of Judeo-Christians,
probably in Palestine. He did not, however, accept
circumcision or keep the Sabbath, occupying ex-
actly the position which Justin Martyr did on those
points, which he says he learned from an ancient
Christian to whom he owed his conversion. So far
as can be judged from the hints in the odes (it must
be remembered that a psalter is not the easiest place
from which to extract history), he knew Jesus as
the Messiah or Christ, but did not know the Synoptic
Solomon
Son of God
THE NEW SGHAFF-HERZOG
tradition about him. Whether he knew the Fourth
Gospel, with which he has many ideas and expres-
sions in common, is one of the points that are still
in debate. He has occasional points of contact with
the Pauline epistles, and even more with the Apoc-
alypse, though it is difficult to establish quotations.
His real Gospel appears to have been one of the
lost Hebrew or Nasarene Gospels, perhaps the same
as that of which Jerome found a copy in Tiberias.
To this he owed some details in reference to the
baptism, and perhaps one or two sayings of Jesus.
It is curious that he has no eschatology, and no
day of judgment; immortality is not innate, but
acquired. On the ethical side the most important
feature is that the book appears to contain the first
Christian prohibition of the purchase of slaves.
The church orders and ritual are almost absent;
it is not certain that baptism is alluded to, still less
are there traces of a Christian eucharist, as com-
monly known. The only reference to the officials
are an allusion: (1) to blessed deacons who carry
the water of life, (2) to a priesthood in spiritual
thingB which the writer says he possesses, which is
carefully denned as not being of a carnal nature,
but consisting of truth and purity in the inmost
parts.
The writer shows a strong attachment to the
Jewish religion on many sides: he has an affection
for the sanctuary at Jerusalem, which must be as-
sumed to have fallen before the time when he was
writing; he holds fast to the Old Testament, alle-
gorises (as do all early Christians) the story in Gene-
sis, imitates the Psalms, and makes evangelical
doctrine out of Isaiah (e.g., chap. xzxv.).
Though there is much that is still uncertain, as
to the place, time, and character of the writer,
enough is known to place him as a worthy represen-
tative of the first or second generation after the
apostles; and the new hymns will exert a wide in-
fluence upon the thought of the Church.
J. Rbndel Harris.
Bxblioqbapht: The Odm and P&ahn* of Solomon, edited
from the Syriao by J. Rendel Harris, Cambridge, 1009
(editio prineepa); J. Rendel Harris, An early Christian
P waiter, London, 1909; Bin jtidiach-chriaUichm PoalmbucK
ana dem enten Juhrhundert. Aua dem Syriechen tibsr-
eetat won J. F lemming, ed. A. Harnack, Leipsic, 1910;
Literoriachea ZentraJblott, 1910, no. 24, cob. 777-781.
SOLOMON, PSALMS OF. See Psbudspigrapha,
O. T., II., 1.
SOLOMON, WISDOM OF. See Apocrypha, A,
iv., 13.
SOM, KONRAD. See Sam.
SOMASCHIANS, so-maVki-ans ("Regular Clerks
of St. Majolus ") : One of the most important mo-
nastic congregations evoked by the Counter-Ref-
ormation. They derive their name from the Italian
village of Somascho (between Milan and Bergamo),
where their founder, Girolamo Miani (or Emiliani),
wrote the first rule for them. Miani, who was of
senatorial rank, was born at Venice in 1481, and,
entering the army, was recognized as a brave but
dissolute officer. Captured at the storming of Cas-
telnuovo, near Treviso, in 1508, he was led during
his imprisonment to repentance for his past career,
and on ins liberation (according to many, throqgh
the miraculous aid of the Virgin) he devoted hiit-
eelf to asceticism, prayer, and the care of the eksk
and poor. At Venice he took orders, being ordained
priest in 1618, and manifested the utmost self-
denial and bravery, especially during the faiane
and plague of 1028. He now made absolute re-
nunciation of me wealth, and, in the habit of a men-
dicant friar, gave himself to the care, education,
and conversion of orphans and fallen women. With-
in the year he established an orphan asylum in
Venice, which was imitated at Bergamo, Verona,
and Brescia, and in 1532 he opened a home for
fallen women in his native city. In 1532 or 1883
Miani established hie congregation tor the care of
these institutions and the training of pupils for the
same purpose; and Clement VH. gave him the
mother house at Somascho, where Miani died Fob.
8, 1587, after having estabhahed daughter boom
at Pavia and MQan. Be was beatified by Benedict
XIV., and canonised in 1761 by Clement XTTT., ft*
day being July 20.
Miani's successor, Angefo Marco Gambarana, se-
cured from Pius V., in 1568, the formal constitution
of the congregation under the Augustinian rale,
their name being now taken from the church of St
Majolus at Pavia, given them by St. Carlo Borromso
(q.v.). The Somaschians, who were united with the
Theatanee from 1546 to 1555, and with the French
Fathers of Christian Doctrine from 1616 to 1647,
exercised deep influence on education through their
many colleges, especially the Clementinum, founded
at Rome in 1595; while they so increased in num-
bers that they were divided into the Lombard, Vene-
tian, and Roman pro vinoes, to which was later added
the French. The Roman province is now the most
important.
The constitutions of the congregation, gradually
developed from the autograph draft of the founder,
collected by the procurator-general Antonio Paulino
in 1626, and confirmed by Urban VIII, have re-
mained practically unchanged to the present day.
They prescribe a habit precisely like that of the
other regular clerks, strict simplicity of food and
furniture, numerous prayers by day and night, fasts
and self-castigation, and occupation with manual
labor, care of the sick and orphans, and teaching.
(O. ZoCKLEKtO
Bduoobapbt: The " Life " of the founder is gji
commentary in A8B, Feb., ii. 217-274, ItaL tronri. by
A. Pieg&di, Venioe, 1865. Other lives are by 8. Aibani,
Milan, 1600; A. Stella, Venice, 1606; P. G. do' Ferrari,
ib. 1676; an anonymous one, ft>. 1767; F. Caeoia, £b.
1822; O. de Roed-Borgpffno, Some, 1867; and W. E.
Hubert, Hams, 1896. Consult further, on the order:
L. HoJstenius, Codex reyvktrum monaotiearum, ed. M.
Broekie, ill. 199-202, Augsburg 1769; G. Giuoei, Itxmo-
orafia utarica degli orxHni rekaiom\ viL 160 sqq., Rome,
1847; E. Gothein, Ignaz von Loyola und die Qayomnfor
motion, pp. 193-198, Halle, 1896; Hetyot, Ordree monaa-
tiqurn, iv. 22S sqq.; Hehnbueher, Orris* tmd Komqnga-
Honen, iiL 276-278; KL, xL 486-487; Bank*, Popm, L
183-134.
SON OF GOD: A phrase standing for several
different meanings in the New Testament. (1) It
refers to the divine origination of Jesus by the Holy
Spirit (Luke i. 35). (2) In the ethical sense, he is
the Son. Be is like the Father, perfectly responsive
490
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Solomon
Son of God
to him, and thus reflects the Father's will. By rea-
son of the fellowship of love, the Father is perfectly
disclosed to him, and the depths of his own inner
life are comprehended by the Father alone (Matt,
xi. 27; John v. 17-21, 30, vii. HM8, xii. 44-50,
xiv. 7-11). (3) From the ethical oneness with the
Father sprang the consciousness of the messianic or
official sonship— the social aspect of his conscious-
ness (Mark i. 11; cf. the baptismal formula, Matt,
xxviii. 19; Didache, vii.). These two aspects — the
individual and the social — may be distinguished but
they can not be sharply separated. The messianic
sonship points backward (I Sam. x. 1; Ps. ii. 7)
and forward (Mark xiv. 61). In him the royal hopes
of Israel are fulfilled; he founds the world-kingdom
of God (John xvii. 18; cf. Matt, xxviii. 19; John
xx. 21); his universal sovereignty is won through
suffering (Matt. xix. 20-28). (4) Metaphysical son-
ship is also affirmed of him. As Logos he is the only
begotten Son of God (John i. 14, iii. 16, v. 18; Rom.
viii. 32). He is the image of the invisible God, first-
born of all creation, mediator of all existence,
through whom all things find their principle and
progressively realize their divine end (I Cor. viii.
6; Col. i. 15-17; John i. 3, 10; Heb. i. 2-3). His
pre-earthly existence was exchanged for humilia-
tion and death here below (II Cor. viii. 9; Phil. ii.
5-7; cf. Rom. viii. 3; Gal. iv. 4; and see Jesus
Christ, Twofold State of). Accordingly he was
God '8 own son, the archetypal son of God; all
others become sons of God through him (John i.
12). Yet all that belongs to him is a gift of God
(Matt, xxviii. 18; John iii. 35, v. 22, xiii. 3; Acts
ii. 36; Phil. ii. 9-10; Heb. i. 2, ii. 7-8; cf. also I
Cor. xv. 24-28).
In historical theology the Son of God as pre-
existent is the second person of the Trinity, con-
substantial with the Father, and is described as
only-begotten, the Word; as incarnate he took upon
him human nature yet without sin; and existed in
two whole, perfect, and distinct natures insepara-
bly joined together in one person without conver-
sion, composition, or confusion; very God and very
man, one Christ, the only mediator between God
and man (see Christologt, IV., VII.; Mediator).
Ritschl, following Schleiermacher, took the doc-
trine of the sonship of Christ out of metaphysics
and planted it in the field of ethics and the religious
life. As Son, Christ stands to the Father in a rela-
tion of incomparable fellowship; his will is identical
with that of the Father in the establishment of the
kingdom of God; moreover, he sustains a unique
relation to the Christian community and to the
world. While for man the Son as pre-existent is
hidden, yet for God he exists eternally " as he is
revealed to us in temporal limitation." Only for
God himself, however, is the eternal Godhead of the
Son intelligible as an object of the divine mind and
will (A. Ritschl, The Christian Doctrine of Justifi-
cation and Reconciliation, §§ 47-49, New York,
1900). C. A. Beckwtth.
Bibuogbapht: The subject is treated beet in the works on
New-Testament theology (see under Biblical Theology),
and in those on systematic theology (see under Dogma,
Dogmatics). Much of the literature given under Chris-
tologt is pertinent, also that under Son of Man. Con-
sult further: K. F. Nosgen, Christus der Menschen- und
GoUessohn, Ootha, 1869; J. Stalker, Christolooy of Jesus,
London, 1879; A. Hamack, What is Christianity t ib.
1901; R. C. Moberry, Atonement and Personality, pp. 185
sqq., 211-215, ib. 1901; W. Lutgert, Gottes Sohn und
Gottm Qeist, Leipsio, 1905; M. Lepina, Christ and the Gos-
pel; or Jesus the Messiah and Son of God, Philadelphia,
1911; DB, iv. 570-479; DCG, ii. 654-659; SB, iv. 4690-
4704.
END OF VOLUME X.
It i
»
»
I
III
/
3 2044 048 228 274
r i
3 2044 048 228 274
4
Live Music Archive
Librivox Free Audio
Metropolitan Museum
Cleveland Museum of Art
Internet Arcade
Console Living Room
Books to Borrow
Open Library
TV News
Understanding 9/11